联合国粮食及农业组织：世界粮食和农业生物多样性状况（英文版）VIP专享VIP免费

下载本文档

阅读 531
格式 pdf
大小 16.73 MB
约573页
2023-11-02
收藏
点赞(0)
海报
举报

2019

THE STATE OF

THE WORLD’s

BIODIVERSITY

THE STATE OF THE WORLD’s

BIODIVERSITTY

FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

ISSN 2412-5474

The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture presents

the ﬁrst global assessment of biodiversity for food and agriculture worldwide.

Biodiversity for food and agriculture is the diversity of plants, animals and

micro-organisms at genetic, species and ecosystem levels, present in and

around crop, livestock, forest and aquatic production systems. It is essential

to the structure, functions and processes of these systems, to livelihoods and

food security, and to the supply of a wide range of ecosystem services. It has

been managed or inﬂuenced by farmers, livestock keepers, forest dwellers,

ﬁsh farmers and ﬁsherfolk for hundreds of generations.

Prepared through a participatory, country-driven process, the report draws

on information from 91 country reports to provide a description of the roles

and importance of biodiversity for food and agriculture, the drivers of

change affecting it and its current status and trends. It describes the state of

efforts to promote the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for

food and agriculture, including through the development of supporting

policies, legal frameworks, institutions and capacities. It concludes with a

discussion of needs and challenges in the future management of biodiversity

for food and agriculture.

The report complements other global assessments prepared under the

auspices of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,

which have focused on the state of genetic resources within particular sectors

of food and agriculture.

FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

FAO COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

ASSESSMENTS • 2019

CA3129EN/1/02.19

ISBN 978-92-5-131270-4

9789251312704

ISSN 2412-5474

Rome, 2019

COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

FAO COMMISSION ON GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

ASSESSMENTS • 2019

THE STATE OF

THE WORLD’s

BIODIVERSITY

FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

Required citation:

FAO. 2019. The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture, J. Bélanger & D. Pilling (eds.).

FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Assessments. Rome. 572 pp.

(http://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/CA3129EN.pdf)

Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the

expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its

authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specic companies

or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been

endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reect

the views or policies of FAO.

ISBN 978-92-5-131270-4

Some rights reserved. This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/

licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode/legalcode).

Under the terms of this licence, this work may be copied, redistributed and adapted for non-commercial

purposes, provided that the work is appropriately cited. In any use of this work, there should be no

suggestion that FAO endorses any specic organization, products or services. The use of the FAO logo

is not permitted. If the work is adapted, then it must be licensed under the same or equivalent Creative

Commons licence. If a translation of this work is created, it must include the following disclaimer along

with the required citation: “This translation was not created by the Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations (FAO). FAO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. The

original [Language] edition shall be the authoritative edition.”

Disputes arising under the licence that cannot be settled amicably will be resolved by mediation and

arbitration as described in Article 8 of the licence except as otherwise provided herein. The applicable

mediation rules will be the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization

http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rules and any arbitration will be conducted in accordance with

the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).

Third-party materials. Users wishing to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third

party, such as tables, gures or images, are responsible for determining whether permission is needed

for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the copyright holder. The risk of claims resulting from

infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely with the user.

Sales, rights and licensing. FAO information products are available on the FAO website

(www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Requests for

commercial use should be submitted via: www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request. Queries regarding

rights and licensing should be submitted to: copyright@fao.org.

/573

下载本文档

文本预览下载提示常见问题

ISSN2412-5474THESTATEOFTHEWORLD’sBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTUREFAOCOMMISSIONONGENETICRESOURCESFORFOODANDAGRICULTUREASSESSMENTS•2019FAOCOMMISSIONONGENETICRESOURCESFORFOODANDAGRICULTUREASSESSMENTS•2019THESTATEOFTHEWORLD’sBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURECOMMISSIONONGENETICRESOURCESFORFOODANDAGRICULTUREFOODANDAGRICULTUREORGANIZATIONOFTHEUNITEDNATIONSRome,2019Requiredcitation:FAO.2019.TheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture,J.Bélanger&D.Pilling(eds.).FAOCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureAssessments.Rome.572pp.(http://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/CA3129EN.pdf)Licence:CCBY-NC-SA3.0IGO.ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialinthisinformationproductdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)concerningthelegalordevelopmentstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.Thementionofspecificcompaniesorproductsofmanufacturers,whetherornotthesehavebeenpatented,doesnotimplythatthesehavebeenendorsedorrecommendedbyFAOinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned.Theviewsexpressedinthisinformationproductarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsorpoliciesofFAO.ISBN978-92-5-131270-4©FAO,2019Somerightsreserved.ThisworkismadeavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike3.0IGOlicence(CCBY-NC-SA3.0IGO;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo/legalcode/legalcode).Underthetermsofthislicence,thisworkmaybecopied,redistributedandadaptedfornon-commercialpurposes,providedthattheworkisappropriatelycited.Inanyuseofthiswork,thereshouldbenosuggestionthatFAOendorsesanyspecificorganization,productsorservices.TheuseoftheFAOlogoisnotpermitted.Iftheworkisadapted,thenitmustbelicensedunderthesameorequivalentCreativeCommonslicence.Ifatranslationofthisworkiscreated,itmustincludethefollowingdisclaimeralongwiththerequiredcitation:“ThistranslationwasnotcreatedbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO).FAOisnotresponsibleforthecontentoraccuracyofthistranslation.Theoriginal[Language]editionshallbetheauthoritativeedition.”DisputesarisingunderthelicencethatcannotbesettledamicablywillberesolvedbymediationandarbitrationasdescribedinArticle8ofthelicenceexceptasotherwiseprovidedherein.TheapplicablemediationruleswillbethemediationrulesoftheWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganizationhttp://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rulesandanyarbitrationwillbeconductedinaccordancewiththeArbitrationRulesoftheUnitedNationsCommissiononInternationalTradeLaw(UNCITRAL).Third-partymaterials.Userswishingtoreusematerialfromthisworkthatisattributedtoathirdparty,suchastables,figuresorimages,areresponsiblefordeterminingwhetherpermissionisneededforthatreuseandforobtainingpermissionfromthecopyrightholder.Theriskofclaimsresultingfrominfringementofanythird-party-ownedcomponentintheworkrestssolelywiththeuser.Sales,rightsandlicensing.FAOinformationproductsareavailableontheFAOwebsite(www.fao.org/publications)andcanbepurchasedthroughpublications-sales@fao.org.Requestsforcommercialuseshouldbesubmittedvia:www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request.Queriesregardingrightsandlicensingshouldbesubmittedto:copyright@fao.org.ContentsForewordxixAcknowledgementsxxiAbbreviationsandacronymsxxviiAboutthispublicationxxxiiExecutivesummaryxxxviiPartAOverviewChapter1Introduction31.1Biodiversityandthechallengesfacingglobalfoodandagriculture31.2Whatisbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture?41.3Biodiversityforfoodandagricultureandglobalpolicyagendas51.4Assessmentsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture81.5Keyconceptsaddressedinthisreport10Chapter2Rolesandimportanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture17Keymessages172.1Introduction172.2Ecosystemservices182.2.1Provisioningservices192.2.2Regulatingandsupportingservices202.2.3Culturalservices222.3Resilience232.3.1Overviewofthecontributionsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture242.3.2Resiliencetospecificthreats272.3.3Needsandpriorities342.4Sustainableintensification352.4.1Overviewofthecontributionsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture362.4.2Needsandpriorities412.5Livelihoods412.5.1Overviewofthecontributionsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture422.5.2Needsandpriorities482.6Foodsecurityandnutrition482.6.1Availability492.6.2Access502.6.3Utilization512.6.4Stability522.6.5Nutritionandfoodsystems532.6.6Contributionofwildfoods562.6.7Needsandpriorities62iiiPartBDrivers,statusandtrendsChapter3Driversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture65Keymessages653.1Introduction653.2Overview693.3Economicandsocialdrivers693.3.1Populationgrowthandurbanization703.3.2Markets,tradeandvaluechains743.3.3Changingeconomic,sociopoliticalandculturalfactors763.4Environmentaldrivers783.4.1Climatechange783.4.2Naturaldisasters833.4.3Pests,diseasesandinvasivealienspecies873.5Advancesandinnovationsinscienceandtechnology933.6Driversatproduction-systemlevel953.6.1Changesinlandandwateruseandmanagement953.6.2Pollutionandexternalinputs1013.6.3Overexploitationandoverharvesting1043.7Policies1073.8Driversofwomen’sinvolvementinthemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture1093.9Driversoftraditionalknowledgeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture111Chapter4Thestatusandtrendsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture113Keymessages1134.1Introduction1134.2Plant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture1144.2.1Plantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture1144.2.2Animalgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture1164.2.3Forestgeneticresources1174.2.4Aquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture1174.3Associatedbiodiversity1194.3.1Associated-biodiversityspeciesmanagedforecosystemservices1204.3.2Informationandmonitoringsystemsonassociatedbiodiversity1204.3.3Overviewofstatusandtrends1264.3.4Associatedbiodiversityforpollination1294.3.5Associatedbiodiversityforpestanddiseaseregulation1344.3.6Associatedbiodiversityforsoil-relatedecosystemservices1404.3.7Associatedbiodiversityforwater-relatedecosystemservices148iv4.3.8Associatedbiodiversityfornatural-hazardregulation1534.3.9Associatedbiodiversityforhabitatprovisioning1544.3.10Associatedbiodiversityforair-qualityandclimateregulation1574.4Wildfoods1604.4.1Stateofknowledge1604.4.2Statusandtrends1614.5Ecosystemsofimportancetofoodandagriculture1714.5.1Wetlands1714.5.2Mangroves1724.5.3Seagrasses1754.5.4Coralreefs1774.5.5Forests1804.5.6Rangelands1834.6Needsandpriorities186PartCStateofmanagementChapter5Thestateofuseofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture191Keymessages1915.1Introduction1915.2Overviewofmanagementpracticesandapproaches1925.3Ecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproaches1985.3.1Overview1985.3.2Sustainableforestmanagement2015.3.3Ecosystemapproachtofisheriesandaquaculture2055.3.4Agroecology2085.3.5Landscapeandseascapeapproachesandmanagement2125.3.6Integratedland-andwater-useplanning2135.3.7Needsandpriorities2145.4Restorationpractices2155.4.1Overview2155.4.2Statusandtrends2185.4.3Needsandpriorities2225.5Diversificationinproductionsystems2235.5.1Integratedcrop–livestocksystems2245.5.2Homegardens2285.5.3Agroforestry2335.5.4Diversificationpracticesinaquaculture2415.5.5Needsandpriorities2485.6Managementpracticesandproductionapproaches2485.6.1Organicagriculture2495.6.2Lowexternalinputagriculture2515.6.3Managementpracticestopreserveandenhancesoilbiodiversity253v5.6.4Conservationagriculture2565.6.5Integratedplantnutrientmanagement2595.6.6Integratedpestmanagement2605.6.7Pollinationmanagement2675.6.8Forest-managementpractices2725.6.9Needsandpriorities2755.7Theuseofmicro-organismsinfoodprocessingandagro-industrialprocesses2755.7.1Micro-organismsinfoodprocessing2765.7.2Micro-organismsinagro-industrialprocesses2805.8Rumenmicrobialdiversity2875.8.1Rolesanddrivers2875.8.2Methaneemissions2895.8.3Stateofknowledge2895.8.4Needsandpriorities2925.9Geneticimprovement2925.9.1Domesticationandbasebroadening2935.9.2Plant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture2955.9.3Associatedbiodiversity–overview2975.9.4Pollinators2985.9.5Assistedevolutionforreef-buildingcorals3015.9.6Needsandpriorities304Chapter6Thestateofcharacterizationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture305Keymessages3056.1Introduction3056.2Plant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3066.2.1Plantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3066.2.2Animalgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3076.2.3Forestgeneticresources3086.2.4Aquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3116.3Associatedbiodiversity3126.3.1Overview3136.3.2Country-reportanalysis3146.4Wildfoods3186.4.1Overview3186.4.2Country-reportanalysis3216.5Needsandpriorities323viChapter7Thestateofconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture325Keymessages3257.1Introduction3257.2Plant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3267.2.1Plantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3267.2.2Animalgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3297.2.3Forestgeneticresources3307.2.4Aquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture3327.3Associatedbiodiversity3347.3.1Insituconservation3347.3.2Exsituconservation3447.4Wildfoods3547.4.1Insituconservation3547.4.2Exsituconservation3577.5Rolesofprotectedareas3597.5.1Statusandtrends3617.5.2Contributiontoconservationofwildspeciesusedforfood3627.5.3Managementofbiodiversityorfoodandagricultureinprotectedareas3667.5.4Country-reportanalysis3677.6Maintenanceoftraditionalknowledgeassociatedwithfoodandagriculture3717.7Needsandpriorities373PartDEnablingframeworksChapter8Thestateofpolicies,institutionsandcapacities379Keymessages3798.1Introduction3798.2Stakeholders3808.2.1Producersandtheirorganizations3808.2.2Suppliers,processors,tradersandretailers3868.2.3Thepublicsector3868.2.4Thenon-governmentalsector3878.2.5Thegeneralpublic3888.2.6Regionalandinternationalorganizations3888.3Cooperation3958.3.1Cooperationatnationallevel3968.3.2Cooperationatinternationallevel3988.3.3Needsandpriorities4038.4Education,trainingandawarenessraising4048.4.1Plant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture4048.4.2Associatedbiodiversity406vii8.4.3Needsandpriorities4098.5Research4108.5.1Institutionsinvolvedinresearchonassociatedbiodiversity4118.5.2Needsandpriorities4118.6Valuation4128.6.1Overviewofvaluationapproaches4138.6.2Stateofimplementation4158.6.3Needsandpriorities4188.7Incentives4198.7.1Overview4198.7.2Stateofadoption4208.7.3Needsandpriorities4248.8Policyandlegalframeworks4258.8.1Frameworksatinternationallevel4278.8.2Frameworksatnationallevel4308.8.3Climatechangepolicyandprogrammes4378.8.4Frameworkssupportingthemaintenanceoftraditionalknowledge4388.8.5Accessandbenefit-sharing439PartEConclusionsChapter9Needsandchallenges4459.1Introduction4459.2Driversofchange4459.3Statusandtrends4469.4Management4469.4.1Stateofuse4469.4.2Stateofconservation4499.5Policies,capacitiesandinstitutions4509.6Towardsamorediverseandsustainablefuture451References453viiiBOXES1TheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculturexxxiiPartA1.1Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture,FAOandtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals71.2Assessingthestateoftheworld’sgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture92.1Projectsandprogrammessupportinglivelihoodsbypromotingbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture–examplesfromaroundtheworld472.2TheSecondInternationalConferenceonNutritionFrameworkforAction492.3VoluntaryGuidelinesforMainstreamingBiodiversityintoPolicies,ProgrammesandNationalandRegionalPlansofActiononNutrition532.4TheBiodiversityforFoodandNutritionProject552.5Food-baseddietaryguidelinesasatooltopromotebiodiversity57PartB3.1Human-madegrasslandsasaculturalandecologicalasset793.2Linksbetweenbiodiversity,biodiversitylossanddiseaserisk873.3Unsustainablymanagedproductionsystemsareakeythreattobirdspecies974.1TheInternationalUnionforConservationofNatureRedListofThreatenedSpeciesTM1254.2Birdsasindicatorspecies1254.3Monitoringtotalflyinginsectbiomassover27yearsinprotectedareasinGermany1334.4Themainfunctionalgroupsofbiologicalcontrolagents1364.5Therolesofbirdsinthesupplyofsupportingandregulatingecosystemservices1374.6TheNetherlands’soilbiologicalmonitoringprogramme1454.7Páramos–avitalproviderofwater-regulatingservicesunderthreat1494.8TrendsinthestateofhabitatsintheEuropeanUnion1564.9Soilcarbonassessmentinitiatives–examplesfromtheUnitedStatesofAmerica1594.10FAOglobaldefinitionofforest180PartC5.1TheConventiononBiologicalDiversity’sprinciplesandoperationalguidelinesfortheecosystemapproach1995.2Theconceptofsustainableforestmanagement2035.3Applicationoftheecosystemapproachincapturefisheries–anexamplefromPanama207ix5.4EcosystemapproachtofisheriesmanagementinSaintLucia2075.5Thetenelementsofagroecology2095.6ThePacificRidgetoReefapproach–anexampleofintegratedlandandwater-useplanning2135.7Needsandchallengesincoral-reefrestoration2205.8ThefloatinggardensofBangladesh2245.9PromotionofhomegardensforhealthydietsinSolomonIslands2305.10Projectsandinitiativestargetinghomegardens–examplesfromaroundtheworld2325.11Policyandlegislativeframeworkspromotingagroforestry–examplesfromaroundtheworld2385.12France’sAgroforestryDevelopmentPlan2015–20202395.13Fishpolycultureforimprovednutrition–anexamplefromBangladesh2465.14TheVoluntaryGuidelinesforSustainableSoilManagement2545.15BurkinaFaso’sOperationManurePits2565.16Conservationagricultureforclimate-smartagriculture2585.17TheSaveandGrowapproach2605.18Thepush–pullapproach2635.19IntegratedpestmanagementinhorticulturalproductioninAlmería,Spain2655.20ManagementofstinglessbeesinMalaysia2695.21EnhancingpollinatorpresenceincassavafieldsinGhana2715.22Measuresorstepstypicallyincludedinreduced-impactlogging2735.23Globalresearcheffortsinrumenmicrobiology2905.24SmartBees:aEuropeanprojectfortheconservationofendangeredhoney-beesubspecies3006.1Theroleofmoleculartechniquesinthecharacterizationoffood-processingmicro-organisms3156.2Characterizationstudiesonmicro-organisms–examplesfromPeru3176.3Whyundertakegeneticdataanalysisofcropwildrelativesandwildfoodplants?3196.4StudyanddevelopmentoffoodsandnaturalproductswithpotentialhealthbenefitsinParaguay3227.1TheWorldInformationandEarlyWarningSystemonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture3277.2TheDomesticAnimalDiversityInformationSystem3307.3Marinesanctuariesandmonitoringsystems–examplesfromJamaica3387.4MarineprotectedareasinPalau3397.5ThetraditionalHimarangelandmanagementsysteminJordan3407.6Agri-environmentalschemessupportingcroplandandgrasslandbiodiversity–examplesfromBelgium3417.7InitiativessupportingtheinsituconservationofpollinatorsintheUnitedStatesofAmerica3427.8Selectedspecies-conservationmeasuresinIreland3437.9PlanofActionfortheConservationoftheNordicBrownBee3457.10Conservationmethodsformicro-organismsstoredexsitu3487.11Cooperationintheexsituconservationofmicro-organisms350x7.12TheculturecollectionofMexico’sNationalGeneticResourcesCentre3517.13TheMicrobialBiodiversityDirectorateoftheEthiopianBiodiversityInstitute3517.14Micro-organismconservationforimprovedagriculturalproductioninIndia3527.15TheroleofJapan’sNationalAgricultureandFoodResearchOrganizationGenebankinrecoveringgeneticresourcesaftertheearthquakeof20113537.16VoluntaryGuidelinesfortheConservationandSustainableUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlants3567.17TheIUCNGreenListofProtectedandConservedAreas3677.18FAO’sGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSystems3697.19Theroleofgeographicalindicationsinthemaintenanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3707.20Maintenanceanduseofindigenousknowledge–examplesfromKenya3717.21MaintenanceanduseoftraditionalpracticesinthePacific3727.22Women’straditionalknowledgeforimprovedfoodandseedsecurityunderclimatechange3737.23CommunityforestmanagementanddevelopmentinBanBanh,VietNam374PartD8.1Governanceoutcomespromotedbysmall-scalefoodproviders’organizations3828.2Communitycontrolofacoastalecosystem–anexamplefromSenegal3828.3Agroforestryunderlocalcontrol–anexamplefromCostaRica3838.4Theroleofawomen’sgroupinpromotingsustainablefishing–anexamplefromEcuador3838.5Contributionsofnon-governmentalorganizationstothesustainablemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture–examplesfromtheNearEast3878.6Zambia’sBiodiversityCommunityNetwork3888.7TheNorwegianGeneticResourceCentreanditsgeneticresourcescommittees3968.8France’sAgriculturalBiodiversityObservatory3978.9TheRegionalProjectforSustainableManagementofGloballySignificantEndemicRuminantLivestock(PROGEBE)3988.10AppointmentofnationalfocalpointsandparticipationinthepreparationofTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture3998.11TransfrontierconservationareasinSouthernAfrica4008.12Resolution4/2017.TheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureanditscontributiontotheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals4028.13Farmerfieldschoolsonintegratedpestmanagement–experiencesfromNepal4078.14Thefarmerfieldschoolapproach408xi8.15ParticipatoryworkshopswithlocalcommunitiesinthedevelopmentofaGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSysteminChile4098.16IncentiveschemespromotingsustainableshrimpaquacultureinVietNam4248.17IntegratedincentivepackagesformicrowatersheddevelopmentinBrazil4258.18IntegratedincentivepackagesinMexico4268.19Bindingandsoft-lawinstrumentsrelatedtoportstatemeasuresinthecapture-fisheriessector4278.20Biodiversityandinternationallaw4288.21Brazil’sexperienceinmainstreamingbiodiversityintoitsFoodandNutritionSecurityPolicy4348.22VoluntaryGuidelinestoSupporttheIntegrationofGeneticDiversityintoNationalClimateChangeAdaptationPlanning4378.23TheUNFCCCadaptationandmitigationinstruments438xiiTABLESxxxiv1Overviewofcountryreportsandtheirregionaldistribution1532PartA33341.1Production-systemclassificationusedinthisreport382.1Biologicalcontrolofinvasivealienspeciesthroughpredation,67parasitismandherbivory–examplesfromthecountryreports682.2Biologicalcontrolofinvasivealienspeciesthroughresource7072competitionandotherantagonisticrelationships−examplesfrom75thecountryreports772.3Speciesorvarietiesthataretolerantorresistanttotheeffectsof82invasivealienspecies–examplesfromthecountryreports852.4Potentialinterventionstosupportpositiveinteractionsinfood86productionsystems8890PartB3.1Driversofchangeexploredinthecountry-reportingguidelines3.2Reportedeffectsofdriversofchangeonregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,allproductionsystemsaggregated3.3Numberofcountriesreportingnegative,neutralandpositiveeffectsofdriversofchangeonthediversity,availabilityandknowledgeofwildfoods3.4Reportedeffectsofpopulationgrowthandurbanizationontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem3.5Reportedeffectsofmarkets,tradeandtheprivatesectorontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem3.6Reportedeffectsofchangingeconomic,sociopoliticalandculturalfactorsontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem3.7Reportedeffectsofclimatechangeontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem3.8Naturaldisastersreportedtohavehadasignificanteffectonbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureand/oronecosystemservicesinthepasttenyears3.9Reportedeffectsofnaturaldisastersontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem3.10Reportedeffectsofpests,diseasesandinvasivealienspeciesontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem3.11Invasivealienspeciesreportedbyfiveormorecountriesaspresentinoneormoreproductionsystemsxiii3.12Reportedeffectsofadvancesandinnovationsinscienceandtechnologyontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem943.13Reportedeffectsofchangesinlandandwateruseandmanagementontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem1003.14Reportedeffectsofpollutionandexternalinputuseontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem1033.15Reportedeffectsofoverexploitationandoverharvestingontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem1063.16Reportedeffectsofpoliciesontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystem1094.1Examplesofspeciesandgenerareportedbycountriestobemanagedforregulatingorsupportingecosystemservicesinproductionsystems1214.2Speciesandgeneramostfrequentlyreportedtobemanagedformultiplesupportingandregulatingecosystemservices1234.3Riskstatusofassociatedbiodiversityforwhichasignificantthreatofextinctionorlossisreported1264.4Reportedtrendsinthestateofprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservicesinproductionsystems1304.5Examplesofassociated-biodiversityspeciesorspeciesgroupsthatcontributetopestanddiseaseregulationreportedtobeunderthreat1384.6Thefunctionsofsoilorganisms1424.7Typicalnumbersofsoilorganismsinhealthyecosystems1434.8Summaryofregionalextent,trendsanduncertaintiesofsoil-biodiversitylosspresentedintheStatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources1474.9Selectedexamplesofwildfoodspeciesandgenerareportedbycountries1634.10Globalforestareachange(1990–2015)181PartC5.1Reportedlevelsofadoptionofselectedmanagementpracticesandapproaches,allproductionsystemsaggregated1935.2Reportedtrendsintheadoptionofselectedmanagementpracticesandapproaches,byproductionsystem1965.3Reportedecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproaches2025.4Restorationmeasuresforwetlandsandotheraquaticecosystems2175.5Landareaunderagroforestry(2008–2010)andtrends(2000–2010),byregion2375.6Majorbenefitsandchallengesofaquaponicfoodproduction2445.7Indicatorsofthestatusoforganicagricultureworldwide2515.8Environmentalandotherbenefitsofimplementingthethreeprinciplesofconservationagriculture259xiv5.9Examplesofintegratedpestmanagementmeasures2615.10Examplesoftherolesofassociatedbiodiversityinintegratedpestmanagement2646.1Traitsandmethodsusedforcharacterizinggermplasm:percentageofaccessionscharacterizedand/orevaluated,byregion3076.2Degreeofcharacterizationforthefivelargestcropcollectionsconservedby27reportingcountries3076.3Charactersmostfrequentlyassessedin692evaluationsofforest-treegeneticvariabilityreportedbycountries3106.4Knownandestimatednumberofspeciesofsoilorganismsandvascularplants3147.1Associatedbiodiversityspeciesandgenerareportedtobeconservedinsitu,bytaxonomicgroup3357.2Associatedbiodiversityspeciesreportedtobeconservedexsitu,bytaxonomicgroup3467.3Wildfoodspeciesandgenerareportedtobeconservedinsitu,bytaxonomicgroup3557.4Wildfoodspeciesandgenerareportedtobeconservedexsitu,bytaxonomicgroup3587.5IUCNProtectedAreaManagementCategories3607.6NumberofspeciesinthecomprehensivelyassessedgroupsofTheIUCNRedListwithmappedrangesandclassifiedasusedforhumanfood3647.7Typesofdesignatedareareportedtobeofparticularsignificanceforbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture368PartD8.1Selectedregionalintergovernmentalbodiesandmultilateralpartnershipsreportedbycountriestocontributetoinitiativesinthemanagementofassociatedbiodiversity3908.2Examplesofassociated-biodiversitymanagementactivitiesreportedbyinternationalorganizations3948.3Examplesofpracticesreportedtobepromotedthroughtheprovisionofincentives421xvFIGURES1AssignmentofcountriestoregionsinthisreportxxxvPartA1.1Keydevelopmentsintheinternationalrecognitionoftheimportanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture62.1Damageandlosstoagriculturesectorscausedbyspecifictypesofabiotichazard(2006–2016)292.2Thesustainablelivelihoodsanalyticalframework432.3Typesofwild-foodusereportedbycountries59PartB3.1Reportedclimatechange-relatedthreatstoassociatedbiodiversity,(A)byregionand(B)byproductionsystem813.2Globaltrendsintheoccurrenceofnaturaldisasters−1980to2017843.3Invasivealienspeciesreportedbycountriestobeimpactingbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture,A)bytypeoforganismand(B)byregion924.1Regulatingandsupportingecosystemservicesforwhichassociatedbiodiversityisreportedtobemanaged,bysectorofproduction1244.2Reportedthreatstoassociatedbiodiversity,byregion1274.3Reportedtrendsinassociatedbiodiversity,byproductionsystem1284.4Thesoilfoodweb1414.5MapoftheSoilBiodiversityIndex1444.6Mapofpotentialthreatstosoilbiodiversity1444.7GlobalriskstatusofinvertebratesintheclassesBivalvia,Holothuroidea,MaxillopodaandPolychaeta1524.8GlobalriskstatusofspeciesincludedinTheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies,byhabitat1574.9Numberofwildfoodspeciesreported,bytypeandregion1624.10Examplesofwildplantsreportedtobeusedforfood1644.11Productionsystemsandenvironmentsinwhichwildfoodspeciesarepresentandharvested,bytype1654.12Reportedtrendsinthestatusofwildfoodspecies,byregion1664.13Reportedtrendsinthestatusofwildfoodspecies,bytype1664.14Riskcategoriesofwildfoodsforwhichasignificantthreatofextinctionorlossisreported,byregion1674.15Reportedthreatstowildfoodsspecies1684.16NumberofspeciesclassifiedasusedforhumanfoodonTheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies,bytypeandriskcategory1694.17Globaldistributionofmangroves1734.18Interconnectivitybetweencoastalecosystems1734.19Globaldistributionofseagrasses176xvi4.20Globalstatusofreef-buildingcorals1794.21Annualchangeinforestarea(1990–2015)1824.22Globaldistributionofruminantlivestockproductionsystems1844.23Globalgrasslandssuitableandunsuitableforcropproductionandshareoflanduse186PartC5.1Perceivedimpactsonbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureofvariousmanagementpracticesandapproaches1975.2Thetenprinciplesthatcharacterizethelandscapeapproach2005.3Legalandpolicyframeworksonagroecology2115.4CommitmentstotheBonnChallenge2195.5Livestockandcropintegration:fromalineartoacircularbioeconomy2255.6Anexampleofanaquaponicsystem2435.7Rumenmicrobialfermentation2885.8Motivationforandstepsinvolvedintheassisted-evolutionapproachesincorals3026.1Reportedprogressintheimplementationof(A)phenotypicand(B)molecularcharacterizationinlivestockspeciesofeconomicimportance3096.2Statusofcharacterizationorevaluationofassociatedbiodiversityspeciesreportedtobeconservedexsitu,byregion3166.3WildfoodsintheFAO/INFOODSFoodCompositionDatabaseforBiodiversity3206.4Statusofidentificationandcharacterizationofdifferenceswithinwildfoodspeciesreportedbycountries,bytype3217.1Reportedobjectivesfortheinsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversity3367.2Reportedactionsfortheinsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversity3377.3Reportedobjectivesfortheexsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversity3477.4Reportedobjectivesfortheinsituconservationofwildfoods3577.5Progressofglobalcoverageofprotectedareas3617.6Geographicdistributionoftheterrestrial,marineandcoastalprotectedareasoftheworld3627.7ProtectedareacoverageofspeciesinthecomprehensivelyassessedtaxonomicgroupsofTheIUCNRedListwithmappedrangesandclassifiedasusedforhumanfood3657.8ProtectedareacoverageofspeciesinthecomprehensivelyassessedtaxonomicgroupsofTheIUCNRedListwithmappedrangesandclassifiedasthreatenedandasusedforhumanfood366PartD8.1ElementsoftheTEEBAgriFoodEvaluationFramework4168.2Examplesofsourcesofincentivestosupportsustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversity420xviiForewordOurfoodandagriculturalsystemsdependincountlesswaysontheplants,animalsandmicro-organismsthatcompriseandsurroundthem.Biodiversity,ateverylevelfromgenetic,throughspeciestoecosystem,underpinsthecapacityoffarmers,livestockkeepers,forestdwellers,fishersandfishfarmerstoproducefoodandarangeofothergoodsandservicesinavastvarietyofdifferentbiophysicalandsocio-economicenvironments.Itincreasesresiliencetoshocksandstresses,providesopportunitiestoadaptproductionsystemstoemergingchallengesandisakeyresourceineffortstoincreaseoutputinasustainableway.ItisvitaltoeffortstomeettheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)ofthe2030Agenda.Overthelasttwodecades,FAOhaspreparedcountry-drivenglobalassessmentsofthegeneticresourcesofcropplants,livestockandforesttrees.Anassessmentcoveringaquaticgeneticresourceswillshortlybepublished.Whathasbeenmissingtodatehasbeenanassessmentofhowbiodiversityasawholecontributestofoodandagriculture,including“associatedbiodiversity”,themyriadcomponentsofbiodiversitythatsupportfoodandagriculturalproductionbyprovidingservicessuchaspollination,pestcontrol,soilformationandmaintenance,carbonsequestration,purificationandregulationofwatersupplies,reductionofdisastersthreats,andtheprovisionofhabitatforotherbeneficialspecies.Theurgencyofclosingknowledgegapsinthisfieldisunderlinedbythemountingevidencethattheworld’sbiodiversityisunderseverethreatandbytheever-growingchallengesfacingfoodandagriculture,includingparticularlythoserelatedtotheimpactsofclimatechange.ThepublicationofTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureisthereforeasignificantandtimelymilestone.LikealltheglobalassessmentspreparedundertheauspicesofFAO’sCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,akeycharacteristicofthisreportisitscountry-drivennature.Ninety-onecountriespreparedandsubmittedreportsonthestateoftheirbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureanditsmanagement,focusingparticularlyonassociatedbiodiversityanditsroleinthesupplyofsupportingandregulatingecosystemservicesandonwildspeciesthataresourcesoffood.Thereportingprocessprovidedanopportunityforcountriestoidentifyneedsandprioritiesintermsofpromotingthesustainableuseandconservationoftheseresources,bothatnationallevelandinternationally.Partsoftheglobalreportmakesombrereading.Itisdeeplyconcerningthatinsomanyproductionsystemsinsomanycountriesbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureandtheecosystemservicesitprovidesarereportedtobeindecline.Thefoundationsofourfoodsystemsarebeingundermined,often,atleastinpart,becauseoftheimpactofmanagementpracticesandland-usechangesassociatedwithfoodandagriculture.Itisalsoabundantlyclearthatthestateofknowledgeofmanycomponentsofbiodiversity,includinginparticularinvertebratesandmicro-organisms,isveryinadequateandthatthiscontributestotheirneglect.Thegoodnewsisthatmanymanagementpracticesandapproachesthatrelyonthemaintenanceofabundantanddiversebiologicalcommunities,orthatcanotherwisebeconsideredbiodiversityfriendly,areattractinggrowinginterestandinmanycasesarebecomingmorewidelyadopted.xixTheimportanceofbiodiversityanditsrolesinthefoodandagriculturesectorisincreasinglybeingacknowledgedininternationalpolicyagendas.Thisrecognitionneedstobetranslatedintoaction.Keytasksincludeaddressingthedriversofbiodiversitylosswithinthefoodandagriculturesectorandbeyond,strengtheninginsituandexsituconservationmeasures,andincreasingtheuptakeofmanagementpracticesthatpromotethecontributionsofbiodiversitytosustainableproduction.Coordinatedandcollaborativeactiononthepartoftheinternationalcommunityisessential.Thisreportwillmakeavaluablecontributiontotheseeffortsandtoraisingawarenessofthevitalimportanceofbiodiversitytofoodandagriculture.JoséGrazianodaSilvaFAODirector-GeneralxxAcknowledgementsThepreparationofTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculturerequiredthededication,timeandexpertiseofmanyindividuals,andthecollaborationandsupportofmanygovernmentsandinstitutions.Thecountryreportssubmittedby91countriesweretheprimarysourcesofinformation.FAOwishestothanktherespectivegovernmentsandthehundredsofindividualsinvolved,inparticulartheNationalFocalPoints.Gratitudeisalsoexpressedtothosewhocontributedtothepreparationofthereportssubmittedbyinternationalorganizations.Thepreparationofthereportwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthefinancialandin-kindsupportofGermany,Norway,SpainandSwitzerland.ThereportwaspreparedbyFAO.ThereportingandpreparationprocesswascoordinatedbyJulieBélanger,withtheassistanceofDafyddPillingandKim-AnhTempelman,inFAO’sSecretariatoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.TheworkwasfacilitatedandsupportedbycurrentandformerSecretariesoftheCommission,IreneHoffmannandLindaCollette,andbycurrentandformerofficersoftheSecretariat,AnnaAsfaw(secondedbytheGovernmentofGermany),LadinaKnapp(secondedbytheGovernmentofSwitzerland),DanLeskien,DamianoLuchettiandMiriamWidmer(secondedbytheGovernmentofSwitzerland).Corecontributorstotheanalysisofthecountryreportsandthedrafting,editingand/orfinalizationofreportincludedAgnèsBernis-Fonteneau,CordulaHinkes(secondedbytheGovernmentofGermany),ManuelPomarCloquell,MarcelaPortocarrero-Aya,SuzanneRedfern,VladimirShlevkov-PronskiyandMiriamWidmer.Theworkwasfurthersupportedbyanumberofinterns,DavideAlbeggiani,PoljankaJohnson,AgatheMansion-Vaquié,MichaelRuggeri,AngusWilsdon,LillyZeitlerandSabrinaZhang.AdministrativeandsecretarialsupportwasprovidedbyNathalieBramucciandCintiaPohl.Thedatabaseofcountry-reportdatawasdesigned,createdandloadedbyEnricoAnello,underthesupervisionofGiorgioLanzaroneofFAO’sInformationTechnologyDivision.FrançoisFauteux1processedandcompiledalltaxonomicinformationcontainedinthedatabase.Over175individualscontributedtothepreparationofthereportasauthors,contributorsandreviewers.Detailsareprovidedinthetablebelow,sectionbysection.SignificantcontributionswereprovidedbystafffrommanydivisionswithinFAO.ThemanuscriptwasfurtherreviewedbyDavidCooper2(PartsA,BandC),NigelDudley,3TobyHodgkin,4PatrickMulvany5(PartsAandD)andMaryTaylor6(PartsBandC).AllmembersoftheCommissionSecretariatalsocontributedtothereviewingprocess.TextboxeswerepreparedbyPeerBerg,7KasparBienefeld,8TeresaBorelli,9MartinBrink,10StuartButchart,11GeorginaChandler,12GonzaloEiriz,13FrançoisFauteux,1HasanGezginç,14LinnFennaGroeneveld,7KimHolmBoesen,15DannyHunter,9MohdFahimeeBinJaapar,16RoslizaJajuli,16MaleneKarupPalne,15AmirKassam,17PatriciaLarbouret,18BirgitteLund,15TomMoore,19SergeMorand,20DanielaMouradeOliveiraBeltrame,21ChristophePinard,18MaryamRahmanian,AnaIslasRamos,GaminiSamarasinghe,22FlorenceTartanac,EmilieVandecandelaere,AnjaLaupstadVatland,23PierreVelge24andVictorW.Wasike.25AdditionalmaterialforthepreparationoftextboxeswasprovidedbyWidegnomaJeandeDieuNitiema26andThembinkosiGumedze.27ThethematicstudyBiodiversityforfoodandagricultureandecosystemserviceswaspreparedbyDafyddPilling.ThestudyBiodiversityforfoodandagriculture:theperspectivesofxxismall-scalefoodproviderswaspreparedbyPatrickMulvany,BobBracdelaPerrière,MaryamRahmanianandAngelaCordeiro(InternationalPlanningCommitteeforFoodSovereignty,AgriculturalBiodiversityWorkingGroup).ThestudyThecontributionsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturetotheresilienceofproductionsystemswaspreparedbyAshleyDuval,DunjaMijatovicandTobyHodgkin(PlatformforAgrobiodiversityResearch).ThestudyContributionsofbiodiversitytothesustainableintensificationoffoodproductionwaspreparedbyIanK.Dawson,SimonJ.Attwood,SarahE.Park,RamniJamnadass,WaynePowell,TerrySunderland,RoelandKindt,StephaMcMullin,PeterN.Hoebe,JohnBaddeley,CharlesStaver,VincentVadez,SammyCarsan,JamesM.Roshetko,AhmedAmri,EldadKaramura,DeborahKaramura,PaulovanBreugel,Md.EmdadHossain,MichaelPhillips,AshokKumar,Jens-PeterB.Lillesø,JohnBenzie,GerhardE.Sabastian,BeatriceEkesa,WalterOcimatiandLarsGraudal(CGIAR).ThedocumententitledStudyonthelinkagesbetweenprotectedareasandtheconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturewaspreparedbyNatashaAli,BárbaraGoettsch,JamesHardcastle,SaraOldfieldandYichuanShi(InternationalUnionforConservationofNature).Seerespectivestudiesforauthors’individualaffiliations.ThelayoutwasdesignedandimplementedbyChiaraCaproni.ThedraftreportwasmadeavailableforreviewbymembersandobserversoftheCommission.CommentswerereceivedfromArgentina,Bangladesh,Brazil,Canada,France,Georgia,Germany,Japan,Jordan,Mexico,theRussianFederation,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Thailand,TunisiaandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.TheInternationalUnionfortheProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlantsandtheSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversityalsoprovidedcomments.Listingeverypersonbynameisnoteasyandcarrieswithittheriskthatsomeonemaybeoverlooked.Apologiesareconveyedtoanyonewhoprovidedassistancebutwhosenamehasbeenomitted.Chapter/sectionAuthorsandcontributors(alphabeticalorder)(affiliationsareprovidedbelowthetable;FAOifnotindicated)EntirereportJulieBélangerandDafyddPilling(eds.)PARTA–OVERVIEWChapter1.IntroductionEntirechapterJulieBélanger,DafyddPilling,Kim-AnhTempelmanandPabloTittonell,28withcontributionsfromDevinBartley,PaulBoettcher,StefanoDiulgheroff,SimonFunge-Smith,BonnieFurman,JarkkoKoskela,GrahamMair,ChikeluMbaandShawnMcGuireReviewers:VeraAgostini,FrédéricCastell,AnneliEhlers,29JohnE.Fa,30GiuliaMuirChapter2.Rolesandimportanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture2.2EcosystemservicesDafyddPilling,drawingonFAO(2019)2.3ResilienceAgnèsBernis-FonteneauandDafyddPilling,drawingonDuvaletal.,(2018),withcontributionsfromTobyHodgkin,4RebecaKoloffonandSylvieWabbes-Candotti2.4SustainableintensificationAgnèsBernis-FonteneauandDafyddPilling,drawingonDawsonetal.(2018a),withcontributionsfromPabloTittonell282.5LivelihoodsDavidColozzaandDafyddPilling,withcontributionsfromNigelDudley3andCordulaHinkes2.6FoodsecurityandnutritionJulieBélanger,DafyddPillingandLillyZeitler,withcontributionsfromVaishaliBansal,31AgnèsBernis-Fonteneau,RuthCharrondiere,DaliaMattioni,GiuliaMuir,VikasRawal,31FlorenceTartanacandDoordarshniThokchom31Reviewers:SimonAttwood,9,32,33EdmundoBarrios,CaterinaBatello,BadiBesbes,EricBlanchart,34PaulBoettcher,TeresaBorelli,9DavidColozza,IanDawson,35,36,37AshleyDuval,4JohnE.Fa,30SimonFunge-Smith,BonnieFurman,NaoFuruta,38RodolpheGozlan,20DannyHunter,9RebecaKoloffon,JarkkoKoskela,MariaHernandezLagana,DunjaMijatovic,4AvetikNersisyan,FlorencePoulain,MaryamRahmanian,BeateScherf,NadiaScialabba,PabloTittonell,28SylvieWabbes-CandottiandLieslWiesexxiiPARTB–DRIVERS,STATUSANDTRENDSChapter3.Driversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3.2OverviewJulieBélanger,TobyHodgkin4andLillyZeitler3.3EconomicandsocialdriversMarcelaPortocarrero-Aya,PabloTittonell28andLillyZeitler,withcontributionsfromJulie3.4EnvironmentaldriversBélanger,AgnèsBernis-Fonteneau,DavidColozza,NigelDudley,3TobyHodgkin,4Dafydd3.5AdvancesandinnovationsPilling,VladimirShlevkov-PronskiyMichaelRuggeriandKim-AnhTempelmaninscienceandtechnology3.6Driversatproductionsystemlevel3.7Policies3.8Driversofwomen’sMichaelRuggeriinvolvementinthemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3.9DriversoftraditionalMiriamWidmerknowledgeofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureReviewers:EdmundoBarrios,CaterinaBatello,MarcioCastrodeSouza,DavidColozza,AmberHimes-Cornell,MariaEleonoraD’Andrea,LisethEscobarAucu,NicoleFranz,BonnieFurman,MaurizioFurst,BeatriceGrenier,BaogenGu,EvaKohlschmid,ReginaLaub,SzilviaLehel,GregoireLeroy,DaliaMattioni,ChikeluMba,ShawnMcGuire,RebeccaMetzner,JamieMorrison,KwangSukOh,FlorencePoulain,JohnRyder,NianjunShen,IlariaSisto,MarkosTibboandJosephZelasneyChapter4.Thestatusandtrendsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture4.2Plant,animal,forestandDafyddPilling,drawingonFAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),withcontributionsaquaticgeneticresourcesfromDevinBartley,RoswithaBaumung,PaulBoettcher,StefanoDiulgheroff,SimonforfoodandagricultureFunge-Smith,BonnieFurman,JarkkoKoskela,GregoireLeroyandChikeluMba4.3Associatedbiodiversity4.3.1AssociatedbiodiversityspeciesJulieBélangerandKim-AnhTempelmanmanagedforecosystemservices4.3.2Informationandmonitoringsystemsonassociatedbiodiversity4.3.3Overviewofstatusandtrends4.3.4AssociatedbiodiversityforHienNgo39andKim-AnhTempelman,withcontributionsfromMichaelRuggeripollination4.3.5AssociatedbiodiversityforpestVladimirShlevkov-Pronskiy,withcontributionsfromMarkusKnapp40andWilliamSettleanddiseaseregulation4.3.6AssociatedbiodiversityforAgnèsBernis-FonteneauandAlbertoOrgiazzi,41withcontributionsfromLieslWiesesoil-relatedecosystemservices4.3.7AssociatedbiodiversityforMarcelaPortocarrero-Aya,withcontributionsfromDafyddPillingwater-relatedecosystemservices4.3.8AssociatedbiodiversityforAgnèsBernis-Fonteneau,withcontributionsfromDafyddPillingandMichaelRuggeri4.3.9natural-hazardregulation4.3.10AssociatedbiodiversityforhabitatprovisioningAssociatedbiodiversityforair-qualityandclimateregulation4.4WildfoodsJulieBélanger,withcontributionsfromNatashaAli,38BárbaraGoettsch,38PoljankaJohnson,LillyZeitlerandSabrinaZhang4.5Ecosystemsofimportancetofoodandagriculture4.5.1WetlandsMarcelaPortocarrero-Aya,withcontributionsfromAnne-MaudCourtois,NigelDudley,34.5.2MangrovesDafyddPilling,VladimirShlevkov-PronskiyandElaineSpringgay4.5.3Seagrasses4.5.4Coralreefs4.5.5ForestsOrjanJonsson,JarkkoKoskela,LarsGunnarMarklund,AnssiPekkarinen,LeticiaPina,KristinaRodinaandSheilaWertzxxiii4.5.6RangelandsIreneHoffmann4.6NeedsandprioritiesDafyddPillingandKim-AnhTempelmanReviewers:VeraAgostini,JoseAguilarManjarrez,EdmundoBarrios,EricBlanchart,34JunningCai,ViridianaAlcántaraCervantes,JohnE.Fa,30KimFriedman,SimonFunge-Smith,BonnieFurman,MaurizioFurst,JarkkoKoskela,ReginaLaub,SzilviaLehel,TomMoore,19AnneMottet,FlorencePoulain,BronwenPowell,42NadiaScialabba,IlariaSisto,PhilipThornton,43MadeleineJ.H.vanOppen,44,45LaurenWeatherdon46andXinhuaYuanPARTC–STATEOFMANAGEMENTChapter5.Thestateofuseofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture5.2OverviewofmanagementJulieBélangerandTobyHodgkin4practicesandapproaches5.3Ecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproaches5.3.1OverviewKim-AnhTempelman5.3.2SustainableforestJarkkoKoskelamanagement5.3.3EcosystemapproachtoMarcelaPortocarrero-Ayafisheriesandaquaculture5.3.4AgroecologyVladimirShlevkov-PronskiyandPabloTittonell285.3.5LandscapeandseascapeKim-AnhTempelmanapproaches5.3.6Integratedland-andwater-useplanning5.3.7Needsandpriorities5.4RestorationpracticesBlaiseBodin2andMarcelaPortocarrero-Aya5.5Diversificationinproductionsystems5.5.1Integratedcrop–livestockDarioLucantoniandAnneMottet,withcontributionsfromDafyddPillingsystems5.5.2HomegardensDavidColozza5.5.3AgroforestryJonathanP.Cornelius,35,56JulesBayala,35TrentBlare,35DeliaCatacutan,35AnnDegrande,35RoelandKindt,35BeriaLeimona,35Sarah-LanMathez-Stiefel,35,57AndrewMiccolis,35DevashreeNaik,35JavedRizvi,35JamesM.Roshetko35andLeighAnnWinowiecki355.5.4DiversificationpracticesinKim-AnhTempelman,withcontributionsfromLionelDabbadie,SimonFunge-Smith,aquacultureAlessandroLovatelli,DafyddPillingandMichaelRuggeri5.5.5NeedsandprioritiesTobyHodgkin45.6Managementpracticesandproductionapproaches5.6.1OrganicagricultureVladimirShlevkov-Pronskiy,withcontributionsfromNadiaScialabbaandHelgaWiller475.6.2LowexternalinputagricultureVladimirShlevkov-Pronskiy,withcontributionsfromDafyddPillingandPabloTittonell285.6.3ManagementpracticestoAlbertoOrgiazzi41andMiriamWidmerpreserveandenhancesoilbiodiversity5.6.4ConservationagricultureVladimirShlevkov-Pronskiy,withcontributionsfromAmirKassam175.6.5IntegratedplantnutrientHugoFernandezMenaandDebraTurnermanagement5.6.6IntegratedpestmanagementVladimirShlevkov-Pronskiy,withcontributionsfromWilliamSettle5.6.7PollinationmanagementHienNgo39andKim-AnhTempelman5.6.8Forest-managementpracticesJarkkoKoskela,withcontributionsfromJonasCedergren5.6.9NeedsandprioritiesTobyHodgkin45.7Theuseofmicro-organismsDafyddPilling,drawingonAlexandrackietal.(2013)andChatzipavlidisetal.(2013),forfoodprocessingandwithcontributionsfromNelsonLima48agro-industrialprocessesxxiv5.8RumenmicrobialdiversityGraemeAttwood,49PeterH.Janssen,49SandraKittelmann,49SineadLeahy49,50andChristinaMoon495.9Geneticimprovement5.9.1DomesticationandbaseTobyHodgkin4broadening5.9.2Plant,animal,forestandDafyddPilling,drawingonFAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),withcontributionsaquaticgeneticresourcesforfromDevinBartley,PaulBoettcher,StefanoDiulgheroff,SimonFunge-Smith,JarkkofoodandagricultureKoskela,ChikeluMbaandArshiyaNoorani5.9.3Associatedbiodiversity–JulieBélanger,VladimirShlevkov-PronskiyandMiriamWidmeroverview5.9.4PollinatorsYvesLeConte51andRobertJ.Paxton525.9.5Assistedevolutionforreef-MadeleineJ.H.vanOppen,44,45withcontributionsfromKenAnthony44andLineK.Bay44buildingcorals5.9.NeedsandprioritiesTobyHodgkin4Reviewers:VeraAgostini,ElizabethBach,53EdmundoBarrios,RoswithaBaumung,FentonBeed,KasparBienefeld,8EricBlanchart,34PaulBoettcher,LucreziaCaon,JonasCedergren,ViridianaAlcántaraCervantes,RichardCoe,35SandraCorsi,RosaCuevasCorona,MarjonFredrix,TheodorFriedrich,SimonFunge-Smith,BonnieFurman,MaurizioFurst,BarbaraGemmill-Herren,35CristinaGrandi,47JuanJ.Jiménez,54AmirKassam,17JohannetteKlapwijk,40MarkusKnapp,40JarkkoKoskela,ReginaLaub,SzilviaLehel,ChikeluMba,DouglasMcGuire,ShawnMcGuire,SorenMoller,AnneMottet,TipparatPongthanapanich,MaryamRahmanian,RosaRolle,BeateScherf,IlariaSisto,CarolinaStarr,PhilipThornton,43RandolphThaman,55PabloTittonell,28LieslWieseandXinhuaYuanChapter6.Thestateofcharacterizationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture6.2Plant,animal,forestandDafyddPilling,drawingonFAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),withcontributionsaquaticgeneticresourcesfromDevinBartley,RoswithaBaumung,PaulBoettcher,StefanoDiulgheroff,SimonforfoodandagricultureFunge-Smith,TobyHodgkin,4JarkkoKoskela,GrahamMairandChikeluMba6.3AssociatedbiodiversityJulieBélanger,DafyddPillingandMiriamWidmer6.4WildfoodsJulieBélanger6.5NeedsandprioritiesDafyddPillingandMiriamWidmerReviewers:VeraAgostini,EdmundoBarrios,AbramBicksler,RuthCharrondière,JohnE.Fa,30BonnieFurman,MaurizioFurst,AmberHimes-Cornell,JarkkoKoskela,ReginaLaub,SzilviaLehel,NelsonLima,48GrahamMair,SarahNajeraEspinosa,ArshiyaNoorani,DaveNowell,BeateScherfandIlariaSistoChapter7.Thestateofconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture7.2Plant,animal,forestandDafyddPilling,drawingonFAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),withcontributionsaquaticgeneticresourcesfromDevinBartley,RoswithaBaumung,PaulBoettcher,StefanoDiulgheroff,SimonFunge-forfoodandagricultureSmith,BonnieFurman,TobyHodgkin,4JarkkoKoskela,GrahamMairandArshiyaNoorani7.3AssociatedbiodiversityJulieBélanger,DafyddPilling,MaryTaylor6andMiriamWidmer,withcontributionsfromTobyHodgkin4andVladimirShlevkov-Pronskiy7.4WildfoodsJulieBélanger7.5RolesofprotectedareasNatashaAli,38BárbaraGoettsch38andJamesHardcastle,38withcontributionsfromMichaelRuggeriandKim-AnhTempelman7.6MaintenanceoftraditionalMiriamWidmerknowledgeassociatedwithfoodandagriculture7.7NeedsandprioritiesDafyddPillingReviewers:VeraAgostini,NatashaAli,38EdmundoBarrios,AbramBicksler,YoshihideEndo,BonnieFurman,AmberHimes-Cornell,MaurizioFurst,JarkkoKoskela,ReginaLaub,SzilviaLehel,GrahamMair,ArshiyaNoorani,BeateScherfandIlariaSistoPARTD–ENABLINGFRAMEWORKSChapter8.Thestateofpolicies,institutionsandcapacities8.2StakeholdersDafyddPillingandMichaelRuggeri,withcontributionsfromJulieBélanger,NigelDudley,3MiriamWidmerandAngusWilsdon8.3CooperationDafyddPilling,withcontributionsfromSimonFunge-Smith8.4Education,trainingandDafyddPilling,drawingonFAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),withcontributionsawarenessraisingfromDevinBartley,PaulBoettcher,NigelDudley,3SimonFunge-Smith,BonnieFurman,ShawnMcGuire,ArshiyaNooraniandHugoWilsonxxv8.5ResearchCordulaHinkes,withcontributionsfromNigelDudley38.6ValuationCordulaHinkes,withcontributionsfromNigelDudley,3LucyGarrettandDafyddPilling8.7IncentivesLucyGarrett,BernardeteNevesandDanielaOttaviani8.8Policyandlegalframeworks8.8.1FrameworksatinternationallevelDanLeskien8.8.2FrameworksatnationallevelDafyddPilling,drawingonFAO(2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming),withcontributionsfromDevinBartley,PaulBoettcher,BonnieFurman,SimonFunge-Smith,ShawnMcGuire,ArshiyaNooraniandHugoWilson8.8.3ClimatechangepolicyandDonaghHennessyprogrammes8.8.4FrameworkssupportingtheMiriamWidmermaintenanceoftraditionalknowledge8.8.5Accessandbenefit-sharingDanLeskienReviewers:EdmundoBarrios,PaulBoettcher,JunningCai,StefanoDiulgheroff,SimonFunge-Smith,BonnieFurman,MaurizioFurst,KathrynGarforth,2AmberHimes-Cornell,RebecaKoloffon,ReginaLaub,SzilviaLehel,DanLeskien,DaliaMattioni,ShawnMcGuire,BeateScherfandIlariaSistoPARTE–CONCLUSIONSChapter9.ThewayforwardEntirechapterJulieBélanger,DafyddPillingandKim-AnhTempelmanReviewers:VeraAgostini,EdmundoBarrios,BonnieFurman,JarkkoKoskela,GrahamMairandBeateScherf1NationalResearchCouncil,Canada.27NationalPlantGeneticResourcesCentre,Eswatini.2ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.28InstitutoNacionaldeTecnologíaAgropecuaria,3EquilibriumResearch,UnitedKingdom.4PlatformforAgrobiodiversityResearch.Argentina.5CentreforAgroecology,WaterandResilience,29DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleUnitedKingdom.Zusammenarbeit,Germany.6UniversityoftheSunshineCoast,Australia.30CenterforInternationalForestryResearch.7NordGenFarmAnimals.31SocietyforSocialandEconomicResearch,India.8LänderinstitutfürBienenkundeHohenNeuendorf,32UniversityofEastAnglia,UnitedKingdom.33WorldWildlifeFund,Singapore.Germany.34InstitutdeRecherchepourleDéveloppement,France.9BioversityInternational.35WorldAgroforestryCentre.10WageningenUniversity,theNetherlands.36Scotland’sRuralCollege,UnitedKingdom.11BirdLifeInternational.37CGIARConsortium.12RoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds,UnitedKingdom.38InternationalUnionforConservationofNature.13MinisteriodeAgricultura,AlimentaciónyMedio39IntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonAmbiente,Spain.BiodiversityandEcosystemServices.14TurkishMinistryofAgricultureandForestry,General40KoppertBiologicalSystems.41EuropeanCommission’sJointResearchCentre.DirectorateofAgriculturalResearchandPolicies,Turkey.42PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UnitedStates15MinistryofEnvironmentandFoodofDenmark,ofAmerica.TheDanishAgriculturalAgency,Denmark.43InternationalLivestockResearchInstitute.16MalaysiaAgricultureResearchandDevelopment44AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Australia.45UniversityofMelbourne,Australia.Institute,Malaysia.46UNEnvironmentWorldConservationMonitoringCentre.17UniversityofReading,UnitedKingdom.47IFOAM–OrganicsInternational.18Ministèredel’agricultureetdel’alimentation,France.48EuropeanCultureCollections’Organization.19NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,49AgResearchLimited,NewZealand.50NewZealandAgriculturalGreenhouseGasResearchUnitedStatesofAmerica.20CentredecoopérationinternationaleenrechercheCentre,NewZealand.51Institutnationaldelarechercheagronomique,UR406agronomiquepourledéveloppement,France.21BiodiversityforFoodandNutritionProject,Brazil.Abeilles&Environnement,France.22PlantGeneticResourcesCenter,Departmentof52Martin-Luther-UniversitätHalle-WittenbergandiDiv,Agriculture,SriLanka.Germany.23BrownBeeNetwork.53ColoradoStateUniversity,UnitedStatesofAmerica.24SecrétariatGénéraldesAffairesEuropéennes–54InstitutoPirenaicodeEcología,ConsejoSuperiorComitéinterministérieldel’agricultureetdedeInvestigacionesCientíficas,Spain.l’Alimentation,France.55UniversityoftheSouthPacific,Fiji.25GeneticResourcesResearchCentre,KenyaAgriculture56JamesCookUniversity,Australia.andLivestockResearchOrganization,Kenya.57UniversityofBern,Switzerland.26Ministèredel’AgricultureetdelaSécuritéalimentaire,BurkinaFaso.xxviAbbreviationsandacronymsABOAgriculturalBiodiversityObservatory(France)ABSaccessandbenefit-sharingAGRAAllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfricaAIDSacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndromeAMBERAdaptiveManagementofBarriersinEuropeanRiversAnGRanimalgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricultureAPCRMAssociationofFishermenoftheRuralCommunityMangagoulack(Senegal)AqGRaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricultureASEANAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationsASFISAquaticSciencesandFisheriesInformationSystemAUAfricanUnionBCAbiologicalcontrolagentBCCMBelgianCo-ordinatedCollectionsofMicro-organismsBFAbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureBFNBiodiversityforFoodandNutritionProjectBGCIBotanicGardensConservationInternationalBINGOBreedingInvertebratesforNextGenerationBiocontrolBIO_SOSBIodiversityMulti-SourceMonitoringSystem:fromSpacetoSpeciesBISQBiologicalIndicatorofSoilQuality(Netherlands)BLUPbestlinearunbiasedpredictionBRCbiologicalresourcecentreCABICentreforAgricultureandBiosciencesInternationalCABRICommonAccesstoBiologicalResourcesandInformationCAMPFIRECommunalAreasManagementProgrammeforIndigenousResources(Zimbabwe)CBDConventiononBiologicalDiversityCEPFCriticalEcosystemPartnershipFundCIATInternationalCenterforTropicalAgricultureCIFORCenterforInternationalForestryResearchCIPInternationalPotatoCenterCITESConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraCMSConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimalsCOMETCarbOnManagementEvaluationToolCOMIFACCommissionofCentralAfricanForestsCONABIOBiodiversityCommission(Mexico)COUSSAConservationandSustainableUseofSoilandWater(Mexico)CRPConservationReserveProgram(UnitedStatesofAmerica)CSOcivilsocietyorganizationCSPConservationStewardshipProgram(UnitedStatesofAmerica)CTI-CFFCoralTriangleInitiativeonCoralReefs,FisheriesandFoodSecurityDAD-ISDomesticAnimalDiversityInformationSystemDIASDatabaseonIntroductionsofAquaticSpeciesDNAdeoxyribonucleicacidEBAEndemicBirdAreaxxviiEBCCEuropeanBirdCensusCouncilEBIEthiopianBiodiversityInstituteECCOEuropeanCultureCollectionOrganizationEMbaRCEuropeanConsortiumofMicrobialResourceCentresEODHaMEarthObservationDataforHabitatMonitoringEUEuropeanUnionEUReuroFANTAFoodandNutritionTechnicalAssistanceIIIProjectFAOFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsFAOSTATFAOStatisticalDatabaseFBDGfood-baseddietaryguidelinesFGRforestgeneticresourcesFMNRfarmer-managednaturalregenerationFRAGlobalForestResourcesAssessmentFSfarmerschoolFSCForestStewardshipCouncilGBRCNGlobalBiologicalResourceCentreNetworkGDPgrossdomesticproductGEFGlobalEnvironmentFacilityGEMStatGlobalWaterQualityDatabaseandInformationSystemGEMS/WaterGlobalEnvironmentMonitoringSystemforFreshwaterGIAHSGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSystemsGISgeographicinformationsystemGRCGlobalRumenCensusHIVhumanimmunodeficiencyvirusIBGEBrazilianInstituteofGeographyandStatisticsICCAIndigenousandCommunityConservedAreaICIPEInternationalCentreofInsectPhysiologyandEcologyIFFIntergovernmentalForumonForestsIFOAMInternationalFederationofOrganicAgricultureMovementsIMARPEMarineInstituteofPeruIMTAintegratedmultitrophicaquacultureINDCintendednationaldeterminedcontributionINFOODSInternationalNetworkofFoodDataSystemsINIANationalInstituteofAgriculturalInnovation(Peru)INRANationalInstituteforAgriculturalResearch(France)INTECRALIntegratedEcoTechnologiesandServicesforaSustainableRuralRiodeJaneiro(Brazil)InVestIntegratedValuationofEcosystemServicesandTradeoffsIPBESIntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServicesIPFIntergovernmentalPanelonForestsIPLCindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunitiesIPMIntegratedpestmanagementIPM-FFSfarmerfieldschoolonintegratedpestmanagementIPNMintegratedplantnutrientmanagementIPOA-IUUInternationalPlanofActiontoPrevent,DeterandEliminateIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulatedFishingIPPCInternationalPlantProtectionConventionxxviiiIPPMintegratedproductionandpestmanagementIPRintellectualpropertyrightsIPSIInternationalPartnershipfortheSatoyamaInitiativeISCAAPInternationalStandardStatisticalClassificationofAquaticAnimalsandPlantsIUCNInternationalUnionforConservationofNatureIUUillegal,unreportedandunregulatedKBAKeyBiodiversityAreasKEEPKakamegaEnvironmentalandEducationProgramme(Kenya)KENRIKKenyaResourceCenterforIndigenousKnowledgeLEAFLinkingEnvironmentandFarmingLEIAlowexternalinputagricultureLERlandequivalentratioLI-BIRDLocalInitiativesforBiodiversity,ResearchandDevelopment(Nepal)MARSManagingAquaticecosystemsandwaterResourcesundermultipleStressMasAgroSustainableModernizationofTraditionalAgriculture(Mexico)MATmutuallyagreedtermsMDSMinistryofSocialDevelopmentandHungerAlleviation(Brazil)MEAMillenniumEcosystemAssessmentMERCESMarineEcosystemsRestorationinChangingEuropeanSeasMIRRIMicrobialResourceResearchInfrastructureMSDNMicrobialStrainDataNetworkNAPAnationaladaptationprogrammeofactionNARONationalAgricultureandFoodResearchOrganization(Japan)NBANigerBasinAuthorityNFPnationalforestprogrammeNGOnon-governmentalorganizationNIBIONorwegianInstituteofBioeconomyResearchNOAANationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(UnitedStatesofAmerica)NVSnaturalvegetativestripsOECDOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentPAAFoodAcquisitionProgramme(Brazil)PAAPProgrammefortheAcquisitionofProductiveAssets(Mexico)PDNAPost-DisasterNeedsAssessmentPEFCProgrammefortheEndorsementofForestCertificationPELUMParticipatoryEcologicalLandUseManagementAssociationPERSAGARegionalOrganizationfortheConservationoftheEnvironmentoftheRedSeaandGulfofAdenPESAStrategicProjectforFoodSecurity(Mexico)PESAGRO-RIOAgriculturalResearchEnterpriseoftheStateofRiodeJaneiro(Brazil)PGRFAplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculturePICpriorinformedconsentPLANAPONationalPlanforAgroecologyandOrganicProduction(Brazil)PNADNationalHouseholdSampleSurvey(Brazil)PNAENationalSchoolMealsProgramme(Brazil)PNANNationalFoodandNutritionPolicy(Brazil)xxixPROGANSustainableLivestockProductionandManagementforLivestockandBeekeeping(Mexico)PROGEBERegionalProjectforSustainableManagementofGloballySignificantEndemicRuminantLivestockPROMAFProjectofSupportfortheProductiveChainofCornandBeanProducers(Mexico)PRONAFNationalProgrammeforStrengtheningFamilyFarming(Brazil)PRONAFORNationalForestProgramme(Mexico)PSMportstatemeasurePURSNSustainableUseofNaturalResourcesProgramme(Mexico)QTLquantitativetraitlocusREDD+ReducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradationREDESMISpanishMicro-organismsNetworkREFORMREstoringriversFOReffectivecatchmentManagementRILreduced-impactloggingRIVMNationalInstituteforPublicHealthandtheEnvironment(Netherlands)RNAribonucleicacidRSPBRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirdsSADCSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunitySAFPortugueseandSpanishabbreviationof“agroforestrysystem”SAGISecretariatforEvaluationandInformationManagement(Brazil)SALTslopingagriculturallandtechnologySBSTTASubsidiaryBodyonScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdviceSDGSustainableDevelopmentGoalSEBRAEBrazilianMicroandSmallEnterprisesSupportServiceSEEASystemofEnvironmentalEconomicAccountingSNPsinglenucleotidepolymorphismSoWstateoftheworldTEEBTheEconomicsofEcosystemsandBiodiversityTEEBAgFoodTEEBforFoodandAgricultureTEVtotaleconomicvalueTFCAtransfrontierconservationareaTRIPSTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRightsUBINIGPolicyResearchforDevelopmentAlternative(Bangladesh)UKNCCUnitedKingdomNationalCultureCollectionUNUnitedNationsUNALMNationalAgrarianUniversityLaMolina(Peru)UNCCDUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertificationUNCEDUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopmentUNEnvironmentUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeUNEP-WCMCUNEnvironmentWorldConservationMonitoringCentreUNESCOUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganizationUNFCCCUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeUNFFUnitedNationsForumonForestsUN-REDDUnitedNationsCollaborativeProgrammeonReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandForestDegradationinDevelopingCountriesUPOVInternationalUnionfortheProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlantsUSAIDUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentUSDUnitedStatesdollarxxxUSDAUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureWAVESWealthAccountingandtheValuationofEcosystemServicesWFCCWorldFederationforCultureCollectionsWHCWorldHeritageConventionWIEWSWorldInformationandEarlyWarningSystemonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureWIPOWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganizationWISERWaterbodiesinEurope:IntegrativeSystemstoassessEcologicalstatusandRecoveryWTAwillingnesstoacceptWTOWorldTradeOrganizationWTPwillingnesstopayxxxiAboutthispublicationBackgroundThisreportpresentsthefirstglobalassessmentofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA).ItcomplementsotherglobalassessmentspreparedundertheauspicesoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(seeBox1),whichhavefocusedonthestateofgeneticresourceswithinparticularsectorsoffoodandagriculture.Box1TheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureWith178countriesandtheEuropeanUniongeneticresourcesandbiologicaldiversityforfoodasitsmembers,theCommissiononGeneticandagriculture.Inresponsetotheseassessments,ResourcesforFoodandAgricultureprovidesatheCommissiondevelopsglobalplansofaction,uniqueintergovernmentalforumthatspecificallycodesofconductorotherpolicyinstrumentsandaddressesbiologicaldiversityforfoodandmonitorstheirimplementation.TheCommissionagriculture.ThemainobjectiveoftheCommissionraisesawarenessoftheneedtoconserveandistoensurethesustainableuseandconservationsustainablyusebiologicaldiversityforfoodandofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureandtheagricultureandfosterscollaborationamongfairandequitablesharingofbenefitsderivedfromcountriesandotherrelevantstakeholderstoitsuse,forpresentandfuturegenerations.TheaddressthreatstothisbiodiversityandpromoteitsCommissionguidesthepreparationofperiodicsustainableuseandconservation.globalassessmentsofthestatusandtrendsofScopeandcontentsofthereportTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture(SoW-BFA)addressesthesustainableuse,developmentandconservationofBFAworldwide.BFAistakentoincludethediversityofanimals,plantsandmicro-organismsatthegenetic,speciesandecosystemlevelsthatsustainstructures,functionsandprocessesinandaroundproductionsystemsandprovidefoodandnon-foodagriculturalproducts.Thereportconsistsofthefollowingfiveparts.PartA–Overview:Chapter1describesthecontextfortheassessmentandpresentskeyconceptsanddefinitionsused.Chapter2providesanoverviewofthecontributionsthatBFAmakestothesupplyofmultipleecosystemservices,tolivelihoods,totheresilienceofproductionsystems,tothesustainableintensificationoffoodandagriculturalproduction,andtofoodsecurityandnutrition.PartB–Drivers,statusandtrends:Chapter3discussesthemajordriversofchangeaffectingBFA.Chapter4presentsananalysisofthestatusandtrendsofBFA,includingadiscussionofthestateofknowledgeinthisfield.PartC–Stateofmanagement:Chapter5considersthestateofuseofBFA,includingdiscussionsoflandscape,seascapeandecosystemapproaches,diversificationinproductionsystems,andmanagementpracticesthatutilizeBFAorareconsideredtopromoteitsconservationandsustainableuse.Thischapteralsoaddressestherolesofmicro-organismsinfoodprocessing,inagro-industrialpracticesandinthedigestiveprocessesofruminantxxxiianimals.Finally,itincludesadiscussionofbreeding(geneticimprovement)activitiesforvariouscategoriesofBFA.Chapters6and7,respectively,addressthestateofcharacterizationandconservationeffortsforBFA.PartD–Enablingframeworks:Chapter8describesthestateofpolicies,institutionsandcapacitiesthatsupporttheconservationandsustainableuseofBFA.PartE–Conclusions:Chapter9presentsadiscussionofneedsandchallengesinthemanagementofBFA.ThereportingandpreparatoryprocessAtitsEleventhRegularSession,in2007,theCommissionadoptedanumberofoutputsandmilestonestobeaddressedinitsMulti-yearProgrammeofWork,1includingthepresentation,atitsSixteenthRegularSession,oftheSoW-BFA.2TheCommissionstressedthatthepreparationofthereportshouldbebasedoninformationfromcountryreportsandshouldalsodrawonthematicstudies,reportsfrominternationalorganizationsandinputsfromotherrelevantstakeholders,includingcentresofexcellenceindevelopingcountries.Itfurtherstressedthatthereportshouldfocusoninteractionsbetweensectorsandoncross-sectoralmatters,takingfulladvantageofexistinginformationsources,includingsectoralassessments.Italsosuggestedthatprioritybegiventoinformationnotavailableinexistingsources.AtitsSixteenthRegularSession,whichwasheldin2017,theCommissionconsideredadraftoftheSoW-BFAandrequestedFAOtofinalizeit,takingintoaccountcommentssubmittedbyMembersandObservers,bytheendof2018.InputstothereportThemainsourcesusedtopreparetheSoW-BFAwereasfollows:CountryreportsInJune2013,FAOinvitedcountriestoofficiallynominatenationalfocalpointstoleadthepreparationofcountryreportstobesubmittedtoFAOtosupportthepreparationoftheSoW-BFA.FAOpreparedguidelinestosupportthedevelopmentofcountryreports.Theguidelinesoutlinedthesuggestedcontentofthereportandprovidedquestionstoassistcountrieswiththeiranalysisandwiththedevelopmentofeachsectionofthereport.TheguidelinesweremadeavailableinallsixofficialFAOlanguages(Arabic,Chinese,English,French,RussianandSpanish),bothinread-onlyformandasadynamicversionintowhichcountriescouldentertheirresponsesinordertogenerateapreformattedcountryreport.3BetweenMarchandMay2016,inresponsetoarequestbytheCommissionatitsprecedingsession,FAOorganizedaseriesofinformalregionalconsultationsatwhichcountriesandotherstakeholderscouldshareknowledgeandinformationonthestateofBFAanddiscussneedsandprioritieswithrespecttoitsconservationandsustainableuse.Theinformalregionalconsultationsalsoservedtosupportnationalfocalpointsinthefinalizationoftheircountryreports.Asbackgrounddocumentationforeachinformalregionalconsultation,FAOpreparedadraftregionalsynthesisreportbasedonthecountryreportsthathadthusfarbeensubmitted.Theregionalsynthesisreportsweresubsequentlyfinalizedbasedonfeedbackreceivedfromtheparticipantsoftheinformalregionalconsultationsandonadditionalcountryreportsreceived.By30June2017,thedeadlinesetbytheCommission,91countryreportshadbeenreceived(seeTable1).1CGRFA-11/07/Report,paragraph90.2CGRFA-14/13/Report,paragraph14.3ThedynamicquestionnairewasmadeavailableinChinese,English,French,RussianandSpanish.xxxiiiTable1OverviewofcountryreportsandtheirregionaldistributionRegionCountriesAfrica(19)Angola,BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,Chad,Eswatini,Ethiopia,Gabon,Gambia,Guinea,Kenya,Mali,Niger,Rwanda,Senegal,SierraLeone,Togo,UnitedRepublicofTanzania,Zambia,ZimbabweAsia1,2(9)Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,China,India,Malaysia,Nepal,SriLanka,VietNamEuropeandCentralAsia(23)Belgium,Bulgaria,Belarus,Croatia,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,3Georgia,Germany,Hungary,Ireland,Malta,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Turkey,UnitedKingdomLatinAmericaandtheArgentina,Bahamas,Brazil,CostaRica,Ecuador,ElSalvador,Grenada,Guyana,Jamaica,Caribbean(16)Mexico,Nicaragua,Panama,Paraguay,Peru,SaintLucia,SurinameNearEastandNorthAfrica(13)Algeria,Egypt,Iraq,Jordan,Lebanon,Morocco,Oman,Qatar,SaudiArabia,Sudan,SyrianArabRepublic,UnitedArabEmirates,YemenNorthAmerica(1)UnitedStatesofAmericaPacific(10)CookIslands,Fiji,Kiribati,Nauru,Niue,Palau,PapuaNewGuinea,Samoa,SolomonIslands,TongaNotes:1TheLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicsubmittedasacountryreportitsNationalAgro-biodiversityProgrammeandActionPlanII(2015–2025).Selectedinformationfromthisreportispresented.2SelectedinformationfromthecountryreportofJapan,submittedin2018,ispresented.3Francesubmittedadraftreport.ReportsfrominternationalorganizationsInApril2016,FAOinvited55internationalorganizationstoreportontheiractivitiesrelatedtothemanagementofBFAandprovidedthemwithastandardizedquestionnaireforthepreparationoftheirreports.Responseswerereceivedfromthefollowingorganizations:AfricaRiceCenter;AfricanUnion–InterafricanBureauforAnimalResources;AfricanUnionCommission,DepartmentofRuralEconomyandAgriculture;BioversityInternational;CaribbeanAgriculturalResearchandDevelopmentInstitute;CentreforAgricultureandBiosciencesInternational;GlobalCropDiversityTrust;IFOAMOrganicsInternational;Inter-AmericanInstituteforCooperationonAgriculture;InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency;InternationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchintheDryAreas;InternationalCenterforTropicalAgriculture;InternationalCentreofInsectPhysiologyandEcology;InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute;InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment;InternationalInstituteofTropicalAgriculture;InternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCenter;InternationalUnionforConservationofNature;InternationalRiceResearchInstitute;PacificOrganicandEthicalTradeCommunity;SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity;SlowFood;TropicalAgriculturalResearchandHigherEducationCenter;UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme–WorldConservationMonitoringCentre;WorldAgroforestryCentre;WorldBank.Inaddition,OxfamvoluntarilyprovidedareportentitledWomen’srolesinbiodiversitymanagementfromlessonstopracticeandimpact:scalinguppathwaysinpeople’sbiodiversitymanagement,containingcasestudiesfromPeruVietNamandZimbabwe.xxxivFigure1AssignmentofcountriestoregionsinthisreportAfricaEuropeandCentralAsiaNearEastandNorthAfricaPacificAsiaLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanNorthAmericaSource:FAO.ThematicstudiesThefollowingfourthematicstudiesprovidingin-depthanalysisofspecifictopicsrelevanttoBFAwerepreparedfortheSoW-BFA:•Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture:theperspectivesofsmall-scalefoodproviders;•Thecontributionsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturetotheresilienceofproductionsystems;•Contributionsofbiodiversitytothesustainableintensificationoffoodproduction;•Biodiversityforfoodandagricultureandecosystemservices.RegionalsynthesisreportsAsdescribedabove,theseriesofinformalregionalconsultationsheldin2016involvedthepreparationofaregionalsynthesisreportforeachregionwhereconsultationswereheld.ThecontentsofthesesynthesisreportsservedassourcematerialfortheglobalanalysispresentedintheSoW-BFA.StateoftheworldreportsThesubsectionsoftheSoW-BFAthataddressplant(crop),animal(livestock),forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesdrawheavilyontherespectiveglobalassessments(stateoftheworldreports)publishedorinpreparationundertheauspicesoftheCommission.OthersourcesInadditiontothesourcesmentionedabove,theSoW-BFAdrawsonarangeofliteratureanddatasources.ThelatterincludeFAO’sstatisticaldatabaseFAOSTAT,4theFAO/INFOODSFoodCompositiondatabaseforbiodiversity,5theDomesticAnimalDiversityInformationSystem,6theWorldInformationandEarlyWarningSystemonPlantGeneticResourcesfor4http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/5http://www.fao.org/infoods/infoods/tables-and-databases/faoinfoods-databases/en/6http://www.fao.org/dad-is/en/xxxvFoodandAgriculture7andTheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature’sRedListofThreatenedSpecies.8RegionalclassificationofcountriesTheassignmentofcountriestoregionsforthepurposesoftheSoW-BFAfollowstheregionalgroupingsusedinFAOstatisticsandforelectionpurposes(Figure1).Sevenregionsaredistinguished:Africa;Asia;EuropeandCentralAsia;LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean;NearEastandNorthAfrica;NorthAmerica;andPacific.7http://www.fao.org/wiews/en/8https://www.iucnredlist.org/xxxviExecutivesummaryWhatisbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture?Biodiversityisthevarietyoflifeatgenetic,speciesandecosystemlevels.Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)is,inturn,thesubsetofbiodiversitythatcontributesinonewayoranothertoagricultureandfoodproduction.Itincludesthedomesticatedplantsandanimalsraisedincrop,livestock,forestandaquaculturesystems,harvestedforestandaquaticspecies,thewildrelativesofdomesticatedspecies,otherwildspeciesharvestedforfoodandotherproducts,andwhatisknownas“associatedbiodiversity”,thevastrangeoforganismsthatliveinandaroundfoodandagriculturalproductionsystems,sustainingthemandcontributingtotheiroutput.Agricultureistakenheretoincludecropandlivestockproduction,forestry,fisheriesandaquaculture.1AboutthisreportTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureprovidesanassessmentofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)anditsmanagementworldwide,drawingoninformationprovidedin91countryreports(preparedbyover1300contributors),27reportsfrominternationalorganizationsandinputsfromover175authorsandreviewers.ItdescribesthemanycontributionsthatBFAmakestofoodsecurityandnutrition,livelihoods,theresilienceofproductionsystems,thesustainableintensificationoffoodproductionandthesupplyofmultipleecosystemservices;themajordriversofchangeaffectingBFA;thestatusandtrendsofvariouscomponentsofBFA;thestateofmanagementofBFA;thestateofpolicies,institutionsandcapacitiesthatsupportthesustainableuseandconservationofBFA;andneedsandchallengesinthemanagementofBFA.Keyfindings1.BiodiversityisessentialtofoodandagricultureBiodiversityforfoodandagricultureisindispensabletofoodsecurity,sustainabledevelopmentandthesupplyofmanyvitalecosystemservices.Biodiversitymakesproductionsystemsandlivelihoodsmoreresilienttoshocksandstresses,includingtotheeffectsofclimatechange.Itisakeyresourceineffortstoincreasefoodproductionwhilelimitingnegativeimpactsontheenvironment.Itmakesmultiplecontributionstothelivelihoodsofmanypeople,oftenreducingtheneedforfoodandagriculturalproducerstorelyoncostlyorenvironmentallyharmfulexternalinputs.Thecountryreportshighlighttheimportanceofbiodiversity,atgenetic,speciesandecosystemlevels,toeffortstoaddressthechallengesposedbydiverseandchangingproductionsystems.Manyemphasizetheroleofdiversification–usingmultiplespecies,integratingtheuseofcrop,livestock,forestandaquaticresources,andconservingandmanaginghabitatdiversityatlandscapeorseascapescale–inpromotingresilience,improvinglivelihoodsandsupportingfoodsecurityandnutrition.1Forthepurposeofthecountry-reportingprocess,biodiversityforfoodandagriculturewasdefinedasfollows:“…thevarietyandvariabilityofanimals,plantsandmicro-organismsatthegenetic,speciesandecosystemlevelsthatsustaintheecosystemstructures,functionsandprocessesinandaroundproductionsystems,andthatprovidefoodandnon-foodagriculturalproducts.”MoreinformationonkeyconceptsisprovidedinSection1.5.xxxvii2.MultipleinteractingdriversofchangeareaffectingbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureWhilearangeofdriversofchangearehavingmajornegativeimpactsonbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureandtheecosystemservicesitdelivers,someprovideopportunitiestopromotemoresustainablemanagement.AnalysisofthecountryreportsandthewiderliteratureindicatesthatBFAisaffectedbyavarietyofdriversoperatingatarangeoflevels:majorglobaltrendssuchaschangesinclimate,internationalmarketsanddemo-graphygiverisetomoreimmediatedriverssuchasland-usechange,pollutionandoveruseofexternalinputs,overharvestingandtheproliferationofinvasivespecies.InteractionsbetweendriversoftenexacerbatetheireffectsonBFA.Demographicchanges,urbanization,markets,tradeandconsumerpreferencesarereportedtohaveastronginfluenceonfoodsystems,frequentlywithnegativeconsequencesforBFAandtheecosystemservicesitprovides.However,suchdriversarealsoreportedtoopenopportunitiestomakefoodsystemsmoresustainable,forexamplethroughthedevelopmentofmarketsforbiodiversity-friendlyproducts.ManyofthedriversthathavenegativeimpactsonBFA,includingoverexploitation,overharvesting,pollution,overuseofexternalinputs,andchangesinlandandwatermanagement,areatleastpartiallycausedbyinappropriateagriculturalpractices.Thedrivermentionedbythehighestnumberofcountriesashavingnegativeeffectsonregulatingandsupportingecosystemservicesischangesinlandandwateruseandmanagement.Lossanddegradationofforestandaquaticecosystemsand,inmanyproductionsystems,transitiontointensiveproductionofareducednumberofspecies,breedsandvarieties,remainmajordriversoflossofBFAandecosystemservices.CountriesreportthatthemaintenanceoftraditionalknowledgerelatedtoBFAisnegativelyaffectedbythelossoftraditionallifestylesasaresultofpopulationgrowth,urbanizationandtheindustrializationofagricultureandfoodprocessing,andbyoverexploitationandoverharvesting.PolicymeasuresandadvancesinscienceandtechnologyarelargelyseenbycountriesaspositivedriversthatofferwaysofreducingthenegativeeffectsofotherdriversonBFA.Theyprovidecriticalentrypointsforinterventionssupportingsustainableuseandconservation.However,policiesintendedtopromotethesustainablemanagementofBFAareoftenweaklyimplemented.3.BiodiversityforfoodandagricultureisdecliningManykeycomponentsofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureatgenetic,speciesandecosystemlevelsareindecline.Evidencesuggeststhattheproportionoflivestockbreedsatriskofextinctionisincreasing,andthat,forsomecropsandinsomeareas,plantdiversityinfarmers’fieldsisdecreasingandthreatstodiversityareincreasing.Nearlyathirdoffishstocksareoverfishedandathirdoffreshwaterfishspeciesassessedareconsideredthreatened.Countriesreportthatmanyspeciesthatcontributetovitalecosystemservices,includingpollinators,naturalenemiesofpests,soilorganismsandwildfoodspecies,areindeclineasaconsequenceofthedestructionanddegradationofhabitats,overexploitation,pollutionandotherthreats.Keyecosystemsthatdelivernumerousservicesessentialtofoodandagriculture,includingsupplyoffreshwater,protectionagainsthazardsandprovisionofhabitatforspeciessuchasfishandpollinators,aredecliningrapidly.Knowledgeofassociatedbiodiversity,inparticularmicro-organismsandinvertebrates,andofitsrolesinthesupplyofecosystemservicesneedstobeimproved.Whilealargeamountofinformationhasbeenaccumulatedonthecharacteristicsofthedomesticatedspeciesusedinfoodandagriculture,manyinformationgapsremain,particularlyforspecies,xxxviiivarietiesandbreedsthatarenotwidelyusedcommercially.Informationonwildfoodspeciesisalsooftenlimited.Manyassociated-biodiversityspecieshaveneverbeenidentifiedanddescribed,particularlyinthecaseofinvertebratesandmicro-organisms.Evenwhentheyhave,theirfunctionswithintheecosystemoftenremainpoorlyunderstood.Over99percentofbacteriaandprotistspeciesremainunknown.Forseveraltypesofassociatedbiodiversity,includingsoilmicro-organismsandthoseusedforfoodprocessing,advancesinmoleculartechniquesandsequencingtechnologiesarefacilitatingcharacterization.Severalcountrieshaveactiveprogrammesforcharacterizingsoilmicro-organismsusingmolecularmethods.Inmanycountries,however,gapsintermsofskills,facilitiesandequipmentconstrainopportunitiestobenefitfromthesedevelopments.Monitoringprogrammesforbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureremainlimited.AssessmentandmonitoringofthestatusandtrendsofBFAatnational,regionalandgloballevelsareunevenandoftenlimited.Evenindevelopedregions,wherethepopulationtrendsofmanyspeciesarewellmonitoredandtherearenumerousongoingresearchprojectsonthelinksbetweenbiodiversityandfoodandagriculture,availabledataoftenprovideonlyasnapshotofthestatusofindividualspecies(orgroupsofspecies)inparticularproductionsystems,habitatsorgeographicalareas.WhileitisclearthatmanycomponentsofBFAaredeclining,lackofdataoftenconstrainstheplanningandprioritizationofeffectiveremedialmeasures.4.Theuseofmanybiodiversity-friendlypracticesisreportedtobeincreasingThesustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturecallforapproachesinwhichgeneticresources,speciesandecosystemsaremanagedinanintegratedwayinthecontextofproductionsystemsandtheirsurroundings.Inparticularformanytypesofassociatedbiodiversityandwildfoods,sustainableuseandconservationrequireinsituoron-farmmanagementintegratedintostrategiesatecosystemorlandscapelevels.Exsituconservationshouldserveasacomplementarystrategy.Theuseofawiderangeofmanagementpracticesandapproachesregardedasfavourabletothesustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureisreportedtobeincreasing.Eightypercentofreportingcountriesindicatethatoneormoreofthebiodiversity-focusedpracticesonwhichtheywereinvitedtoreportarebeingusedinoneormoretypesofproductionsystem.AmuchhigherproportionofOECDcountriesthannon-OECDcountriesreporttheuseofthesepractices.However,itisdifficulttofullyevaluatetheextenttowhichtheseapproachesarebeingimplemented,becauseofthevarietyofscalesandcontextsinvolvedandtheabsenceofdataandappropriateassessmentmethods.Althoughcountriesgenerallyindicatethattheimpactsofthebiodiversity-focusedpracticesondiversityareperceivedtobepositive,theyemphasizetheneedformoreresearchinthisregard,evenforpracticeswhereresearchonproductionissuesiswellestablished.Manybiodiversity-focusedpracticesarerelativelycomplexandrequiregoodunderstandingofthelocalecosystem.Theycanbeknowledgeintensive,contextspecificandprovidebenefitsonlyintherelativelylongterm.Manycountriesnotemajorchallengesinup-scalingsuchpractices,andtheneedtopromotethemthroughcapacity-developmentandstrengtheningpolicyframeworks.Althougheffortstoconservebiodiversityforfoodandagricultureinsituandexsituareincreasing,levelsofcoverageandprotectionareofteninadequate.Crop,livestock,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesareconservedinsituthroughavarietyofapproaches,xxxixincludingpromotionoftheirsustainableuseinproductionsystemsandtheestablishmentofprotectedandotherdesignatedareas.However,manyspeciesandpopulationsremaininadequatelyprotected.Relativelyfewinsituconservationprogrammesarereportedtoexplicitlytargetassociatedbiodiversityanditsrolesinthesupplyofecosystemservices,althoughsuchprogrammesareincreasing.Mostassociated-biodiversityspeciestargetedareconservedthroughthepromotionofbiodiversity-friendlyproductionpractices,theestablishmentofprotectedareas,orpolicyandlegalmeasuresaimedatrestrictingactivitiesthatdamagebiodiversity.ExsituconservationeffortsforBFAareincreasing,inparticularforplantgeneticresources,althoughmanygapsincoverageremain.Muchofthediversitypresentinminorcrops,andinlivestock,forestandaquaticspecies,isalsonotyetsecuredexsitu.Althoughlimited,public-andprivate-sectorexsituconservationinitiativesfortargetedspeciesofassociatedbiodiversityhavebeenestablished,withmanycountries,forinstance,holdingculturecollectionsofmicro-organismsusedinagricultureorinagrifoodindustries.Eightpercentofthewildspeciesreportedbycountriestobeusedforfoodarereportedtobesubjecttoinsituconservationmeasuresand13percenttobeconservedexsitu.5.EnablingframeworksforthesustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureremaininsufficientEnablingframeworksforthesustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureurgentlyneedtobeestablishedorstrengthened.Mostcountrieshaveputinplacelegal,policyandinstitutionalframeworkstargetingthesustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityasawhole.Policiesaddressingfoodandagriculturearereportedtobeincreasinglybasedonecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproaches.However,legalandpolicymeasuresexplicitlytargetingwildfoodsorcomponentsofassociatedbiodiversityandtheirrolesinsupplyingecosystemservicesarenotwidespread.Constraintstothedevelopmentandimplementationofeffectivepolicytoolsincludealackofawarenessamongpolicy-makersandotherstakeholdersoftheimportanceofBFA,andinparticularwildfoodsandassociatedbiodiversity,tolivelihoodsandfoodsecurity.Thereisalargeknowledgegapintermsofhowexistingpoliciesareaffectingthesecomponentsofbiodiversityandtheecosystemservicestheyprovide.Diverginginterestsamongstakeholdershamperthedevelopmentandimplementationoflaws,policiesandregulations,asdoshortagesofhumanandfinancialresources.Researchonfoodandagriculturalsystemsneedstobecomemoremultidisciplinary,moreparticipatoryandmorefocusedoninteractionsbetweendifferentcomponentsofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture.ImprovementstothesustainableuseandconservationofBFAareoftenconstrainedbyalackofunderstandingofinteractionsbetweensectors(cropandlivestockproduction,forestry,fisheriesandaquaculture),betweenwildanddomesticatedbiodiversity,andbetweentheecologicalandsocio-economiccomponentsofproductionsystems.Cooperationacrossdisciplines,andgreaterinvolvementofproducersandotherstakeholdersinresearchprojects,canhelptoovercometheseknowledgegaps.Improvingthemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureandenhancingitscontributionstoecosystemservicescallforbettermultistakeholder,cross-sectoralandinternationalcooperation.EnsuringthesustainableuseofBFArequireseffectiveactionsbyrelevantauthoritiesandimprovedcollaborationamongarangeofstakeholdergroups(producersandtheirorganizations,consumers,suppliersandmarketers,policy-makers,andnationalandinternationalgovernmentalandnon-governmentalorganizations)acrossxlthesectorsoffoodandagricultureandbetweenthefoodandagriculturesectorandtheenvironment/nature-conservationsector.ThemanagementofBFAspansinternationalbordersandtheconventionalboundariesbetweensectors.Frameworksforcooperationatnational,regionalandinternationallevelsinthemanagementofgeneticresourcesarerelativelywelldevelopedintheindividualsectorsoffoodandagriculture.Cross-sectoralcooperationandmultistakeholdercollaborativeactivitiesspecificallytargetingassociatedbiodiversityandwildfoodsarelesswidespreadandneedtobeexpandedandstrengthened.Whatneedstobedone?SecuringandenhancingthemultiplerolesofBFAwillrequiresustainableuseandconservationoftheecosystems,speciesandgeneticdiversitythatcomposeit.Forthistohappen,knowledgeoftherolesofbiodiversityintheecologicalprocessesthatunderpinfoodandagriculturalproductionneedstobestrengthened,andusedtodevelopmanagementstrategiesthatprotect,restoreandenhancetheseprocessesacrossarangeofscales.Establishingeffectivepolicyandoutreachmeasureswillbeneededtosupporttheuptakeofmanagementpracticesthatsustainablyusebiodiversitytopromotefoodandlivelihoodsecurityandresilience.Thecountry-drivenprocessofpreparingTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculturehasledtotheidentificationofnumerousgaps,needsandpotentialactionsinthemanagementofBFA.Thenextstepistotakeaction.Overtheyears,theCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculturehasoverseenthedevelopmentofglobalplansofactionforgeneticresourcesintheplant,animalandforestsectors.Implementationoftheseinstrumentsneedstobesteppedup.Considerationalsoneedstobegiventohowtheinternationalcommunitycanmoreeffectivelypromotesynergiesinthemanagementofallcomponentsofbiodiversity,acrossthesesectorsandothers,intheinterestsofamoresustainablefoodandagriculture.xliPartAOVERVIEW1Chapter1Introduction1.1Biodiversityandtheandtransportedoverlongdistances(FAO,2009a,challengesfacingglobalfood2015a;Steinfeldetal.,eds.,2010).Althoughhighandagriculturelevelsofcropandlivestockproductionhavebeenachieved,thishasoftencomeatthecostofmajorSupplyingenoughsafeandnutritiousfoodfordisruptionstotheintegrityofterrestrialandagrowingworldpopulationposesmanychal-aquaticecosystems,ofdecliningopportunitiesforlenges.Amongthemostseriousistheneedtomutuallybeneficialinteractionsbetweensectors,increasefoodproductiongloballywithoutunder-andofthelossofcomponentsofbiodiversitythatminingthecapacityoftheworld’slandsandseasprovideservicessuchaspollination,pestcontroltomeetthefoodneedsoffuturegenerationsandnutrientcycling.Manygrasslandsarebeingandtodeliverotheressentialecosystemservices.degradedbyexcessiveorbadlymanagedgrazingDespiterepeatedwarningsabouttherapidlossoforbeingconvertedforuseincropproductionbiodiversity(e.g.MEA,2005a;Steffenetal.,orforotherpurposes(FAO,2011a).Theworld’s2015)andthemountingevidenceofitskeyrolesoilsandtheirbiodiversityarebesetbythreatsinfoodsecurityandnutrition(Bommarco,Kleijnsuchaserosion,lossoforganiccarbon,nutrientandPotts,2013;Cunninghametal.,2013;Diazetimbalances,salinizationandcontaminationwithal.,2011;FAOandPAR,2011;Pinstrup-Andersen,pollutants(FAOandITPS,2015).2013;Rockströmetal.,2017;Sunderland,2011;Tittonelletal.,2016;Tscharntkeetal.,2012),pro-Overfishingthreatensmarineresourcesworld-ductionsystemsworldwidearebecomingeverlesswide.Changesinfishingactivitiesbyinternationaldiverseintermsoftheecosystems,speciesandfleetsareexertingparticularpressureinthewaterswithin-speciesgeneticresourcestheycompriseofsomedevelopingcountries,inpartbecauseof(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a;Khourytheuseof“flagsofconvenience”(Ferrel,2005;etal.,2014;Macfadyenetal.,2015).MillerandSumaila,2014).Asof2015,anesti-mated33.1percentofworldfishstockswereInmanypartsoftheworld,biodiverseagri-beingfishedatunsustainablelevels(FAO,2018a).culturallandscapesinwhichcultivatedlandisOverfishingisalsoaffectingmanyoftheworld’sinterspersedwithuncultivatedareassuchaslakesandrivers(ibid.).woodlands,pasturesandwetlandshavebeen,orarebeing,replacedbylargeareasofmonocul-Overrecentdecades,growingglobaldemandture,farmedusinglargequantitiesofexternalforfishhasincreasinglybeenmetbyaquacul-inputssuchaspesticides,mineralfertilizersandture.Althoughfishfarmingoffersopportunitiesfossilfuels.Livestockproductionisincreasinglytodiversifyproductionthroughpolycultureorbecominggeographicallyseparatedfromcropthroughintegrationwithotherproductionactiv-production,withanimalsoftenraisedinlandlessities,itisalsobecomingincreasinglyintensified.productionunits,heavilydosedwithveterinarySomesystemsusenon-nativespecies,whichcreatesdrugsandfedonfeedstuffsproducedelsewheretheriskofescapesthatmayharmlocalbiodiversity(LeeandGordon,2006;McGinnityetal.,2003).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE3OverviewPartAForestlossrepresentsamajorglobalthreattodocumentswhatisknownaboutthestatusandbiodiversityandthesupplyofecosystemservicestrendsofthesecomponentsofbiodiversity,andsuchashabitatprovisioning,cleanwater,soilidentifiesandassessestheimpactsofmajordriversconservationandprotection,andcarbonseques-ofchangeaffectingthem.Italsodocumentsthetration(FAO,2018b).Althoughratesoflosshavestateofadoptionofmanagementpracticesanddecreased(andgoneintomoderatereverseinstrategiesinfoodandagriculturethatusebio-someregions),globalforestareacontinuestodiversityorcontributetoitsconservation,thedecline,withtheearlypartofthiscenturyseeingstateofprogrammesaddressingthecharacteriza-netlossesinsub-SaharanAfrica,LatinAmericaandtionandconservationofcomponentsofbiodiver-SoutheastAsia(ibid.).Themaincauseofdeforest-sityrelevanttofoodandagriculture,andthestateationintheseregionsisconversiontoagriculture,ofpolicyandinstitutionalframeworksforthewithillegallogging,firesandfuelwoodextractionmanagementoftheseresources.Itidentifieskeyalsocontributing(ibid.).Remainingforestsaregapsandneedsintermsofknowledge,capacitythreatenedbydegradationandfragmentationandresourcesandpinpointspriorityactionsthat(Haddadetal.,2015).canhelptoaddressthem.Thefoodandagriculturesectorisamajorcon-1.2Whatisbiodiversitytributortogreenhouse-gasemissions.Forexample,forfoodlivestockproductionchainsareestimatedtobeandagriculture?responsiblefor14.5percentofanthropogenicgreenhouse-gasemissions(FAO,2017a;GerberetPutsimply,biodiversityisthevariabilitythatal.,2013).Atthesametime,climatechangeposesexistsamonglivingorganisms(bothwithinandenormousthreatstofoodandagriculture,includ-betweenspecies)andtheecosystemsofwhichingthroughitsimpactsonthespeciesandeco-theyarepart.Inturn,biodiversityforfoodandsystems–fromsoilmicro-organismstocoralreefsagriculture(BFA)isthebiodiversitythatinone–thatunderpinproduction(FAO,2015b).Lossofwayoranothercontributestoagricultureandbiodiversityinturnthreatensthecapacityofeco-foodproduction(seeSection1.5formoreformalsystemsusedforfoodandagriculturetoseques-definitionsoftheseterms).Itincludesnotonlythetercarbonandreducestheoptionsavailablefordomesticatedcropsandlivestockraisedbyfarmersmodifyingproductionsystemsintheinterestsofandlivestockkeepers,thetreesplantedandhar-climatechangemitigationandadaptation(Chenvestedbyforestdwellersandtheaquaticspeciesetal.,2018;Henryetal.,2009;FAO,2015b).harvestedorraisedbyfishersandaquaculturepractitioners,butalsothemyriadotherspeciesofAstheoutcomeofthefirstcountry-drivenplants,animalsandmicro-organismsthatunder-globalassessmentaddressingallcomponentsofpinproduction,whetherbycreatingandmain-biodiversityofsignificancetofoodandagricul-taininghealthysoils,pollinatingplants,purify-tureacrossallsectors,thisreport,preparedbyingwater,providingprotectionagainstextremeFAOattherequestofitsCommissiononGeneticweatherevents,enablingruminantanimalstoResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,aimstosheddigestfibrousplantmaterialsordeliveringanylightbothonthenatureofthesechallengesandofarangeofothervitalservices.Italsoincludesonopportunitiestoaddressthem.Itidentifieswildspecies(beyondthealready-notedharvestedandassessesthecontributionsthatbiodiversityaquaticspeciesandforesttrees)thatarehar-makestothesupplyofecosystemservicesrele-vestedforfoodandforotherpurposes.Finally,itvanttofoodandagriculture,totheresilienceofincludesmicro-organismsusedinfoodprocessingproductionsystems,toeffortstointensifypro-andinvariousagro-industrialprocesses.ductionsustainably,tothelivelihoodsoffarmers,livestockkeepers,fishers,fishfarmersandforestdwellers,andtofoodsecurityandnutrition.It4thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREintroduction1Itisdifficulttoestablishdefiniteboundaries1.3BiodiversityforfoodtoBFA.Cropsandlivestockandfarmedorandagriculturewild-harvestedtreesandaquaticspeciesallandglobalpolicyagendasclearlycontributedirectlytofoodsecurityandlivelihoods.Inmanycases,theyalsoprovideOverrecentdecades,theimportanceofbiodi-otherservicesthatsupportfoodandagriculturalversitytofoodsecurityandnutrition,ruralandproduction.Forexample,atreeoraherbaceouscoastallivelihoodsandsustainabledevelopmentcropplantmayhelptoprotectthesoilagainstmoregenerallyhasgraduallybeenacquiringerosionortocreateafavourablemicroclimategreaterrecognitiononinternationalagendasforothercomponentsoftheproduction(Figure1.1).1983sawtheestablishmentofsystem,afarmedanimalmayremoveweedstheCommissiononPlantGeneticResourcesorprovidemanuretofertilizecrops,ora–anintergovernmentalbodywithasecretar-filter-feedingmolluscraisedinaquacultureiathostedbyFAO–whichin1995becamethemaycontributetowaterpurification.ManyCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandoftheotherspeciesthatliveinandaroundAgriculture1andacquiredamandatecoveringproductionsystemsalsomakerelativelydirectallcomponentsofbiodiversityofrelevanceandclearlyidentifiablecontributionstofoodtofoodandagriculture.Overtheyears,theandagriculture,forexampletheroleofbeesinCommissionhasoverseenglobalassessmentsofpollinationorladybirdbeetlesinremovingaphidgeneticresourcesinthecrop,livestock,forestpestsfromcropplants.However,thehealthofandaquaticsectorsandnegotiatedglobalplansacrop,grassland,forest,marineorfreshwaterofactionforgeneticresourcesinthefirstthreeproductionsystemisinfluencedbyanenormous(FAO,forthcoming,1997,2007a,2007b,2010a,rangeofecologicalprocesses,manyofwhichare2011b,2014a,2014b,2015a).complexandnotwellunderstood.Theseprocessoperateonavarietyofscales,rangingfromveryTheadoptionoftheConventiononBiologicallocaltoglobal,andcrosstheboundariesbetweenDiversity(CBD)2in1992establishedaninterna-productionsystems,betweenthesectorsoffoodtionallegalframeworkfortheconservationandandagricultureandbetweenmanagedandsustainableuseofbiodiversity,includingdomes-unmanagedecosystems.Toprovideaconcreteticatedandnon-domesticatedspeciesusedforexample,acropplantmaybenefitfromsoil-foodandagriculture,alongwiththefairandmaintainingservicesprovidedbyearthwormsequitablesharingofthebenefitsarisingfromlivingintheimmediatevicinity,frompollinationtheuseofgeneticresources.TheCBD’spro-servicesprovidedbyinsectsthatdependonthegrammeson(interalia)agriculturalbiodiversity,biodiversitypresentinhedgerowsoruncultivatedforestbiodiversity,dryandsubhumidlandbiodi-areasattheedgeofthefield,andfromclimate-versity,inlandwaterecosystemsandmarineandregulatingservicesprovidedbydistantforest,coastalbiodiversityaimtopromotetheseobjec-grasslandoroceanbiodiversity.tivesacrossarangeofecosystemsusedforfoodandagriculture.TheAichiBiodiversityTargets,BFAcannotbeconsideredinisolationfromadoptedin2010aspartoftheCBD’sStrategicthehumansthatmanageproductionsystems.PlanforBiodiversity2011–2020(CBD,2010a),Farmers,livestockkeepers,forestdwellers,fishrecognizetheimportanceofBFA,includingthefarmersandfishersconstantlyengagewiththeirneedtoreduceoreliminatethelossofforestsenvironments,shapingthemtovaryingdegrees(Target5),manageandharvestfishandaquaticandutilizingcomponentsofbiodiversityindifferentcombinationstomeettheirneeds.Many1http://www.fao.org/cgrfa/en(seealsoBox1inthe“Aboutthisdomesticatedspecieshavebeenused,developedpublication”section).andmaintainedbyhumansforthousandsofyears.2https://www.cbd.intthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE5OverviewPartAFigure1.1KeydevelopmentsintheinternationalrecognitionoftheimportanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureCommissiononCommission’sCBDProgrammeGPASecondGPAGPAForestCancunPlantGeneticmandateofWorkforAnimalGeneticPGRFAadoptedGeneticResourcesDeclarationResourcesextendedtocoverAgriculturalResourcesadoptedadoptedestablishedallbiodiversityBiodiversityadoptedforfoodandisestablishedagricultureMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsadopted1983199219951996200020012007201020112012201320152016ConventiononFirstGlobalPlanMillenniumNagoyaProtocolIPBESSustainableBiologicalofAction(GPA)EcosystemadoptedestablishedDevelopmentDiversity(CBD)forPlantGeneticAssessmentGoalsadoptedadoptedResourcesforFoodinitiatedStrategicPlanandAgricultureforBiodiversity(PGRFA)adoptedInternational2011–2020TreatyonPGRFAadoptedadoptedNote:IPBES=IntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices.invertebratesandplantssustainably(Target6),2012sawtheestablishmentoftheIntergov-ensureareasunderagriculture,aquacultureernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandforestryaremanagedsustainablyinorderandEcosystemServices(IPBES),3anindependenttoconservebiodiversity(Target7)andmain-intergovernmentalbodythatprovidespolicy-tainthegeneticdiversityofcultivatedplantsmakerswithobjectivescientificassessmentsoftheandanimalsandtheirwildrelatives(Target13).planet’sbiodiversityandecosystems,thebenefitsTarget18recognizestheimportanceofthetra-theyprovidetopeople,andthetoolsandmethodsditionalknowledge,innovationsandpracticesavailabletoprotectandsustainablyusethem.ofindigenousandlocalcommunitiesfortheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiver-TheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,adoptedsity.TheNagoyaProtocolonAccesstoGeneticbytheUnitedNationsin2015(seeBox1.1),includeResourcesandtheFairandEquitableSharinganumberoftargetsrelatedtotheconservationofBenefitsArisingfromtheirUtilizationtoandsustainableuseofbiodiversityinthecontexttheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,asup-offoodandagriculture,asdidtheMillenniumplementaryagreementtotheCBDadoptedinDevelopmentGoalsadoptedin2000.2010,establishedalegalframeworkfortheimplementationoftheCBD’sobjectiveoffairInDecember2016,thehigh-levelministerialandequitablesharingofbenefitsarisingfromsegmentofthethirteenthmeetingofthetheuseofgeneticresources.ConferenceofthePartiestotheCBDadoptedtheCancúnDeclarationonMainstreamingtheIn2001,theInternationalTreatyonPlantConservationandSustainableUseofBiodiversityforGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,whichWell-being(CBD,2016a).Morethan190countrieswasnegotiatedundertheaegisoftheCommission,committedthemselvestoworkingtomainstreamestablishedaninternationallegalframework,inbiodiversityand“bearinginmindthattheharmonywiththeCBD,fortheconservationandagriculture,forestry,fisheriesandtourismsustainableuseofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodsectorsheavilydependonbiodiversityanditsandagricultureandthefairandequitablesharingcomponents,aswellasontheecosystemfunctionsofthebenefitsarisingfromtheiruse.3https://www.ipbes.net6thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREintroduction1Box1.1Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture,FAOandtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsFAOis“custodian”UNagencyfor21indicatorsunderGoal14(ConserveandsustainablyuseSustainableDevelopmentGoals2,5,6,12,14and15,andatheoceans,seasandmarineresources)contributingagencyforfourmore.Manyoftheseindicatorsincludestargetsonthesustainabledirectlyorindirectlymeasurecomponentsofbiodiversityformanagementandprotectionofmarinefoodandagriculture.andcoastalecosystems,actiontopromotetheirrestorationintheinterestofhealthyandGoal2(Endhunger,achievefoodproductiveoceans,andeffectiveregulationofharvestingsecurityandimprovednutritionandandoverfishing.Indicatorsforthistargetinclude:promotesustainableagriculture)•Indicator14.4.1:Proportionoffishstockswithinincludesatargetonensuringbiologicallysustainablelevels;andsustainablefoodproductionsystemsand•Indicator14.7.1:SustainablefisheriesasaimplementingresilientagriculturalpracticesthatincreasepercentageofGDPinsmallislanddevelopingproductivityandproduction,thathelpmaintainecosystems,states,leastdevelopedcountriesandallcountries.thatstrengthencapacityforadaptationtoclimatechange,extremeweather,drought,floodingandotherdisastersandGoal15(Sustainablymanageforests,thatprogressivelyimprovelandandsoilquality(Target2.4).combatdesertification,haltandreverseItalsoincludesatargetonmaintainingthegeneticdiversitylanddegradation,haltbiodiversityofseeds,cultivatedplantsandfarmedanddomesticatedloss)includestargetsaddressinganimalsandtheirrelatedwildspecies,andpromotingaccesstheconservation,restorationandtoandfairandequitablesharingofbenefitsarisingfromthesustainableuseofterrestrialandinlandfreshwaterutilizationofgeneticresourcesandassociatedtraditionalecosystemsandtheirservices,sustainablemanagementknowledge(Target2.5).Indicatorsforthesetargetsinclude:ofalltypesofforestsandtheintegrationofecosystem•Indicator2.4.1:Proportionofagriculturalareaandbiodiversityvaluesintonationalandlocalplanning,underproductiveandsustainableagriculture;developmentprocessesandpovertyreductionstrategies.•Indicator2.5.1:NumberofplantandanimalIndicatorsforthistargetinclude:geneticresourcesforfoodandagriculturesecured•Indicator15.1.1:Forestareaasapercentageofinmedium-orlong-termconservationfacilities;andtotallandarea;•Indicator2.5.2:Proportionoflocalbreeds,classified•Indicator15.2.1:Progresstowardssustainableasbeingatrisk,not-at-riskoratunknownlevelofforestmanagement;andriskofextinction.•Indicator15.4.2:MountainGreenCoverIndex(aDataforIndicators2.5.1and2.5.2arecompiledbyFAOmeasureofchangesintheareaofgreenvegetationthroughtheWorldInformationandEarlyWarningSystemoninmountainareas[forest,shrubsandpastureland,PlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(WIEWS)1andcropland]).andtheDomesticAnimalDiversityInformationSystem(DAD-IS),2bothofwhicharemanagedundertheguidanceoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(seeBoxes7.1and7.2forfurtherinformationonthesesystems).1http://www.fao.org/wiews/enNote:Forfurtherinformation,seeFAO(2017b)orvisitFAO’sSustainable2http://www.fao.org/dad-is/enDevelopmentGoalswebpage:http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-goals/enthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE7OverviewPartAandserviceswhichbiodiversityunderpins,andForests;9GlobalForestResourcesAssessment)10thatthesesectorsalsoimpactonbiodiversityinandfisheriesandaquaculture(TheStateofWorldvariousdirectandindirectways,…toundertakeFisheriesandAquaculture),11eachofwhichcon-specificactionsforeachsector…”tributestoknowledgeofthestateofspeciesand/orecosystemsofrelevancetofoodandagri-1.4Assessmentsofbiodiversityculture.In2015,FAOandtheIntergovernmentalforfoodandagricultureTechnicalPanelonSoilspublishedStatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources,thefirstmajorglobalThegrowingprominenceofbiodiversityoninter-assessmentonsoilsandrelatedissues(FAOandnationalagendashasledtotheimplementationITPS,2015).ofanumberofglobalassessmentsofvariouscomponentsoraspectsofbiodiversity,includingTheHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecuritythoseofrelevancetofoodandagriculture.ForandNutrition12oftheUNCommitteeonWorldexample,theMillenniumEcosystemAssessment,4FoodSecurityhasoverrecentyearspublishedaaglobaleffortlaunchedin2001toidentifythenumberofreportsaddressingthesignificanceofconsequencesofecosystemchangeforhumanparticularcomponentsofBFAtofoodsecurityandwell-being,assessedthestateofarangeofeco-nutrition:Sustainablefisheriesandaquaculturesystemservices,5includingthesupplyoffoodandforfoodsecurityandnutrition(HLPE,2014a);otheragriculturalproducts,andmanyoftheser-Sustainableagriculturaldevelopmentforfoodvicesthatunderpinproduction(pollination,pestsecurityandnutrition:whatrolesforlivestock?regulation,erosioncontrol,etc.)(MEA,2005a).(HLPE,2016);Sustainableforestryforfoodsecu-IPBEShaspreparedglobalassessmentsonpolli-rityandnutrition(HLPE,2017a);andNutritionnators,pollinationandfoodproduction(IPBES,andfoodsystems(HLPE,2017b).2016a),onlanddegradation(IPBES,2018a)andonbiodiversityandecosystemservices(IPBES,Asnotedabove,theCommissiononGeneticforthcoming).Startingin2001,theCBD’sGlobalResourcesforFoodandAgriculturehasover-BiodiversityOutlookseries6hasprovidedperiodicseenglobalassessmentsofgeneticresourcesandreportsonthestatusandtrendsofglobalbiodi-theirmanagementinthevarioussectorsoffoodversityanditsmanagement.TheEconomicsofandagriculture(FAO,forthcoming,1997,2007a,EcosystemsandBiodiversity(TEEB)7initiativehas2010a,2015a)(seeBox1.2).Theseassessmentspreparedanumberofpublicationsonthethemehavelargelyfocusedonthespecies,varietiesandofvaluatingbiodiversityandecosystemservices,breedsofplantsandanimalsthatareraisedorincludinganinterimreportaddressingthefoodharvestedineachsectortoprovidefoodandotherandagriculturesector(TEEB,2015)andascientificproducts(althoughotherrolesandusesaredis-andeconomicfoundationreport(TEEB,2018).cussed).13OthercomponentsofBFAreceivedlittleattentionandinteractionsbetweensectorswereFAOhaslongconductedregularassessmentsnotamajorfocus.offoodandagriculture(TheStateofFoodandAgriculture),8forests(TheStateoftheWorld’sTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureisintendedtocomplementthesectoralassessmentsandtofillgapsintermsofscopeandfocus.Itaddressesallcomponentsof4https://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/Index-2.html9http://www.fao.org/publications/sofo/en5SeeSection1.5forfurtherinformationonthisconcept.10http://www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/en6https://www.cbd.int/gbo/default.shtml11http://www.fao.org/fishery/sofia/en7http://www.teebweb.org12http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/en8http://www.fao.org/publications/sofa/13SeeSection1.5forfurtherdiscussionofgeneticresourcesinthe-state-of-food-and-agriculture/enthevarioussectorsoffoodandagricultureandthescopeoftheglobalassessmentsoverseenbytheCommission.8thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREintroduction1Box1.2Assessingthestateoftheworld’sgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricultureTheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodframeworks,thestateoftheartintoolsandmethodsforandAgriculturehasoverseenthepreparationofcharacterization,geneticimprovement,valuationandauthoritativeassessmentsofthestateoftheworld’sconservation,andneedsandchallengeswithrespecttothegeneticresourcesintheplant(crop),animal(livestock),futureofanimalgeneticresourcesmanagement.Itdrawsonforestandaquaticsectors.129countryreports,fourreportsfromregionalfocalpointsandnetworks,15reportsfrominternationalorganizationsandTheStateoftheWorld’sAquatictwocommissionedthematicstudies.GeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,forthcoming)TheStateoftheWorld’sForestfocusesonculturedspeciesandGeneticResources(FAO,2014a)theirwildrelatives,withinnationalreviewsthevaluesofforestgeneticjurisdiction.Itdrawson92countryresources,thedriversofchangereportsandfivespeciallyaffectingthem,emergingcommissionedthematicbackgroundtechnologiesfortheirmanagementstudies.Thereportingcountriesareresponsibleforandthestateoftheirconservation96percentofglobalaquacultureproduction.Thereportanduse.Itprovidessetsthecontextwithareviewofthestateoftheworld’srecommendationsforthemanagementoftheseresources,aquacultureandfisheriesandincludesoverviewsoftheusebothintermsofinnovationsinpracticesandtechnologiesandexchangeofaquaticgeneticresources,thedriversandintermsofincreasedattentionatpolicyandaffectingthestatusoftheseresources,andtheextentofinstitutionallevels.Itdrawsoninformationprovidedbyexsituandinsituconservationeffortstargetingthem.86countries,outcomesfromregionalandsubregionalItalsodescribestherolesofstakeholdersintheconsultations,andfivecommissionedthematicstudies.managementoftheseresourcesandthelevelsofactivityinresearch,education,trainingandextensioninthisfield.TheSecondReportontheStateItreviewsnationalpoliciesandthelevelsofregionaloftheWorld’sPlantGeneticandglobalcooperationinthemanagementofaquaticResourcesforFoodandAgriculturegeneticresources.Finally,itassessesneedsandchallenges(FAO,2010a)providesanupdateinthecontextofthefindingsoftheanalysisofthedataoftheglobalassessmentprovidedprovidedbycountries.inthefirstreportonTheStateoftheWorld’sPlantGeneticTheSecondReportontheStateoftheResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,World’sAnimalGeneticResourcesforpublishedin1996.ItdocumentsthemajorachievementsinFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2015a)thesectorduringtheprecedingdecadeandidentifiesprovidesanupdateoftheglobalgapsandneedsrequiringurgentattention.Itdrawsonassessmentprovidedinthefirst113countryreports,regionalsynthesesandeightreportonTheStateofthecommissionedthematicstudies.World’sAnimalGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,publishedinNote:Thereportscanbeviewedat2007.Itpresentsananalysisofthestateoflivestockdiversity,http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4787e.pdftheinfluenceoflivestock-sectortrendsonthemanagementofhttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i3825e.pdfanimalgeneticresources,thestateofcapacitytomanagehttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1500e/i1500e.pdfanimalgeneticresources,includinglegalandpolicythestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE9OverviewPartAbiodiversityacrossallsectorsoffoodandagriculture,species,betweenspeciesandofecosystems”butpaysparticularattentiontotheinterface(CBD,1992).betweenmanagedandunmanagedbiodiversity,cross-sectoralinteractionsandtherolesofcom-BiodiversityforfoodandagricultureponentsofBFAinthesupplyofsupportingandBFAisasubcategoryofbiodiversitytakenforregulatingecosystemservices.14thepurposesofthisreporttocorrespondto“thevarietyandvariabilityofanimals,plantsandLikethesectoralassessments,thereportisthemicro-organismsatthegenetic,speciesandeco-outcomeofacountry-drivenprocess.Thedecisionsystemlevelsthatsustaintheecosystemstructures,toprepareitwastakenattheCommission’sfunctionsandprocessesinandaroundproductionEleventhRegularSessionin2007(FAO,2007c).systems,andthatprovidefoodandnon-foodNinety-onecountriessubmittedreportsontheagriculturalproducts”(FAO,2013b).16ProductionstateoftheirBFAanditsmanagement,includingsystems(seebelowforfurtherdiscussionofthisinformationonprioritiesthatneedtobeterm)areheretakentoincludethoseinthecrop,addressedinordertostrengthenthesustainablelivestock,forest,fisheryandaquaculturesectors.useandconservationoftheseresources.AseriesBFAincludesplant,animalandaquaticgeneticofinformalregionalconsultationsattendedbyresourcesforfoodandagriculture,forestgeneticcountryrepresentativestookplacein2016andresources,associatedbiodiversityandwildfoodsprovidedanopportunitytoshareknowledgeand(seebelowforfurtherdiscussionoftheseterms).informationandtodiscussneedsandpriorities.Italsoincludesmicro-organismsusedforfoodpro-cessingandinagro-industrialprocesses.ThebroadscopeandinnovativeperspectiveoftheassessmentpresentedchallengesintermsGeneticresourcesofdatacollectionandanalysisatalllevels.InGeneticresourcesaredefinedunderArticle2ofdiscussingthepreparatoryprocess,theCommission15theCBDas“geneticmaterialofactualorpoten-recognizedthatfindingswouldbeincompletetialvalue”.“Geneticmaterial”isinturndefinedasinanumberofareasandrequestedthatgapsin“anymaterialofplant,animal,microbialorotherknowledgebeassessedandhighlightedintheorigincontainingfunctionalunitsofheredity.”report(FAO,2013a).Geneticresourcescanbeembodiedinlivingplants,animalsormicro-organismsorinstoredseeds,1.5Keyconceptsaddressedinsemen,oocytes,embryos,somaticcellsorisolatedthisreportDNA(deoxyribonucleicacid).Inthecontextoffoodandagriculture,thetermisoftenusedtorefertoThissectionprovidesdefinitionsandshortover-thespeciesmanagedorharvestedwithinagivenviewsofkeyconceptsaddressedinthisreport.sector(e.g.plant,animal,forestoraquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture–seebelow).BiodiversityBiologicaldiversity(oftenreferredtoasbiodiver-Plantgeneticresourcesforsity)isdefinedinArticle2oftheCBDas“thevar-foodandagricultureiabilityamonglivingorganismsfromallsourcesThetermplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandincluding,interalia,terrestrial,marineandotheragriculturereferstogeneticmaterialofplantaquaticecosystemsandtheecologicalcomplexesoriginofactualorpotentialvalueforfoodandofwhichtheyarepart:thisincludesdiversitywithinagriculture(FAO,2010a).Thisincludesfarmers’varieties/landracesmanagedon-farm,improved14SeeSection1.5forfurtherdiscussionofthevariouscategoriesofecosystemservices.16ThewordingdrawsonFAOandPAR(2011).15AtitsFourteenthRegularSession,in2013.10thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREintroduction1varieties,breedingmaterialsincrop-improvementincreasinglybeingusedtocircumventthebarriersprogrammes,accessionsconservedexsitu(i.e.intocross-breedingthathavepreventedtheintro-genebanksorothercollections)andwildplantsductionofnovelallelesfromcropwildrelativesthatmayberelatedtocrops(i.e.cropwildrel-intocultivatedvarieties.atives)orthosewildspeciesharvestedforfood.AnimalgeneticresourcesforInagronomy,theterm“variety”referstoafoodandagricultureplantgroupingthatisdistinguishedfromanyAnimalgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricul-otherplantgroupingbytheexpressionofcertainturearegeneticresourcesofanimaloriginusedheritablecharacteristicsthatremainunchangedbyorpotentiallyusedforfoodandagriculture(FAO,propagation.17Cultivatedvarietiescanbebroadly2007a,2007b).Inlinewiththescopeofprevi-classifiedas“modernofficiallyreleasedvarieties”ousglobalassessments(FAO,2007a,2015a),theor“farmers’varieties”(FAO,1997).18Moderntermisusedinthisreporttorefertothegeneticofficiallyreleasedvarietiesaretheproductsofresourcesofdomesticatedavianandmammalianbreedingbyprofessionalplantbreeders,mainlyspeciesusedinfoodandagriculture.workingforprivatecompaniesorpubliclyfundedresearchinstitutes(sometimesreferredtoastheLivestockspeciesgenerallyencompassanumber“formalsystem”or“scientificbreeding”).Theseofdifferentsubspecificpopulationsreferredtoastypicallyhaveahighdegreeofgeneticuniformitybreeds.AccordingtothedefinitionusedbyFAO,andbreedtrue(i.e.produceoffspringwiththeabreedis“eitherasubspecificgroupofdomesticsamephenotypictraitsastheirparents).Farmers’livestockwithdefinableandidentifiableexternalvarieties,alsoknownas“landraces”or“traditionalcharacteristicsthatenableittobeseparatedbyvarieties”,aretheproductofbreedingorselectionvisualappraisalfromothersimilarlydefinedgroupscarriedoutcontinuously,deliberatelyorotherwise,withinthesamespeciesoragroupforwhichbyfarmersovermanygenerations.Farmers’geographicaland/orculturalseparationfromvarietiestendnottobegeneticallyuniform,andphenotypicallysimilargroupshasledtoacceptancecontainhighlevelsofgeneticdiversity.ofitsseparateidentity”(FAO,1999a).Individualbreeds,inturn,harbourvaryingdegreesofgeneticCropwildrelativesarepotentialsourcesofher-diversity,andsomearemoregeneticallydistinctitabletraitsforuseincropbreeding.Traitsfromfromthespeciespopulationatlargethanothers.cropwildrelativesthatconfertolerancetoabioticBreedsthathavebeenpresentinaparticularandbioticstressesandimprovednutritionalquali-productionenvironmentforsufficienttimeforthetieshavebeensuccessfullyincorporatedintosomeeffectsofnaturalselectionandmanagedgeneticelitecropvarieties.Advancedbiotechnologiesimprovementtoadaptthemtolocalconditionsare(e.g.embryorescueandprotoplastfusion)arereferredtoas“locallyadaptedbreeds”.19Breedscanbesubjecttobreedingprogrammestoimprove17DefinitionisbasedonwordingfromArticle1(vi)ofthe1991theirproductivityorpromoteotherdesirableActoftheInternationalUnionfortheProtectionofNewcharacteristics.TheycanbematedwitheachVarietiesofPlants(UPOV)Convention(UPOV,1991),whichothertoproducecross-bredanimalsthatembodystatesthat“‘variety’meansaplantgroupingwithinasinglecharacteristicsfromboththeparentbreeds.botanicaltaxonofthelowestknownrank,whichgrouping,irrespectiveofwhethertheconditionsforthegrantofa19ThedefinitionagreeduponbytheCommissiononGeneticbreeder’srightarefullymet,canbedefinedbytheexpressionResourcesforFoodandAgricultureforuseinnationalofthecharacteristicsresultingfromagivengenotypeorreportingstatesthat“locallyadaptedbreeds”are“breedsthatcombinationofgenotypes,distinguishedfromanyotherhavebeeninthecountryforasufficienttimetobegeneticallyplantgroupingbytheexpressionofatleastoneofthesaidadaptedtooneormoreofthetraditionalproductionsystemscharacteristicsandconsideredasaunitwithregardtoitsorenvironmentsinthecountry”andthat“exoticbreeds”aresuitabilityforbeingpropagatedunchanged.”“breedsthatarenotlocallyadapted”.18Itshouldbenotedthat“farmers’variety”isanimprecisetermandthat“varieties”referredtointhiswaymaynotmeettherequirementthatavarietybreedtrue.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE11OverviewPartAThewildrelativesofdomesticatedlivestockinthelastcentury.Subspecificstocksofaquaticaregenerallynotusedinanysystematicwayinspeciesinthewildarerecognized.Althoughcontemporaryanimalbreeding.Someofthewildsomestocksaregeneticallycharacterized,itisancestralspeciesofmajordomesticatedanimalmoreusualforastocktobecharacterizedbyitsspeciesarenowextinct,forexampletheaurochsgeographiclocation(e.g.NorthAtlanticcod).(Bosprimigenius),ancestorofdomesticcattle.AssociatedbiodiversityForestgeneticresourcesAssociatedbiodiversityisasubcategoryofBFA.TheForestgeneticresourcesaretheheritablemateri-conceptisperhapsmostfamiliarinthecropsector,alsmaintainedwithinandamongtreeandotherwherethebiodiversityofharvesteddomesticatedwoodyplantspeciesthatareofactualorpoten-cropplantsisdistinguishedfrom“crop-associatedtialeconomic,environmental,scientificorsocietalbiodiversity”–therangeofotherspeciesthatarevalue(FAO,2014a).presentinandaroundtheproductionsystemandthatsustainecosystemstructures,functionsandpro-Thedistributionofgeneticdiversitywithintreecesses(e.g.LennéandWood,2011;Waliyar,CollettespeciesisshapedbytheevolutionaryhistoryofandKenmore,2002).Examplesincludepollinators,thespecies,introgressionandhybridizationwiththepredatorsofcroppests,thevegetationfoundrelatedspecies,aswellasbyforestdegradationandinhedgerowsandatfieldmargins,andtheinver-fragmentation.Althoughhumanshavelongutilizedtebratesandmicro-organismsthathelptocreatetreespecies,treegeneticimprovementeffortswereandmaintainthesoilanditsfertility.Inadditiononlyinitiatedinthe1930s.Treebreedingisaslowtobeneficialspeciessuchaspollinators,cropasso-process,asonecycleoftestingandselectiontypicallyciatedbiodiversityincludesthevariousspeciesthattakesdecades.Mostadvancedtree-breedinginhibitcropproductionbyactingasweedsorpests.programmesareonlyintheirthirdcycleoftestingandselection.ThismeansthatthegenepoolsofEquivalentcategoriesofbiodiversitycantreesinbreedingprogrammesarestillmostlysemi-bedistinguishedinothersectorsoffoodandwild.Onlyafewtreespecies(e.g.variousfruitandagriculture.Inalivestockproductionsystem,nuttrees)havebeendomesticatedtoalevelsimilarforexample,thedomesticatedanimalscanbetothatofagriculturalcrops.distinguishedfromassociatedbiodiversitysuchasrangelandplants,themicro-organismandAquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandinvertebratecommunitiesassociatedwiththesoil,agricultureandthemicro-organismsfoundintheanimals’AquaticgeneticresourcesincludeDNA,genes,digestivesystems.Inaforestecosystem,treesarechromosomes,tissues,gametes,embryosandsurroundedbyamultitudeofplants,animalsandotherearlylifehistorystages,individuals,strains,micro-organismsthatcontributeinvariouswaysstocksandcommunitiesoforganisms,ofactualtothefunctioningoftheecosystem.20Incaptureorpotentialvalueforfoodandagriculture.Thefisheries,harvestedspeciesrelyonarangeofscopeoftheassessmentundertakenforthereportanimals,plantsandmicro-organismsassourcesofonTheStateoftheWorld’sAquaticGeneticfoodandforservicessuchaswaterpurificationandResourcesforFoodandAquacultureisfarmedhabitatprovisioning.Theybenefitfromoxygenaquaticspeciesandtheirwildrelativeswithinprovidedbyaquaticplantsandtheprotectionnationaljurisdiction(FAO,forthcoming).providedbyhabitatssuchaskelpforests,seagrassbedsandcoralreefs.SomespeciesrelyonothersasUnlikedomesticatedcropandlivestockspecies,whichgenerallyincludemanybreeds,varietiesor20Theterm“forestbiodiversity”isusedtoreferto“thevariabilitycultivars,therearefewrecognizedwithin-speciesamongforest-dwellingorganismsandtheecologicalprocessesstrainsamongthespeciesusedinaquaculture,aofwhichtheyareapart.Itincludesvariationatforestsectorinwhichcommercialbreedingonlystartedecosystem,speciesandmolecularlevels”(FAO,2014a).12thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREintroduction1hosts.Aquaticspeciesfarmedinextensivesystemsdefinedthetermsimplyas“thebenefitshumansorraisedinculture-basedfisheriesalsointeractderivefromecosystems”(MEA,2005a).Itidenti-withthesevariouscomponentsofassociatedfiedthefollowingfourcategoriesofecosystembiodiversity.Similarly,speciesraisedinaquacultureservice:provisioning,regulating,supportingandpondsbenefitfromarangeofservicesprovidedcultural(ibid.).Provisioningservicesare“theprod-bythefloraandfaunathatsurroundthem,uctsobtainedfromecosystems”,i.e.foodandrawparticularlywithrespecttowaterpurificationandmaterialsofvariouskinds.Regulatingservicesarenutrientcycling.“thebenefitsobtainedfromtheregulationofeco-systemprocesses.”ExamplesincluderegulationAssociatedbiodiversityconsistslargelyofnon-oftheclimate,airandwaterquality,diseasesanddomesticatedspecies.Exceptionsincludethenaturaldisasters.Culturalservicesare“thenon-domestichoneybeeandsomeotherpollinatormaterialbenefitspeopleobtainfromecosystemsspecies.Variousbiologicalcontrolagents(naturalthroughspiritualenrichment,cognitivedevelop-enemiesusedtocontrolpestspecies)arebredinment,reflection,recreation,andaestheticexperi-captivity.ences”.Supportingservicesareservices“thatarenecessaryfortheproductionofallotherecosys-Whereecosystemservices(seebelow)aretemservices.”Examplesincludephotosynthesis,concerned,associatedbiodiversityisparticularlynutrientcyclingandprovisionofhabitatforotherimportanttothesupplyofsupportingandspecies.Thedistinguishingfeatureofsupportingregulatingservices.However,componentsofservicesisthattheyhavealessdirecteffectonassociatedbiodiversitymayalsobedirectsourceshumanwelfare.21offoodandotherproducts(supplyprovisioningecosystemservices)orhaveculturalsignificanceTheslightlydifferentframeworkusedbyThe(supplyculturalecosystemservices).EconomicsofEcosystemsandBiodiversity(TEEB)initiativedoesnottreatsupportingservicesWildfoodsasaseparatecategory,butratherasasubsetWildfoodsarefoodproductsobtainedfromoftheecologicalprocessesthatunderliethenon-domesticatedspecies.Theymaybeharvesteddeliveryofotherservices(TEEB,2010).However,(gatheredorhunted)fromwithinfoodandagri-itdistinguishesaseparatecategory,“habitatculturalproductionsystemsorfromothereco-services”,definedasservicesthat“providelivingsystems.Thegroupofspeciesthatsupplieswildspaceforresidentandmigratoryspecies.”foodsoverlapstovariousdegreeswiththoseintheabove-described“sectoral”categoriesofInpreparingtheirreportsforTheStateofthegeneticresourcesandwithassociatedbiodiversity.World’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture,coun-Forexample,capturefisheriesareprobablythetrieswereinvitedtofocusprimarilyonregulatinglargestsingleexampleofthehumanuseofwildandsupportingservices.Anumberofquestionsinfoods,andmanyaquaculturefacilitiesusewild-thecountry-reportingguidelinesreferspecificallycaughtstocksforbroodstockorlarvalgrow-out.tothesetwocategoriesofecosystemservice.EcosystemservicesConservationAsimpliedinthedefinitiongivenabove,BFAisConservationofBFAistakeninthisreporttointegraltoecosystemstructures,processesandincludeallactionsimplementedwiththeaimoffunctionsinandaroundproductionsystems.Suchpreventingthelossofdiversityinthepopulations,structures,processesandfunctions,bothinfoodspeciesandecosystemsthatconstitutethissubsetandagriculturalsystemsandinecosystemsmoreofbiodiversity.generally,giveriseinturntoarangeofbene-fitstohumans–oftenreferredtoasecosystem21Allthedefinitionspresentedinthisparagrapharetakenfromservices.TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessmentMEA(2005a).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE13OverviewPartA“Insituconservation”isdefinedunderthetopromotethedeliveryofecosystemservices,CBDas“conservationofecosystemsandnaturalandtheharvestingoffoodandotherproductshabitatsandthemaintenanceandrecoveryoffromthewild.viablepopulationsofspeciesintheirnaturalsurroundingsand,inthecaseofdomesticatedorSustainableuseandconservationareinter-cultivatedspecies,inthesurroundingswheretheyrelatedinvariousways.Fromoneperspective,havedevelopedtheirdistinctiveproperties.”InsustainableusecanbeseenasanelementofthecontextofBFA,insituconservationcomprisesconservation.Forexample,inthecaseofwildmeasuresthatpromotethemaintenanceofbiodiversity,enablingpeopletouseawildbiodiversity(includingdomesticatedbiodiversity)speciesorecosysteminasustainablewaymayinandaroundcrop,livestock,forest,aquaticandleadtoitsbeingprotectedfrommoredestruc-mixedproductionsystems(orinthecaseofwildtiveactivities.Domesticatedbiodiversityistofoodsandwildrelativesofdomesticatedspeciesalargedegreedependentonuse.Individualalsoinotherhabitats).varietiesandbreedsofcrops,livestockandfarmedaquaticspeciesareproductsofhuman-“Exsituconservation”isdefinedundertheCBDcontrolledbreedingandwouldceasetoexistas“theconservationofcomponentsofbiologicalwithoutongoingmanagement.Insituconserva-diversityoutsidetheirnaturalhabitats.”Inthetionofdomesticatedbiodiversitythereforeinev-contextofBFA,exsituconservationcomprisesitablyinvolvesuse(unlessthetargetsareferaltheconservationofrelevantcomponentsofpopulations).Fromanotherperspective,conser-biodiversityoutsidetheirnormalhabitatsinandvationofBFAcanbeviewedasapre-requisiteforaroundproductionsystems.Thismayinvolvetheuse.AsidefromtheobviouspointthatindividualmaintenanceofliveorganismsatsitessuchascomponentsofBFAcannotbeusediftheyhavebotanicgardens,aquaria,fieldgenebanks,zoosbecomeextinct,sustainableuseofafoodandorrare-breedfarms,orstorageofseeds,pollenagriculturalsystem,andthegeneticresourcesorvegetativeplanttissuesorcryoconserveditcontains,maydependontheconservationofmaterials,suchasanimalsemenorembryos,inneighbouring(ormoredistant)ecosystemsthatgenebanks.provideitwithessentialservices.SustainableuseProductionsystemSustainableuseofthecomponentsofbiodiversityForthepurposeofthisreport,aproductionsystemisoneofthethreeobjectivesoftheCBD,whichisacategoryofmanagementunit(farm,livestockdefinesthetermasfollows:“theuseofcompo-holding,foreststand,fishery[inanaturalornentsofbiologicaldiversityinawayandataratehuman-madewaterbody],aquacultureholding,thatdoesnotleadtothelong-termdeclineofbio-ormixedmanagementunit)thatsharescommonlogicaldiversity,therebymaintainingitspotentialcharacteristicswithrespecttothetypesofspeciestomeettheneedsandaspirationsofpresentandraisedorharvestedandthetypesofmanage-futuregenerations.”mentpractised.Thefollowingsystemsweredistinguishedinthecountry-reportingprocess:InthecaseofBFA,“use”istakeninthisreportgrassland-basedlivestocksystems;landlesstoincludethevariouspracticalactivitiesinvolvedlivestocksystems;naturallyregeneratedforests;incultivatingorraisingdomesticatedspecies,theplantedforests;self-recruitingcapturefisheries;implementationofformalorinformalgenetic-culture-basedfisheries;fedaquaculture;non-fedimprovementactivitiesandthedomesticationaquaculture;irrigatedcropsystems(rice);irri-ofadditionalwildspecies,theintroductionofgatedcropsystems(other);rainfedcropsystems;domesticatedorwildspeciesintonewproductionandmixedproductionsystems.SeeTable1.1forsystems,themanagementofwildspeciesandfurtherdetailsofthisclassificationsystem.theirhabitatsinandaroundproductionsystems14thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREintroduction1Table1.1Production-systemclassificationusedinthisreportNameoftheDescriptionproductionsystemLivestockgrassland-basedSystemsinwhichtheanimalsobtainalargeproportionoftheirforageintakebygrazingnaturalorsownpastures,systemsincludes:Livestocklandlesssystems•ranching:grassland-basedsystemsinwhichlivestockiskeptonprivatelyownedrangeland;•pastoralist:grassland-basedsystemsinwhichthelivestockkeepersmovewiththeirherdsorflocksinanopportunisticNaturallyregeneratedforestswayoncommunallandtofindfeedandwaterfortheiranimals(eitherfromornotfromafixedhomebase).PlantedforestsSystemsinwhichlivestockproductionisseparatedfromthelandwherethefeedgiventotheanimalsisproduced.Self-recruitingcaptureIncludes:fisheries•primary:forestsofnativespecies,wheretherearenoclearlyvisibleindicationsofhumanactivitiesandtheCulture-basedfisheriesecologicalprocessesarenotdirectlydisturbedbyhumans;Fedaquaculture•modifiednatural:forestsofnaturallyregeneratednativespecieswherethereareclearlyvisibleindicationsofNon-fedaquaculturesignificanthumanactivities;•semi-natural(assistednaturalregeneration):silviculturalpracticesinnaturalforestbyintensivemanagementIrrigatedcrops(rice)Irrigatedcrops(other)(weeding,fertilizing,thinning,selectivelogging).RainfedcropsIncludes:Mixedproductionsystems•semi-natural(plantedcomponent):forestsofnativespecies,establishedthroughplantingorseeding,intensively(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandmanaged;fisheriesmixed)•plantations(productive):forestsofintroducedand/ornativespeciesestablishedthroughplantingorseedingSource:FAO,2013b.mainlyforproductionofwoodornon-woodgoods;•plantations(protective):forestsofintroducedand/ornativespecies,establishedthroughplantingorseedingmainlyforprovisionofservices.Includescapturefisheriesinmarine,coastalandinlandareasthatcaninvolve:•naturalecosystems;•modifiedecosystemse.g.reservoirsandricepaddies.Fisheriesbasedonresources,therecruitmentofwhichoriginatesorissupplementedfromculturedstocks(i.e.populationschosenforcultureandnotstocksinthesamesenseasthattermisusedforcapturefisheries)raisingtotalproductionbeyondthelevelsustainablethroughnaturalprocesses.Thefarmingofaquaticorganismsincludingfish,molluscs,crustaceans,aquaticplants,crocodiles,alligators,turtlesandamphibians.Farmingimpliessomesortofinterventionintherearingprocesstoenhanceproduction,suchasregularstocking,feedingorprotectionfrompredators.Farmingalsoimpliesindividualorcorporateownershipofthestockbeingcultivated(i.e.thepopulationchosenforcultureandnotastockinthesamesenseasthattermisusedforcapturefisheries).Fedaquacultureproductionutilizesorhasthepotentialtoutilizeaquafeedsofanytype,incontrasttothefarmingoffilter-feedinginvertebratesandaquaticplantsthatreliesexclusivelyonnaturalproductivity.Alsodefinedas“farmingofaquaticorganismsutilizingaquafeedsincontrasttothatderivingnutritiondirectlyfromnature.”Thefarmingofaquaticorganismsincludingfish,molluscs,crustaceansandaquaticplantsthatdonotneedsupplementalfeeding.Farmingimpliessomesortofinterventionintherearingprocesstoenhanceproduction,suchasregularstocking,feedingorprotectionfrompredators.Farmingalsoimpliesindividualorcorporateownershipofthestockbeingcultivated(i.e.thepopulationchosenforcultureandnotastockinthesamesenseasthattermisusedforcapturefisheries).Innon-fedaquaculturesystemscultureispredominatelydependentonthenaturalenvironmentforfood,e.g.aquaticplantsandmolluscs.Areaswherericeiscultivatedandpurposelyprovidedwithwater,includinglandirrigatedbycontrolledflooding.Agriculturalareaspurposelyprovidedwithwater,includinglandirrigatedbycontrolledflooding.Agriculturalpracticerelyingexclusivelyonrainfallasitssourceofwater.Productionsystemswithmultiplecomponents.Theyinclude:•crop–livestock:mixedsystemsinwhichlivestockproductionisintegratedwithcropproduction;•agropastoralist:livestock-orientedsystemsthatinvolvesomecropproductioninadditiontokeepinggrazinglivestockonrangelands;theymayinvolvemigrationwiththelivestockawayfromthecroplandforpartoftheyear;insomeareas,agropastoralsystemsemergedfrompastoralsystems;•agroforestry–livestock:mixedsystemsinwhichlivestockproductionisintegratedwiththeproductionoftreesandshrubs;•integratedaquaculture:mixedsystemsinwhichaquacultureisintegratedwithcropandlivestockproduction;mayinvolvepondsonfarms,floodedfields,enrichmentofpondswithorganicwaste,etc.;•othercombinations.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE15Chapter2RolesandimportanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureKeymessages•Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)–•ComponentsofBFAoftenprovideorcontributeincludingdomesticatedcropsandanimals,tomultipleecosystemservices,andthisneedsharvestedforestandaquaticspecies,andthetobebuiltonintheirmanagementandintheassociatedbiodiversityfoundinandaroundmanagementoftheproductionsystemswhereproductionsystems–isindispensabletofoodtheyarefound.security,sustainabledevelopmentandthesupplyofmanyvitalecosystemservices.•Manycountriesemphasizetheimportanceofgeneticdiversityasameansofcopingwith•BFAhelpstomakeproductionsystemsanddiverseproductionenvironmentsandadaptinglivelihoodsmoreresilienttoshocksandstresses,tofuturechallenges.Manyalsoemphasizetheincludingthoseassociatedwithclimatechange.roleofdiversification–usingmultiplespeciesorintegratingcrop,livestock,forestandaquatic•BFAisakeyresourceineffortstoincreasefoodresources,andconservingandmanaginghabitatproductionwhilelimitingorreducingnegativediversityatlandscapeorseascapescale–impactsontheenvironment.inpromotingresilience,improvinglivelihoodsandsupportingfoodsecurityandnutrition.•BFAcontributesinnumerouswaystothelivelihoodsofmanyhouseholds,particularlytothosethathavelimitedaccesstoexternalproductioninputsorliveinmarginalareaswithharshproductionenvironments.2.1Introductioninvolved,describesthemechanismsthroughwhichBFAdeliversbenefitsintherespectivethematicThischapterintroducesthecontributionsmadearea,andpresentsanoverviewofrelevantcoun-bybiodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)totry-report1responses.Thefocusofthecountry-humanlivelihoodsandwell-beingandtovariousreportanalysispresentedinthischapterisonaspectsofsustainabledevelopment.Thesectionswhatcountriesregardasthekeycontributionsofofthechapter,respectively,covertherolesofBFAineachofthethematicareascovered.2DetailsBFAinthesupplyofecosystemservices,inpro-motingtheresilienceofproductionsystemsand1Unlessotherwisespecified,theterm“countryreports”inthislivelihoods,inprovidingoptionsforthesustain-chapterreferstothecountryreportspreparedascontributionsableintensificationofproduction,insupportingtothepreparationofTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforlivelihoodsandinunderpinningfoodsecurityFoodandAgriculture.andnutrition.Eachsectionoutlinestheconcepts2CountrieswerespecificallyinvitedtoreportonthecontributionsofBFAineachofthesethematicareas.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE17OverviewPartAofwhatcountriesreportaboutspecificaspectsofwithobjectivescientificassessmentsabouttheBFAmanagement–muchofwhichwillberelevantstateofknowledgeregardingtheplanet’sbiodi-tomorethanoneofthethematicareas–ispro-versity,ecosystemsandthebenefitstheyprovidevidedinotherchaptersofthereport,particularlytopeople,aswellasthetoolsandmethodstoinChapters5and7.protectandsustainablyusethesevitalnaturalassets”(IPBES,2018b).2.2EcosystemservicesExploringtheroleofBFAinthedeliveryof•Diversebiologicalresources–domesticatedandecosystemserviceswasamajorobjectiveofThenon-domesticated,andateverylevelfromgenestoStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandecosystems–arefundamentaltofoodproductionandAgriculture(SoW-BFA)reportingprocess.Thetothesupplyofmanyessentialnon-foodproducts.country-reportingguidelinesfocusedparticu-larlyon“regulatingservices”3and“supporting•Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)deliversservices”,4althoughcountrieswerealsoinvitedmultiplesupportingandregulatingecosystemservicestoreportoncontributionsto“provisioningser-–includingpollination,formationandmaintenanceofvices”5and“culturalservices.”6Provisioningsoils,nutrientcycling,climateregulation,maintenanceservices(andtoalesserdegreeculturalservices)ofwatersupplies,andcontrolofpestsanddiseases–areextensivelydiscussedinthevarioussectoralthatarevitaltoproductionandtohumanwell-beingglobalassessmentsofgeneticresourcespreparedmorebroadly.byFAO(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).•BFAcontributesinmanywaystothesupplyofculturalThecountryreportsincludenumerousrefer-ecosystemservices,i.e.theaesthetic,recreational,encestothesignificanceofBFA–ateverylevelinspirational,spiritualandeducationalbenefitsthatfromlandscapesandseascapestowithin-speciespeopleobtainfromcontactwithnature.geneticdiversity–inthesupplyofecosystemservices.ExamplesarepresentedthroughouttheHumanwell-beingandlivelihoodsdependinreport.Forinstance,Sections2.5and2.6onthecountlesswaysontheEarth’secosystemsandthesignificanceofBFAtolivelihoodsandtofoodbiodiversitywithinthem.Inrecentdecades,ithassecurityandnutritionincludemanyreferencesbecomecommontodescribethisdependenceintoprovisioningservices.Section2.3onresiliencetermsofasetof“services”providedbyecosys-discussestheroleofBFAinreducingrisksasso-tems.Thisecosystemserviceconceptprovidedciatedwith(interalia)hazardssuchasnaturaltheframeworkfortheMillenniumEcosystemandhuman-induceddisasters.Sections2.4andAssessment,amajorstudyofthestateoftheChapter5featureexamplesofhowecosystemser-world’secosystemsandtheirinfluenceonhumanvicessuchaspollination,pestcontrolandnutrientwell-beingundertakenbetween2001and2005.cyclingaremobilizedtosupportsustainablepro-Ecosystemservicesweredefinedinthiscaseasductionandintegratedintovariousmanagement“thebenefitshumansderivefromecosystems”strategies.Chapter4providesfurtherinformation(MEA,2005a).TheconceptalsounderpinsTheontherolesofcomponentsofBFAinthesupplyEconomicsofEcosystemsandBiodiversity(TEEB)initiative,aglobalstudylaunchedin2007with3DefinedbyMEA(2005a)asthe“benefitsobtainedfromthetheaimofprovidingabetterunderstandingregulationofecosystemprocesses.”oftheeconomicvalueofsuchservices(TEEB,2010b),andtheIntergovernmentalScience-Policy4DefinedbyMEA(2005a)asservices“thatarenecessaryforthePlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServicesproductionofallotherecosystemservices.”(IPBES),anindependentintergovernmentalbody,establishedin2012to“providepolicymakers5DefinedbyMEA(2005a)as“theproductsobtainedfromecosystems.”6DefinedbyMEA(2005a)as“nonmaterialbenefitspeopleobtainfromecosystemsthroughspiritualenrichment,cognitivedevelopment,reflection,recreation,andaestheticexperiences.”18thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2ofecosystemservices,andinparticulardiscussesimportantinspecificgeographicalareasortopar-trendsintheirsupplywithinthevariousproduc-ticularsectionsofthepopulation,forexamplefishtionsystemcategoriesconsideredinthisreport.insmallislanddevelopingstatesandlivestockinChapter7touchesontheroleofinsituconserva-pastoralistcommunities.Moreover,inadditiontotionprogrammesinmaintainingthesupplyofacaloriesandprotein,foodsecurityandgoodnutri-rangeofecosystemservices.tionrequireadequateaccesstovitamins,miner-alsandessentialfattyacids.ThesenutrientsareThissectionprovidesashortintroductoryover-foundinvaryingquantitiesinproductsderivedviewoftherolesofBFAinthedeliveryofeco-fromthevariousspecies,varietiesandbreedsofsystemservicesbothwithinandbeyondthefoodplants,animalsandmicro-organismsthatareusedandagriculturesector.Amoredetailedaccountassourcesoffood.canbefoundinthethematicstudyBiodiversityforfoodandagricultureandecosystemservices(FAO,Crop,livestock,forestandaquaticproduction2019),preparedaspartoftheSoW-BFAprocesssystemsandthebiodiversityusedinandassoci-(andasindicatedaboveexamplesfromthecountryatedwiththemsupplyawiderangeofnon-foodreportscanbefoundthroughoutthereport).products,includingfuels(e.g.woodanddung),timberandotherconstructionmaterials,plantand2.2.1Provisioningservicesanimalfibresusedinthemanufactureoftextiles,animalhidesandskins,variousmaterialsusedtoTheworld’sfoodproductiondependsonitster-producemedicinesorforbiochemicalpurposes,restrialandaquaticecosystems.Approximatelyandornamentalproductssuchasflowers.Theyare82percentofthecaloriesinthehumanfoodalsoasourceofgeneticresourcesthatcanbeusedsupplyareprovidedbyterrestrialplants,inplantandanimalbreeding.Theycontributein16percentbyterrestrialanimalsand1percentbyvariouswaystothesupplyoffreshwaterthatcanaquaticanimalsandplants.Thefiguresforproteinbeuseddomestically,infoodandagricultureorinsupplyare60percentfromterrestrialplants,industry(seediscussionofwater-relatedservices33percentfromterrestrialanimalsand7percentinthefollowingsection).fromaquaticanimalsandplants.7Withineachofthesebroadcategories,arangeofdifferentAhighdegreeofdiversityamongthespecies,species–andvarieties,breedsandpopulationsvarieties,breeds,populationsandecosystemsthatwithinspecies–areusedinfoodproduction(seesupplyprovisioningservicescancontributeinaSection4.2forfurtherdiscussion).Awidevarietynumberofwaystoincreasingthequantity,qualityofwildfoods,includingfruits,leafyvegetables,andstabilityofoutputandtotheefficiencyofwoodyfoliage,bulbsandtubers,cerealsandproduction.Inthecaseofforests,forexample,agrains,nutsandkernels,sapsandgums(eatenstudyofdatafrom44countriesfoundaconsistentorusedtomakedrinks),mushrooms,terrestrialpositiverelationshipbetweentreediversityandinvertebrates(insects,snails,etc.),honey,birds’productivityatlandscape,countryandecoregioneggs,fish,shellfishandmeatfromsmallandlargescales,withonaveragea10percentlossinbiodi-vertebrates(WHOandCBD,2015),contributetoversityleadingtoa3percentlossinproductivitythedietsoflargenumbersofpeople,particularly(Liangetal.,2016).Likewise,alarge-scaleexperi-indevelopingcountries(BharuchaandPretty,mentinChinacomparingforestplotsplantedwith2010).Anevenwiderrangeofspeciescontributedifferentnumbersoftreespeciesfoundthatcom-tothefunctioningoftheecosystemsuponwhichbiningmultiplespeciesprovidedhigherlevelsoffoodproductiondepends.productivity:aftereightyears,16-speciesmixtureshadaccumulatedmorethantwiceasmuchcarbonGlobalaveragesmaskthefactthatcertainashadmonoculturesonaverage(Huangetal.,sectorsoffoodproductionmaybeextremely2018).ThecontributionsofBFAtotheresilienceofproductiontoshocksandstressesandtoeffortsto7AllfiguresinthisparagrapharebasedonFAOSTATdatafor2013.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE19OverviewPartAsustainablyincreaseoutputarediscussedfurther(Griffithsetal.,2000).MicrobialcommunitiescaninSections2.3and2.4.givethesoildisease-suppressivequalitiesthathelptoprotectplantsfrompathogens(e.g.Schlatter2.2.2Regulatingandsupportingetal.,2017).Plants,includingcropandforageservicesplantsandforesttrees,provideprotectionagainsterosionandcontributeorganicmatter(AngersPollinationandCaron,1998).Dungfromabove-groundAnestimated87.5percentofallfloweringplantanimals,includingdomesticatedlivestock,canbespeciesarepollinatedbyanimals(Ollerton,Winfreeanimportantsourceofnutrients(Graham,GrandyandTarrant,2011).Cropsatleastpartiallypolli-andThelen,2009;OzluandKumar,2018;Sradnicknatedbyanimalsaccountfor35percentofglobaletal.,2013).Insomeagroecosystems,shadefromfoodproduction(Kleinetal.,2007)andareparticu-treesprovidesprotectiontoearthwormpopu-larlysignificantinthesupplyofmicronutrientsforlationsandthuspromotesimprovementstosoilhumanconsumption,forexampleaccountingforstructure(Barriosetal.,2018).morethan90percentofavailablevitaminCandmorethan70percentofavailablevitaminA(EilersAir-qualityandclimateregulationetal.,2011).Bees–includingbothmanagedandEcosystemsusedforfoodandagricultureandthewildspecies−aregenerallythemainprovidersofbiodiversitywithinthemcanaffecttheclimatepollinationservices.Otherinsects,birds,batsandatglobal,continentalandlocalscales.Forests,someotheranimalsalsocontribute.grasslandsandfreshwater,marineandcoastalecosystemsplaykeyrolesintheEarth’scarbonWhilefarmersinintensivesystemsoftenrentcycleandhenceinregulatinggreenhouse-gasmanagedhoneybeestopollinatetheircrops,concentrationsintheatmosphere.Inallcases,thethemajorityoffarmersrelyonbeepopulationsuptakeandreleaseofcarbondependoncomplexmaintainedbylocalbeekeepersandonwildpol-processesinvolvinganenormousrangeofinter-linators.Moreover,ithasbeenshownthatpolli-actingspecies(Beedetal.,2011;Cocketal.,2011;nationservicesareenhancedbythepresenceofLaffoleyandGrimsditch,2009;Nellemannetal.,wildinsectsevenwherehoneybeesareabundant2009;PullinandWhite,2011).Becauseofthe(Garibaldietal.,2013).Bothhigherpollinatorcomplexityinvolved,thesignificanceofdiversitydensityandhigherspeciesdiversityofpollinatorpersecanbedifficulttoevaluate(i.e.whether,visitstoflowershavebeenfoundtobeassociatedandtowhatextent,diversebiologicalcommu-withhighercropyields(Garibaldietal.,2016).nitiesaremoreeffectiveprovidersofcarbon-Speciesdiversityamongpollinatorscanalsobesequestrationservicesthanlessdiverseones).Someimportantinbufferingthesupplyofpollinationstudiesingrasslandshavefoundthatmorediverseservicesagainsttheeffectsoffluctuationsinplantcommunitiesarebetteratsequestratingthepopulationsofindividualspecies(Kremen,carbon(FornaraandTilman,2008;Langeetal.,WilliamsandThorp,2002).2015;Steinbeissetal.,2008).Moregenerally,thehealthandresilienceofecosystemssuchassoilsSoil-relatedecosystemservicesandforests–andhence,otherthingsbeingequal,Soilformationandmaintenanceareinextricablyprobablytheircapacitytosequestercarbon–tendlinkedtobiodiversity.Micro-organismsandinver-tobenefitfromgreaterdiversity(e.g.Griffithsettebrates,inparticular,arevitaltosoilhealth(Beedal.,2000;Hicksetal.,2014;Looetal.,2011).etal.,2011;Cocketal.,2011;Schulzetal.,2013).StudieshaveshownthatreducingsoilbiodiversityAsidefromitscontributionstocarbonseques-canimpairvarioussoilprocesses,includingdecom-tration,studiesinvariouspartsoftheworldhaveposition,nutrientretentionandnutrientcyclingshownthatforestvegetationcanmoderatetem-(Waggetal.,2014),andreduceresiliencetoshocksperaturesandincreaserainfall,includinginsome20thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2casesinfluencingrainfallpatternsacrosslargeaquaticspecies,causeorspreaddiseasesorother-swathesoflandthatarevitaltoagriculturalwisedisrupthumanactivitiesorthesupplyofproductionatacontinentalscale(e.g.Alkamaecosystemservices.ThedirectprovidersoftheseandCescatti,2016;MacedoandCastello,2015;services(e.g.predators,parasitoidsandherbivoresSpracklen,ArnoldandTaylor,2012;Wrightetal.,thatconsumepests,diseasevectorsorweeds)are2017).Whereairqualityisconcerned,treesandreferredtoasbiologicalcontrolagents.Theseotherplantsmakemajorcontributionstothespeciescanincludeboththosethatarenaturallyremovalofparticulatematterandgaseouspollu-presentinthelocalareaandthoseintroducedtionfromtheair(e.g.Nowaketal.,2014).deliberatelytohelpcontrolparticularproblems.ThelatterapproachhastobetreatedwithcautionNatural-hazardregulationastherehavebeencasesinwhichspeciesintro-Thefrequencyofseveralkindsofextremeducedtocontrolpestshavethemselvescausedweathereventsispredictedtoincreaseundermajorproblems(e.g.DeClercq,Masonandclimatechange,andthusonewayinwhichBFABabendreier,2011).cancontributetoreducingthethreatposedbynaturaldisastersisviaitsabove-mentionedPest-anddisease-regulationservicesarepro-contributionstoclimatechangemitigation.videdbyawiderangeofterrestrialandaquaticHowever,itcanalsoplayamoredirectprotec-invertebratesandvertebrates,micro-organismstiverole(seeSection2.3).Forexample,anumberandplants(thelattermaycompetewithweedsforofcoastalecosystems(mangroves,coralreefs,resourcesorreleasesubstancesthatareharmfultoseagrassmeadows,kelpforests,etc.)provideweedsorrepelanimalpests–ICIPE,2015;Lemessaprotectionagainstcoastalstormsandflood-andWakjira,2015;Teasdale,2003).Aswellaswilding.Forests,wetlandsandgrasslandsregulatespecies,theprovidersofpest-anddisease-regula-waterflowsanddiminishtheriskoffloodingintionservicescanincludedomesticatedplantsanddownstreamareas.Treesandotherterrestrialanimals.Forexample,covercropscanbeusedtovegetationcanprovidephysicalshelteragainstcombatweeds,andfarmedfishorducksusedtowind,rain,snoworsun.Vegetation,whetherincontrolpestsinpaddyfields(HalwartandGupta,croplands,forestsorgrasslands,helpstomain-2004;Teo,2001).Asidefromthebiologicalcontroltainstablesoilsandhencereducehazardssuchagentsthemselves,thesupplyofpestanddiseaseassandstormsandlandslides.Grazinganimalsregulationservicesdependsonthepresenceofcanbeusedincertaincircumstancestoreducespeciesthatprovidethemwiththeresourcestheytheriskoffiresoravalanches(Fabre,Guérinneedtosurvive,forexampleshelter,nestingsitesandBouquet,2010;Lovreglio,Meddour-Saharandalternativefoodsources(e.g.Gurretal.,2017).andLeone,2014;Pecoraetal.,2015),althoughinsomeecosystemstheycanincreasefireriskTherelationshipbetweendiversityperseand(e.g.Leonard,KirkpatrickandMarsden-Smedley,theprovisionofthisserviceisagaincomplex.2010).Moreover,althoughgrazingisessentialBiologicalcontrolagentsmaycomplementeachtothemaintenanceofahealthyplantflorainother’sactionsinspaceortime,buttheremaymanyecosystems,overgrazingisamajorglobalalsobeinhibitoryeffects(e.g.whenonecontroldriverofsoilerosion,soilcompactionandrelatedagentpreysonanother)(RoccaandMesselink,hazards(FAOandITPS,2015).2017;FinkeandDenno,2004).However,thereisevidencethatmoreoftenthannotthereisaPestanddiseaseregulationpositiverelationshipbetweendiversityofbio-Manydifferentcomponentsofbiodiversityfoundlogicalcontrolagentpopulationsandthesupplyinandaroundproductionsystemshelptocontrolofpest-controlservices(Letourneauetal.,speciesthatmayattackcrops,livestock,treesor2009).Habitatdiversitywithintheagriculturallandscapetendstoincreasethesupplyoftheseservices(Bianchi,BooijandTscharntke,2006;thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE21OverviewPartABommarco,KleijnandPotts,2013;Hooperetal.,forestryandfishing,itisclearthatmanyproduc-2005;KremenandMiles,2012;Tscharntkeetal.,tionsystemsarediversenaturalorsemi-natural2005).Diversityamongthespecies,varietiesandecosystemsthatprovidehabitatsforavastrangebreedsofcrops,livestockoraquaticanimalsraisedofspecies.Attheotherendofthespectrum,manyinagivenareacanhinderthespreadofdiseasescrop,treeplantationandlivestocksystemsraiseandhelptoreducetheriskofdevastatinglossesonlyone,oronlyaveryfew,domesticatedspecies(seeSection2.3forfurtherdiscussion).andhavelargelybeenstrippedevenofsemi-naturallandscaperemnantsthatwouldcontributetoWater-relatedecosystemserviceshabitatdiversity.However,somecropandlivestockEcosystemsusedforfoodandagricultureaffectsystemsareveryfarfrombeinghomogeneousinboththequantityandthequalityofwatersup-theirbiologicalcomposition.Forexample,inmanyplies.Healthysoilsandvegetation(seeaboveforpartsofthetropicspeoplemaintainhighlydiversediscussionoftheroleofbiodiversityinmaintaininghomegardensthatserveassourcesoffood,medi-healthysoils),whetherinforests,grasslands,wet-cines,ornamentalandculturallyimportantplants,landsorcropfields,helptoregulatetherun-offoffuel,fodderandotherproducts(seeSection5.5forwaterintodownstreamareas.Thiscanbothhelpfurtherinformation).Inplaces,thesegardensservetoreducetheriskofflooding(seeabove)andtoasrefugesfornativewildplantsthatarethreat-keepstreamsandriversflowingduringdryperiodsenedbyhabitatlossinthewiderlandscape(Hemp,oftheyear(TEEB,2010b).Wherewaterqualityis2006;Lariosetal.,2013;WebbandKabir,2009).Forconcerned,arangeofdifferentphysical,chemicalexample,coffeeplantsinhomegardensinEthiopiaandbiologicalprocessescontributetoremovinghavebeenfoundtobeimportanthabitatsforacontaminants(harmfulorganicandinorganicrangeofrainforestepiphyticspecies(Hylanderandsubstances,pathogenicmicrobes,etc.)fromwaterNemomissa,2008).Somegrasslandsusedinlive-suppliesastheypassthroughsoilsorthroughstockproductionarealsoverybiodiversehabitatswaterbodiessuchasriversandlakes.Manydif-(FAO,2014c)(seealsoSection4.5.6).ferentorganismscontributetotheprocessoffilteringpollutantsbeforetheycanenterwaterAtalandscapescale,cropandlivestockfarmingbodies,transferringthemoutofthewater(e.g.sometimesadddiversitytothe“mosaic”ofhabitatintobottomsedimentsortheatmosphere)ortypespresent.So-calledconservationgrazing–thedegradingthemintobenignorless-harmfulcom-intentionaluseofgrazinganimalssuchascattle,ponents(Ostroumov,2010).Waterfromforestedsheepandhorsestomaintainvegetationinastatewatershedsisgenerallylesscontaminatedwiththatprovidessuitablehabitatforparticularkindspollutantsthanwaterfromnon-forestedwater-ofwildlife–hasbecomeawidespreadpractice,sheds;manycitiesdeliberatelyprotectforestsasparticularlyinEurope(e.g.WoodlandTrust,2012).partoftheirwater-purificationstrategies(DudleyandStolton,2003).Someecosystemtypes,suchas2.2.3Culturalservicestropicalmountaincloudforests(Bruijnzeel,1990),oldeucalyptusforests(Kuczera,1987)andAndeanBothproductionsystemsasawholeandtheirpáramos(PostelandThompson,2005)(seeBox4.7components(includingspecies,varietiesorbreedsinSection4.3),alsoincreasenetwaterflow.ofcrops,livestock,treesandaquaticorganisms)cancontributetoculturalecosystemservices,i.e.Habitatprovisioningtheaesthetic,recreational,inspirational,spiritualFoodandagriculturalproductionsystemsare,onandeducationalbenefitsthatpeopleobtainfromtheonehand,majordriversofhabitatloss(CBDcontactwithecosystems.BiodiversityhasamajorSecretariat,2010),butontheotherareoftensig-influenceontheaestheticappearanceofmanynificanthabitatsintheirownright.Inthecaseofecosystems,theircapacitytoinspire,theirsuitabil-ityforvariousrecreationalactivitiesandtheiredu-cationalsignificance.Someculturalorrecreational22thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2activitiesdependdirectlyonthepresenceofpar-Thebiodiversitypresentinandaroundfoodticularspecies(orwithin-speciespopulations)orandagriculturalsystemsremainscentraltotheacertainlevelofspeciesdiversity,forexampleculturesandworldviewsofmanyindigenousvariouswildlife-watchingactivitiesorrecreationalpeoplesaroundtheworld,whooftenmaintainafishing.Inothercases,characteristicspeciesorbio-wealthoftraditionalknowledgeontheiruseandlogicalcommunitiesaddtotheparticularaestheticmanagement.Manystudieshavedemonstratedandinspirationalqualitiesofalocallandscape.thecontributionsthatindigenouspeoplesandotherruralcommunitiesmaketotheconserva-ManyculturalecosystemservicesareassociatedtionanduseofBFAviatheirculturalnormsandwithwildecosystems.However,foodandagricul-practices(Berkes,FolkeandGadgil,1995;Gadgil,turalproductionsystemsandtheirdomesticatedBerkesandFolke,1993)(seealsoSection8.2).andassociatedbiodiversityalsocontributetotheseservices.Thisisthecase,forexample,for2.3Resiliencemanyculinarytraditions,whichareoftenlinkedtolocalproductsandmaydependonparticular•Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)atlocalspecies,varietiesorbreedsofcrops,livestockintraspecific,speciesandecosystemlevelsoraquaticspecies.Thesameistrueforavarietycanimprovetheresilienceofproductionsystemsofnon-foodproductsmadefromwood,plantbydecreasingvulnerabilitytostressesandshocks,andanimalfibres,skins,feathers,bonesorhorns.reducingtheirimpactsandsupportingrecoveryParticularplantsandanimals,orproductsobtainedandadaptation.fromthem,areimportantelementsinmanycul-turalandreligiouseventsandfestivals.Gardening•BFAprovidesoptionsforadaptingproductionsystemsandraisingsmalllivestockspeciessuchaschickenstothethreatsposedbyclimatechangeandotherarewidelypursuedasleisureactivities,andinsomeenvironmentalchanges,strengtheningdisasterprevention,placeslarger-scalehobbyfarmingispopular.Petsresponseandrehabilitationmeasuresandcombatingandcompanionanimalsofvariouskinds,includingthreatsposedbyinvasivealienspecies.aquariumspecies,arealsowidelypopular.Horsesandotheranimalsareusedinvarioussports.•KeyprioritiesforenhancingthecontributionsofBFAtoresilienceincludeensuringthatBFAisconservedAgricultural,pastoral,wetlandandforestandremainsavailabletoproducers,strengtheninglandscapesareoftenvaluedfortheiraestheticresearchintotherelationshipsbetweenBFAandqualities,theirculturalsignificanceorassitesforresilience,anddevelopingmanagementstrategiesrecreationalactivities.AnumberoftraditionalthatintegratearangeofcomponentsofBFAacrossaagriculturallandscapesarerecognizedasculturalrangeofscales.WorldHeritageSites,8forinstancetheCulturalCoffeeLandscapesofColombia,theRiceTerracesRecognitionthatthecapacityoffoodandagri-ofthePhilippineCordillerasandtheLavauxculturalsystemstomeettheneedsofagrowingVineyardTerracesofSwitzerland(Mitchell,RösslerpopulationisvulnerabletovariouskindsofshocksandTricard,2009),orasGloballyImportant–andthatproductionsystemsneedtoadapttoAgricultureHeritageSites9(FAO,2018c).Particulartheeffectsof(oftenaccelerating)environmental,crops,fish,treesortypesoflivestockmaybevitaleconomicandsocialtrendsanddriversofchange–tothe“senseofplace”associatedwithagivenhasledtoincreasinginterestintheconceptoflocation.Grazinglivestockcanplayamajorroleinresilience.Forexample,SustainableDevelopmentshapingthelocalvegetationandhencethechar-GoalTarget1.5readsasfollows:“By2030,buildacterofsemi-naturallandscapes.theresilienceofthepoorandthoseinvulnera-blesituationsandreducetheirexposureandvul-8http://whc.unesco.org/en/listnerabilitytoclimate-relatedextremeeventsand9http://www.fao.org/giahs/en/thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE23OverviewPartAothereconomic,socialandenvironmentalshocksthreecapabilities:buffercapability−theabilityanddisasters.”Theconceptisalsomentionedinofthesystemtocopewithshocksandcontinueseveralothertargets.FAO’sStrategicProgrammefunctioningmoreorlessasbefore;adaptiveincludesthegoalofincreasing“theresiliencecapability−theabilityofthesystemtoadjustoflivelihoodstothreatsandcrisis”(Strategictoexternalandinternaldriversofchange;andObjective5)(FAO,2013c).10transformativecapability−theabilitytoundergoradicalchanges,forexampletotransitionsuc-OnedifficultywithprovidinganoverviewofcessfullytoacompletelydifferentagriculturaltherolesofBFAinpromotingresilienceisthattheenterpriseorlivelihoodstrategy.termisusedindifferentwaysindifferentcontexts.TheconceptemergedintheecologicalliteratureInthecontextofFAO’sStrategicObjective5inthe1960sand1970stodescribetheresponse(seeabove),resiliencehasbeendefinedasfollows:ofecosystemstodisturbances(e.g.Holling,“theabilitytopreventandmitigatedisastersand1973).Resilienceissometimesthoughtofasthecrisesaswellastoanticipate,absorb,accommo-capacityofasystemtowithstandorrecoverfromdateorrecoverandadaptfromtheminatimely,shocks.However,inrecentyearsithasincreas-efficientandsustainablemanner.Thisincludesinglytendedtobeviewedinamoredynamicwayprotecting,restoringandimprovinglivelihoods–asthecapacitytomaintainparticularpropertiessystemsinthefaceofthreatsthatimpactagri-(e.g.inthecaseofanecosystemtocontinuesup-culture,nutrition,foodsecurityandfoodsafety”plyingparticularecosystemservices)intheface(FAO,2018d).ofchangesofvariouskinds(e.g.Elmqvistetal.,2003;Folkeetal.,2004).Wherefoodandagricul-Thediverseinterpretationsoftheresilienceturalsystemsareconcerned,thesechangeswillconceptarereflectedinthecountryreports.Someinevitablyincludechangesinmanagementstrat-countries’responsesfocusontheecologicalaspectsegiesandpracticesandinbroadersocial,culturalofresilience,whileothersalsorefertosocial,eco-andpoliticalstructuresandprocesses.Theneednomicorculturalaspects.Somecountriesempha-totakethisintoaccountandaddressthemulti-sizeresiliencetoshockevents,whileothersalsofacetednatureofresilienceinhumansocietiesrefertoresiliencetomoregradualchanges.hasledtotheemergenceoftheconceptofsocial–ecologicalresilience,whichhasbeenappliedtoaThissectionbeginsbypresentinganoverviewrangeofproductionsystemsinrecentyears(e.g.ofthewaysinwhichBFAhelpstobuildresilientBerkes,2012;CabelandOelofse,2012;Darnhoferproductionsystemsandlivelihoods.Itthenlooksetal.,2010;Haider,QuinlanandPeterson,2012;inmoredetailattherolesofBFAinpromotingKremenandMiles,2012).Resilienceinthissenseresiliencetoanumberofspecificchallenges,hasbeendescribedasthecapacitytocontinuallynamelyclimatechange,disastersandemergencieschange,adaptandtransform,throughinnova-ofvariouskinds,thethreatposedbyinvasivealiention,inresponsetoexternaldriversandinter-speciesandfood-chainthreatssuchaspestandnalprocesses(Folkeetal.,2010).Forexample,diseaseoutbreaks.NeedsandprioritiesintermsDarnhofer(2014)proposesthatresilienceinagri-ofstrengtheningthecontributionsofBFAtoresil-culturalsystemscanbeunderstoodintermsofiencearepresentedattheendofthesection.10ThissectiondrawsinpartonthethematicstudyThe2.3.1Overviewofthecontributionscontributionofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturetotheofbiodiversityforfoodandresilienceofproductionsystems(Duval,MijatovicandHodgkin,agriculture2018)commissionedtosupportthepreparationofTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.FurtherDiversityateverylevelfromgenetictoecosystemdiscussionandfurtherexamplesofthecontributionsofBFAtocontributestothecapacityofproductionsystemsresiliencecanbefoundinthisdocument.tocopewithshocksandtoadapttochange.Thesecontributionsinvolveavarietyofdifferentpro-cessesoperatingateveryscalefromthatofthe24thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2individualorganism,throughthefield(orpondproductioninSamoainthe1990s(Hunter,Pouonoorplotoftrees),thefarm(orholding)andtheandSemisi,1998;alsomentionedinthecountrylandscape,totheplanetasawhole.ResiliencecanreportfromSamoa).beconferrednotonlytothebiologicalcompo-nentsofasystembutalsotosocio-economiccom-Asidefrombiophysicalriskssuchasadverseponentssuchasahousehold’slivelihoodortheweatherordiseaseoutbreaks,diversifyingthefoodsecurityofacommunity.Itcanbeenhancedspecies,breedsandvarietiesraisedcanalsoreducebothbythenaturalpropertiesofunmanagedbio-risksassociatedwitheconomicshockssuchasthediversityandbyhumaninterventionsthatutilizelossofmarketsforparticularproducts.Moreover,biodiversity.ThesemanydimensionsoftenoverlieasdiscussedfurtherinSection2.5,somecompo-eachother.ThefollowingdescriptionfocusesonnentsofBFAsuchaslivestockcanserveasstoresthewaysinwhichresiliencecanbeenhancedatofwealththatcanbedrawnupontocoverurgenttheleveloftheproductionsystemorhousehold.expendituresortocompensateforlossofincomefromotheractivities(on-farmoroff-farm).TherearenumerousmechanismsthroughwhichthecharacteristicsofindividualcomponentsofAnothercomponentofBFAthatcanhelphouse-BFAorthepresenceofhighlevelsofdiversityholdstocopewithfluctuationsinthesupplyofcanpromoteresilience.Riskcanbereduced,forfoodorincome-generatingopportunitiesiswildexample,byraisingspecies,breedsorvarietiesfood.Awiderangeofsuchfoods,includingaquaticthatarewelladaptedtocopingwithshockssuchandnon-woodforestproducts,areoftenimportantasdroughtsordiseaseoutbreaksorbyraisingacomponentsofthedietorsourcesofincomeduringnumberofdifferenttypesofcrops,livestockorleanseasonsoftheyearorintimesofdroughtoraquaticorganismssoastoincreasethelikelihoodotherdisaster(seeSections2.6and4.4).thatatleastsomewillsurvivesuchevents(Hesseetal.,2013).FarmersintheSahel,forexample,Inadditiontohedgingagainsttheriskofseveretendtohedgeagainstthethreatofdroughtbyproductionlossesorlivelihooddisruptionintheplantingbothlong-andshort-cyclemilletvarie-variouswaysdescribedabove,utilizingadiverseties(ibid.).Analysisofdatafromasurveyintherangeofcrop,livestock,aquaticortreeresourcesTigrayregionofEthiopiashowedthatmaintain-canalsodirectlyhelptoreducevulnerabilitytoingalargenumberofbarleyvarietiesreducedthestressesandshocks.Manydifferentmechanismsriskofcropfailure,withtheeffectbeingparticu-cancontribute.Forexample,integratinginter-larlymarkedinareasaffectedbylanddegradationcrops,hedgerowsorcovercrops,particularly(DiFalcoandChavas,2009).legumes,intoasystemcan(amongotherbene-fits)reducedroughtstressbyhelpingtoconserveProductionsystemsthatlackdiversitycanbewaterinthesoilprofile(Buckles,TriompheandmorevulnerabletosevereimpactsfromshocksSain,1998)andhelptoreplenishdepletedsoilsuchasdiseaseandpestoutbreaksthanthosefertility(Bunch,1999;Kang,WilsonandSipkens,withmorediversepopulations.Ifasinglevariety1981;KaumbuthoandKienzle.,2007;Sanchez,iswidelygrown,apestordiseasetowhichitlacks2000).Cropdiversification,includingrotationandresistancecanleadtoadramaticfallinproduc-intercroppingandtheuseofdiverseforageplantstion.Iflivelihoodsareheavilydependentontheinpastureland,canreducepestdamageandweedspeciesinquestion,theeffectscanbedisastrous.invasions(Altieri,1999;Chabi-Olayeetal.,2007;Overtheyears,thiskindofvulnerabilityhasbeenSandersonetal.,2007).illustratedinpracticeonanumberofoccasions,includingthefaminecausedbypotatoblightinIntegratingtreesintoacropproductionsystemIrelandinthe1840s,lossesinvariouscerealcropscanhelptomaintainafavourablemicroclimateintheUnitedStatesofAmericaduringthetwenti-forcropgrowthinthefaceofharshconditionsethcentury(Kenenietal.,2012)andlossesoftarointhewiderenvironment,forexamplekeepingtemperaturesandsolarradiationwithinaccept-ablelevelsorpreventingexcessivefluctuationthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE25OverviewPartAinsoilmoisturelevels(e.g.Lin,2007).Treesandhumandemands)orenablethemtocopebetterotherfeaturessuchashedgerowsandwild-withfutureextremeevents(althoughinthecaseflowerbanksatfieldmarginscanhelpmain-oflong-livedspecies,suchastrees,breedingtainpopulationsofkeysuppliersofecosystemprogrammesoperateontimescaleslongerthanservicessuchasinsectpollinators,biologicalthosenormallyassociatedwiththeconceptofcontrolagentsandearthworms(Barriosetal.,resilience).Cropwildrelatives,traditionalland-2018;IPBES,2016a;Reedetal.,2017).Treesracesandlocallyadaptedlivestockbreedsarecanalsohelpprotectlivestockfromclimaticanimportantresourceinthisrespectandtheirextremesandprovidefodderthatcanbeusedconservationandsustainableuseisakeypartofwhenothersourcesareinshortsupply(Gregory,overallresiliencestrategies.Genetic-improvement1995;JohnsonandNair,1985;Wagneretal.,programmesforvariouscomponentsofBFAare2013).Inturn,appropriatelymanagedlivestockdiscussedinSection5.9.cancontributetotheresilienceofcropproduc-tion.Forexample,inclusionofagrazedpastureBeyondthelevelofthefarmorholding,resil-rotationinacroppingsystemcan–throughtheiencecanbepromotedbyconservingorenhancingeffectsofgrazinganddunging–promotethehabitatdiversityacrossthelandscapeorseascape.accumulationofsoilorganicmatter,stimulateForexample,effortscanbemadetoconservehab-soil-microbialactivityandincreasethediversityitatssuchascoralreefs,mangrovesandforestsanddensityofsoilinvertebratemacrofaunathatprovideprotectionagainstextremeeventsandhencepromotealltheresilience-enhancingortoensurethatenoughdiversehabitatisavail-benefitsofhealthyandbiodiversesoils(Saltonabletoallowsufficientnumbersanddiversityofetal.,2014).Grazingduringapasturerotationecosystem-serviceproviderssuchaspollinatorstocanalsohelptosuppressweeds(Concençoetal.,bemaintainedoverthelongterminthefaceof2015;Saltonetal.,2014).AsnotedinSection2.2,shocksandchangingconditions.grazinganimalscanalsobeusedinthemanage-mentoffireriskandinthecontrolofpestsorSpecificexamplesfromthecountryreportsoninvasivespecies.SpecificmanagementstrategieshowBFAcontributestoresiliencearepresentedandpracticesinvolvingtheuseofdiversecom-inthesectionsbelowonresiliencetospecificponentsofbiodiversitythatcontributeinvarioustypesofthreat.Tosummarizebriefly,coun-waystoresiliencearediscussedingreaterdetailtries’responsesfocusmainlyondomesticatedinChapter5.plantsandanimals.Severalnotethesignificanceofspecies,breedsandvarietiesthatarewellOverthelongerterm,biodiversityincreasestheadaptedtocopingwithextremeeventsorreportrangeofoptionsthatfarmers,livestockkeepers,resilience-enhancingrolesofdiversityatspeciesforestdwellers,aquaculturistsandfisherscanandvarietyorbreedlevels.Althoughfewcoun-drawupontoadapttheirlivelihoodsandproduc-triesprovidedetailedinformationonparticulartionstrategiestochangingconditions,includingresilience-relatedbenefitsprovidedbyassoci-inrecoveringfromdisastersandothershocks.atedbiodiversity,manymentionthatresilienceAsidefromprovidingarangeofexistingoptionsisenhancedbythepresenceofdiversebiologicalthatcanpotentiallybeintroducedintoaproduc-communitiesinandaroundproductionsystemstionsystem(e.g.drought-ordisease-resistantorbylandscapesthatconsistofmosaicsofdiffer-species,varietiesorbreeds),diversity(inthiscaseenttypesofhabitat.Severalnotethatresiliencespecificallywithin-speciesdiversity)alsoprovidesisbeingreducedasaresultofthehomogen-therawmaterialforgeneticimprovementactivi-izationoflandscapesorseascapesortheloss,ties.Well-plannedbreedingprogrammescanhelpdegradationorfragmentationofwildlifehabi-adaptpopulationstothechallengesposedbytats.Severalalsomentiontherolesofwildfoodschangingproductionenvironments(andchangingasresourcesthatpeoplecandrawuponintimesoffoodshortage.26thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE22.3.2Resiliencetospecificthreatscharacteristicsthathelpthemtocopewithchal-lengesofthiskindandhencepotentiallyincreaseClimatechangetheresilienceofproductionsystemstotheeffectsThesignificanceofBFAineffortstocopewiththeofclimatechange.Asnotedabove,diversityeffectsofclimatechangehasreceivedincreas-increasesthechoicesavailabletoproducersiningattentioninrecentyears.Forexample,thetheireffortstoadaptproductionsystemsandtoResilienceOutcomeDocumentofthetwenty-thirdbreedersintheireffortstodevelopbetter-adaptedsessionoftheConferenceofthePartiestotheplantandanimalpopulations.Associatedbiodiver-UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimatesitycontributesbothtoclimatechangemitigationChangein2017recognizedthat“natureiscentral(e.g.bypromotingcarbonsequestrationandpro-toclimateresilience.Theprotection,sustainablevidingalternativestofossilfuel-basedagriculturalmanagementandrestorationofterrestrialandpractices)andtoclimatechangeadaptation(e.g.marineecosystemsarethemainelementsforbybufferingagainstthepotentiallossordeclineadaptationandresiliencetoachangingclimate”11ofindividualspeciesinvolvedinthesupplyof(UNFCCC,2017d).FAOhaspreparedanumberofecosystemservicessuchaspollination–seeforpublicationsinthisfield,includingtheClimateexampleChristmannandAw-Hassan,2012).smartagriculturesourcebook(FAO,2013d,2017c),areviewoftheeconomicsofplantgeneticresourceManycountry-reportresponsesrelatedtothemanagementforadaptationtoclimatechangerolesofBFAinenhancingresiliencenotethat(AsfawandLipper,2012),aseriesofstudiespre-therolesofBFAarebecoming(orareexpectedparedattherequestoftheCommissiononGenetictobecome)increasinglysignificantinthecontextResourcesforFoodandAgricultureontheinter-ofclimatechange.Asidefromthesespecificallyactionsbetweenclimatechangeandplant,animal,resilience-relatedresponses,countriesalsonoteforest,aquatic,invertebrateandmicro-organismthesignificanceofBFAinclimatechangeadapta-geneticresources(Beedetal.,2011;Cocketal.,tionandmitigationinvariousotherpartsoftheir2011;Jarvisetal.,2008;Looetal.,2011;Pillingreports.12ThefollowingparagraphsdiscusstheandHoffmann,2011;PullinandWhite,2011)andmainpointsraised.Copingwithclimatechange–therolesofgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture(FAO,2015b),aMaintaining,usinganddevelopingshortbookdrawingonthesectoralstudies.adaptedgeneticresourcesAnumberofcountriesnotethesignificanceofTosummarizebriefly(seeSection3.4.1forwell-adaptedspecies,varietiesorbreedsintermsfurtherdiscussionoftheeffectsofclimatechangeofenhancingresiliencetoclimatechange.SeveralonBFA),itispredictedthat,overvarioustime-specificexamplesofhowsuchcomponentsofBFAscalesandwithsubstantialregionalvariations,havebeenutilizedinadaptationeffortsarepro-crop,livestock,forestandaquaticproductionvided.Forexample,PapuaNewGuineamentionswillbeaffectedbyclimatechange,forexamplethedistributiontofarmersofcropaccessionsiden-becauseofhighertemperatures,lowerorhighertifiedinexsitucollectionsasbeingtoleranttosalin-rainfall,greaterpressurefrompestsanddiseases,ity(taroandcassavavarieties),drought(cassava,increasedoccurrenceofinvasivealienspecies,bananaandaibika13varieties)andflooding(taromorefrequentextremeeventssuchasfloodsanddroughts,and(inaquaticenvironments)lower12Thecountry-reportingguidelinesincludedaquestioninvitingoxygenlevels,greateracidityandhigherlevelscountriestoprovideinformationonclimatechange-relatedofturbidityorsiltation.Manyspecies,breedsorprojectsandprogrammesthatincludeexplicitreferencestovarietiesofplantsandanimalshavedistinctiveBFA(seeSection8.8.3forfurtherinformationonresponsestothisquestion).11Emphasis(boldtext)isintheoriginal.13Aibika(Abelmoschusmanihot)isatraditionalleafygreenvegetable.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE27OverviewPartAandbananavarieties).Itnotesthatthisactiv-thatarebeingtakentopromotediversitywithityprovedveryusefulinsustainingfoodsecurityadaptation-relatedobjectivesinmind.PapuaNewduringthedroughtthatstruckthecountryin2015Guineaagainprovidesanexample,reportingthatand2016,14when40percentofthepopulationwasaprojectimplementedbytheNationalAgricultureseriouslyaffected.PanamareportsthatitscriolloResearchInstituteusingaparticipatoryapproachlivestockbreedshaveacombinationofcharacter-tohelpcommunitiesdeterminetheirneedswithisticsthatarenotfoundinanyintroducedbreeds,regardtoclimatechangeadaptationincludedincludinghighfertilityrates,longevity,resistanceamajorcomponentfocusedondiversifyingthetoparasitesanddiseasesandgoodgrazingabil-useofcropspeciesandvarietieswiththeaimofities,includingtheabilitytomakeuseofpoor-promotingfoodsupplyduringtimesofseasonalqualitypastures.Itnotes,inparticular,thepotentialshortageorunfavourableweather.Theprojectalsooftwolocallyadaptedcattlebreeds,theGuaymíintroducednewlivestockspecies(ducksandgoats),andtheGuabalá,inclimatechangeadaptation.productionsystems(aquacultureandduck−fishItalsomentions,amongitsclimatechangeadap-integration)andlivestock-managementpractices.tationmeasures,thedevelopmentofmaizevari-etiesandhybridsthataretolerantofdroughtandConservingandmanaginghabitatsanddiplodiarot(afungaldisease)andthatgrowwelllandscapediversityinsoilswithlownitrogenlevels.WithregardtoManycountrieshighlighttheimportanceofcon-choicesatspecieslevel,Sudanreportsthatsomeofservingandmanagingnaturalandsemi-naturalitslivestockkeepershavereplacedcattleandsheepecosystemsthatcontributetoclimatechangewithdromedariesandgoats,asthelatterspeciesadaptationandmitigation.Theimportanceofarebettersuitedtoaclimatechange-affectedenvi-forestecosystemsismentionedparticularlyfre-ronmentthatismorepronetodroughts.quently,withcountriesnotingtherolesofforestsincarbonsequestrationandinthesupplyofaSomecountriesnotethesignificanceofpartic-widerangeofproductsandservicesrelevanttoipatorybreedingprogrammesinthecontextofclimatechangeadaptation.Severalcountriesnoteclimatechange.Forexample,Omanmentionstheimportanceofmangroves,coralreefsand/thatlocalwheatandbarleylandraceshavebeenorcoastalecosystemsmoregenerallyintermsimprovedthroughsuchprogrammestoobtainofresiliencetoclimate-relateddisasters.Forvarietiesthathaveshortergrowingseasonsandexample,theBahamasmentionsthathabitatfrag-canbemanagedmoreflexibly,especiallyduringmentationcausedbyeconomicdevelopmenthasyearswithprolongedperiodsofextremeheatreducedresiliencetohurricanesandstormsurges,andlimitedwateravailability.Ensuringfarmerswhichareexpectedtobecomemoresevereasahaveaccesstotheadaptedgermplasmtheyneedresultofclimatechange.Thisisreportedtobeisanotherissuehighlighted.Nepal,forexample,leavingthecountrymorevulnerabletostormmentionstheroleofcommunity-basedseedbanksdamage,erosionandflooding,withimpactsoninprovidingfarmerswithimmediateaccesstothehabitatsofeconomicallyimportantspecieslocallyadaptedgermplasmthatcanbeusedinsuchasfish,crustaceansandhoneybees(seetheeffortstocopewithclimatechange.followingsubsectionforfurtherinformationontherolesofBFAinresiliencetoclimate-relatedDiversifyingproductionsystemsandotherdisasters).SeveralcountriesfromAnumberofcountriesmentiontheimportantrolethePacificregionmentionactivitiesunderthethatdiversitywithinproductionsystemsplaysinPacificRidgetoReefProgramme.15climatechangeadaptationand/ordescribemeasures14Thesituationwasongoingatthetimethecountryreportwas15http://www.pacific-r2r.org/submitted.28thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2DisastersandtheirimpactsthatinturnleadtopestanddiseaseoutbreaksorInallsectorsoffoodandagriculture,productionthespreadofinvasivealienspecies.Suchchainsofsystemsandthecommunitiesthatdependonthemeventscauselossesatproductionlevelinallsectorsareoftenseverelyaffectedbydisasters(Doswaldandalsoinfoodprocessinganddistribution.andEstrella,2015;FAO,2018e),althoughtherel-ativeimpactsofspecificcategoriesofdisastervaryAresilience-focusedapproachtodisasterriskacrosssectors(seeFigure2.1).Oneofthestrikingmanagementinvolvesbothdisasterresponseandelementsinthematerialpresentedinmanyoftherehabilitationanddisasterriskreduction.Thecountryreportsisthedominoand/ormultiplica-followingsubsectionsillustratetherelevanceoftioneffectsofmostofthedisastersreported.ForBFAtoeach.example,countriesmentionthatearthquakescanleadtolandslidesthatinturncauseriverobstruc-Disasterresponseandrehabilitationtionsorsoilerosion,orthatcyclonesleadtofloodsIntheimmediateaftermathofadisaster,emer-gencyresponsesprioritizesavinglivesandensur-Figure2.1ingthatbasicrequirementssuchaswater,foodDamageandlosstoagriculturesectorscausedandshelterareprovidedtoaffectedcommunities.byspecifictypesofabiotichazard(2006–2016)ActionsfocusedontheuseofBFAwilloftennotbeapriorityduringthereliefphase.Itis,however,Crop14%Livestockimportanttoconsiderthemduringtheinitial1%stagesofresponseandrehabilitationefforts.For4%1%example,attentionneedstobegiventotheresto-20%9%rationofecosystemsaffectedbydisasters,asthelossoftheprotectivefunctionstheyprovidemay86%increasetheriskofsevereimpactsintheeventoffuturedisasters.Rehabilitationinproduction65%Forestrysystemsofteninvolvesthedistributionofseedsor5%animalstoallowproductiontorecommenceandFisheriesandrecover.Careneedstobetakentoensurethataquaculturethematerialdistributediswelladaptedtolocal11%1%6%conditionsandmeetstherequirementsoflocalpeopleinwhatwilltypicallybedifficultcircum-31%stances(e.g.FAO,2014a,2015a).However,itisalsopossiblethattheremaybeopportunitiesto44%innovateintheinterestsofreducingfuturerisks.Forexample,ashorter-cyclevarietyofblackbean38%(theICTALigero)thatcanbeharvestedbeforethehurricaneseasonhasbeenpromotedinHaitito64%reducetheriskoflosingcropsduringthehurri-caneseason(Bush,2018).DroughtFloodsStormsEarthquakesTsunamisThesignificanceofensuringthatappropriateNotes:Basedonthereviewof74PostDisasterNationalgeneticresourcesareavailablefordistributionAssessments(PDNAs)conductedin53developingcountriesduringdisasterrehabilitationisnotedinanumberbetween2006and2016.APDNAisasystemofprocessesandofcountryreports.DFrourgehtxample,theCookIslandsmethodsusedtoassess,planandmobilizesupportforthementionsthatgoveFlronodmsentresponsetodisastersrecoveryofcountriesandpopulationsaffectedbydisasters.Typically,theprocessisownedandledbytherespectiveStormsgovernmentandsupportedbyUNAgencies,theEuropeanUnionandtheWorldBank.normallyinvolvespEarrothvqiudaiknesgseedsandseedlingsSource:FAO,2018e.ofshort-cycleoranTnsuunaamlisvegetablecropssourcedfromnon-affectedareastoprovideanimmediatethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE29OverviewPartAsupplyoffoodwhiledamagedlonger-cyclecrops,ofwildfoodsinthisregard.Itfurthernotesthatsuchasbananas,passionfruitandpapaya,startasidefromdirectbenefitstheyprovideintermstorecover.Bangladeshreportsthatinresponsetoofconsumption,non-woodforestproducts,increasedsoilsalinityfollowingcyclones,research-suchasmopaneworms,ediblestinkbugsandershavescreenedforsalinity-tolerantvarietiesofwildfruits,havebecomeimportantsourcesofriceandothercrops,whichhavethenbeenmul-householdincomeasanalternativetotraditionaltipliedandsuppliedtofarmers.TheUnitedStatescropsaffectedbydrought.Itnotes,however,ofAmericamentionstheSeedsofSuccess16pro-thatbetweendisasterstheimportanceofwildgramme,whichhelpstore-establishstablenativeresourcesisneglectedandthatlittleornoconser-plantcommunitiesonlandbeingrehabilitatedvationormanagementactionistakentoensureafterdisasterssuchaswildfires.ArgentinaandtheyremainavailableasaresourceforuseinPanamahighlighttheimportanceofgenebankspotentialfutureemergencies.Section2.6pro-insupportingproducersinrecoveringgeneticvidesfurtherexamplesoftheuseofwildfoodsinresourceslostindisasters.emergencysituations.Gathering,huntingandfishingoftenincreaseOtherwaysinwhichBFAcancontributetoafteradisasterasaresultofthelossofproduc-post-disastermanagementcanincludetheusetiveassetsordisplacementofpopulations,andcanofpackanimalstodeliverfoodaidtoinaccessi-allowpeopletoimprovetheirnutritionalintakesbleareas.Thereisalsointerestinthepotentialandrebuildtheirlivelihoods.Forexample,inloca-rolesofmicro-organismsinfoodpreservationintionsneartoinlandorshallowcoastalwaters,thepost-disastersituations(Beedetal.,2011).Seealsolowlevelsofexpenditureandlimitedskillsneededthediscussionoffood-chainemergenciesbelow.inordertotakeupfishingmeanthatitisanactivitythatpeoplecaneasilyfallbackonwhenlivestockDisasterriskreductionandcropshavebeenlost(Cattermoul,BrownandTheterm“disasterriskreduction”hasbeenPoulain,eds.,2014).Indrylandssuchasthoseofdefinedasfollows:“Disasterriskreductionissub-SaharanAfrica,smallandfast-growingwildaimedatpreventingnewandreducingexist-fishcanbecrucialcomponentsofresiliencebuild-ingdisasterriskandmanagingresidualrisk,alling,astheyarehighlyproductivewhenitrainsandofwhichcontributetostrengtheningresilienceifproperlyprocessedcanbestoredforlongperiodsandthereforetotheachievementofsustainable(FAO,2016a).Fishingandhuntinggeararesome-development”(UnitedNations,2016).Globallytimesincludedinpost-disasteremergencysuppliesagreedpolicyondisasterriskreductionissetinordertohelpaffectedpeoplewithshort-termoutintheSendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskcopingstrategies.However,inthelongtermandReduction2015–2030,adoptedin2015(Unitedifnotpractisedsustainably,theirusecanseriouslyNations,2015a).17Theintentionistoachievedamagelocalecosystemsandmakethemand“substantialreductionofdisasterriskandlossesrelatedlivelihoodslessresilienttofuturedisastersinlives,livelihoodsandhealthandintheeco-(Cattermoul,BrownandPoulain,eds.,2014).nomic,physical,social,culturalandenviron-mentalassetsofpersons,businesses,communi-Numerouscountryreportsmentionthesignifi-tiesandcountries.”Inthefoodandagriculturecanceofwildfoodstolivelihoodresilienceandsector,disasterriskreductioncanbeviewedasfoodsecurityfollowingdisasters.Forexample,acontinuumofactionstakenbefore,duringZimbabwereportsthatcommunitieshaveturnedtowildfoodsforsurvivalfollowingvariousdisas-17TheSendaiFrameworkwasadoptedbyUNMemberStatesonters,notingalsothesignificanceoflocalknowledge18March2015attheThirdUNWorldConferenceonDisasterRiskReductioninSendaiCity,MiyagiPrefecture,Japan,and16https://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/more/fish__wildlife_and/subsequentlyendorsedbytheUNGeneralAssembly.plants/seeds_of_success.htm30thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2andafterdisasterstoprotect,save,restoreandthesustainabilityofgrazingresources(Dudley,enhancelivelihoods.MacKinnonandStolton,2014).Asdescribedabove,BFAhelpstomakepro-Bothspeciesdiversityandwithin-speciesgeneticductionsystemsandthesupplyoftheecosystemdiversitycontributetotheroleofecosystemsinservicestheydependonmoreresilienttoshocksdisasterriskreduction(seediscussionofhazardofvariouskinds.BFAcanbothreducetheriskofregulationinSection2.2).However,theextentdisasters(e.g.bypreventingfloods)andlimittheirandprecisenatureofthebenefitsprovidedareeffectsonproductionsystems(e.g.useoftreesasgenerallynotwellunderstoodandrequiremoreshelteragainstextremeweatherorresistant/tol-research(Monty,MurtiandFuruta,2016),asdoerantcrops,livestockorfishtoreducetheeffectsotherfactorsinfluencingthecapacityofecosys-ofdiseaseoutbreaks).Anotherlinkbetweeneco-temstosupplyhazard-regulationservices.systemmanagementanddisasterriskreductionliesinthefactthatecosystemdegradationoftenAnumberofcountryreportsidentifyspeciesorreduceseconomicandlivelihoodoptionsandspeciescategoriesthatplayparticularlysignificantcanthereforedrivepeopleintoevenmoremar-rolesinthesupplyofhazard-regulationservices.ginalandfragileenvironmentswheretheyareatInallcases,referencesaretoplants.Forexample,greaterriskfromdisasters(FAO,2013e).BFAcanseveralreportsnotethecrucialroleofmangrovehelptoreducethiseffectbothbyreducingprob-speciesincoastalprotectionormentiontheimpor-lemssuchaserosionandlossofsoilfertilityandbytanceofriversideorwetlandvegetationinfloodprovidingpeoplewithoptionsforadaptingtheirprotection.Somecountriesrefertotheimportancelivelihoodsinsitu.oftreesandbushesinbindingthesoiloraswind-breaksthatreducetheimpactofstorms.Asdis-Certainecosystemssuchasforestsarewellrec-cussedinmoredetailinSection4.3,countrieslistaognizedfortheirimportantrolesinreducingnumberofecosystems,species,breedsandvarietiesdisasterrisk(UNEnvironment,2010),andmorethatarespecificallymanagedtopromotehazardgenerallythereisgrowingawarenessofthesig-regulation.Forexample,Jordanmentionsthatnificanceof“naturalinfrastructures”inreduc-thetreesCupressussempervirens(Mediterraneaningthethreatsposedbyhazardssuchasfloods,cypress)andCeratoniasiliqua(carobtree)arestormsandlandslides(e.g.Sudmeier-Rieux,2013).plantedaspartoffire-controlefforts.BhutannotesNonetheless,ecosystemmanagementisstilloftenthecontributionoffodderspecies(e.g.GuatemalaanoverlookedelementofdisasterriskreductiongrassandNapiergrass)inreducinglandsliderisk.(Renaud,Sudmeier-RieuxandEstrella,2013).Toooften,developmentactivitiesdisrupttherolesofSeveralcountriesmentionthebenefitsofoper-ecosystemsinreducingdisasterrisk.Forexample,atingmixedsystemsorofraisingamorediversefloodriskscanbeincreasedbythelossoffloodplainrangeofcropsorlivestock.Forexample,Nepalconnectivityasaresultoftheconstructionofroadsmentionsthatagroforestryisanincreasinglyordykes,bythelossofwatermeadowsasaresultimportantmeansofpromotingresiliencetotheofrivertrainingorbytheremovalofmangroves.adverseeffectsofrainfallvariability,shiftingweatherpatterns,reducedwateravailabilityandSeveralecosystemprocessesandstructuresthatsoilerosion.Senegalnotesthat,inpastoralandhelptoreducedisasterriskalsohaveassociatedagropastoralsystems,keepingseveralspeciesofbenefitsforfoodproduction.Forexample,flood-animalsallowsflexibilityindestockingdecisionsplainssupplysediment-richseasonalgrazingor(achicken,goatorsheepissoldmoreeasilythancroppingland(Gugic’,ŽupanandZupan,2012)abovine),providesinsuranceagainsttheeffectsandmangrovesprovidesecurefishnurseriesandofdroughtsandepidemics(whichmayaffectoneboostfishproduction(Kastl,2014).Measuresthatspeciesbutnotanother)andfacilitatestherecon-enhancethecapacityofdrylandpasturestosupplystitutionoflivestockholdingsfollowinglosseshazardregulationserviceswillalsocontributeto(restockingcanstartwithsmalleranimals).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE31OverviewPartATable2.1Biologicalcontrolofinvasivealienspeciesthroughpredation,parasitismandherbivory–examplesfromthecountryreportsInvasivealienspeciesControllingspeciesCountriesreportingPlantsEichhorniacrassipesNeochetinabruchi(chevronedwaterhyacinthweevil)PapuaNewGuinea(waterhyacinth)Neochetinaeichorniae(waterhyacinthweevil)SudanMimosadiplotrichaHeteropsyllaspinulosa(sensitiveplantpsyllid)NiueMimosainvisa(giantsensitiveplant)PalauChromolaenaodorata(Siamweed)Cecidocharesconnexa(agallfly)PalauPapuaNewGuineaSalviniamolesta(Karibaweed)Cyrtobagoussalviniae(giantsalvinia)PapuaNewGuineaPistiastratiotes(waterlettuce)Neohydronomusaffinis(waterlettuceweevil)PapuaNewGuineaMikaniamicrantha(bittervine)Pucciniaspegazzini(arustfungus)PapuaNewGuineaSidarhombifoliaCalligraphapantherina(sidaleafbeetle)PapuaNewGuinea(flannelweedbroomstick)ImpatiensglanduliferaRustfungusUnitedKingdom(Himalayanbalsam)FallopiajaponicaAphalaraitadori(Japaneseknotweedpsyllid)UnitedKingdom(researchongoing)(Japaneseknotweed)Amorphafruticosa(desertfalseCattleCroatia(reintroductionofgrazingcattleindigo)andtraditionallivestockfarming;however,Amorphafruticosaisreportedtobewidelyspreadanditseradicationconsideredunlikely)InsectsTutaabsoluta(tomatoleafminer)Braconconcolorans(aparasiticwasp)JordanPapuanahuebneri(tarobeetle)Metarhiziumanisopliae(afungus)Kiribati(reportedasunsuccessful)MolluscsGiantAfricansnailFlatwormSolomonIslandsOtherNotspecifiedParasiteorpredatorinsects:GeorgiaTrichogrammaevanescens(awasp)BraconhebetorPodisusmaculiventris(spinedsoldierbug)EntemopathologicalnematodesPerccottusglenii(Amursleeper)andSilurusglanis(Welscatfish)Hungary(effectreportedtobeinsufficientotherinvasivealienfishspeciesSanderlucioperca(pike-perch)toslowspreadandproliferationortooffsetnegativeeffectsonthenativefishfauna)RiverweedGrasscarpFijiSciuruscarolinensis(greysquirrel)Martesmartes(pinemarten)IrelandSource:Selectedfromthe91countryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Invasivealienspecieshealth.Worldwide,invasivealienspeciesarecon-Invasivealienspeciesarenon-nativeorganismsthatsideredamajorthreattobiodiversity,includinghavebeenintroducedaccidentlyordeliberatelyBFA,interrestrial,marineandfreshwatereco-intoanewlocationandarecausingeconomicorsystems(Chorneskyetal.,2005;Kelleretal.,2011;environmentalharmoradverselyaffectinghumanMEA,2005a).Forfurtherdiscussionoftheimpact32thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2Table2.2Biologicalcontrolofinvasivealienspeciesthroughresourcecompetitionandotherantagonisticrelationships−examplesfromthecountryreportsInvasivealienspeciesControllingspeciesCountriesreportingTilapiaTorputitora(nativegoldenmahaseer)Nepal(partialsuccessreported)Ambrosiaartemisiifolia(commonragweed–CovercropssuchasLoliumperenne(perennialryegrass)BulgariaaspeciesthathasledtoreducedcropyieldsandMedicagosativa(alfalfa)andotherplantspeciesinsunflower,maizeandwheatproductionthatformdensetuftsorgroupsandcompeteforlight,systems)moistureandsoilnutrientsFallopiajaponica(Japaneseknotweed)VariouswillowspeciesthatcompeteforlightwiththeFranceJapaneseknotweedMerremiapeltata(merremia)Mucuna(alegumecovercrop)FijiSamoaPlant-parasiticnematodesTageteserecta(Mexicanmarigold)JordanCyperusaromaticus(Navuasedge)Setaria(apasturespecies)FijiSource:Selectedfromthe91countryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.ofinvasivealienspeciesonBFA,seeSection3.4.3.provideservicesofthiskind,includingpredators,Destabilizedecosystems,includingsystemsusedherbivores,parasitesandparasitoidsthatfeedforfoodandagriculturalproduction,tendtobeoninvasivealienspecies(Table2.1),speciesthatmorevulnerabletothespreadofinvasivealiencompetewithinvasivealienspeciesforresourcesspecies(e.g.Chytrýetal.,2008;Marvier,KareivaorareotherwiseantagonistictotheirpresenceandNeubert,2004).However,thereislittleevi-(Table2.2)andspeciesthatareresistanttoeffectsdencetosupportthehypothesisthathighlyofinvasivealienspecies(Table2.3).Afewcoun-diverseecosystemsareinherentlymoreresistanttriesmentionbroadcontrolstrategiesorbroadtoinvasivealienspeciesthanless-diversesystemsrelationshipsbetweendiversityandthespread(e.g.Kelleretal.,2011).ofinvasivealienspecies.Forexample,Francestatesthatonemeansofcontrollingtheprolif-Variousspeciesareusedasbiologicalcontrolerationofinvasivespeciesinforestsistorestoreagentstocontrolinvasivealienspecies.However,theecosystemusingnativespecieschosensoasthisstrategycancarrysomeriskandneedstobetoreducetheavailabilityofresourcestotargetedcarefullyplannedandmonitored.Ithassome-invasivespecies.Italsonotesthatnativespeciestimeshadnegativeeffectsonnativebiodiversity.diversityprovidesareserveofresourcesfromForexample,attemptstocontrolgiantAfricanwhichcandidatesforuseinsuchapproachescansnailsintheCaribbeanusingthepredatoryrosybedrawn.Afewcountriesnotethesignificancewolfsnail(Euglandinarosea),nativetotheUnitedofdiversity-basedagriculturalpracticessuchasStatesofAmerica,andinthePacificusingtheflatmulticroppinginthiscontext.worm(Platydemusmanokwari),arereportedtohaveledtodeclinesinnativeendemicsnailpopu-Food-chaincriseslationsinbothregions(Sankaran,2004).HumanfoodchainsareaffectedbyarangeofshocksincludingpestanddiseaseoutbreaksandCountrieswereinvitedtoprovideinformationfood-safetyandpollutionevents(FAO,2017d).onanycontributionmadebyBFAtothemanage-BFAcanhelpincreaseresiliencetomanyofthesementofinvasivealienspecies.Themajorityofthethreats.Contributionsofplant(crop),animal(live-responsesprovidedrelatetotheuseofspecificstock),aquaticandforestgeneticresourcestocomponentsofBFAtocontrolspecificinvasivealienspecies.ArangeofdifferentspeciesarereportedtothestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE33OverviewPartATable2.3Speciesorvarietiesthataretolerantorresistanttotheeffectsofinvasivealienspecies–examplesfromthecountryreportsInvasivealienspeciesResistant/tolerantspeciesorvarietiesCountriesreportingMycosphaerellafijiensisResistantcultivarsofMusaspp.(banana)SaintLucia(blacksigatoka)AnewstrainofchilianthracnosediseaseResistantandtolerantchilivarietiesFijiInteralia,tomatoyellowleafcurlvirus,ResistantSolanumlycopersicum(tomato)JordantomatospottedwiltvirusandzucchinimosaicvirusAscochytarabieiResistantcultivarsofCicerarietinum(chickpea)Jordan(funguscausingAscochytablight)ChalarafraxineaLesssusceptibleforesttreetypesNorway(funguscausingashdiebackdisease)Cyperusaromaticus(Navuasedge)Setaria(apasturespecies)FijiSource:Selectedfromthe91countryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.pest-anddisease-controlstrategiesarediscussedbytheloss,degradationorfragmentationofhab-intherespectivesectoralglobalassessmentsitats.Severalmentionthesignificanceofmain-(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).Thesig-tainingwildlifecorridorstoprovideconnectionsnificanceofassociatedbiodiversityinconferringbetweenlargerpatchesofhabitat.resiliencetotheeffectsofdiseasesandparasitesisnotedelsewhereinthischapter,particularlyinManycountriesnotethatdetailedinformationSection2.2.Thecountryreportsincludemanyref-onrelationshipsbetweenbiodiversityandresil-erencestotherolesofassociatedbiodiversityinienceisoftenlacking.Strengtheningresearchthecontrolofpestsanddiseases(see,inparticular,ontheserelationshipsiswidelymentionedasSection4.3).18Managementpracticesinvolvingapriority.AnumberofcountriesrefertothetheuseofBFAincontrollingpestsanddiseasesneedtoestablishorstrengthenpoliciesandarediscussedinSection5.6.Micro-organismscanprogrammesthatprovidesupporttoproducerscontributetothecontrolofsomepollutioneventsintheimplementationofmanagementprac-(seeSection5.7)andcanalsobeusedtocombatticesandstrategiesthathelptobuildresilience.threatstofoodsafety.Specificneedsidentifiedinthisregardincludeimprovingtrainingandtechnologytransferand2.3.3Needsandprioritiesestablishingcommunity-basedgenebanks.Thegeneralsignificanceofparticipatoryandcom-Theresilience-relatedprioritymostwidelyiden-munity-basedapproachesineffortstoimprovetifiedinthecountryreportsispromotingtheresilienceisalsowidelynoted.SomecountriesconservationandsustainableuseofBFAsoastoalsorefertotheimportanceofawareness-ensurethattheresilience-enhancingpropertiesraisingamongdecision-makersonthesignifi-ofecosystemsarenotunderminedandthatpro-canceofimprovingresiliencewithinproductionducershaveaccesstoawiderangeofoptionsforsystems.Whilenotspecificallyhighlightedinpotentialfutureuse.Asnotedabove,anumberofthecountryreportsinthecontextofresilience,countriesreportthatresilienceisbeingthreateneditisimportantalsotonotethatimplementingintegratedBFA-managementactivitiesatmul-18Thecountry-reportquestionsontheserolesdidnotspecificallytiplescalesthatextendbeyondfarm/holdingrefertotheconceptofresilience.levelcanbechallenginginthatitrequiresan34thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2institutionalframeworkthatfacilitatesactionat––improvingknowledgeofhowexistingpracticesallrelevantscalesandcoordinationacrossthemandnewapproachescanbestbecombinedto(seeChapters5and8forfurtherdiscussion).promoteoutcomesthatincreaseproductivityinasustainableway;ThethematicstudyonresiliencepreparedaspartoftheSoW-BFAprocess(Duval,Mijatovic––identifyingmeansofadaptingsustainableandHodgkin,2018)emphasizestheimportancemanagementmethodstolocalagroecologicalandofpromotingtheconservationandavailabilitysocio-economicconditions;andofspeciesandgeneticdiversityinandaroundproductionsystems,diversifyingtheuseofcrops,––developingappropriatepolicyandoutreachlivestock,foresttreesandaquaculturespecies,measuresforscaling-upinterventions.andrestoringhabitatstoincreaselandscapeandseascapecomplexity.Itidentifies,interalia,theTheneedtoensurethefoodsecurityandnutri-followingprioritiesforresilience-relatedresearch:tionofaworldpopulationpredictedtoincreasetoalmost9.8billionby2050(UnitedNations,•furtheranalysesofthewaysinwhichBFA2017a)meansthatfoodsuppliesandtheirnutri-canoptimallycontributetoresponsestoandtionalqualitywillneedtoincreasesubstantiallyrecoveryfromstressesandshocks;overthecomingyearsanddecades(Foleyetal.,2011).Althoughstrategiessuchasreducing•developmentofmanagementapproachesfoodwasteandpromotingdietarychangescanthatintegrateeffectsatdifferentscalesandpotentiallycontribute,ithasbeenestimatedthatinvolvediversecomponentsofBFA;thatglobalfoodproductionwillneedtoincreaseby50percentby2050(FAO,2017e).Thesupply•assessmentofthecontributionofBFAtoresil-ofarangeofnon-foodproductswillalsoneedienceofproductionsystemsoversufficientlytoincreasesubstantially(ibid.).Thechallengelongperiodsoftimetocapturemedium-andinvolvedisexacerbatedbythefactthatthefoodlong-termoutcomes;andproductionsystemsthatcurrentlydominateglobalproductionhaveseriousnegativeenviron-•morecompleteanalysisanddescriptionofmentalimpactsandareincreasinglyregardedasthedynamicnatureofproductionsystemsunsustainableinanumberofrespects(FAO,2017f;anddevelopmentofimprovedmethodsforRockströmetal.,2009;Steffenetal.,2015;TEEB,assessingandmeasuringtheirresilience.2015).Shortagesoflandthatcanbeconvertedtoagriculturalusewithoutinflictingyetgreater2.4Sustainableintensificationdamageontheenvironment(Lambinetal.,2013)meanthereisaneedtoincreasetheoutput19of•Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)canfoodandotherproductsonlandandinwaterthatcontributetoeffortstoincreasetheoutputandisalreadybeingusedforproduction.20quality(e.g.nutritionalcontent)offoodandotherproductswhileusinglessland,waterandotherinputsVariousapproachestoutilizingimprovedeco-perunitoutput.logicalfunctiontoincreasefoodproductionwhilemaintainingthesustainabilityofproduction•Appropriatediversificationofthespecies,varietiesandbreedspresentinandaroundproductionsystems19Thisstatementreferstoterrestrialandaquaticfoodproductioncanpromotepositiveinteractionsthatreducethesystemstakenasawhole.Therearesystemsfromwhichneedforexternalinputs.outputcannotbemaintainedorincreasedsustainably.•Well-plannedgenetic-improvementprogrammescan20ThisSectiondrawsonthethematicstudiesContributionsproduceplantandanimalpopulationsthathavetheofbiodiversitytothesustainableintensificationoffoodcharacteristicsneededtoproduceefficientlyinspecificproduction(Dawsonetal.,2018a)andThecontributionproductionenvironments.ofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturetotheresilienceofproductionsystems(Duval,MijatovicandHodgkin,2018).•KeyprioritiesforenhancingthecontributionsofBFAtosustainableintensificationinclude:thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE35OverviewPartAsystemshavebeendeveloped(Baulcombeetal.,systems(e.g.Attwoodetal.,2016;FAO,2011c),2009;Struiketal.,2014).Thesehavebeenvariouslysustainableintensificationapproacheshavealsodescribedassustainableintensification,ecologicalbeenappliedtolivestockproduction(Eisleretintensification,agroecologicalintensificationandal.,2014),mixedsystemsand(toamuchlessereco-functionalintensification.Theterm“sustain-extent)aquaculture(FAO,2016b,2016c).Becauseableintensification”(oftencontrastedwith“con-sustainableintensificationasdescribedaboveventionalintensification”)isusedindifferentwaysinvolvesinterveningtopromotetheproduction-indifferentpublications(e.g.Garnettetal.,2013;supportingfunctionsofecosystemcomponents,Godfray,2015;Wezeletal.,2009).21However,thetheconceptislessapplicabletosystems,suchasobjectiveinthissectionistoexplorethesignifi-capturefisheries,thatinvolveharvestingproductscanceofBFAineffortstoincreasethequantityandfromunmanagedecosystems.thenutritionalqualityoffoodproductsusinglessland,waterandotherinputs(e.g.inorganicferti-2.4.1Overviewofthecontributionsoflizersandpesticides)perunitoutput.Inkeepingbiodiversityforfoodandwiththefocusofthereport,thediscussionlargelyagriculturecentresonapproachesthatinvolvemakingmoreeffectiveuseofthefunctionsperformedbythebio-Acrossallsectorsoffoodandagriculture,biodi-logicalcomponentsofthelocalagroecosystemandversityunderpinsthesupplyofmultipleecosystemwiderlandscape(andtheinteractionsandsynergiesservicesthatcontributetotheproductivityandbetweenthesecomponents)andthusallowrelianceresilienceofproductionsystems(seeSections2.2onexternalinputstobereduced.Awiderangeofand2.3andChapters4and5).Appropriateman-approachesandmanagementpracticescancontrib-agementofBFAisthusvitaltoeffortstoenhanceutetothiskindofbiodiversity-focusedsustainablethesupplyoftheseservicesintheinterestsofsus-intensification(seeChapter5fordiscussionofmanytainableintensification.Potentialinterventionsofthese),includingmanytraditionalpracticesdevel-tosupportpositiveinteractionsbetweencompo-opedbyfarming,pastoralist,forestandfish-farmingnentsofbiodiversityinfoodproductionsystemscommunities(Tittonell,2014).arelistedinTable2.4.Thefocusofthissectionislargelyonthecon-DiversificationtopromotesustainabletributionsBFAmakestotheenvironmentalsus-intensificationtainabilityofproductionsystems.Socialandeco-TherearemanywaysinwhichincreasingthenomicaspectsarefurtherdiscussedinSection2.5.diversityofthebiologicalcomponentswithinPracticesandapproachesthatinvolvemobilizingproductionsystemscancontributetosustainableBFAtopromotethemaintenanceofproductivityintensification.Thismayinvolvespecificpracticesinthecontextofshocksandstressesareintro-(e.g.intercropping),aswellasbroaderintegratedducedaboveinSection2.3.approachessuchasagroecology(seeSection5.3).DiversificationmayinvolveutilizingawiderrangeWhilemuchoftheliteratureonsustainableofspecies,varietiesorbreedsfromwithinagivenintensificationhasfocusedoncropproductionsector(crops,livestock,forest,aquaculture,etc.),promotingpositiveinteractionsorcomplementar-21Arecentassessmentofglobalprogresstowardstheitiesbetweenspeciesfromdifferentsectorswithinimplementationofsustainableintensification(Prettyetoracrossproductionsystems(includingbydiversify-al.,2018)tooksevenmanagementpracticesintoaccountingthetypesofproductionpractisedatlandscape(integratedpestmanagement,conservationagriculture,scale)and/orenhancingthebenefitsobtainedintegratedcropandbiodiversity,pastureandforage,trees,fromassociatedbiodiversitysuchaspollinatorsandirrigationmanagementandsmall/patchsystems).Theauthorsbiologicalcontrolagents.Forexample,increas-estimatedthat163millionfarms(29percentoftheworldwideingthewithin-andbetween-speciesdiversitytotal)practisesomeformofsustainableintensificationon453millionhectaresofagriculturalland(9percentoftheworldwidetotal).36thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2ofthecropsgrownwithinaproductionsystem,Smithetal.,2017).Suchapproachescanpotentiallybothinspaceandintime,tendstoincreasethebeusedtoevaluatetheimpactofintroducingaddi-potentialforbeneficialinteractionsthat,fortionalbiodiversityintoasystem,althoughbasicinstance,generatefavourablemicroclimates,measuresmaynotaccountformoresubtleeffectspromotenutrientcyclingorcontributetothesuchaschangesinthenutritionalqualityoffoods.controlofpests(Altierietal.,2015a;Attwoodetal.,2017a).CropswithdifferentcharacteristicsOnewidelyusedmethodofmeasuringthe(e.g.differentrootlengths,vegetativearchi-effectsofincludingmultiplecropspeciesorgeno-tectures,orplantingandharvestingtimes)cantypesincrop-productionsystemsisthe“landcomplementeachotherintermsofresourceuseequivalentratio”(LER)(MeadandWilley,1980).(Brookeretal.,2015).IntroducingtreesorshrubsTheLERistheratioofthesumoftherelativecanbenefitcropyieldsthroughimprovednutrientyieldsofthedifferentcomponentswhentheyarecyclingandfixation,groundwaterrechargeandgrowntogetherasintercropstothesumoftheirtheprovisionofshade(Binametal.,2015;Ilstedtyieldswhengrownseparately.Avalueabove1etal.,2016).Similarly,livestockcanbenefitfromindicatesthathavingmultiplecomponentsintheshade,shelterand/oradditionalfeedsuppliedsystemprovidesbenefitsintermsofyield.Avaluebywoodyspecies.Livestockinturncanprovideoflessthan1indicatesdisbenefitsintermsofmanuretofertilizecropsandfishponds.Ducks,yield.Yuetal.(2015)calculatedtheLERforannualfishandotheraquaticspeciescancontributetointercropsystemsdescribedinthescientificlitera-pestcontrolinricepaddiesandsimilarsystems.tureandfoundanaverageLERof1.22forcereal–SeeSection5.5forfurtherdiscussionofthesignif-legumeintercrops,i.e.thatintercroppingtendedicanceofmixedproductionsystems.tohaveapositiveeffectonyields(althoughinasignificantminorityofcaseseffectswereneg-Potentialmeasuresinvolvingassociatedbiodi-ative).Nitrogenfertilizationwasfoundtolowerversityincludeincreasingtheavailabilityofpol-LERs,suggestingthatintercroppingsystemsmaylinatorhabitatbyplantingstripsofwildflowersbemoreadvantageouswhereaccesstoinputsisortreeswithinagriculturallandscapestopromotelimited,asisthecaseformanymillionsofsmall-pollinatorabundanceanddiversity,andhenceholderfarmersinlow-incomecountries.Itmustthesupplyofpollinationservices(Garibaldietal.,berecalled,however,thatLERispurelyameasure2013;Kleinetal.,2007;Kovács-Hostyánszkietal.,ofproduction,andhencedoesnotindicatethe2017),reducingoreliminatingtheapplicationofoverallattractivenessofanintercropapproachtopesticidestoprotectpollinators(Chagnonetal.,farmers,whoalsohavetoconsiderthelabourand2015;EASAC,2015)andadoptingmanagementothercostsinvolved.Potentialadditionalbenefitspracticesthatfavourbeneficialsoilbiodiversitysuchasincreasesinyieldstability,reductionof(e.g.useofintercrops,rotations,appropriaterisksandlong-termimprovementstosoilfertilitytillagemethods,maintenanceofsoilcoverandalsoneedtobeconsidered.theincorporationofcropresiduesintothesoil)(Brookeretal.,2015;FAO,2003a).Whereagroforestryisconcerned,Sileshietal.(2008)conductedameta-analysisofstudiesfromQuantifyingtheimpactofsuchmeasuresintermssub-SaharanAfricaontheeffectthatincludingofsustainableintensificationcanbechallenging.woodylegumesintheproductionsystemhadTheproductivityofasystemcanbemeasuredinonmaizeyieldsandfoundsignificantpositivevariouswaysbasedontherelativequantitiesofresponses.Ananalysisof40projectsandpro-variousinputs(e.g.energy,fertilizer,water,labourgrammesimplementedinthe1990sand2000sinorland),outputs(e.g.foodcaloriesorothernutri-variouscountriesinAfricathatinvolvedpracticestionalmeasures)andenvironmentalimpacts(e.g.suchascropimprovements,agroforestry,conser-greenhouse-gasemissions,biodiversitylossorsoilvationagriculture,integratedpestmanagementerosion)(Elliottetal.,2013;Notarnicolaetal.,2017;andtheintegrationoflivestock,foddercropsorthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE3738Table2.4PotentialinterventionstosupportpositiveinteractionsinfoodproductionsystemsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREComponentofInterventionsApproachestomeasuringKnowledgegaps/researchneedsPartAbiodiversityimpactsInteractionsamongannualcropsaresomeofthebestresearchedinfoodAnnualcropsBreedandselectcropsformorepositivecrop–cropLandequivalentratio,stabilityproductionsystems.However,developingbreedingmethodsthateffectivelyinteractionsinproductionsystems,exploitingwildandandqualityofproduction(directaccountfortheseinteractionsrequiresaparadigmshiftfromcurrentbreedinglandracegenepools(LitricoandViolle,2015).measures).methods,andthisisstillinitsinfancy(LitricoandViolle,2015).OverviewExploitspeciesandwithin-speciescombinationstoRateofartificialfertilizerAbetterunderstandingofgeneticvariationinimportantinteractiontraitsinimprovediseaseresistanceandclimateresilience(Döringapplication,soilfertility,crop-thecropgenepoolsavailableforbreedingisrequired,exploringlandracesetal.,2015;Finckhetal.,2000).speciesdiversityinintercropsandandwildgermplasmwherevariationinimportanttraitsmaybemoreevidentExploretheintegrationofawiderrangeofcropsrotations(indirectmeasures).thaninadvancedcropcultivarsgrowninhigh-inputmonocultures(Palmgren(includingnewandorphancrops)thatmaybeabletoetal.,2015).interactpositivelywithothercomponentsintocroppingLandequivalentratio,productionTointegratenewandorphancropsintoproductionsystems,moreresearchissystems,overspatial(intercrop)andtemporal(rotation)resilience,life-cycleanalysisneededoneffectivecroppingoptionsincombinationwithmajorcrops,usingscales(AOCC,2018;Dawsonetal.,2018b).(directmeasures).croppingsystemmodellingframeworksandbasedonknowledgeofexistingSoilfertility,soilretention,nicheproductionsystems(Recklingetal.,2016).TreesinfarmlandProtectremainingforest/farmlandscapemosaics.occupation,speciesandmarketandforestsFurtherintegratetrees,includingleguminousspecies,diversity(indirectmeasures).Longer-termandlarger-scaleresearchonforest-andtree-basedecosystemintofarms,withafocusonsoilrehabilitationandManytreesprovideimportantservicesandassociatedimpactsonfoodproductionisrequired(Reedetal.,improvement.habitatforanimalpollinators,2017).Domesticateawiderrangeoftreespeciestoincreasesodistance-relatedeffectsonPositivespilloversfromfarmstoforestsaregenerallynotwellunderstood;productivityandallowthemtocompetesuccessfullyagriculturalproductionfromfurtherresearchonthemisneeded,forexampleonfarm-habitatpollinationwithannualcropsandtherebycontributetoagriculturaltreehabitatcanbemeasuredservicesforforestfoodproduction(Blitzeretal.,2012).diversification.(pollinatoreffectsmeasuredasTheimpactsofagroforestryintermsofland-usechangesandfoodsecurityDevelopnewmarketsforadditionaltreeproductsandindicatedbelow).areonlypartiallyunderstoodandrequirefurtherstudy(vanNoordwijketal.,“shade-produced”commodities.2014).Adoptmoreeffectivesystemsfordeliveringtree-plantingAnimalweightchangesandmilkThebestapproachestobringingtreesintocultivationtosupportagriculturalmaterialstosmallholdergrowers.yield,cropyieldandyieldstabilitydiversificationareoftenunknown;furtherresearchisneededonparticipatory(Sources:Leakey,2010;Lillesøetal.,2011,2018)frommanuring,life-cycleanalysistreedomesticationinparticular,givingdueattentiontothespecificneeds(directmeasures).ofbothwomenandmen,andwithparticularemphasisonfarmnichesBFAinlivestockRestoredegradedpasturestosupportoverallproductionSoilfertility,animalhealth,(Mulyoutamietal.,2015).productionandincreaseresilience.animalgutmicrofloraandfaunasystemsAdjustanddiversifythebreedsraised,theplantsgrowncomposition,fodderdiversityThereiscurrentlyonlylimiteddetailedunderstandingoftheinteractionsasfeedandthecompositionofruminalgutfloraand(indirectmeasures).betweenanimalsandothercomponentsofproductionsystems,includingfaunatoenhanceproductivity/synergiesandminimizeunderclimatechange;furtherresearchonanimal–crop(–tree)interactionsisenvironmentalcosts.required(ThorntonandHerrero,2015).Methodsforanalysinggreenhouse-Implementimprovedmethodsofmanuring.gasbalancestodetermineappropriatemitigationinterventionsinthecontext(Sources:Dawsonetal.,2014;Dijkstra,Oenemaandofotherproductioncomponentsareavailablebutneedtoberefined(deBoerBannink,2011;Hayes,LewinandGoddard,2013)etal.,2011).(Cont.)Table2.4(Cont.)PotentialinterventionstosupportpositiveinteractionsinfoodproductionsystemsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREComponentofInterventionsApproachestomeasuringKnowledgegaps/researchneedsROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2biodiversityimpactsPromoteawiderrangeofproductionsystemsinvolvingThereisfrequentlylittleinformationoninteractionsinaquaticagricultureBFAinaquaticdiversecomponents(algae,cleanerfish,etc.).Fishcatchandcatchstability,fishsystemsandaquaculture,includinginteractionsbetweenterrestrialandproductionPromoteagreaterrangeofcropscapableoftoleratinggrowthrate,cropyieldandyieldaquaticcomponents,andbetweenaquacultureandfisheries;furtherresearchsystemsfloodingandsalinityinaquaticagriculturesystemsandstability(directmeasures).isneededinordertoallowthedevelopmentofmore-effectiveintegratedthathavegreatercomplementarityinbroaderfloodplainFishdiversity,fish-feeddiversityproductionstrategies(Attwoodetal.,2017b;Sotoetal.,2012).Animalmanagement.andconversionefficiency,fish-Thedevelopmentofmultitrophicaquaculturesystems–i.e.systemsinwhichpollinatorsDomesticatearangeoffishtoincreasetheproductivitypestandcrop-pestprevalenceorganismsfromdifferenttrophiclevels(carnivores,filterfeeders,autotrophes,andsupportthediversificationandresilienceof(indrectmeasures).etc.)aregrownincombination–hasreceivedlimitedattention;furtheraquacultureandtoincreasethenutritionaldiversityofManyfishareimportantforresearchisneededonthecreationorenhancementofsynergisticrelationshipsproduction.nutritionallybalanceddiets,soinresourceuseandrecycling(Barrington,ChopinandRobinson,2009).Diversifyanimal-andplant-basedfish-feedresources.increasesinproductioncanbeAddressingthenegativeon-andoff-siteenvironmentalimpactsof(Sources:FAO,2016b;Faruqueetal.,2017;Halletmodelledashumannutritionalaquaculturehasreceivedonlylimitedattentionandfurtherresearchal.,2011;Olesenetal.,2015;Thilstedetal.,2016;benefits.isneeded.Wijkström,2012).Yield,yieldstabilityandqualityTherearegapsinunderstandingofthelevelsofpollinatordependencyofReintroducearangeofnativepollinatorsintoofanimal-pollinatedcrops(directdifferentcrops;morerealisticestimatesofpollinatordependencyindifferentagriculturallandscapes.measures).productioncontextsarerequired,especiallyforimportantstaples(e.g.Protectremainingnaturalhabitat/habitatmosaicsandNumber,rangeandstabilityofsoybean)wheretherangeofquotedeffectsislarge,newandorphancrops,furtherimproveandexpandanimal-pollinatorhabitatinpollinators/pollinatorpopulationsandlow-andmiddle-incomecountryproductioncontexts(Kleinetal.,2007;farmlandthroughagroforestry,borderplanting,fallowinagriculturallandscapes,Melathopoulos,CutlerandTyedmers,2015;Teichroewetal.,2017).practices,etc.especiallyoverthecropfloweringClimatechangeimpactsonpollinator–cropmutualisms(e.g.impactscausedImplementjointmanagementplansforwildandperiod(indirectmeasures).Manybylossoflife-cyclesynchronies)areoftenunknownandrequireelucidation,introducedpollinatorsinlandscapes.animal-pollinatedcropsareofespeciallyformajoranimal-pollinatedcrops(Gilmanetal.,2012;Kerretal.,Reduceinsecticideuseinfarmland.particularnutritionalsignificance,2015).Adoptintegrated,pollinator-friendly“environmentalsoincreasesincropproductioncertification”approachesforanimal-pollinatedcrops.maybemodelledashumanTheroleofbelow-groundbiodiversityinnutrientcyclingisoftenpoorly(Sources:FAO,2008a;Garibaldietal.,2013;IPBES,nutritionalbenefits.characterized;moreresearchisrequiredonthemechanismsinvolvedin2016a;Kleinetal.,2007;Kovács-Hostyánszkietal.,shapingcomplexsoilcommunitiesandtheirfunctions(BardgettandVanDer2017)CropyieldandyieldstabilityPutten,2014).(directmeasures).Theeffectivenessofinoculationmethodsisoftenlimited;researchisneededSoilmicro-Implementsoil/farm-managementpracticesthatRateofartificialfertilizertoaddresscolonizationproblems(Compant,Clémentandorganismsenhancebeneficialmicrobepopulationsandsupportapplication,soilfertility,soilSessitsch,2010).nutrientcyclingandsoilfertility,suchasgreateruseoftexture,soilbiomequantityThereislimitedknowledgeofhowtocreatemoreeffectivecrop–microbeintercrops,rotationsandappropriatetillagemethods,andcomposition,waterrun-offinteractionsatthegenotype-to-genotypelevel;researchisrequiredonaandmoreincorporationofcropresidues.quality(indirectmeasures).rangeofgenotypecombinations(TikhonovichandProvorov,2011).ResearchDirectlyinoculatewithmicrobialpopulations.needstoaddressthequestionofhowdomesticationandselectivebreedingBreedcropsformoreeffectivebeneficialinteractionshaveaffectedtheabilityofcropstoestablishbeneficialinteractionswithwithmicro-organismsbyexploitingwildandlandracerhizospheremicrobes(Pérez-Jaramillo,MendesandRaaijmakers,2016).cropgenepools.(Sources:Brookeretal.,2015;FAO,2003a;KapulnikandKushnir,1991;MutchandYoung,2004)39Source:AdaptedfromDawsonetal.,2018a.OverviewPartAaquacultureintofoodproductionsystemsiden-Particularlygiventheeffectsofclimatechange,tifiedpositiveresultsintermsoffoodoutputsgeneticimprovementeffortsrequireaccesstoandyieldincreases(Pretty,ToulminandWilliams,genesthatbetterenableplantsandanimalsto2011).Anevaluationof85integratedpestman-respondtoarangeofabioticandbioticstresses.agementprojectsimplementedin24countriesinThisrequiresthemaintenanceofadiverseport-AsiaandAfricabetween1990and2014(Prettyfolioofgeneticresources,includingcropwildandBharucha,2015)foundthattheyledtoarelativesandlocallyadaptedvarietiesandbreeds,meanyieldincreaseacrosscropsof41percent,whichinturnrequireseffectiveapproachestocombinedwithadeclineinpesticideusetotheconservationandsustainableuseofthese31percentoftheoriginallevel.22resources(Dullooetal.,2017;FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a;seealsoChapters5and7).PotentialBFA-basedapproachestosustainableItalsoneedstobeborneinmindthatinterac-intensificationinaquacultureincludepolyculture,tionsbetweenthebiologicalcomponentsofpro-i.e.raisingmultiplespeciesortaxonomicgroupsductionsystems–includingforexamplethose(includingtheuseofbioremediationspecies),thatmayinfluencecomplementarityintheuseshiftingtovegetable-basedfeed,andimprovingofresources–areinfluencedbytheirgenetics.interactionswithotherproduction-systemcompo-Thismeansthat,forexample,itmaybepossiblenentssuchascropsandlivestock(Attwoodetal.,toimprovetheperformanceofcropmixturesby2017b).Forexample,theuseofwrasse(Labridae)identifyingtraitsthatinfluencesuchinteractionsascleanerfishhasprovedtobeaneffectivesubsti-andbreedingthecomponentsofthemixturesotutefortheuseofchemicalsinthecontrolofseaastooptimizecomplementarity(LitricoandViolle,liceinsalmonfarms(ResearchCouncilofNorway,2015).Breedingplantsforattributesotherthan2010;Skiftesviketal.,2014).yieldmaybeameansofpromotingthesupplyofawiderrangeofecosystemservices,forexampleGeneticimprovementtosupportincreasingcarbonsequestrationorwatercapture.sustainableintensificationGenetic-improvementprogrammesareamongtheRealizingthepotentialcontributionsofabroadmaintoolsthatcanbedrawnupontoincreasetherangeofgeneticresourcestobreedingprogrammesproductivityandstabilityoffoodandagriculturalthatpromotesustainableintensificationremainssystems,whetherbyincreasingoutput,increasingchallenging.Tovaryingdegreesacrosssectors,thereproductquality,enablingproductiontobemain-areorganizational,technological,knowledge-tainedinharshconditionsorreducingharmfulrelatedandbiological(e.g.theneedtoconserveenvironmentalimpactsperunitofoutput.Ingeneticdiversityinsmallpopulations)constraintsmanycases,however,plantsandanimalsarecur-totheintegrationoflocallyadaptedpopulationsrentlybredforuseinproductionsystemsthatareintogeneticimprovementstrategies.Breedingpro-inonewayoranotherunsustainable,forexamplegrammesarediscussedinSection5.9andingreaterpolluting,highlydependentonnon-renewabledetailinthesectoralglobalassessmentsofgeneticresourcesorvulnerabletobeingunderminedbyresources(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).thenegativeeffectsofvariousdriversofchange.BreedinginsupportofsustainableintensificationCountry-reportanalysisthusrequiresadjustingbreedinggoalssothattheThecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcountriesoutputsarebetteradaptedtosystemsthatmeettoprovideinformationoncasesinwhichincreas-theoverallobjectivesoftheapproach.ingtheamountofBFAinproductionsystemshascontributedtoanincreaseinproductivityorspecifi-22Reviewsofreportedmagnitudesofbenefitsshouldbecallytosustainableintensification.Responsesreferinterpretedwithcaution,astheymayinadvertentlybeaffectedtoarangeofdifferentbiodiversity-basedinterven-bybiasesintheliteraturetowardspublishingstudiesthatshowtions.Forexample,Argentinareportsthatstudiespositiveeffects.40thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2havelookedintothepotentialofsustainablebyproducers.Raisingawarenessamongpolicy-intensificationasameansofavoidingagriculturalmakersandlocalcommunitiesofthepotentialexpansionintovulnerableareas.Itnotesthatinten-significanceofsustainableintensificationtofoodsifiedcroprotationswerefoundtoallowimprove-securityandnutrition–andofthesignificanceofmentsingrainyieldsandinthecontributionofcropBFAinthisregard–isnotedasanotherpriority.residuestosoilcarbonbalance.EthiopiamentionsaSomecountriesalsomentiontheneedtomonitorprojectinthesouthwesternpartofthecountrythatandestablishindicatorsfortheimplementationofintroducedtheuseofimprovedfruitandvegetablesustainableintensificationinagriculture.varieties,alongwithpracticessuchastheuseoforganicmanureandintegratedpestmanagement,ThethematicstudypreparedbyDawsonetal.andresultedina60percentincreaseincropyields(2018a)drawsattentiontoanumberofchallengesanda70percentimprovementinnutritionintheinvolvedinthedesignandimplementationofsus-areastargeted.Itnotesthatsimilaractivitieshavetainableintensificationstrategiesandinterven-beenimplementedinotherpartsofthecountrytions.Inadditiontotheneedforgreaterunder-andthatmostofthecropvarietiesinvolvedwerestandingofthevariouscomponentsofBFAanddevelopedfromlandracesatthecountry’sagricul-theirinteractions,itnotestheneedtoinvestigateturalresearchcentres.Severalcountriesnotethefactorsinfluencinglevelsofadoption,suchasthesignificanceofbreedingprogrammesthatcreateamountoflabour,knowledgeandtimerequiredhigh-performancevarieties,breedsandstrainsthatrelativetootherpractices,aswellaspotentialcon-areresistanttostressestheyarelikelytoencounterstraintsassociatedwithinstitutionalandgovern-ornotetheimportanceofexistinglocallyadaptedancesystems.Itfurthernotestheneedtodeterminecropsorlivestockthatcanfunctioninlowexternalhowtotailorsustainableintensificationstrategiesinputproductionsystems.andinterventionstolocalagroecologicalcondi-tionsandtosocio-economicfactorssuchasdietary2.4.2Needsandprioritiespreferences.Theneedforinterdisciplinaryresearchapproachestoallthesequestionsisemphasized.ThecountryreportsemphasizetheneedtoAtamoretechnicallevel,priorityactionsidenti-increaseresearchintothepotentialrolesofBFAinfied(largelyfocusedonthecropsector)includesustainableintensificationacrossarangeofpro-thefollowing:greaterfocusonadaptive-traitductionsystemsandtogenerate,adaptordevelopbreedingforstaplecropsbasedonlandraceandsustainabletechnologies–includingapproacheswildgenepools;supportforthediversificationtolandmanagement–thatmeettheneedsofoffarmingsystemsbyfocusingonstrengtheningproducersandtheircommunities.Reportedprior-positiveinteractionsbetweenbiologicalcompo-itiesincludeimprovingknowledgeofhowexist-nentsandpromotinggreaterinvestmentinmoreingpracticesandnewtechnologiescanbestbenutrient-richorphanandnewcrops;andgreatercombinedtopromotesustainableintensification.attentiontospatialplanningtomaximizepositiveSeveralcountriesnotetheimportanceofstrength-interactionsbetweencomponentsofBFA.eninggenetic-improvementprogrammesforlocalbreedsandvarietiesoflivestockandcrops.2.5LivelihoodsCountrieshighlighttheimportanceofincreasing•Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)istheavailabilityoffinancialresourcesforresearchindispensabletolivelihoodsincountriesatalllevelsonsustainableintensificationandfortheimple-ofdevelopment,providingawidevarietyofgoodsmentationofsustainable-intensificationpracticesandemploymentopportunities,contributingtolocalandnotetheneedtopromotetheinvolvementculture,strengtheningfoodandnutritionsecurityofboththepublicandtheprivatesectors.Several–particularlyamongmarginalizedgroupsandinmentiontheneedtodevelopincentivemeasurestoencouragetheadoptionofsustainablepracticesthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE41OverviewPartAresource-poorareas–andincreasingtheresilienceofdiscussed.TheframeworkisillustratedinFigure2.2:productionsystemstoadverseevents.ahouseholdcombinesitsvariouscategoriesofassets•Actionsthatneedtobetakentosupporttheintoastrategyaimedatcopingwiththevariouslivelihood-enhancingrolesofBFAinclude:challengesitfaces(“thevulnerabilitycontext”)and––betterdocumentingitsmultiplecontributions,achievingdesirable“livelihoodoutcomes”.includingdocumentingindigenousknowledgeFinancialcapitalrelatedtoitsuse;“Financialcapital”inthelivelihoodscontextrefers––raisingawarenessofthesignificanceofitstothecashassetstowhichanindividualorahouse-livelihoodroles;andholdhasaccess.Theseassetscanbeusedtopurchase––creatingappropriatepoliciesinfieldssuchasitemsthateitherdirectlycontributetowell-beingmarketingofsustainablysuppliedproducts(e.g.food,medicinesandvariousconsumergoods(e.g.certificationschemes)andagro-ecotourism.andservices)orcanbeinvestedinmakingimprove-mentstotheproductivityorresilienceoflivelihoodAccordingtoonewidelyciteddefinition,alive-activities(tools,land,seeds,animals,fertilizers,lihood“comprisesthecapabilities,assets(stores,feeds,veterinarymedicines,etc.).resources,claimsandaccess)andactivitiesrequiredforameansofliving;alivelihoodissus-Clearly,manyproductsandservicesderivedfromtainablewhichcancopewithandrecoverfrombiologicalresourcescanbesoldtoobtaincashstressandshocks,maintainorenhanceitscapabil-income.Thesignificanceofdiversityinthiscontextitiesandassets,andprovidesustainablelivelihoodlies,inpart,inthefactthataccesstoarangeofdif-opportunitiesforthenextgeneration;andwhichferentcomponentsofBFA(e.g.arangeofspecies,contributesnetbenefitstootherlivelihoodsatthebreedsorvarieties)canhelpallowahouseholdtolocalandgloballevelsandintheshortandlong-maintainasupplyofsaleableproductsindiverseterm”(ChambersandConway,1991).Inthissense,andfluctuatingenvironmentsandinresponsetothelivelihoodsoftheworld’sfarmers,livestockchangesinmarketdemand.However,thefinan-keepers,forest-dwellers,fishersandaquaculturistscialroleofBFAisnotnecessarilyrestrictedtotheinvolvedrawingon(interalia)theassetsrepre-supplyofasteadystreamofproductsthatcansentedbycomponentsofBFAandusingandcom-immediatelybeconvertedintocash.Wherecon-biningtheminvariouswaystomeettheirneeds.ventionalfinancialservicesareunavailable,bio-logicalassetscanalsoserveasalternativeforms2.5.1Overviewofthecontributionsofofsavingsorinsurance.Thisisawell-documentedbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturefunctionoflivestock,forexample(e.g.Ayalewetal.,2003;Ejlertsen,PooleandMarshall,2012;Moll,Accordingtotheso-calledsustainablelivelihoods2005).Cashcanbe“banked”inaherdorflockofapproach–aframeworkdevelopedduringtheanimalsthatcanthenbesoldwhenneedarises.1990stoanalyselivelihoods(particularlytheliveli-Otherresourcesthatmayotherwisebeoflittlehoodsoftheruralpoor)andpotentialdevelopmentvaluesuchasfoodwaste,cropresiduesorvege-strategiesorinterventions(Carney,1998;Scoones,tationfromuncultivatedrangelands,wastelands,1998)–livelihoodassetscanbegroupedintovariousroadsides,etc.canalsobeconvertedintosavingscategoriesof“capital”,typicallyfinancial,physical,byfeedingthemtotheanimals.Ifthingsgowell,natural,socialandhumancapitals.Althoughthesetheflocksandherdswillalsoyield“interest”inthecategoriesarenotnecessarilycompletelydistinctformofoffspring,milk,eggs,etc.fromeachotherandcanbeinterpretedinvariousdifferentways,theframeworkservestoillustratePhysicalcapitalthediverserangeofassetsandactivitiesthatmakeAhousehold’sassetswillincludeitemsthathaveupmanylivelihoods,andprovidesastructurewithinnotyetbeen,orwillneverbe,convertedintocash.whichthelivelihoodsignificanceofBFAcanbe42thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2Figure2.2ThesustainablelivelihoodsanalyticalframeworkLIVELIHOODASSETSVulnerabilitycontextSocialHumanInﬂuenceProcessesandstructuresNaturalFinancialandaccess•Shocks•Institutions•Trends•Policies•Seasonality•CulturePhysicalLivelihoodstrategiesLivelihoodoutcomes•Moreincome•Increasedwell-being•Reducedvulnerability•Improvedfoodsecurity•MoresustainablenaturalresourcebaseSource:AdaptedfromFAO(2012a)basedonRandolphetal.(2007)andCarneyetal.(1999).Asinthecaseoffinancialcapital,thisso-calledInasense,allthefunctionsofallcomponents“physicalcapital”canservedirectlytomeethumanofBFAcouldbeincluded.However,somecom-needs(e.g.cropplants,livestock,foresttreesorponentsofBFAaremore“natural”thanothersaquaticspeciescanprovidefood,transport,shelter,inthattheyhavenotbeendomesticatedand/orclothing,etc.)andserveasinputstofurtherlive-arenotactivelymanagedbyhumans.Moreover,lihoodactivities(e.g.cropsandtreescanprovideasdescribedabove,manytypesofBFA(crops,feedforuseinanimalproduction,animalscanlivestock,speciesusedinaquaculture,andmajorprovidedraughtpowerforuseincropproduction,harvestedtreeandaquaticspecies)arekeycon-treescanprovidetimberforuseinmakingtoolsfortributorstothefinancialandphysicalassetsofvariouslivelihoodactivities).Again,asinthecaselargenumbersofhouseholds.Themainfocusofmarketedproductsandservices,fulfillingtheseunderthissubheadingisonBFAfallingoutsidediverserolesacrossarangeofdifferentproductionthese“sectoral”categories.environmentsrequiresarangeofdifferentspecies,varietiesandbreeds.Asdescribedthroughoutthischapterandthroughoutthereport,associatedbiodiversityNaturalcapitalcontributesinmanywaystothesupplyofsup-“Naturalcapital”referstothenaturalresourcesportingandregulatingecosystemservicesthatareandprocessesthatahousehold(orindividualordrawnuponathouseholdlevel,whetherpassivelygroup)candrawupon.WhereBFAisconcerned,orthroughactiveuse(seeinparticularSections2.2theboundariesofthiscategoryareratherblurry.and2.4,andChapter5).Likewise,wildbiodiver-sityiswidelyusedassourceoffoodandotherthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE43OverviewPartAproducts(seeinparticularSection2.6).However,Lackoftimeorknowledgemaybeconstraintswhileeveryone’slivelihoodsandwell-beingandtheremaybevariousphysicalhazardsthatdependultimatelyonecosystemservicesandfunc-havetobeovercome(roughterrain,dangeroustions,somehouseholdsaremoredependentthananimals,etc.).Particularlywhereendangeredandothersontheservicesdirectlyprovidedbytheirmorevaluableresourcesareconcerned,politicallocalecosystems.Thesemayoftenbehouseholdsorsocialinfluencemayaffectaccess.Changingthatarenotwellendowedwithotherassets.Forsocio-economicconditionsmayalterthewayinexample,iffoodisinshortsupply(e.g.becauseofwhichwildbiodiversityisusedandvalued,forapoorharvest),householdsthathaveplentyofexamplethehighculturalvalueandtherefore“financialcapital”maybeabletobuythefoodeconomicvaluethatmeatorotherproductsfromtheyneeddespitehigherprices,whilethosethatwildanimalshaveacquiredamongsomewealthyarepoorermayhavetofallbackonharvestingpeopleinAfricaandAsia(Nasietal.,2008).Therewildfoods.Similarly,regulatingandsupportingmayalsobelegal,culturalorreligiousfactorsthatservicesprovidedbywildbiodiversitymaybepar-inhibitorpromotetheuseofparticularresources,ticularlyimportanttopoorerhouseholdsastheyeitherbythepopulationatlargeorbyparticularoftencomeatlittleornodirectcosttothebene-sectionsofsociety.ficiary.Forexample,wildbiologicalcontrolagentsmaybeparticularlyimportantforfarmersthatareAnotherconcernthatissometimesraisedisunabletoaffordpurchasedpesticides.thatwhilewildbiodiversityisclearlyasignificantsourceofincome(eitherregularorasasafetynet)However,whilesomestudieshave,indeed,indi-formanyhouseholds,thesepeopleoftenremaincatedthatpoorersectionsofthecommunitytendpoor.Inotherwords,theuseofwildbiodiversitytobeparticularlydependentonproductsobtainedisnotenablingthemtobreakoutofthe“povertyfromthewild(e.g.Bénéetal.,2009;Cavendish,trap”inwhichtheyfindthemselvesandtransition2000;Jodha,1992;ShackletonandShackleton,tootherlivelihoodactivities(ViraandKontoleon,2006),itmaynotbecorrecttoassumethatthisis2012).Moreover,overuseofwildproductsisaageneralrule(ViraandKontoleon,2012).Insomemajorprobleminmanyplacesandhasimplica-cases,therelationshipbetweentheuseofparticulartionsbothforbiodiversityand,inthemediumwildresourcesandwealthispositive(i.e.wealthierterm,forthesustainabilityofthelivelihoodsofhouseholdsusemorethanpoorerones)orU-shapedpeoplerelyingontheseresources.Theparadoxis(i.e.thepoorestandtherichestusemoreandthosethatrarityitselfcangiveaspeciesaddedvalueandwithintermediatelevelsofwealthuseless)(ibid.).thuspromotefurtherexploitation.VariousfactorscaninfluenceaccesstowildSocialcapitalresourcesandcapacitytousethem.Forexample,“Socialcapital”inthecontextofthesustainablelive-accesstootherassetsmaybeaprerequisitelihoodsframeworkreferstothesocialconnections(Adhikari,DiFalcoandLovett,2004;Coomes,andbondsthatpeoplecandrawuponforassis-BarhamandTakasaki,2004;Coulibaly-Linganitance.BFAcancontributetobuildingsocialcapitaletal.,2009).Landownersmayfinditeasierthanviaitsroleinsocialandculturallife.Itcanalsobelandlesspeopletoaccesswildresourcesormaybetheforminwhichsocialcapitalisrealizedintotan-betterabletomakeuseofthem,forexampleusinggibleassets.Inpastoralistsocieties,forexample,leaflittergatheredintheforesttomakecompostexchangeoflivestockvialoansandgiftshastradi-foruseintheircropfields.Livestockownersmaytionallybeenameansofbuildingandmaintaininghavemoreopportunitytomakeuseofgrasslandssocialrelationshipsthatcanlaterbedrawnuponorotherecosystemsthatcanbegrazedorfromforhelp,typicallyagainintheformofloansorwhichforagecanbegathered.Accesstosomegiftsofanimals(MortonandMeadows,2000;wildproductsmayrequireinvestmentinrela-Potkanski,1999).Moregenerally,manyculturaltivelyexpensiveequipment(e.g.boatsforfishing).44thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2orreligiouseventsoractivitiesthathelptobuildthatunderpinlivelihoodactivities.Reportedrolessocialtiesinvolvetheuseofcrops,livestock,forestinfoodsecurityandnutritionaredescribedintreesoraquaticorganismsorproductsobtainedSection2.6.Chapter5includesinformationonthefromthem.SometimessuchtraditionsrequirethereporteduseofBFAinvariousmanagementactiv-useofspecificvarietiesorbreedswithinspeciesitiesthatunderpinlivelihoodsinfoodandagricul-(FAO,2007a,2010a,2014a,2015a).ture.Thissubsection,therefore,providesafairlyshortoverviewofthemainlivelihood-relatedrolesHumancapitalofBFAdescribedinthecountryreports.Theterm“humancapital”isusedtorefertohumancapacitytocontributetolivelihoodactiv-DirectcontributionsofBFAtoincomegenera-ities,i.e.toknowledge,skills,physicalstrengthtionandemploymentarehighlightedacrossallandsoon.AsdiscussedfurtherinSection2.6,sectorsoffoodandagriculture.Evenincoun-BFAcontributesinvariouswaystohumannutri-trieswherethesesectorsmakeuparelativelytion,andhencetohealthandcapacitytowork.smallproportionofthenationaleconomy,BFAManycultivatedandwildplantshavemedicinalisreportedtobekeyacomponentoftheliveli-qualities.Moreover,formanyhouseholds,saleshoodsofsomelocalpopulations,whetherdirectlyofagricultural,forestoraquaticproductsareaorindirectly(e.g.byhelpingtoattracttourists).meansoffinancingexpendituresonhealthandManycountriesreportontheeconomiccontri-education.Forexample,amonglivestock-keepingbutionsprovidedbymajorfoodandagriculturalhouseholds,medium-sizedanimalssuchassheepcommodities.23However,thelivelihoodsignifi-andgoatsareoftensoldtofinanceeducationalcanceofrelatively“overlooked”componentsofexpensessuchasschoolfees(e.g.Otteetal.,2012).BFAisalsowidelyreported,includingthosethatAnotherconsiderationisthatactivitiesthatareplaymultiplerolesinhouseholdlivelihoodsandtimeconsumingorphysicallyexhaustingtendtointhewidereconomyorthatareofparticular“useup”humancapital,i.e.limitpeople’scapac-significancetothelivelihoodsofpoorersectionsitytodootherthings.Labour-savingassetscanofthepopulation.Severalcountriesreportinitia-thereforebeimportant.Forexample,inpoorertivesandprogrammesaimingtoprotectandbuildhouseholdsinmanypartsoftheworld,donkeysonthemultiplebenefitsthatBFAofferstoliveli-oftenperformessentialtasks,suchascarryinghoods.Box2.1presentssomeexamples.waterandfuelwood,whichwouldotherwisehavetobedonebypeople,oftenbywomen(Valette,Theforestsectoriswidelyreportedasasource2014).Raisinglocallyadaptedspecies,varietiesofemploymentandofawiderangeofwoodandandbreedsofcrops,livestock,treesorfishcannon-woodforestproducts.Forexample,Bhutanbelessdemandingintermsoflabourthanraisingmentionsthatover40speciesofediblewildveg-theirexoticcounterparts.Theselabour-sparingetablesand350speciesofediblemushroomscharacteristicscanmakelocallyadaptedgenetichavebeenidentifiedinitsforests.Itnotesthatresourcesparticularlyimportantforwomen,whoaswellasmakingadirectcontributiontodietsoftenhavetospendalotoftimeonchild-rearingsomeofthesewildspeciesaresoldtogener-andotherdomesticactivities(FAO,2012a).atecashincome.Similarly,BurkinaFasodrawsattentiontotheimportanceofnon-woodforestCountry-reportanalysisproductsinsustaininglivelihoods,particularlyCountryreportsfromallregions,andfromcoun-thoseofwomen,whoareoftenresponsiblefortriesatalllevelsofdevelopment,provideexam-collecting,processingandcommercializingsuchplesofthepositivecontributionsthatBFAmakesproducts.Reportedexamplesincludesheabuttertolivelihoods,includingasadirectsourceoffoodandincomeandasaproviderofecosystemservices23LatestnationaldataonproductionquantitiesandvaluesformanyproductsareavailableviaFAO’sstatisticaldatabaseFAOSTATathttp://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#homethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE45OverviewPartA–extractedfromthesheatree(Vitellariapara-epidemicsorarmedconflicts.Somecountriesdoxa)–andsoumbala,atraditionalaromaticcon-alsomentionthesignificanceofbeekeepingasdimentobtainedfromtheseedsoftheAfricanasourceofproductssuchashoneyandbeeswaxlocustbean(néré)tree(Parkiabiglobosa).forhomeuseorsale.TheGambianotesthatforestsprovideabout85percentofitsdomesticenergyrequirements,inAsillustratedbysomeoftheexamplesabove,theformoffuelwoodandcharcoal,inadditiontomanycountriesnotethesignificanceofwildfoodsprovidingtimber,wildfoods,constructionmate-tolivelihoods,bothintermsoffoodsecurityandrials,medicineandforageforlivestock.Sudannutrition(seeSection2.6)andasamoregeneralmentionsthatproductionofgumarabic(anaturalsourceofincome.Severalprovideexamplesofgumobtainedfromacaciatreesandusedinfoodthelivelihoodopportunitiesrelatedtoconsumerproductionandforvariousotherpurposes)makesdemandforwildfoods.Cameroon,forexample,asubstantialcontributiontothelivelihoodsofmentionsthatdemandforsuchproductsfrommillionsofitspoorestpeople,providingsomeruraldwellersthathavemovedtourbanareasorwithupto50percentoftheirtotalcashincomes.toothercountriesincreasesthepricesthatcanbeItnotesthatforsmallholdersgumarabicrepre-obtainedforthem.ThepopularityofGnetumspp.sentsadiversificationstrategythatcanhelpto(aforestvineeatenasavegetable)inrestaurantsmitigatetheeffectsofcropfailure.throughoutthecountryandabroadisnotedasacaseinpoint.Zimbabwereportsthatinsects,Fisheriesandcoastalecosystemsarereportedparticularlythosethatcanbecollectedinlargetobevitaltolivelihoodsinmanycountries.Fiji,numbers,providebothasupplementarysourceforexample,mentionsthatithasover70edibleofnutritionforlocalpeopleandanincome-speciesofshellfish,inadditiontofinfish,crabs,generatingactivity.Itnotesthatcommercialhar-freshwatermusselsandseaweed.Itnotesthatasvestingandsaleofforestinsectsisasubstantialwellasprovidingasourceofproductsthatcanbeindustryinsomepartsofthecountryanddrivesharvestedforhomeconsumption,someoftheseeffortstoconservetreesthatprovidehabitatforspecies(e.g.tuna)representasignificantsourcethetargetedinsects.Reportsfromdevelopedofpaidemploymentandforeignexchange.countriesgenerallyindicatethatwildbiodiversityIndiamentionstheimportanceofmangroveprovidesonlyamarginalcontributiontonationalecosystemsandtheirbiodiversityinsupportingincomesanddiets.Several,however,notethatitcoastalfisheriesandhencethelivelihoodsofmakesasubstantialcontributiontothelivelihoodslocalvillagers.ofsomesectionsofthepopulationorunderpinssignificantnicheindustries.Thecountryreportsalsohighlightarangeoflivelihoodcontributionsprovidedbylive-Manycountrieshighlighttheimportanceofstock.Ethiopia,forexample,reportsthatsomebiodiversitytoculturallife–oftenparticularly80percentofsmallholdersinthecountryuseforindigenouspopulations–includingviarolesanimaltractiontoploughtheirfields.Indiaintraditionalceremonies,cuisineandhandicrafts.reportsthatsmallholdersandlandlessruralSeveralnotethatasidefromtheirpurelyculturaldwellersmanage75percentofthecountry’slive-significancesuchtraditionsoftenalsohelptostockresourcesandobtainnearlyhalfoftheirunderpinincome-generatingactivities,nutritiousincomefromthem.Sudanmentionsthatforpas-diets,thesupplyofmedicinalproductsorthetoralistgroupslivinginareaswheretherearemaintenanceofsocialtieswithincommunities.nobankingserviceslivestockareawaytostoreNiue,forexample,mentionsthatitsannualyamwealth.Italsonotesthatkeepinganimalsfacil-andthanksgivingfoodfestivalsencouragetheitatesgroupsolidarityinthatthosewithlargerutilizationofadiverserangeoflocalcropspeciesherdsmaylendanimalstothosewhohavefewerandvarietiesandhencehelppromoteamoreresourcesorhavebeenaffectedbydroughts,nutritiousdiet.Almostallfamiliesinthecountry46thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2Box2.1Projectsandprogrammessupportinglivelihoodsbypromotingbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture–examplesfromaroundtheworldOneVillageOneProduct(Nepal),aprojectimplementedForestsSustainablyManagedforCommunities,bytheMinistryofAgriculturalDevelopment,ispromotingEnvironmentandShockResilience(ForestForcesindigenousfoodandnon-foodproductsderivedfromlocal2014–2018)(Zimbabwe)wasestablishedwithfundingfrombiodiversity–includingfabricsanddresses,furnishingandtheEuropeanUnionandFAOtoimprovethefoodsecurity,decorations–toenhancethelivelihoodsofruralvillagers.livelihoodsandresilienceofvulnerableruralcommunitiesthroughparticipatoryforestmanagementandvalorizationofÁrbediehtu(InheritedKnowledge)(Norway),aforestproductstodiversifylivelihoodstrategies.projectestablishedandimplementedbytheSámiUniversityCollege,isdocumentingthetraditionalknowledgeoftheCoralTriangleInitiativeonCoralReefs,FisheriesSámipeopleonthemanagementoflocalnaturalresources,andFoodSecurity(Indonesia,Malaysia,PapuaNewincludingwildfoods,thatsupporttheirlivelihoods.TheGuinea,thePhilippines,SolomonIslandsandTimoraimistointegratethisknowledgeintothemanagementofLeste)promotestheconservationofcoastalandmarinelocalbiodiversity.ecosystems.ObjectivesincludeprotectingthelivelihoodsofthemillionsofpeoplethatdependontheseecosystemsforResearchandInnovationinFamilyAgriculturalfoodandnutritionandincomegeneration.ProductionSystemsintheNgäbeBugléRegion(Panama)aimstodocumentlocalbiodiversityforfoodandMangroveEcosystemsforClimateChangeagricultureandpromoteitsconservationandsustainableAdaptationandLivelihoods(Fiji,Samoa,Solomonuse.SmallholdersintheareaarecustodiansofawideIslands,VanuatuandTonga)targetstheconservationandvarietyofmaize,bean,yuccaandothervegetablesthatmanagementofcoastalmangroveecosystemstoreducearewelladaptedtothelocalenvironment.Theprojecthastheimpactsofclimatechangeandimprovethelivelihoodscollectedlocalcropcultivarswiththeaimofbreedingthemoflocalcommunities.Inadditiontoreducingthenegativeforcharacteristicssuchasuniformheightanddistributingimpactsofnaturaldisastersonlivelihoods,oneofthethemtofamilyfarmers.Ithasevaluatedbiofortifiedvarietiesproject’sobjectivesistoactivelyseekopportunitiestoobtainforpotentialintroductioninpoorruralareaswiththeaimofcarboncreditsformangroveprotectionandreforestationinimprovingfoodsecurityandnutrition.IthasalsopromotedthecontextofREDD+andglobalcarbonmarkets.1theuseofvermicompostinlocalfarmingsystemsandachievedamarkedincreaseincropyields.AtypicalmangroveecosysteminSolomonIslands.©WorldFishSolomonIslands.MainstreamingAgro-biodiversityConservationandUseinSriLankanAgro-ecosystemsforLivelihoodsSources:AdaptedfromthecountryreportsofMalaysia,Nepal,Norway,andAdaptationtoClimateChange(SriLanka),aPanama,PapuaNewGuinea,SolomonIslands,SriLanka,TongaandZimbabwe.projectimplementedbytheMinistryofEnvironmentand1https://unfccc.intNaturalResources,BioversityInternationalandtheMinistryofAgriculture,islookingatwaysinwhichagrobiodiversity–includingcrops,forestspecies,livestockandpollinators–canbedirectlylinkedtosustainableproductionpracticesthatcanimprovethelivelihoodsoflocalpeoplewhilehelpingtoincreaseresiliencetoclimatechange.SustainableLivelihoodsandHealthyFoods(Tonga)ispartofthecountry’sAgricultureSectorPlanandaimstoimprovefarmers’knowledgeof,andaccessto,technologytopromoteclimate-resilient,diversifiedcropandlivestockproductionandimproveproductmarketing.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE47OverviewPartAarereportedtoparticipateinthelatterfesti-environments,helpingtomaintainthestabilityofval,whichinvolvesarangeofcropsandmarinefoodsuppliesthroughtheyearandthroughshocksspecies.Productsaredonatedtovillagepastorssuchasdroughtsandpestoutbreaks,supplyingandthenredistributedinequalproportionstoawidevarietyofnutritionallydiversefoodsandallvillagers.Thetraditionreportedlyencouragescontributingtothesupplyofwaterandfuelusedinlocalpeopletogrowlocalfoodspeciesthatcon-foodpreparation.tributetohealthydiets.Severalcountriesnotethe•Wildbiodiversityisanimportantsourceoffoodforimportanceofmicro-organismsinthepreparationmanypeople,particularlyinthepoorerregionsoftheoftraditionalfoodsanddrinksthatcontributeworld.Italsoprovidesrawmaterialforcropbreedingsignificantlytothelivelihoodsoflocalpeopleprogrammesandcontributestothesupplyofmany(seeSection5.7forexamples).ecosystemservicesthatsupportfoodproduction.•Actionsthatneedtobetakentostrengthenthe2.5.2NeedsandprioritiescontributionsofBFAtofoodsecurityandnutritioninclude:Thereisgeneralagreementamongreporting––takingstepstomaintainandrestoreecosystemsandcountriesthatthecontributionsthatBFAmakestopeoples’livelihoods,whetherintermsofincome,habitatsofimportancetofoodandagriculture;foodsecurityorsocioculturalbenefits,needtobe––promotingthesustainableuseandconservationofbetterdocumentedandresearched.Somecoun-trieshighlighttheurgencyofrecordingassoci-relevantspeciesandpopulations;atedtraditionalknowledgethatmaybeatriskof––implementingbreedingprogrammestargeting,beinglost.Itisalsowidelyrecognizedthateffortsneedtobemadetoensurethatthebiologicalinteralia,nutrientcontentandadaptationtoresourcesthatunderpinlivelihoodsareconservedenvironmentalstressesandshocks,particularlyandusedsustainably,includingwildresourcesthatthoseassociatedwithclimatechange;andmaybeoverexploited.––increasingknowledgeofhowBFA,includingwildfoods,supportsthevariousdimensionsofWithregardtopolicies,someconcernsarefoodsecurity.expressedaboutalackofawarenessoftheliveli-hoodsignificanceofBFAamongdecision-makersEndingfoodinsecurityandmalnutritionremainsandalackofattentiontotheneedforinnovationoneofthemostfundamentalchallengesfacingtheinsmall-scaleproductionsystems.Somecountriesworld.Recentfiguressignalariseinworldhungermentionchallengesrelatedtotheneedtorecon-levels,reversingalongdownwardtrend(FAOetcileconflictsbetweenconservation-focusedandal.,2018).Accordingtothelatestestimates,aboutlivelihood-focusedpolicies.Policyareasidentified821millionpeopleintheworldarechronicallyashavingpotentialforfurtherdevelopmentinundernourished,upfrom804millionin2016(ibid.).supportofthelivelihoodrolesofBFAincludemar-EstimatesusingtheFoodInsecurityExperienceketing–includingcertificationschemes(e.g.fairScale,amorecomplexandmultidimensionaltrade,geographicindicationororganicproduc-measureoffoodinsecurity,showthatabouttion)forproductsthatcanfetchpremiumprices,769millionpeopleintheworldfacedsevereincludinginexportmarkets–andagro-ecotourism.foodinsecurityin2017.Inthesameyear,nearly151millionchildrenunderfiveyearsofagesuf-2.6Foodsecurityandnutritionferedfromstuntedgrowth,while50millionsuf-feredfromwasting(alowweight-for-heightratio).•Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)contributesOver38millionchildrenunderfivewereestimatedtofoodsecurityandnutritioninmanyways,includingtobeoverweightandmorethan672millionadultsbyenablingfoodtobeproducedinawiderangeoftobesufferingfromobesity(ibid.).Thewidelyuseddefinitionadoptedbythe1996WorldFoodSummitstatesthatfoodsecurity48thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2Box2.2TheSecondInternationalConferenceonNutritionFrameworkforActionRecentglobalpolicyframeworksandcommitmentsproductionofanimal-sourceproductsasneeded,applyingrecognizethestronglinkbetweennutritionandsustainablefoodproductionandnaturalresourcesustainablefoodsystems.In2014,theSecondInternationalmanagementpractices.”ConferenceonNutrition(ICN2)calledforcountriestoadoptacommonvisionforglobalactiontoeradicateTofurtherreinforcecommitmentsonnutrition,inAprilhungerandendallformsofmalnutritionworldwide2016theUnitedNationsproclaimedtheUNDecadeofAction(FAOandWHO,2014a).TheensuingICN2FrameworkonNutrition(2016–2025).TheobjectiveofthisinitiativeistoforAction(FAOandWHO,2014b)includesasetofincreaseinvestmentinnutritionandtoimplementpolicies60recommendations,nineofwhichareaimedatpromotingandprogrammesthatimprovefoodsecurityandnutritionsustainablefoodsystemsandhealthydiets.OneofthesewithintheframeworkagreedatICN2.LedbyFAOandthe(Recommendation10)callsforthe“thediversificationWorldHealthOrganization,itbringstogetherawidegroupofcropsincludingunderutilizedtraditionalcrops,moreofactors,andcentresaroundsixactionareas,oneofwhich,productionoffruitsandvegetables,andappropriate“Sustainable,resilientfoodsystemsforhealthydiets”,reiteratestheimportanceofdiversification.“existswhenallpeople,atalltimes,havephysical,2.6.1Availabilitysocialandeconomicaccesstosufficient,safeandnutritiousfoodwhichmeetstheirdietaryneedsAlthoughfoodsuppliescanbestoredandtrans-andfoodpreferencesforanactiveandhealthyportedtoaddresstemporaryorlocalshort-life”(FAO,1996a).Overthedecades,foodsecurityages,andeffortscanbemadetoreducefoodhasincreasinglycometoberecognizedasamul-waste,availabilityisultimatelydependentontifacetedconcept(FAO,2006a).The2009Worldproduction.AsnotedinSection2.4,tofeedaSummitonFoodSecurityidentifiedavailability,globalpopulationexpectedtoexceed9billionaccess,utilizationandstabilityasthefourdimen-in2050,ithasbeenestimatedthatfoodpro-sionsoffoodsecurityandalsonotedthat“theductionwillneedtoriseto50percentabovenutritionaldimensionisintegraltotheconceptof2012levels(FAO,2017e).Themajorchallengefoodsecurity”(FAO,2009b).willbetoensurethatthefoodsupplynotonlymeetstheenergyneedsofthepopulationbutIn2014,theHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodalsoprovidesitwithallthenutrientsitrequires.SecurityandNutritiondefinedasustainablefoodProductionincreaseswillneedtobeachievedsystemasa“foodsystemthatensuresfoodsecu-withoutdegradingthenaturalresourcesthatrityandnutritionforallinsuchawaythattheunderpinfutureproductionandthesupplyofeconomic,socialandenvironmentalbasestogen-otherecosystemservices(ibid.)(seeSection2.4eratefoodsecurityandnutritionoffuturegener-forfurtherdiscussion).ationsarenotcompromised”(HLPE,2014b).Thesameyear,theSecondInternationalConferenceAsdiscussedinSection2.2,obtainingfoodonNutritionFrameworkofActionfeaturedasetfromawiderangeofdifferentenvironmentsofrecommendationsaimedatpromotingsustain-–terrestrialandaquatic,tropical,temperateablefoodsystemsandhealthydietsthatincludedandboreal,mountain,lowland,forest,steppe,onespecificallyfocusedonBFA(Box2.2).desertandsoon–requiresadiverserangeofplants,animals,bacteriaandfungi,bothasBFAisessentialtoallfourdimensionsoffooddirectsuppliersoffoodandassuppliersofthesecurity,tonutritionandtothesustainabilityofsupportingandregulatingecosystemservicesfoodsystems.thatmakefoodproductionpossible.IncreasingthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE49OverviewPartAoutputwillrequire(alongwithadvancesininternationalexchangeofgeneticresourcesandmanyotherfields)theimplementationofwell-oftheuseofnativespecies,varietiesandbreedsplannedbreedingprogrammesincrop,tree,live-whoseadaptivecharacteristicsenablethemtostockandaquaticspecies.Genetic-improvementproducewellinlocalconditions.Wherethecontri-programmeshavebeenmajorcontributorstobutionsofassociatedbiodiversityareconcerned,theincreasesincropandlivestockyieldsthatBurkinaFasonotesthatinadditiontotheirvitalhaveoccurredoverrecentdecades(Evensonandroleaspollinatorsofcropplants(particularlyGollin,2003;PengandKhushg,2003;Leakeyetoilseedcrops),beesandotherinsectshelptoal.,2009).Itmayrequirethedomesticationofincreaseyieldsofseedsandfruitsinforestsystemsadditionalfood-producingspeciesandincreasingandarealsoadirectsourceofhoneyandothertheuseofunderutilizedandneglectedspecies.foodproductssuchaspollen.BangladeshlikewiseItwillcertainlyrequireeffortstoensurethatthementionsthesignificanceofpollinationservices,naturalresourcesuponwhichfoodproductionnotingthatasubstantialincreaseintheyieldofdepends,includingallcategoriesofBFA,arepollinatedcropssuchasmustardandrapeseedconservedandthattheecosystemservicestheyhasbeenachievedthroughthedeploymentofprovidearenurtured.Forexample,ithasbeenbeehives.Indiastressesthesignificanceofasso-estimatedthatabout30percentoftheincreaseciatedbiodiversityinthedeliveryofecosysteminglobalproductionoffoodcropssincetheservicesthatdirectlyandindirectlysupportfood1960shascomefrompollinator-dependentcropsproduction,including(inadditiontopollination)(Pottsetal.,2016).nutrientcyclingandpestregulation.TheUnitedRepublicofTanzaniamentionsthathigheryieldsSustainablyincreasingfoodoutputwilldependareobtainedfromfisheriesinmangrove-fringednotonlyonthepresenceofanappropriatecoastalwatersthanfromfisheriesincoastalrangeofwell-adapted,food-producingplantswaterswheremangrovesareabsent.andanimalsandtheassociatedbiodiversitythattheydependon,butalsoonhowtheyare2.6.2Accessmanaged.AsdiscussedinSections2.2and2.4andinChapter5,therearemanywaysinwhichdiver-Thesignificanceofthe“access”dimensionoffoodsifyingtherangeofspecies,varietiesorbreedssecurityliesintheneednotonlytoensurethatwithinagivenfield,areaofpastureland,forestsufficientfoodisavailableatglobalornationaloraquacultureunitoracrossthewiderlandscape/levels,butthatindividualsareabletoacquiretheseascape–ormakingmoreeffectiveuseofcom-foodandnutrientstheyneed.Thismeansthatponentsofassociatedbiodiversitysuchaspollina-theyhavetobeableeithertoproducefoodsintorsandsoilbiota–cancontributetoincreasingsufficientquantity,quality(nutrientcontent)andfoodproduction.diversityortoacquirethemthroughpurchasesorsomeotherkindofsocialarrangement.ThisThemainthemesnotedinthecountryreportsdimensionoffoodsecurityisthereforedepend-inrelationtotheavailabilitydimensionoffoodentnotonlyonbiophysicalaspectsoffoodpro-securityarethesignificanceofaccesstoawideduction,storage,processinganddistribution,rangeofwithin-speciesgeneticdiversity,includ-butalsoonthebroadersecurityoflivelihoodsingforuseinbreedingprogrammes,thesignif-athouseholdandindividuallevelsandoneco-icanceofassociatedbiodiversityandtheeco-nomic,social,politicalandlegalfactorsatcom-systemservicesitprovidesinsupportingfoodmunity,nationalandinternationallevels.productionandthesignificanceofinteractionsbetweendomesticatedcomponentsofBFAAsdiscussedinSection2.5,foodproductionat(e.g.thecontributionsoflivestocktocroppro-householdlevel(orthesupplyofproductsandser-ductionviathesupplyofmanureanddraughtvicesthatcanbesoldforcashthatisusedtopur-power).Countriesstressthesignificancebothofchasefood)generallyrequirestheuseofgenetic50thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2resourcesthatarewelladaptedtothelocalenvi-contaminationwithmycotoxins(Alexandrakietronment,particularlyinareaswheretheenviron-al.,2013;Beedetal.,2011).Inmanycountries,mentisharshandwhenthehouseholdisunablepackanddraughtanimalscontinuetoplayantoaccessinputs(fertilizer,pesticides,veterinaryimportantroleintransportingfood,particularlymedicines,supplementarylivestockfeed,etc.)thatinremoteandinaccessiblelocations(FAO,2015a).mightameliorateproductionconditions.Theeco-systemservices(pestregulation,nutrientcycling,Accesscanalsobeanissueinurbanareas.Foretc.)providedbytheassociatedbiodiversitynon-foodproducers,urbanorotherwise,incomepresentinandaroundlocalproductionsystemsisthemaindeterminantofaccess.However,arealsovital.Again,thesemaybeparticularlytheaccessofurbanpopulationstofoodispar-importantforhouseholdsthatareunabletosub-ticularlydependentonfoodoutlets,whetherstitutethemwithpurchasedinputs.Asalsonotedretailers,street-foodvendorsorrestaurants.IninSection2.5,particularcomponentsofBFAmaycertaincountries,theaccessofurbanpopulationsalsoplayrolesinsocialandculturallifethathelptofoodishighlydependentonthedecisionsoftobuildtiesthatcanbecrucialinobtainingfoodrelativelyfewfoodtradersandsupermarketsintimesofneed.(IPES-Food,2017;Lang,BarlingandCaraher,2009;Vorley,2003).Open“wet”marketsareWildfoodsfoundinthelocalareaareanimpor-decliningassourcesoffoodinlow-andmiddle-tantsourceoffoodformanyhouseholds.Forincomecountriesandarebeingreplacedbyexample,PovertyandEnvironmentNetworksurveyssupermarkets(GómezandRicketts,2013).Manyconductedinselectedforest-dependentcommu-placeshavebecome“vacuums”offreshproducts,nitiesinAsia,AfricaandLatinAmericabetweenwhichareincreasinglybeingreplacedbycheap,2004and2010foundthatover53.5percentofprocessedfoods(Hawkes,ChopraandFriel,householdsconsumedatleastonetypeofforest2009).Recentfood-consumptiondatashowthatfood(Rowlandetal.,2017).Intraditionalrice-peopleareconsumingmoreandmoreprocessedproductionsystems,farmhouseholdscanaccessfoodsattheexpenseofdiversefruitsandvege-edibleaquaticanimalssuchassnails,crabs,cray-tables(FAO,2017e).Thespatialdistributionoffish,frogsandfishfromtheirfields(Balzeretal.,foodoutletsincities,especiallyinlower-income2006;Halwart,2006,2008;PingaliandRoger,eds.,areas,canexacerbatethiseffect(Mozaffarianet1995).SeeSection2.6.6forfurtherdiscussionofal.,2012).Changesinmarketingandretailingarethesignificanceofwildfoodsinfoodsecurityandalsomakingitmoredifficultforsmall-scalepro-nutrition.Wildresourcesalsoprovidearangeofducerstodirectlyaccessgrowingurbanmarketsfoodandnon-foodproducts(timber,fuelwood,(seealsoChapter3).medicinalproducts,etc.)thatcanbesoldtoobtaincashthatcanthenbeusedtobuyfood.2.6.3UtilizationAccesstofoodcanalsobeaffectedbytheprac-“Utilization”referstothewayinwhichfoodticalitiesoftransport,storageandprocessing.isusedinordertocreateastateofnutritionalProblemsareparticularlylikelytoariseinremotewell-being(FAO,2006a).Thisinvolves,interareas,inemergencysituationsorinothercir-alia,selectinganutritionallybalanceddietandcumstanceswhererelevantequipmentorfacil-storing,processingandpreparingfoodssafely.ities(trucks,fridges,stoves,etc.)aredifficultAhealthydietwillrequirearangeofdifferenttoaccessoruse.BFAcancontributeinvariousfoodsandhencearangeofdifferentplantsandwaystoaddressingproblemsofthiskind.For(inmanycases)animals.Studieshaveshownexample,certainmicro-organisms,referredtothatdietarydiversityisagoodpredictorofdietas“protectivecultures”,canbeusedtoincreasequality,particularlyinthecaseofchildren’sdietstheshelf-lifeoffoodandprotectitfromspoilage(Kennedyetal.,2007;Moursietal.,2008;Parlesak,byothermicro-organismsandreducetheriskofGeelhoedandRobertson,2014;Rahetal.,2010).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE51OverviewPartASeeSection2.6.5forfurtherinformationonthethesignificanceofbreedingprogrammesthatcontributionsofBFAtonutrition.24improvethenutritionalqualityofstaplefoods.Forexample,ZambiamentionsvitaminA-richvari-Appropriateutilizationrequiresknowledgeetiesofmaizeandsweetpotato,andiron-andoffoodsandhowtoprocess,storeandpreparezinc-richvarietiesofbeans.them.AsdiscussedinChapter3,traditionalknowledgerelatedtomanycomponentsofBFA,2.6.4Stabilityincludingonhowtoprocessandcooktraditionalfoodproducts,isbeinglost.Accesstovariousnon-Thesignificanceofthe“stability”dimensionoffoodinputs,suchascleanwaterandfuel,isalsofoodsecurityrelatestothefactthatfoodsecu-essential.Insomecircumstances,againparticu-ritydependsonadequatefoodbeingavailablelarlyinremoteareasandforpoorerpeople,thesetoallindividualsatalltimes,forexamplewithinputswilldependonprovisioning(e.g.supplyofnoseasonalshortagesorshortagesinyearswhenfuelwood)andregulating(e.g.waterpurification)harvestsarepoor(FAO,2006a).Diversityissignif-ecosystemservicessuppliedbythebiodiversityinicanttostability,whetherathouseholdlevelorandaroundlocalproductionsystems.Storagecanatlargerscales,inthatthepresenceofarangedependontheuseofmicro-organismsforfermen-ofdifferentfood-producingspecies,varietiesandtation(seeSection5.7forfurtherdetails).breedsthathavedifferentlifecyclesanddifferentadaptivecharacteristicshelpstomaintainfoodsup-Thecountryreportsprovideanumberofexam-pliesthroughtheseasonsoftheyearandthroughplesofhowBFAhelpsprovidemorebalanceddiets.inter-yearvariationsinrainfall,temperature,BurkinaFaso,forexample,mentionsthatvariousdiseasechallenge,etc.Inthecaseoffoodornon-cropswithspecificnutritionalandtherapeuticfoodproductsraisedorharvestedforsale(inthisvirtuesareusedasdietarysupplements,includ-contexttoobtaincashthatcanbeusedforfoodingredandwhitesorghum,moringa(powderedpurchases),diversitycanalsohelptomaintainsta-leavesofMoringaoleifera),soybeanandspirulinabilityofincomeinthefaceofmarket-relatedrisks.(certainspeciesofblue-greenalgae).Itfurthernotesthekeyroleofnon-woodforestproductsinAssociatedbiodiversitycontributestostabilitythesupplyofnutritionallybalanceddietsandalsobyhelpingtoreducetheimpactsofdisruptivethesignificanceofhoneyproducedbydomesti-events(floods,droughts,diseaseandpestout-catedbees.Nepalmentionsthatvariousminorfishbreaks,etc.)thatmayaffectfoodproduction,dis-andotheraquaticspeciesthatwereonceregardedtributionorstorage(seeSections2.2and2.3).Useasa“nuisance”areincreasinglybeingrecognizedofmicro-organismsinfoodpreservationcanhelpforthediversityoftheirnutrientcontentsandtoovercomeseasonalvariationsinfoodsupply.hencetheirpotentialdietarysignificance.IndiaWildfoodscanalsobeimportanttostabilityinnotesthesignificanceoflivestockasasourceofthataccesstothempotentiallyservesasameansproductsthatcanhelptoovercomedeficienciesofmaintainingfoodintakesintheeventofshocksinproteinandvariousvitaminsandminerals.Athataffectfoodoutputfromdomesticatedspeciesnumberofcountriesmentiontheimportanceoforotherwiseaffectaccesstofood(e.g.becauseofcropvarietiesthatcontainhighconcentrationsreducedcashincome)(PattanayakandSills,2001;ofparticularnutrients.SomespecificallynoteThondhlanaandMuchapondwa,2014).24FAOandBioversityInternationalhaveproducedguidelinesonThecountryreportsprovidenumerousexamplesassessingbiodiversefoodsindietaryintakesurveys(FAOandofhowBFAcontributestothestabilitydimensionBioversityInternational,2017).FAOandUSAID’sFoodandoffoodsecurity.SeveralnotethesignificanceofNutritionTechnicalAssistanceIIIProject(FANTA),managedbydiversifiedproductionsystemsinthisregard.ForFHI360(https://www.fhi360.org),havepublishedaguidetoexample,Kiribatimentionsthatintegratedfarmingmeasuringminimumdietarydiversityforwomen(FAOandofmilkfish,sandfish,seacucumberandseaweedFHI360,2016).hasprovedtobeaneffectivemeansofsecuring52thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2productionandincomeinfluctuatingweatherfoodsystemandtheconsumer(theavailability,conditions,asoneortheotherofthecomponentsaffordability,convenienceanddesirabilityoffoods)ofthesystemisalwaysproducingfood.Indiaagainisreferredtoasthe“foodenvironment”(ibid.).notesthesignificanceoflivestock,whichitmen-tionscanactasabufferagainstcropfailure.BothMoregenerally,recentyearshaveseenZambiaandZimbabwereportthatsmallholdersgrowinginterestinthelinksbetweenbiodiver-haverespondedtopersistentdroughtbyadoptingsityandnutrition(FAO,2013d).In2006,theCBD,moreresilientcropssuchassorghum,millet,sweetFAOandBioversityInternationaljointlyestab-potatoandcassavaandbydiversifyingtheirpro-lishedtheCross-cuttingInitiativeonBiodiversityductionsystems.Wherelivestockareconcerned,forFoodandNutrition(CBD,2006).Furtherthesametwocountriesmentionincreasingusedevelopmentshaveincludedtheformulationofofsmallruminantsasaresponsetotheeffectsnutritionindicatorsforbiodiversity(FAO,2008b,ofdroughtanddiseaseoncattleherds.Further2011d).In2010,FAO,incollaborationwiththereportedexamplesofthecontributionsofBFAtoInternationalNetworkofFoodDataSystemsthestabilityoffoodproductionareprovidedinthe(INFOODS),publishedthefirstversionofthediscussionofresilienceinSection2.3.FAO/INFOODSFoodCompositionDatabaseforBiodiversity,withupdatespublishedin2011,2.6.5Nutritionandfoodsystems2012,2016and2017(FAO,2017h).Thecurrentversionholds10156entries(ibid.).In2015,Takingacuefromtheabove-mentioneddefini-theCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodtionofsustainablefoodsystems,FAOregardsfoodandAgricultureadoptedVoluntaryGuidelinessystemsasconsistingoffourfunctions,roughlyforMainstreamingBiodiversityintoPolicies,correspondingtothefourstagesofafoodsupplyProgrammesandNationalandRegionalPlansofchain:foodproduction;foodhandling,storageActiononNutrition(FAO,2016f)(seeBox2.3).andprocessing;foodtradeandmarketing;andconsumerdemand,foodpreparationandpref-Thebackgroundtothesedevelopmentshaserences(FAO,2017g).Theinterfacebetweenthebeenaconcernaboutthefactthat,althoughtheproportionoftheworldpopulationthatisBox2.3VoluntaryGuidelinesforMainstreamingBiodiversityintoPolicies,ProgrammesandNationalandRegionalPlansofActiononNutritionTheVoluntaryGuidelinesforvarieties,cultivarsandbreedsofplantsandanimalsusedasMainstreamingBiodiversityintofood,aswellaswild,neglectedandunderutilizedspeciesPolicies,ProgrammesandNationalcontributingtohealthandnutrition.”andRegionalPlansofActiononNutrition(FAO,2016d)wereendorsedTheguidelinesprovideexamplesofhowmainstreamingbytheCommissiononGeneticcouldbeimplemented,inaccordancewithcountries’needsResourcesforFoodandAgricultureandcapabilities.Theyaredividedintothreemainelements:atitsFifteenthRegularSession,inresearch;implementation;andawareness.TheCommission2015.Theobjectiveoftheguidelinesis“tosupportcountriesstressedthatimplementationoftheguidelinesshouldbeintheintegrationofbiodiversityintoallrelevantpolicies,basedonscientificevidenceandconsistentwithrelevantprogrammesandnationalandregionalplansofactioninternationalobligations.addressingmalnutritioninallitsforms,andspecificallytopromoteknowledge,conservation,developmentanduseofNote:Thevoluntaryguidelinescanbeviewedathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5248e.pdfthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE53OverviewPartAundernourishedhasdeclinedoverrecentdecades,reducethetransactioncostsofsmallholderintegra-reductionsinfood-energydeficitshaveoftennottionintothesemarkets(Pingali,2015).beenaccompaniedbyequivalentimprovementsinotheraspectsofdietaryquality,particularlytheSignificantintraspecificdifferencesinnutri-intakeofmicronutrients(FAO,2015c).Problemstionalcontenthavebeendocumentedinmostofthiskindaresometimesexacerbatedbyaplant-sourcefoods(Burlingame,CharrondiereanddeclineindietarydiversityandthereplacementofMouille,2009;FAO,2013f).Thesedifferencesaremicronutrient-richlocalortraditionalfoodswithsufficientlylargetomeanthateatingonevarietymoremainstreamgloballytradedalternativesratherthananothercanmakeasignificantdif-(JohnsandEyzaguirre,2006).Thesignificanceferenceintermsofthenutritionaladequacyofofnon-mainstreamcrops–andwildfoods–inthediet.Theyalsoprovideopportunitiestobreedthedietsof(inparticular)poorruralpeoplehascultivarsthatcombinehighernutrientcontenttendedtobeoverlooked(Heywood,2013).Towithotherdesirablecharacteristics,suchashighersomedegree,thishasbeenduetothestrongproductivityordiseaseresistance.Within-speciesattentiongiveninthepastdecadetoagriculturaldifferencesinthenutritionalqualityofanimalresearchonstaplegrains(mainlywheat,maizeproductshavebeenrelativelylittlestudied,andandrice),tothedetrimentofothercerealsandoftherearedifficultiesinvolvedindistinguishingpulse,rootandoilcrops(KhouryandJarvis,2014).differencescausedbygeneticsfromthosecausedbymanagementfactorssuchasfeeding.However,Driveninpartbytheactionsoftheglobalevidencesuggeststhattherearesomenutrition-foodindustry(Moodieetal.,2013),manypartsallysignificantdifferencesbetweenproductsoftheworldareintransitiontowardsaso-calledobtainedfromdifferentbreeds(FAO,2015a).“Western”diet,dominatedbyhighintakeofrefinedcarbohydrates,addedsugars,fatsand(ter-Wherewildandunderutilizedspeciesarecon-restrial)animal-sourcefoods(Popkin,Adairandcerned,detailedstudiesofnutritionalsignificanceNg,2012).Thistrendhasbeenimplicatedintherisearenotcommon(Powelletal.,2015).However,evi-ofobesity–39percentoftheworld’sadultpop-dencefromvariousproductionsystemsinvariousulationwasoverweightasof2016(WHO,2018)–partsoftheworldindicatesthatsuchspeciesmakecardiovasculardisease,diabetes,autoimmunedis-importantcontributionstolocaldiets.Asianriceeasesandsomecancers(Murrayetal.,2013).fields,forexample,harbourawiderangeofanimalsandplants,manyofwhichareimportantItisimportanttonotethatchangesindiethavesourcesoffoodforlocalpeople,oftenprovidingbeencausednotonlybychangesinsupply,butalsoessentialmicronutrientsthatarenotfound(orbychangesindemand:urbanization,women’sentryfoundinlimitedquantities)inrice,aswellasaddi-intothelabourmarket,higherincomesinsometionalsourcesofprotein(Halwart,2006;Halwartcountriesandlongerhoursworkedawayfrometal.,eds.,2016).Traditionalricedietsareoftenhomehaveledtoashiftinfooddemandtowardsdeficientintheaminoacidlysine,butthiscanbemore-convenient,processedfoods(Kennedy,NantelcompensatedforbyeatingfishandotheraquaticandShetty,2004).Thechallengeisthereforetoanimalsforagedfromricefields.Astudyofthemakediverse,freshfoodsmoreavailable,afforda-dietsofmothersandchildreninasmall-scalebleandappealing.Forthistooccur,actionneedstofarmingsystemintheEastUsambaraMountainsbetakennotonlyatproductionlevel,forexampleoftheUnitedRepublicofTanzaniafoundthatwildbyincreasingagriculturalresearchfundsfordiversefoods,mostlyobtainedfromagriculturalland,foods(KhouryandJarvis,2014),butalsothroughoutprovided31percentofthevitaminA,19percentthefoodsystem.Relevantmeasurescouldincludeoftheironand16percentofthecalciumcontentincreasinglevelsofpublic-andprivate-sectorinvest-ofthediet,withthecontributionbeinggreatestmentintransport,storageandmarketdevelopmentduringthewet(morefood-scarce)season(Powellfordiversenon-staplefoodsandtakingstepstoetal.,2013).Anassessmentcovering21African54thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2countries(Ickowitzetal.,2014)foundapositiveMadagascarshowedthatremovingaccesstowildrelationshipbetweenchildren’sdietarydiversitymeatwouldinducea29percentincreaseintheandtreecover,anindicationoftheimportantnumberofchildrensufferingfromanaemiaandcontributionsthatnon-woodforestproductsatriplingofanaemiacasesamongchildreninthemaketofoodandnutritionsecurityintheregion.pooresthouseholds(Goldenetal.,2011).DetailsAstudyinacommunityinruralnortheasternofaprojectthathas(interalia)supportedtheBox2.4TheBiodiversityforFoodandNutritionProjectBrazil,Kenya,SriLankaandTurkeyarehometoavastFoodfestivalsandfairsorganizedintheprojectcountriesprovidearrayoftraditionaland/orneglectednativeediblespecies,opportunitiestoraiseawarenessandpromoteorphancropsandspecies.bothwildandcultivated,thatareofenormousnutritionalInthisgastronomiceventinSriLanka,womentakepartinacookingvaluebutarealso(likesimilarresourcesinmostcountries)competitionusingtraditionalspecies.©BioversityInternational/D.Hunter.threatenedbyenvironmentalpressuresorlackofuse.inanonlinecourse3andinamainstreamingtoolkitaimedTheBiodiversityforFoodandNutritionProject1hasatpolicy-makers,academiccoordinators,universitystudents,placedtheconservationofthisdiversityonamuchstrongerextensionworkersandothersstudyingorworkinginnutrition,footingbybuildingnationalcapacitytogeneratenutritionagriculture,publichealthorsocio-economicdevelopment.datafor189underutilizedspecies(primarilyplants)acrossthefourcountriesandtocollectinformationontheForfurtherinformation,visittheBiodiversityforFoodandsocioculturalsignificanceandmarketvalueofthesespecies.Nutritionwebsite.4Thisevidencebaseisgraduallybeingmadeavailableinnationaldatabasesandisexpandingglobalknowledgeof1TheprojectisfundedbytheGlobalEnvironmentFacilityandledbyfoodbiodiversityviatheFAO/INFOODSdatabase.2Brazil,Kenya,SriLankaandTurkey.ItiscoordinatedbyBioversityCountrieshaveusedthedatatostrategicallytargetnationalpoliciespromotinglocalandindigenousbiodiversityInternationalwithimplementationsupportfromFAOandtheUnitedforfoodandnutrition.Actionsincludepromotingdiverse,healthynativefoodsindietaryguidelines(Brazil)(seeNationsEnvironmentProgramme.AdditionalresourceswerereceivedBox2.5andBox8.21),supportingsmallholderfarmersintheproductionofbiodiversefoodsandlinkingthemtoschool-fromtheAustralianCentreforInternationalAgriculturalResearch,themealsprogrammes(Kenya),linkingwiththeprivatesectortocreatemarketsforbiodiversefoods(Turkey)andprioritizingVanguardCharitableTrustandtheMacArthurFoundationfortheschoolfoodbiodiversityinrelevantnationalstrategies/actionplansandinagriculturalandnutritionpolicies(SriLanka).feedingprogrammeinKenyaandfromFAOKenyafortheanalysisoftheSocialandculturalattitudestothesespecies,whichnutritionalcontentoflocalvarietiesandspeciesandthedevelopmentofareoftenperceivedas“foodforthepoor”,particularlybyyoungergenerations,arealsochangingthankstoincreasedanupdatedfoodcompositiontablethatwillincludelocalbiodiversity.awarenessoftheirvalue.Collaborationwithcelebritychefs,foodfairsandincreasedmediaattentionhaveraisedtheTheprojectcontributestotheimplementationoftheCBD’sCross-Cuttingprofileofneglectedandunderutilizedbiodiversityandarecreatinginterestamongconsumers.InitiativeonBiodiversityforFoodandNutrition.Muchoftheproject’sexperienceinpromotingthe2http://www.fao.org/infoods/infoods/tables-and-databases/faoinfoods-conservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityforfoodandnutritionandmainstreamingitintodifferentsectorsiscaptureddatabases/en3http://www.b4fn.org/e-learning4http://www.b4fn.org/(Cont.)thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE55OverviewPartABox2.4(Cont.)TheBiodiversityforFoodandNutritionProjectHOKGNMJBBNMDLCFHDAILCIJDAEEKPGFTraditionalvegetablesTraditionalfruitsA.Bananaflower(Musaspp.)A.Mango(Mangiferaindica)B.Eggplant(Solanummelongena)–multiplevarieties(ela-batu,wam-batu,tib-batu)B.Soursop(Annonamuricata)C.Yardlongbean(Vignaunguiculatavar.sesquipedalis)andC.Mandarin(Citrusreticulata)D.Passionfruit(Passiflorasp.)okra(Hibiscusesculentus)E.Governor’splum(Flacourtiaindica)D.Bittergourdandwildbittergourd(Momordicacharantia)F.Dan(Syzygiumcaryophyllatum)E.Spinygourd(Mormordicadioica)G.Velvettamarind(Dialiumcochinchinense)F.Hyacinthbean(Lablabpurpureus)H.Velvetapple(Diospyrosdiscolor)G.Swordbean(Canavaliagladiata)I.Starfruit(Averrhoacarambola)H.Wingedbean(Psophocarpustetragonolobus)J.Papaya(Caricapapaya)I.Bottlegourd(Lagenariasiceraria)K.Guava(Psidiumguajava)J.Cookingmelon(Cucumismelo)L.Cacao(Theobromacacao)K.Chillipepper(Capsicumannuum)M.Custardapple(Annonasquamosa)L.Tabascopepper(Capsicumfrutescens)N.Bananavarieties(Musaspp.)M.Bonnetpepper(Capsicumchinense)O.Avocado(Perseaamericana)N.Asamodagam(Trachyspermumroxburghianum)P.Stargooseberry(Phyllanthusacidus)©BioversityInternational/D.Hunter.©BioversityInternational/D.Hunter.Source:ProvidedbyTeresaBorelli,DannyHunter,DanielaMouradeOliveiraBeltrame,VictorW.Wasike,GaminiSamarasingheandHasanGezginç.generationofnutritionaldataontraditionaland/tiononthelivelihoodrolesofwildfoods).ManyorneglectedspeciesinBrazil,Kenya,SriLankaandwildfoodsarerichinmicronutrients(BharuchaTurkeyareprovidedinBox2.4.ThecontributionsandPretty,2010;GrivettiandOgle,2000;Grubbenthatwildfoodsmaketofoodsecurityandnutri-andDenton,2004;YangandKeding,2009;vantionareexploredingreaterdetailbelow.Huisetal.,2013),somecontainingmorethantheircultivatedcounterparts(KoboriandRodriguez2.6.6ContributionofwildfoodsAmaya,2008;Smithetal.,1996).Eatingthemcanalleviatemicronutrientand/orproteindeficienciesWildfoods25contributetofoodsecuritybothviaandthusmakedietsmorenutritiousandbalanceddirectconsumption(onaregularbasisorasan(Broegaardetal.,2017;Kuyper,VittaandDewey,emergencymeasureintimesofscarcity)andby2013).Inadditiontoregularassessmentspro-beingsoldtoprovideincomethatisreinvestedinvidedinFAO’sreportsonTheStateoftheWorldfoodpurchases(seeSection2.5formoreinforma-FisheriesandAquaculture,severalrecentpubli-cationhavereviewedthecontributionsofwild25SeeSection1.5foradefinitionofthisterm.56thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2Box2.5Food-baseddietaryguidelinesasatooltopromotebiodiversityFood-baseddietaryguidelines(FBDGs)areasetofVenezuelanfoodspinningtop.evidence-based,easilyunderstood,behaviourallyfocusedVenezuelanfoodspinningtopforindigenouspeople.messagesthatconstituteagovernment’srecommendationtoitspopulationonhealthy(andsometimesexplicitly(Cont.)sustainable)eating(GonzalezFischerandGarnett,2016).TheVoluntaryGuidelinesforMainstreamingBiodiversityintoPolicies,ProgrammesandNationalandRegionalPlansofActiononNutrition(FAO,2016d–seeBox2.3)recommendtheincorporationofbiodiversityconsiderationsintoFBDGs.Therearemanypotentiallinksbetweenbiodiversityandhumannutrition,includingthoserelatedtoincreasingdietarydiversityandquality,improvingincome,enhancingresilienceandpromotingthemaintenanceofgeneticresourcesforfutureadaptation(BertiandJones,2013;Frison,CherfasandHodgkin,2011;Heywood,2013;ToledoandBurlingame,2006).However,thepracticalitiesofintegratingbiodiversity-focusedadviceintoFBDGscanbechallenging.RecommendingtheconsumptionoffoodsproducedinwaysthatconserveandmakesustainableuseofbiodiversityisoneapproachthatcanbeusedtopromotebiodiversityinFBDGs.Forexample,Sweden’sFBDGrecommendschoosingeco-friendlyproducts,suchasthosefromsustainablefishingororganicagriculture.1Likewise,Brazil’sDietaryGuidelinesfortheBrazilianPopulation(MinistryofHealthofBrazil,2016)explicitlypromotebiodiversityaspartof“sociallyandenvironmentallysustainablefoodsystems”thatprovidehealthydiets.However,asFBDGscanhaveasignificantinfluenceonpublicprocurementandfood-provisionprogrammes,theinclusionofsuchrecommendationsoftengivesrisetooppositionfromspecialinterestgroups.MostnationalFBDGsrecommendeatingavarietyoffoods(Dwyer,2012).However,thisoftenreferstoeatingfoodsfromdifferentfoodgroups,forinstancecombiningriceandbeans,orvaryingthefoodswithinagroup,forinstanceeatingapplesonedayandpearsthenext.Shortandsimplemessagesofthiskindcomplywiththeprinciplesofgoodcommunication.Howevertheyaretoogeneraltoaddresstheutilization1https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/globalassets/english/food-habits-health-environment/dietary-guidelines/kostrad-eng.pdf?id=8140thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE57OverviewPartABox2.5(Cont.)Food-baseddietaryguidelinesasatooltopromotebiodiversityof“foodbiodiversity”inthesenseofarangeofdifferentEffortstolocalizeguidancecanfaceanumberofvarietiesandbreedsofplantsandanimals,orwild,neglectedchallengesandpitfalls.Forexample,attentionneedstobeandunderutilizedspecies.Componentsofbiodiversityatthesepaidtothehealthoftheecosystemsthatsupplythefoodslevelsareoftenuniquetospecificlocalareasandmayhavetargeted,assuccessinpromotinganindividualfoodmayparticularsignificanceinthefood-productionandculinaryleadtooverexploitationtomeetdemand.Thereisalsoarisktraditionsofspecificsectionsofthepopulation.thatinitiativesmaybehijackedforcommercialpurposes.Nonetheless,locallyadaptedFBDGshavethepotentialSomecountrieshavesoughttobridgethegapbetweentobeanimportantmeansofpromotingconsumptionofnationalpolicyandlocalrealitiesbyadaptingtheirnationaldiverseandunderutilizedlocallyavailablefoods.IntegratingFBDGsforuseindifferentsubnationalcontexts.Forexample:theseeffortswithexistinginitiativesaimedatpromotingbiodiversityandlinkingthemtothedevelopmentofcooking•CanadahasproducedaversionofitsnationalfoodskillsandgastronomyhelpstomakethemmoreeffectiveguideadaptedforusebyFirstNations,InuitandMétisandenjoyable,andalsotominimizetheabove-notedriskspeoples,2whichprovidesadvice,interalia,onhowassociatedwithpromotingsinglefoods.foodssuchaswildplantsandseaweed,bannocks(atypeofbread),fishwithbones,shellfishandnutsSource:ProvidedbyMaryamRahmanianandAnaIslasRamos.canhelpprovidethenutrientsneededbypeoplewho2https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/canada-food-donotconsumemilkproducts.guide/eating-well-with-canada-food-guide-first-nations-inuit-metis.html•TheBolivarianRepublicofVenezuelahasadaptedits3http://www.fao.org/nutrition/education/food-dietary-guidelines/regions/national“foodspinningtop”forusebyindigenouspeople(seeimagesonprecedingpage).3countries/venezuela/en/4Forexample:http://www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/hf/kth/kak/tkh/framepage/•Japanhasadapteditsnationalspinningtopfoodguideforeachofitsprefectures.4dbaransugaido.htm(inJapanese).foodstofoodsecurityandnutrition(Bioversitywildfoods(BharuchaandPretty,2010;Colfer,SheilInternational,2017;WHOandCBD,2015;HLPE,andKishi,2006;GrivettiandOgle,2000;Powellet2017a,2014;Vincetietal.,2013).26Allraisecon-al.,2015),thevariabilityofnutritionalcomposi-cernsaboutthesustainabilityofuseofwildfoodstionwithinspecies(Stadlmayretal.,2013;Toledo(seeChapter3forfurtherdiscussion).andBurlingame,2006)andinconsistentorincor-rectnomenclatureinpublishedresults(NesbittetItisdifficulttoquantifytheglobalcontribu-al.,2010).Forfurtherinformationonthestateoftionsofwildfoodstodiets.Forexample,dataonknowledgeofwildfoods,seeSection4.4.wild-foodconsumptionaregenerallyexcludedfromnationalstatistics(BharuchaandPretty,2010;Whiledefinitiveglobaldataarelacking,estimatesMEA,2005a).27Otherconstraintsincludealackareavailableforspecificsectors,regionsortypesofinformationonthenutritionalcompositionofofwildfood.Capturefisheriesprovidedatotalof90.9milliontonnesoffish28in2016(FAO,2018a).26Inaddition,thedraftofafirstevaluationofthescaleandIn2015,aquaticproductssupplied17percentofdriversofsubsistenceandcommercialharvestingofwildtheglobalpopulation’sintakeofanimalproteinterrestrialvertebratesforfoodintropicalandsubtropical(nearlyhalfoffishforhumanconsumptionregionswassubmittedtoCBDSBSTTA21(Coadetal.,2017).28“Fish”herereferstofish,aquaticcrustaceans,aquaticmolluscs27Sorrenti(2017)providesasystematicreviewofnon-woodforestandotheraquaticanimalsotherthanmammalsandreptiles(itproductsintheexistinginternationalclassificationsystemsusedalsoexcludesseaweedsandotheraquaticplants).forthecollectionanddisseminationofdataonproduction,tradeandeconomicactivities,withtheaimultimatelyofimprovingdatacollectiononnon-woodforestproducts.58thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2Figure2.3Typesofwild-foodusereportedbycountriesNon-OECDOECDRegularuseofwildfoods1556520Regularuseby2150153speciﬁcpopulationgroups1457122086317Useintimesofscarcity46788Useassupplementary1312537foodsources6831766UseofselectedspeciesCommercialuse18Recreationaluse3Culturaluse50%20%40%60%80%100%0%20%40%60%80%100%CountriesreportinguseCountriesnotreportinguseNotes:Valuesrefertothenumberofcountries.Somecountriesreportedmorethanonetypeofuse.OECD=OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.wassuppliedfromcapturefisheries)(ibid.).29Wildcollectedwildfoodfromforestandnon-forestforestfoodscontributetothedietsofmanymil-environments(Hickeyetal.,2016).Itisestimatedlionsofpeople,particularlyintermsofmicronu-thatinsectsareregularlyeatenbyatleast2billiontrients(Rowlandetal.,2017;Sunderland,2011).peopleworldwide(vanHuisetal.,2013).AccordingFoodobtainedfromforestshasbeenestimatedtotoCoadetal.(2017),estimatesofpercapitawild-contributeabout0.6percentoftheglobalsupplymeatconsumptionfromstudiesconductedintrop-ofdietaryenergy(FAO,2014d).30Recentanaly-icalareaswherewildmeatiseatenrangefromsisofdatafromcommunitieslivinginorcloseto0.05to0.28kg/person/day.forestsin24countriesinLatinAmerica,AfricaandAsiarevealedthat77percentofsuchhouseholdsCountry-reportanalysisCountrieswereinvitedtoreporttheproportion29ThesestatisticsonfishconsumptionarebasedontheFoodoftheirrespectivepopulationsthatconsumesBalanceSheetscalculatedbytheStatisticsandInformationwildfoodonaregularbasis,aswellastosupplyBranchoftheFAOFisheriesandAquacultureDepartmentasofotherinformationsuchastheproportionoftheMarch2016.Consumptiondatafor2013shouldbeconsidereddietthatiscollectedfromthewildinnormalpreliminary.FoodBalanceSheetdatareferto“averagefoodtimesandintimesofscarcityandthedegreetoavailableforconsumption”,which,foranumberofreasonswhichwildfoodsareusedforvariouspurposes.31(e.g.wasteatthehouseholdlevel),isnotequaltoaverageThenumbersofcountriesreportingvariousfoodintakeoraveragefoodconsumption.Productionfromtypesofwild-fooduseareshowninFigure2.3.subsistencefisheries,aswellascross-bordertradebetweensomedevelopingcountries,maybeincompletelyrecordedand31Countrieswerealsoinvitedtoreportongenderdifferencesinmightthereforeleadtoanunderestimationofconsumption.thepatternsofuse,managementandconsumptionofwildfoods.TheinformationprovidedisdiscussedinSection2.530ThesefiguresarelikelytobeamajorunderestimateoftheandSection3.8.totalconsumptionoffoodfromforestsbecauseinformationaboutproduction(andconsumption)oftheseproductsisfarfromcomplete.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE59OverviewPartAEachcategoryisfurtherdiscussedinthefollowingForexample,theGambia,Nepal,Rwandaandsubsections.SriLankareportwidespreaduseofwildfoodsamongcommunitieslivingnearforests.NepalRegularuseofwildfoodsmentionsthatwildfoodsareespeciallyimpor-Sixteenpercentofallrespondents(15coun-tantforsometribalgroups(namelytheChepang,tries,allnon-membersoftheOrganisationforRaji,BankariyaandRaute),withwildfoodscon-EconomicCo-operationandDevelopment[OECD])stitutingapproximately25percentoftheirdiets.34reportthatregularuseofwildfoodsiswide-Angolamentionstheimportanceofwildfoodsspreadnationally.Ninecountriesprovidequanti-toKhoisannomads,whocollectapproximatelytativedataindicatingthatatleastathirdoftheir30percentoftheirfoodfromthewildunderrespectivepopulationsusewildfoods.32Insomenormalconditions.cases,thefiguresaresubstantiallyhigher:EswatiniandGabonbothreportthatapproximatelytwo-SomeOECDcountriesnotethatalthoughthirdsoftheirpopulationconsumewildfoodswild-foodconsumptionisgenerallylowitmakesregularly.Ethiopiareportsthattheproportionofasubstantialcontributiontothedietsofsomethepopulationconsumingwildplantsvariesfrompopulationgroups.Forinstance,Finlandreports30or40percentinsomeregionstoasmuchasthattheindigenousSámipopulationcontinues56percentor67percentinothers.Italsomen-todependonwildfishandmeatforasignificanttionsthatover50percentofthepopulationinitsportionofitsdiet.TheUnitedStatesofAmericaGambellaregionconsumeswildmeats.Burkinamentionsthatwild-fooduseishighestinAlaska,Fasoreportsthatnon-woodforestproductsarewhere86percentofruralhouseholdsconsumeeatenby43percentofitshouseholds.wildmeat.35SeveralPacificcountriesreporthighlevelsUseintimesofscarcityofdependenceonseafood.Forinstance,PalauFifteenpercentofrespondents(14countries,36allreportsthatanestimated80percentofitspop-non-OECD)reportthatwild-foodconsumptionulationeatswildfoods,mainlyaquaticspecies.increasesduringtimesofscarcity,suchas“theNiuereportsthat60percentofhouseholdshunthungrygap”shortlybeforeharvestwhenfoodcoconutcrabsand62percentengageinfishing,storesaredepletedorperiodsfollowingnaturalwithanaveragefresh-fishconsumptionestimateddisasters,cropfailuresorconflicts.Forinstance,at31.1kgperpersonperyear.33KiribatireportsKiribatimentionsthatintimesofemergencyorthatinitsLineandPhoenixIslandsthepropor-whenthereareshortagesofimportedfood(usuallytionofwildfoodinthedietcanattimesreachrice)consumptionofwildstaplefoods,suchas100percent.giantswamptaroandbreadfruit,increases.RegularusebyspecificpopulationgroupsUseofwildfoodsassupplementaryTwenty-ninepercentofrespondents(25percentfoodsourcesofOECDand30percentofnon-OECDrespond-Thiscategoryofusereferstotheadditionofwildents)indicateregularuseofwildfoodsbyspe-foodstoapredominatelynon-wildfooddietcificsegmentsofthepopulation,suchasindig-toadddiversityand/orincreasethequantityofenouspeoples,nomadicgroups,remoteruralminerals,vitaminsorothernutrientsconsumed.populationsorforestorhighlandcommunities.Twelvepercentofrespondents(15percentof32BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,Eswatini,Ethiopia,Gabon,Kiribati,34ThecountryreportcitesThapa(2013).Niue,PalauandZambia.35ThecountryreportcitesTitus,HaynesandParagi(2009).36BurkinaFaso,Chad,China,ElSalvador,Eswatini,Ethiopia,33ThecountryreportindicatesthatthefiguresarefromNiue’sAgriculturalCensusof2009anditsFoodSecurityKiribati,Nauru,Nepal,Panama,Sudan,UnitedRepublicofAssessmentof2011.Tanzania,ZambiaandZimbabwe60thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREROLESANDIMPORTANCEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE2OECDand11percentofnon-OECDrespondents)forestproductsasasourceofincomeandemploy-reportthiskindofuse,withreportedfrequencymentforruralhouseholds.Gabonmentionsarangingfromoccasionaltodaily.Afewcoun-rapidlygrowingmarketforwildmeat,withcon-triesprovidespecificnutritionalinformationforsumptionestimatedtobebetween20000andkeywildfoodsusedtosupplementthediet.For30000tonnesannually,upfromanestimatedexample,Chinanotesthatwildfishareimpor-12000tonnesin2008.AnumberofOECDcoun-tantsourcesofunsaturatedfattyacids,protein,triesmentionsubstantialcommercialharvestingofcalcium,phosphorusandvitaminsA,D,B1andB2wildfoods(i.e.inadditiontotheveryfrequentlyinhighlybioavailableform.Italsomentionsthatmentionedcommercialcapturefishingindustry).wildinsectsarehighinprotein,unsaturatedfattyForexample,Finlandnotesthatcommercialhar-acidsandarangeofothernutrientsincludingvestingofitsmostpopularwildmushroomspeciescalcium,iron,magnesium,phosphorus,zincand(Lactariusspp.,Boletusspp.andChanterelleselenium,andthatamphibiansandreptilesservespp.)totalledapproximately299200kgin2013.assupplementarysourcesofprotein.TheGambiaBelarusmentionsthatexportsofsnailsbroughtmentionsthatsomewildfoodspeciesthatserveinmorethanUSD3.8millionoverthefiveyearsassourcesoffoodsupplements(e.g.theAfricanprecedingthepreparationofthecountryreportlocustbeanornérétree[Parkiabiglobosa])have(submittedin2016).becomeincreasinglyrareandthattheircontribu-tionstolivelihoodshavedeclined.RecreationaluseEighteenpercentofrespondents(65percentofUseofselectedspeciesOECDand4percentofnon-OECDrespondents)Eighteenpercentofrespondents(60percentofmentionrecreationalharvestingofwildfoods.OECDand6percentofnon-OECDrespondents)Hunting,angling,mushroomgatheringandindicateselectiveuseofwildfoodspecies(i.e.useberrypickingareamongthecommonlyreportedonlyofasmallnumberofparticularlysought-activities.Forexample,theUnitedStatesofafterwildfoodspecies).InmanyEuropeanAmericareportsthat6percentofitspopulationcountriesandintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,overtheageof16participatedinhuntingasofconsumptionofvariousmushrooms,berriesand2011.37Anglingiswidelymentionedasapopulargamespeciesfallsintothiscategory.ElsewherepastimeinEuropeandNorthAmerica.Germany,intheworld,Fijireportsthattheediblefernforexample,reportsthatithas1.6millionanglers.ota(DiplaziumesculentumandD.proliferum)isapopulardelicacyamongthelocalpopula-CulturalusetionandisalsoexportedtomeetdemandfromEvenwherewildfoodsarenotvitalforfoodsecu-Fijianslivingoverseas.Jamaicareportsthatrity,theymaystillbevaluedforculturalreasonsamongMaroonindigenousgroups,rootdrinksandplaycentralrolesinfestivitiesandcelebra-andtonicsmadefromselectedwildplantsaretions.Useofthiskindisreportedby9percentconsumedfortheirmedicinalproperties.ofallrespondents(15percentofOECDrespond-entsand7percentofnon-OECDrespondents).CommercialuseGrenada,forexample,mentionsthatwildmeatTwenty-ninepercentofrespondents(40percentisregardedasadelicacyandisconsumedatofOECDand25percentofnon-OECDrespond-fetesandfestivals.TheUnitedStatesofAmericaents)mentioncommercialuseofwildfoods.mentionstheevergreenhuckleberry(VacciniumSpecifictypesofproductsmentionedincludeovatum)andtheAmericanmatsutakemushroomfish,wildmeat,berriesandotherfruits,vegeta-(Tricholomamagnivelare)aswildfoodspeciesbles,mushroomsandinvertebrates.Forexample,BurkinaFasonotestheimportanceofnon-wood37ThecountryreportcitesUSFWS(2011).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE61OverviewPartAusedbyNativeAmericansforavarietyofculinarylocalandtraditionalfoodsinfoodsecurityandculturalpurposes.Italsonotesthekeysignif-andtheprovisionofnutritionallybalanced,icanceofthesalmoninthedietsandcultureofhealthydiets.someNativeAmericanpeoples.Anumberofcountryreportshighlighttheneedforgreaterrecognitionofthecontributionthat2.6.7Needsandprioritieswildfoodsmaketoglobalfoodsecurityandnutri-tion.However,itisclearthatthereareconsidera-Prioritiesreportedbycountriesintermsofsup-bleknowledgegapswithregardtotheextentofportingthecontributionofBFAtofoodsecuritythiscontributioninquantitativeterms–severalandnutritionincludedthefollowing:countriesnotetheneedtoimprovedatacollec-tiononwild-fooduse,forexamplebyincluding•supportingexsituandinsituconservationwildfoodsinnationalcensusesandsurveysorinandsustainableuseofrelevantcomponentsethnobiologicalorotherscientificstudies.SeveralofBFA,includingbypromotingbiodiversecountriesnotethatalackofmonitoringsystemsproductionsystemsandsustainablemanage-forwildfoodspeciesconstrainsthedevelopmentmentpracticesandbypromotingconsump-ofconservationandmanagementprogrammestionofbiodiverseproductssoastoincreaseandmakesitdifficulttodeterminetheeffective-marketdemandforthem;nessofsuchprogrammes.Limitationsintermsofcapacitydevelopmentandstakeholderinvolve-•supportingbreedingactivitiestargetingmentarealsohighlighted.Somecountriesidentifythedevelopmentofimprovedvarietiesaneedtoquantifyandclarifytheeffectsofwildandbreeds,includingonesprovidingprod-fooduseonhumanhealthandwell-being,includ-uctsthathaveimprovednutrientcontent,inginsomecasesnotonlynutritionalimpactswithfocusonadaptationtoenvironmentalbutalsoeffectsonculturallifeandthepossibleshocksandstressorsandinparticularthosestress-reductioneffectsofcollectingwildfoods.associatedwithclimatechange;and•raisingawarenessoftheimportanceofBFA,withaspecificfocusonthesignificanceof62thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREPartBDrivers,statusandtrendsChapter3DriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureKeymessages•Analysisofcountryreportsandrecentliterature•Thedrivermentionedbythehighestnumberofprovidesarichandcomplexpictureofthedriverscountriesashavingnegativeeffectsonregulatingthatdirectlyorindirectlyinfluencebiodiversityandsupportingecosystemservicesischangesinforfoodandagriculture(BFA)andtheecosystemlandandwateruseandmanagement.Lossandservicesitprovides.degradationofforestandaquaticecosystemsand,inmanyproductionsystems,transitiontointensive•BFAisaffectedbyarangeofdriversofchange:productionofareducednumberofspecies,breedsmajorglobaltrendssuchaschangesinclimate,andvarieties,remainmajordriversoflossofBFAinternationalmarketsanddemographygiveandecosystemservices.risetomoreimmediatedriverssuchasland-usechange,pollutionandoveruseofexternalinputs,•Countriesreportthatthemaintenanceoftraditionaloverharvesting,andproliferationofinvasivespecies.knowledgerelatedtoBFAisnegativelyaffectedInteractionsbetweendriversoftenexacerbatetheirbythelossoftraditionallifestylesasaresulteffectsonBFA.ofpopulationgrowth,urbanizationandtheindustrializationofagricultureandfoodprocessing,•Demographicchanges,urbanization,markets,andbyoverexploitationandoverharvesting.tradeandconsumerpreferencesarereportedtohavestronginfluenceonfoodsystems,oftenwith•PoliciesandadvancesinscienceandtechnologyarenegativeconsequencesforBFAandtheecosystemlargelyseenbycountriesaspositivedriversthatservicesitprovides.However,suchdriversarealsoofferwaysofreducingthenegativeeffectsofotherreportedtoprovideopportunitiestomakefooddriversonBFA.Theyprovidecriticalentrypointsforsystemsmoresustainable.interventionssupportingthesustainableuseandconservationofBFA.However,policiesintendedto•ManyofthedriversthathavenegativeimpactsonpromotethesustainablemanagementofBFAareBFA,includingoverexploitation,overharvesting,oftenweaklyimplemented.pollution,overuseofexternalinputs,andchangesinlandandwatermanagement,areatleastpartiallycausedbyinappropriateagriculturalpractices.3.1Introductionandonwildfoods.Itdrawsprincipallyontheinformationprovidedinthecountryreports.1Thischapterdiscussesmajordriversofchangeinthestateofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture1Throughoutthischapter,unlessnotedotherwise,theterm“country(BFA),withaparticularfocusonassociatedbio-reports”referstothecountryreportssubmittedascontributionsdiversityandtheecosystemservicesitprovidestoTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.See“Aboutthispublication”foradditionalinformation.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE65Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBOtherglobalassessmentshavereviewedonthesupplyofspecificecosystemservices2driversofchangeaffectingbiodiversityandeco-withinparticularproductionsystems(Table1.1)systemservicesingeneral(e.g.IPBES,forthcom-duringtheprecedingtenyearshadbeenpositive,ing,a,b,2016a;MEA,2005b),specificdriverssuchnegativeorneutral.Countrieswerealsospecifi-asclimatechange(e.g.FAO,2015b;IPCC,2014),callyinvitedtoreportontheeffectsofthesamedriversaffectingvariousproductionsystemsandsetofdriversontheavailabilityanddiversityofecosystemsofimportancetofoodandagricul-wildfoodsandonthestateofknowledgeofture(e.g.FAO’sregularpublicationseriesThetheseresources.StateofFoodandAgriculture,TheStateoftheWorld’sForestsandTheStateofWorldFisheriesAlthoughcountrieswereinvitedtoreportonandAquaculture,andotherreportssuchaseachdriverindividually,inrealitythedriversStatusoftheWorld’sSoilResourcespublishedinteractwitheachotherandmayoperateatbyFAOandtheIntergovernmentalTechnicaldifferentlevels(i.e.somemaydriveothers).ForPanelonSoils[FAOandITPS,2015]andTheFirstexample,majorglobaltrendssuchaschangesinGlobalIntegratedMarineAssessment[UnitedinternationalmarketsanddemographymaygiveNations,2017b])anddriversaffectinggeneticrisetochangesindemandforagriculturalprod-resourcesinthevarioussectorsoffoodanductsthatleadtochangesinlanduse,changesagriculture(e.g.FAO,forthcoming,1997,2007a,inproductionmethodsorchangesinthelevel2010a,2014a,2015a).ofexploitationofparticularresources.TheseinturnmayleadtofurthereffectssuchassoilTobrieflysummarizetheconclusionsoftheerosion,thespreadofinvasivealienspeciesorsectoralassessmentsofgeneticresources:inthethepollutionofland,airorwater.Aswellascaseofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagri-givingrisetogradualchanges,somedriverscanculture,landclearing,populationpressure,over-increasetheriskofshockssuchasclimaticdisas-grazing,environmentaldegradationandchang-tersordiseaseoutbreaksthatcanhaveamajoringagriculturalpracticesareidentifiedasmajorimpactonbiodiversityinashortperiodoftime.causesofgeneticerosion(FAO,2010a).ForforestOpportunitiescreatedbytechnologicalinnova-geneticresources,land-usechange,particularlytionsmayincreaseordecreasetheimpactsofforestconversiontocroplandandpasture,over-otherdrivers.Publicpoliciescandeliberatelyexploitation,selectiveharvesting,andhightreeorinadvertentlyaffectdriversatalllevels,mortalitycausedbyextremeclimaticeventsareandmaybespecificallyintroducedinordertoconsideredmajorthreats(FAO,2014a).GrowthinreduceharmfulimpactsonBFA.Thestatusofademandforanimal-sourcefoods,transformationgivencomponentofBFAwillthereforenormallyofproductionsystemsandinadequatepoliciesdependonarangeofinteractingdriversoperat-andbreedingstrategiesareregardedasmajoringatarangeofscales.Similarly,agivendriverchallengestothesustainablemanagementofmaygiverisetobothdirectandindirecteffectsanimal(livestock)geneticdiversity(FAO,2015a).onBFAviaanumberofdifferentpathways.ForHabitatlossanddegradation,pollutionofexample,urbanizationmaylead(interalia)towaters,thedirectandindirecteffectsofclimatethedestructionofhabitatasaresultofinfra-change,andtheestablishmentofinvasivespeciesstructuredevelopment,toquantitativeandqual-havebeenidentifiedasmajordriversaffectingitativechangesindemandforfoodandagricul-aquaticecosystemsandhenceaquaticgeneticturalproducts,tochangesinlevelsofpollutionresources,bothwildrelativesandfarmedtypesatvariousscalesandtopopulationmigrations(FAO,forthcoming).thatleadtochangesintheavailabilityoflabourtoworkinagriculture.Forthecurrentassessment,countrieswereinvitedtoreportonasetofdriversofchange2TheecosystemservicesaredescribedinSection2.2.(Table3.1)andtoindicatewhethertheireffects66thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Table3.1Driversofchangeexploredinthecountry-reportingguidelinesDriversExplanatorynotesprovidedintheguidelinesPopulationgrowthandPopulation–changesinpopulationmetrics(e.g.growth,fertility,composition,mortality,migration,healthurbanizationanddisease,includingdifferenteffectsonmenandwomen)Urbanization–forexample,shiftsinproportionofurbanandruralpopulations;changeinurbanizationtrends,includingdifferenteffectsonmenandwomenMarkets,tradeandtheprivateTrade–changingtermsoftrade,globalizationofmarkets,commercializationofproducts,retailing,thesectorseparatecapacitiesofmenandwomentocommercializeproducts,etc.Marketsandconsumption–demand-drivenchangesinproductionorpractices,includingthetastes,valuesorethicsofconsumersthatmaydirectlyorindirectlyimpactbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture,productquantityorqualityPrivatesector–thechangingroleandinfluenceoftheprivatesectorandcorporateinterestsChangingeconomic,sociopoliticalEconomicdevelopment–changesineconomiccircumstancesofcountries,industries,householdsandculturalfactors(e.g.changeinGDPandeconomicgrowth,structuralchangeofeconomy,incomediversification,andthedifferenteconomiccircumstancesofmenandwomen)Changingsociopolitical,culturalorreligiousfactors–variationintheforcesinfluencingthedecision-makingofmenandwomen(e.g.publicparticipation,shiftsintheinfluenceofthestatevstheprivatesector,changesinlevelsofeducationandknowledge,shiftsinthebeliefs,valuesandnormsheldbygroupsofpeople)Participatoryactions–theroleofcollectiveactiontowardsconservationanduseofbiodiversitybystakeholdersClimatechangeTheimpactsandeffectsofprogressiveclimatechange(alterationsinprecipitationregimes,temperaturechanges,lossofwatersupply,increasedvariability,sea-levelrise,shiftsinfloweringtimeorseasonality,etc.)NaturaldisastersClimateshocks,extremeweathereventsandothernaturaldisastersthatthreatenagriculturalproductionandtheresilienceofproductionsystems(e.g.hurricanes,earthquakes,floodsandfires)Pests,diseasesandinvasiveNewandemergingthreatsfrompests,diseasesandinvasivespeciesaffectingbiodiversityforfoodandalienspeciesagriculture(shiftingranges,introductions,increasedsuitability,lossofpredators,etc.)AdvancementsandinnovationsinDevelopmentanddiffusionofscientificknowledgeandtechnologies(e.g.advancesinbreeding,scienceandtechnologyimprovementsinmobileextension,toolsformonitoring,biotechnologyapplicationsandaccessofmenandwomentoinformation)ChangesinlandandwateruseChangesinuse,managementandpracticesaroundlandandwater(deforestation,fragmentation,andmanagementmodificationofwaterregimes,forestdegradation,landconversionforagriculture,ecosystemrestoration,theroleofwomenandmeninlandandwateruseandmanagement,etc.)PollutionandexternalinputsMismanaged,excessiveorinappropriateuseofexternalinputs(overapplicationoffertilizerandpesticides,excessiveuseofantibioticsorhormones,nutrientloading,includingfromuseofimportedfeed,oceanacidification,CO2fertilization,chemicalandparticulatepollutants,etc.)OverexploitationandUnsustainableextractionpractices(overfishing,overhunting,overgrazing,loggingandextractiveactivitiesoverharvestingexceedingreplacementratesoraffectingspeciesofuncertainandat-riskconservationstatus,etc.)PoliciesPolicies–global,regional,nationalandsubnationallegislationandregulations(e.g.conservationregulations,andparticipationandcompliancewithinternationaltreatiesandconventions)Economicandpolicyinterventions–interventionsthatimpactbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturedirectlyorindirectly(e.g.taxes,subsidies,chargesforresourceuseandpaymentsforecosystemservices)Intellectualpropertyrights(IPR),accessandbenefit-sharing(ABS)–directorindirectimpactsofIPRandABSpolicyandregulationsonbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureNote:Thelistofdriverswasdevelopedbasedonthefindingsofglobalassessmentsofgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture(FAO,1997,2007a,2010a,2014a,2015a),theMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(MEA,2005b)andHazellandWood(2008).Source:FAO,2013b.Thedriver-by-driverapproachtakeninthetotherespectivedriver,wherepossiblepresentscountryreportingisreflectedinthestructurealiterature-basedsummaryofglobaltrends,andofthechapter.Afterashortoverviewofthethensummarizestheinformationprovidedinthefindings,eachdriverisgivenitsowndedicatedcountryreportsonthedriveranditsimpactsonsection,eachofwhichprovidesanintroductionBFA,ecosystemservicesandwildfoods.DriversthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE67Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.2Reportedeffectsofdriversofchangeonregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,allproductionsystemsaggregatedEcosystemservicesDriversofchangePollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationPopulationgrowthand---------urbanizationMarkets,tradeandtheprivate+/-+/--+/------sectorCanhdancguilntugraelcfoancotomrsic,sociopolitical+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/--+/-Climatechange---------NumberofcountriesreportingNaturaldisasters---------35–37Pspeestcsi,esdiseasesandinvasivealien-----+/----38–40Ascdievnacneceamndentetschannodloingnyovationsin+/-+++/-++/-++/-+/-41–43Changesinlandandwateruse---------44–45andmanagementPollutionandexternalinputs---------Overexploitationand---------overharvestingPolicies+++++++++Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofdriversontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.Inthistabletheanswersreportedfordifferentproductionsystemsareaggregated.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofdriverandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatesthenumberofcountriesreportinganyeffectoftherespectivedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.arediscussedunderaseriesofbroadheadings,Inadditiontothegeneraldiscussionofthebeginningwithhigher-leveleconomicandsocial,impactsofthevariousdriversonBFAanditsroleinenvironmentalandtechnologicaldrivers,fol-thesupplyofecosystemservices(Sections3.2to3.7),lowedbydriversatproduction-systemlevelandthechapteralsoincludesseparatediscussionsoffinallypolicies.theeffectsofdriversofchangeontheinvolvement68thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3ofwomeninthemanagementofBFAandontheofecosystemservicesandone(afforestation)tomaintenanceanduseoftraditionalknowledgehavebothpositiveandnegativeimpacts.relatedtoBFA(Sections3.8and3.9,respectively).Countrieswereinvitedtoreportondrivers3.2Overviewaffectingtheavailabilityanddiversityofwildfoodsandknowledgeoftheseresources(Table3.3).Thissectionprovidesanoverviewofthecountry-Inthecaseofthefollowingdrivers,negativereportresponsesbeforetheindividualdriversareeffectsontheavailabilityanddiversityofwilddiscussedingreaterdetailbelow.Atotalof68foodsarefarmorefrequentlyreportedthanthecountries–includingcountriesfromallregionscombinedtotalofpositiveorneutraleffects:andbothOECDandnon-OECDmembercoun-overexploitationandoverharvesting;changestries–providedevaluationsoftheeffectsofatinlandandwateruseandmanagement;pests,leastoneoftheindividualdriversidentified.diseasesandinvasivealienspecies;populationgrowthandurbanization;climatechange;pol-Asnotedabove,countrieswereinvitedtoindi-lutionandexternalinputs;andnaturaldisasters.catewhethertheeffectsofeachdriveronecosys-Inthecaseofpoliciesandadvancementsandtemservicesineachproductionsystemcategoryinnovationsinscienceandtechnology,reportshadbeenpositive,neutralornegativeduringtheofpositiveeffectsonavailabilitysubstantiallyprecedingtenyears,andtoprovideadditionaloutnumberotherresponses.Fortheremaininginformationontheeffectsofindividualdrivers.drivers(markets,tradeandtheprivatesector,Table3.2presentsthereportedeffectsoftheandchangingeconomic,sociopoliticalandcul-driversofchangeforallproductionsystemsaggre-turalfactors)responsesaremoremixed,butgated.Negativeimpactsonecosystemservicesinwithnegativeresponsesthemorefrequent.Withproductionsystemsaremorefrequentlyreportedregardtoknowledgeofwildfoods,reportsofthanpositive,mixed(i.e.bothpositiveandnega-positiveimpactsaremorefrequentthanothertive)orneutraleffectsforthefollowingdrivers:responsesinthecaseofthefollowingdrivers:changesinlandandwateruseandmanagement;advancementsandinnovationsinscienceandpollutionandexternalinputs;overexploitationtechnology;policies;markets,tradeandtheandoverharvesting;climatechange;naturaldis-privatesector;andchangingeconomic,socio-asters;pest,diseasesandinvasivespecies;markets,politicalandculturalfactors.Fordiversity,thetradeandtheprivatesector;andpopulationonlytwodriversforwhichpositiveresponsesgrowthandurbanization.Inthecaseofpoliciesoutnumbernegativearepolicies,andadvance-andadvancementsinscienceandtechnologies,mentsinscienceandtechnologies.positiveeffectsaremorefrequentlyreportedthannegative,mixedorneutraleffectsformost3.3Economicandsocialdriversecosystemservices.Responsesrelatedtochangingeconomic,sociopoliticalandculturalfactorsare•Informationfromcountriesindicatesthatpopulationmoreevenlydividedbetweennegative,positive,growthandurbanization,andassociatedhabitatandmixedeffects,possiblyreflectingthebroaddestructionandlandconversion,arehavinganegativerangeoffactorspotentiallyfallingwithinthiseffectonbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)category.InadditiontothedriverslistedinTableandecosystemservices,withforestsandcoastal3.2,countriesprovideinformationontheeffectshabitatsappearingtobeparticularlythreatened.offourotherdrivers,ineachcaseeitherinoneorintwocountryreports.Threeofthesedrivers•Outmigrationfromruralareasistendingtolead(migration,ethnicconflictsandacidification)aretochangesinmanagementpracticesandlanduse,reportedtohavenegativeimpactsonthesupplyinsomecasesleadingtothedeclineoftraditional,biodiverseproductionsystems.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE69Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.3Numberofcountriesreportingnegative,neutralandpositiveeffectsofdriversofchangeonthediversity,availabilityandknowledgeofwildfoodsNegativeNeutralPositiveDriverDiversityAvailabilityKnowledgeDiversityAvailabilityKnowledgeDiversityAvailabilityKnowledgePopulationgrowthandurbanization293722968124Markets,tradeandtheprivatesector182010966111621Changingeconomic,sociopoliticalandculturalfactors19189888121418Climatechange3135137513322Naturaldisasters2229118611223Pests,diseasesandinvasivealienspecies344015629222Advancementsandinnovationsinscienceandtechnology583996202428Changesinlandandwateruseandmanagement3241218510567Pollutionandexternalinputs293513859116Overexploitationandoverharvesting3645186410125Policies9941178233426Notes:Thenumbersinthetablerepresentcountsofcountryreports.Sixty-oneoutof91countryreportsprovidedinformation.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.•MarketsandtradehaveagenerallyhomogenizingFeeding,housingandmeetingtheotherneedseffectglobally,andinternationaltrade,urbanizationofmorethan9billionpeopleinthecomingtwoandincreasingregulationofmarketsareconsideredtothreedecadeswillexertpressuresonecosys-bycountriestohavealargelynegativeeffectonBFAtemsworldwide.andecosystemservices.Locally,effectsmaybemoremixed,withconsumerdemandandmarketregulationPeoplelivingincitiesnowoutnumberthose(oflabelling,etc.)sometimeshelpingtopromotelivinginruralareas(UnitedNations,2014a).biodiversity-friendlyproductionorharvestingpractices.Projectionsindicatethatpopulationgrowthincitiesandsmallruraltowns,alongwiththe•Theeffectsofeconomic,socialandculturalchangesnumberofpeoplemigratingfromruraltourbanarecomplex,butchangesindietarypreferenceshaveareas,willcontinuetoincrease.Urbanpopula-hadalargelynegativeeffectonBFA,withanincreasingtiongrowthratesactuallydecreasedfromaroundemphasisonmeat-baseddietsandtheuseofanarrow3percentinthe1960stoaround2percentinrangeofmajorcereals(maize,wheatandrice).thefiveyearsto2016.3However,thepercentageoftheworldpopulationlivinginurbanareas3.3.1Populationgrowthandgrewfrom33percentto54percentovertheurbanizationsameperiod,orfrom1.01billionto4.2billionItisgenerallyagreedthatpopulationgrowth,3WorldBankstaffestimatesbasedontheUnitedtogetherwithanincreaseinaveragepercapitaNationsPopulationDivision’sWorldUrbanizationProspects:incomes,willresultinhigherpressureonnatural2014Revision.resourcesandbiodiversity(e.g.Foleyetal.,2011).70thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3inabsoluteterms(UnitedNations,2014a,2018).theconsumptionofenergy-dense,nutrient-poor,Ithasbeenpredictedthatthefigurewillrisetohighlyprocessedfoodsandreducetheabilityof68percentby2050(UnitedNations,2018).Themarginalizedpopulationstopurchasethefoodglobalruralpopulationisnowcloseto3.4billionneededforahigh-qualitydiet(Hawkes,2008).Thisandisexpectedtoriseslightlyandthendeclinetooftenhasnegativeconsequencesfornutrition(seearound3.1billionin2050(ibid.).Urbanpopula-Section2.6).Urbanconsumptionpatternsarealsotiongrowthwill,therefore,notmeanan“empty-associatedwithagreaterproportionoffoodgoinging”ofthecountrysideinthenearfuture,atleasttowaste(Parfitt,BarthelandMacnaughton,2010).atgloballevel.Atregionalorlocallevels,however,therearealreadycasesofruraldepopulation,Demandforstandardizedfoodscanleadinfuelledlargelybyoutmigrationtoneighbouring,turntoadecreaseinthediversityofthecropsandormoredistant,townorcities,ortoothercoun-animalsraisedinfoodandagriculturalsystemstries(e.g.GrayandBilsborrow,2014;Chenetal.,(seealsoSection3.3.2).However,demandfrom2014).Thisoftenleadstoincreasinginvolvementurbanconsumerscanalsohelppromote“BFA-ofwomeninthemanagementofagriculturalfriendly”approachessuchasorganicagricultureholdings(e.g.Agarwal,2015;FAO,2011e)(see(SetoandRamankutty,2016)orthemaintenancealsoSection3.8).Out-migrationfromruralareasofnon-mainstreamspecies,varietiesandbreedscanbepermanentortemporary,involvepeopleofcropsandlivestock(FAO,2013g;Lamersetal.,ofvarioussocialstrataandeducationlevels,and2016).Moreover,trendsinconsumptionandretail-oftenresultsinaninflowofremittancestofamilyingaremoreadvancedinsomecountriesthanmemberswhoremain.Theinflowofremittancesothers.Urbanfoodsystemsindevelopingcountiesmayrepresentupto30percentofgrossdomesticoftenremaincomplexanddiverse,withtraditionalproductinsomecountries(WorldBank,2018).4outletssuchaswetmarkets,streetandmobilevendorsstillplayingamajorrole(Crush,2014)Asnotedintheintroductiontothischapter,andsubstantialamountsoffoodbeingproducedurbanizationcanaffectbiodiversityinmanyways.withintheboundariesofcities(Orsinietal.,2013).Globally,urbandevelopmentisasignificantdirectTheimpactsofdietarychangesonBFAarefurtherdriverofland-usechange,deforestationanddiscussedinSection3.3.3.habitatfragmentation(Elmqvistetal.,eds.,2013).However,italsohasnumerouseffectson(interHumanpopulationgrowthandtheresultingalia)lifestylesandconsumptionpatterns,socialindustrialization,agriculturalintensificationandandpoliticalattitudes,andtheorganizationofurbanizationareconsideredtobeamongtheproductionandsupplychains,allofwhichcanhavemainglobaldriversofdegradationofaquaticeco-knock-oneffectsonbiodiversity,onarangeofscalessystems(Verdonschotetal.,2013).Infrastructure(ibid.).Forexample,aspeoplemovetocitiestheydevelopmentassociatedwithurbanizationaffectstendtodependincreasinglyonpurchasedfoods,waterquantityandquality,changesriverchan-oftenfromafewsupermarketchains(Macfadyennels,destroyshabitatsandhabitatconnectivityetal.,2015).Theyoftenalsotendtolosetieswithandfavoursthespreadofinvasivespecies(Speedruralareasandruralfoods,andincreasinglyoptforetal.,2016).Pressuresonaquaticecosystems,processedfoodsratherthanfreshfoods(Popkin,especiallyrivers,areexpectedtoincrease(ibid.).2017).WhilesupermarketsandothermodernPopulationgrowthisalsodrivingotherthreatstoretailerscanmakeamorediversedietavailableandaquaticBFA,includingoverharvesting,pollutionaccessibletomorepeople,theycanalsoencourage(includingsedimentloadingcausedbycoastaldevelopment)anddetrimentallandandwateruse4WorldBankstaffestimatesfor2016basedonInternationalassociatedwithtouristicdevelopments(UnitedMonetaryFundbalanceofpaymentsdata,andWorldBankandNations,2014a).OECDGDPestimates.Theimpactsofpopulationgrowthandurban-izationonecosystem-serviceprovisionasreportedthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE71Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.4Reportedeffectsofpopulationgrowthandurbanizationontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofpopulationgrowthandurbanizationonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems---------Livestocklandlesssystems---------Naturallyregeneratedforests---------ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting---------thePSthatreport---------anyeffectofthedriver(%)Culture-basedfisheries---------13–20Fedaquaculture+/---------21–27Non-fedaquaculture---------28–34Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)---------35–41Irrigatedcropsystems(other)---------Rainfedcropsystems---------Mixedsystems---------Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.bycountriesaresummarizedinTable3.4.Infromsitessuchascoastaldunesandwadibeds5nearlyallproductionsystemsandfornearlyallforuseinconstructionareresultinginthelossecosystemservices,negativeimpactsarebyfarofhabitatsandthespeciestheyshelter.Chinathemostfrequentlyreported.Countriesreportnotesthatsincethelate1950surbanizationandadiverserangeofdifferentimpactsassociatedtherapiddevelopmentofindustry,alongwithwiththisdriver.Someemphasizetheeffectsofpopulationgrowth,haveledtoever-increasinghabitatdestructionlinkedtotheexpansionofdischargeofindustrialwastes,municipalsewagetownsandcities.Forexample,Moroccoreportsandgarbage,includingthedisposalofgarbagethaturbanizationisoneofthemostseriousandsolidwastesinfarmland.threatstoitsbiodiversity.Itnotesthattherapidexpansionofhumansettlementsintoareasthat5AwadiisavalleyorstreambedthatcontainswateronlyduringarerichinBFAandtheremovalofsandandrockstherainyseason.72thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Anumberofcountriesemphasizethevariousabandonmentoffarmingareascanhavenegativewaysinwhichpopulationgrowthisdrivingconsequencesforsomecomponentsofbiodiversity.expansionoftheagriculturalfrontierandNorway,forexample,reportsthatthedeclineofgreaterexploitationofnaturalresources.Forgrazingandhaymakingonmoremarginallandisexample,Ecuador,oneofthemostdenselypopu-leadingtoforestexpansionandthatthisisthreat-latedcountriesinLatinAmerica,reportsthattheeninganumberofraregrasslandspecies.7highdensityoftheruralpopulationisincreasinglocaldemandforresourcesandleadingtotheSeveralcountriesreportthaturbanizationandoccupationoflandthatisnotsuitableforuseforpopulationgrowth,andassociatedinfrastructurefoodandagricultureandthatthisisthreateningdevelopmentandeconomicactivities,arethreatsthesurvivalofwildspecies.Ethiopianotesthattomarinebiodiversityandaquaticresources.Forgrowthofthepopulationhasledtoexpansionexample,Spainreportsthatincreasedcoastalandintensificationoflanduse,overutilizationdevelopmentduetotourismhasaffectedpop-ofbiologicalresources,increasinguseofmar-ulationsofNeptunegrass(Posidoniaoceanica),ginallandsandthebreakdownoftraditionalakeyMediterraneanseagrassspecies.InEuroperesource-managementsystems.Thesechangesingeneral,offshorewindparks,sandandgravelarereportedtobeputtingpressureonalleco-extractionandgasandpetroleumpipelinesaresystemservicesandallthecountry’sbiodiversity,consideredtobeparticularlydamagingtomarineincludingimpactsontheavailabilityanddiver-floraandfauna,deprivingfisheriesofkeyfishingsityofwildfoodsandonthemaintenanceofgroundsandmanyspeciesoftheirhabitats.Amongassociatedtraditionalknowledge.6ZimbabweLatinAmericancountries,Argentinareportsthatmentionsthathumanpopulationshavebeenurbaninfrastructuredevelopmentisaffectingwet-encroachingonpreviouslyunusedhabitatssuchlandsinitsDeltaregion–damagingtheregion’saswetlandsinanefforttoescapetheeffectsoftraditionalproductiveagroecosystems,dimin-drought,povertyandclimatechangeandthatishingtheircapacitytosupplyecosystemservicesthishasledtothedegradationoftheaffectedsuchasfloodcontrolandreducingtheirresilience.ecosystems.CountriesalsonoteimpactsonMexiconotesthat,withapopulationof123millionaquaticecosystems,bothviatheeffectsofthegrowingatanaveragerateof1.8percentperincreasingdemandofgrowingpopulationsforannum,demandforfoodwillbeakeysourceoffishandotheraquaticproductsandviatheeffectspressureonitsfisheriesandaquaculturesector,ofpollutionandinfrastructuredevelopment.andmentionsthatitwillbenecessarytofindnewspeciestocultureandnewstrategiesforthesus-Severalcountriesmentiontheeffectsofmigra-tainableuseofalready-establishedfisheries.tionoutofruralareas.Forexample,EcuadornotesthatruralmigrationtourbancentresismoreWherewildfoodsareconcerned,populationcommonamongmenthanamongwomen,andgrowthandurbanizationarereportedtobeispermanent,i.e.themigrantsdonotreturn.Itexertingincreasingpressureonwildplant,fishfurthernotesthatthishasledtoanincreasingpro-andgamepopulationsinanumberofcountries,portionofwomenandelderlypeopleintheruralwhetherviatheeffectsofincreaseddemandorpopulationandinturntotheabandonmentofviahabitatdestruction.Forexample,Camerooncroppingsystemstomakewayforpasturesandlive-reportsthatpopulationgrowthiscreatingmorestock,astheserequirelesslabour.Thisisreporteddemandforforestproducts,includingwildmeat.tohaveledtoadeclineofcropgeneticdiversity.ItnotesthatsettlementsareoccupyinglandSeveralcountryreportsfromEuropenotethattheeveninprotectedareasandthatroadsthroughparksaredestroyinghabitatsanddisturbingwild6ThereportcitesKelbessaetal.(1992),Addis(2009)andAsfawspecies.Kiribatimentionsthatthemostnotable(2009).7ThereportcitesKålåsetal.(2010).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE73Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBdriveraffectingitswildfoodresourcesispopu-Marketsmayalsoimposerequirementsintermslationpressure,resultingeitherfromincreasedofproductuniformityandthetimingandconti-urbanizationorgeneralhighpopulationgrowth.nuityofsupply.DemandsofthiskindcanexertItnotesthatalargeproportionofthepopulationpressureonproducerstocontinuouslygrow/isconcentratedinurbancentresandthatthiskeeponlyalimitedrangeofspecies,breedsandleadstooverexploitationofsomeofthemarinevarietiesofcrops,livestock,trees,fish,etc.,withwildfoodspeciescommonlyusedintheseareas.bothindividualholdingsandwiderproductiveThesespeciesarereportedtobeeasilyaccessiblelandscapesthusbecomingmorehomogeneoustothepublic,makingthemeasytargetsforunsus-inspaceandtimeintermsoftheirgeneticsandtainableexploitation.SolomonIslandsnotesthattheirphysicalstructure.Suchchangeswillofteninheavilypopulatedurbanandperi-urbanareashavenegativeimplicationsfortheresilienceofmarinespeciesarebeingaffectedbyeffluentdis-productionsystems(seeSection2.3forfurthercharge,overexploitationandhabitatdestructiondiscussion)andfortheirrolesashabitatsforbio-causedbylandclearingandreclamation.diversity(Macfadyenetal.,2015).Acaseinpointisthedevelopmentofprivatefoodstandardsby3.3.2Markets,tradeandvaluechainssupermarketsandotherbuyers(sometimespartlyonthegroundsofaesthetics),whichhavehelpedThewayinwhichfoodsystems(andtheirassociatedtosteerfarmerstowardsparticularvarietiesandmarketsandvaluechains)evolvecaninfluenceBFAmanagementprocedures(DolanandHumphrey,andassociatedecosystemservicesinvariousways.2000;Lang,BarlingandCaraher,2009;Stuart,Manyregionsintheworldareundergoingwaves2009).Internationalmarketsmaybeparticularlyofeconomicdevelopmentbasedontheexploita-restrictiveandimposespecificrequirementsfortionofnaturalresourcesthroughtheexpansionofmarketentry,includingforfood-safetyreasonsactivitiessuchasminingandfossil-energyextrac-(Kahaneetal.,2013).Thiscaneffectivelydebartion,extensivecattleranching,treemonoculturetheentryintothemarketofminorcropsfromandproductionofagriculturalcommoditiessuchdevelopingcountries(Davis,2006).assoybean,palmoilandsugarcane(e.g.UNCTAD,2012).Thesetrends,mostlydrivenbytheprivateConversely,marketsmayalsobeameansofsector,butoftenwithgovernmentalsupportorpromotingproductionpracticesthathelptofacilitatedbyalackofadequateregulation,haveprotectbiodiversityorthesupplyofecosystemmajorimplicationsfortheworld’secosystemsandservices,forinstancewhenregulationsandcer-biodiversity(e.g.IPBES,2018c,2018d,2018e).tificationschemesareputinplacetosatisfycon-sumerdemandsforsustainablysuppliedproductsCommercialharvestingofwildfoods(including(e.g.organicfarming,fairtrade,welfare-friendlyfish),medicinalplants,charcoalandtimberandanimalproducts,shortersupplychains,sustain-non-woodforestproductscreatestheriskofoverex-ableforestryorsustainablefishingpractices)orploitation(seealsoSection3.6.3).Theinvolvementproductswithdistinctivecharacteristicsassoci-ofinternationalmarketsmayexacerbatesuchrisks.atedwiththeirorigin(e.g.geographicalindi-AsnotedinSection3.3.1,quantitativeandqualita-cations).Thedevelopmentofvoluntarysustain-tivechangesinconsumerdemandaremajordriversabilitystandards–forexample,thoseoftheofchangeaffectingBFA.However,consumptionRainforestAlliance8andtheMarineStewardshippatternsandfoodhabitscanbeinfluencednotonlyCouncil9–iscontributingtotheinclusionofbychangesinconsumers’incomesandlifestyles,butbiodiversity-relatedvariablesinfoodstandardsalsobychangesinthevaluechain.Forexample,(Pottsetal.,2017).Theestablishmentofavalueincreasesinfishconsumptionareinfluencedbyurbanizationandrisingincomesonthedemand8https://www.rainforest-alliance.orgsideandbyimproveddistributionandinternational9https://www.msc.orgtradeonthesupplyside(FAO,2018a).74thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Table3.5Reportedeffectsofmarkets,tradeandtheprivatesectorontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofmarkets,tradeandtheprivatesectoronecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems0+/-+/-+/-+/--+/---Livestocklandlesssystems0+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-Naturallyregeneratedforests---/+-----+/-ProportionofcountriesreportingPlantedforests---------thePSthatreportanyeffectoftheSelf-recruitingcapturefisheries+/-+/--+/------driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries---------5–11Fedaquaculture0+/--+/-0+/----12–18Non-fedaquaculture0----+/----19–25Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)-+/--0+/--+/--+/-26–33Irrigatedcropsystems(other)-+/--------Rainfedcropsystems--+/-+/-+/-+/-0-+/-Mixedsystems+/-+/-+/-+/-+/---+/-+/-Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.chainforspecificvarietiesorbreedscanhelptoof“exporting”environmentalproblems.Forpromotecontinueduseoftheseresourcesandexample,theintensiveanimalproductionbasedreducetheirriskofextinction(e.g.FAO,2013g;onconcentratefeedsthattakesplaceinEuropeFAOandSINER-GI,2010;KelemanandHellin,andChinaaffectsnotonlythesurroundingenvi-2009;Vandecandelaereetal.,2018).Internationalronment,butalsotheenvironmentswherethetradecanalsofacilitatetheintroductionofinva-rawmaterialsforthesefeedsareproduced,sivealienspecies,pestsanddiseasesthatmayforinstancethroughtheexpansionofsoybeanaffectBFA(seeSection3.4.3).Forexample,tradeproductionintonativeforestsinSouthAmericainhoneybeescancontributetothespreadof(e.g.GrauandAide,2008;Ranetal.,2013).diseasesaroundtheworldandleadtotheinfec-tionofnativewildpollinators(Fürstetal.,2014).InformationprovidedbycountriesontheInternationaltradecanalsofunctionasameanseffectsofthisdriveronecosystemservicesissummarizedinTable3.5.AlthougheffectsonthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE75Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBecosystemservicesareoftenreportedtobeChinanotesthatdevelopmentandutilizationofnegative,inparticularinthecaseofhabitat-wild-foodresourceshasattractedtheattentionprovisioningservices,positiveeffectsonpestandoflocalgovernmentsandenterprises,creatingdiseaseregulationarereportedacrossproductionjobopportunitiesandincentivizingenvironmen-systems,andonwaterpurification,natural-hazardtalprotection.regulationandnutrientcyclinginlivestockandmixedproductionsystems.CountriesthatdescribeArgentinamentionsthepotentialofnationalspecificimpactsincludePeru,whichnotesthatandinternationaltradeinfibresfromwildspeciesgrowingdemandforfishmealandfishoilshasledsuchastheguanaco(Lamaguanicoe)andthetoanincreaseinthenumberoflargeboatsfishingvicuña(Vicugnavicugna)topromotetheconser-foranchovy(Engraulisringens)andothercoastalvationofthesespecies,theirhabitatsandthebio-species.Thisisreportedtobenegativelyaffectingdiversityandecosystemservicesassociatedwiththecoastalecosystemandhenceonfishspeciesthem.Itnotesthatincome-generatinginitiativesthatareimportantforhumanconsumptionandrelatedtothistradeencouragelocalindigenousunderpinthelivelihoodsandfoodsecurityofcommunitiestoorganizethemselvesintocoop-artisanalfishersandtheirhouseholds.Lossoftheerativesanddevelopplansforthesustainablespeciescapturedinsmall-scalefisheriesisleadinguseofnaturalresources.Argentinaalsomen-inturntomoreconsumptionofimportedfrozentionstheworkoftheSouthernConeGrasslandsfishnationally.Alliance,10aninitiativeinvolvinganumberofnon-governmentalorganizationsundertheNewmarketsforwild-foodproductsareumbrellaofBirdLifeInternational,11whichcer-reportedtobeemerginginvariouspartsofthetifiesbird-friendlybeeffromthepampasandworld.ExamplesincludeIlexguayusa(atreewhosecamposgrasslandsofSouthAmerica,includingleavesareusedtomakeadrink)inEcuador,otaforexporttoEurope,asameansofcontributing(DiplaziumesculentumandD.proliferum)(antotheconservationoftheseecosystems.edibleferndelicacy)inFiji,sumac(Rhuscoriaria)(ashrubwhosedriedfruitsareusedasaspice)in3.3.3Changingeconomic,Jordan,wildmushroomsinScotland,variouswildsociopoliticalandculturalfactorsfishspeciesintheNetherlands,forestfoodssuchascanerat(Thryonomysswinderianus),GnetumEconomicandpoliticalaspectsofthisdriverarespp.(aleafyvegetable),Ricinodendronspp.(atreediscussedinSections3.3.1,3.3.2and3.7.Thethatproducesoilyseeds)andIrvingiaspp.(bushfocusinthissectionisthereforelargelyoncul-mango)inCameroon(insomecasesforexport),turalfactors.andcabbagepalm(Euterpeprecatoria),aguaje(Mauritiaflexuosa)(apalm),brazilnut(BertholletiaOneaspectofculturethathasasignificantexcelsa)andsachainchi(Plukenetiavolubilis)(ainfluenceontheuseofBFAisdiet.Asdiscussedsourceofoilyseeds)inPeru.above,urbanization,globalizationandaslowbutsteadyriseintheaveragepurchasingcapac-Insomecases,newmarketsarecreatedwhenityofhouseholdsareleading–inbroadterms–ruralpopulationsmovetocitiesandcarrytheirtoahomogenizationofglobaldiets,oftenwithtraditionalfoodpreferenceswiththem.Gabon,negativeconsequencesforhumannutrition(Ngforexample,mentionsthatthisisthecasewithetal.,2014)(seealsoSection2.6).Worldwide,theurbanwild-meatmarkets.Severalcountries,useofthreecereals(maize,wheatandrice)hashowever,reportarevivalofinterestinwildincreasedattheexpenseoflocalandoftenbetterfoodsamonglong-standingurbanresidents.Inadaptedandmorenutritiouscropssuchassmall-somecases,commercializationleadstoover-graincerealsandpulses(Khouryetal.,2014).exploitation(seeSection3.6.3),butinotherscanleadtomorepositiveoutcomes.Forexample,10http://www.alianzadelpastizal.org/en11www.birdlife.org76thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Table3.6Reportedeffectsofchangingeconomic,sociopoliticalandculturalfactorsontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofchangingeconomic,sociopoliticalandculturalfactorsonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems+/-+/-+/-+/------Livestocklandlesssystems+/-+++/-+/-+/-+-+/-Naturallyregeneratedforests+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting+/-+/-+/-+/-+/--+/---thePSthatreportanyimpactofthe+/-+/-+/-+/--+/----driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries++++-+--+/-9–15Fedaquaculture++/-+/-+/-+/-+/--+/-+/-16–22Non-fedaquaculture+/-++/-+/--+/----23–29Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/----30–36Irrigatedcropsystems(other)+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/----Rainfedcropsystems-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/---+/-Mixedsystems+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/-+/--+/-Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Inmanydevelopingcountriespeopletendtohencemayremainpopularorprovideopportuni-perceivetraditionalfoodcropsaspoorpeople’stiesforthedevelopmentofnewspecialityprod-food.Forexample,inmuchofsub-SaharanAfricauctsforhigh-valuenichemarkets(e.g.LPPetal.,maizeisperceivedtobea“modern”cropandis2010).Wherewildfoodsareconcerned,similarpromotedovertraditionalsmallgrainsbygov-divergingtrends–abandonmentontheoneernmentalextensionservicesorprivateinputhandandrevivalforcultural,recreational,nutri-suppliers(Shiferawetal.,2011).Preferencefortionalorenvironmentalreasonsontheother–traditionalfoodsmaydeclineforotherreasons,canbeobservedinsomedevelopedregionssuchsuchastheirlongerprocessingandcookingtimesasEuropeandNorthAmerica,aswellasinsome(GlobalPanel,2017).Atthesametime,however,urbancentresindevelopingregions(AlexanderproductsfromsometraditionalvarietiesandandMclain,2001;Łuczajetal.,2012;Reyes-Garciabreedsarealsoperceivedasmoretastyandetal.,2015;Stryametsetal.,2015).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE77Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBAsdiscussedinSection3.3.1,manyruralareasfoods.Eswatini,forexample,notesthatwomenareexperiencinglarge-scaleoutmigrationofareincreasinglyactiveinwagelabourandlackyoungpeopleandincreasesintheinflowofremit-timeforcollectingwildfoods,andthatthisistances.Culturalchangesassociatedwiththeseleadingtotheerosionoftraditionalknowledge.13developmentsandwiththegreateraccessibilityNepalmentionsthatyear-roundavailabilityofcul-ofruralareasarecontributingtothedeclineoftivatedvegetablesmeansthatindigenouspopula-sometraditionalbiodiverseproductionsystemstionsnolongerrelyonwildfoods,againresultingasaconsequenceof,interalia,lackofinterestorinthelossoftraditionalknowledge.Togoreportsinvolvementonthepartoftheyoungergenera-thatuseoftheseedsofnéré(Africanlocustbean)tionandlossoftraditionalknowledgeassociated(Parkiabiglobosa)andkapok(Ceibapentandra)withthesesystems(seeSection3.9).treestomakemustardhasbeenreplacedbytheuseofpeanutsandsoybeansasaconsequenceofInformationfromthecountryreportsontheagrowingdislikeforthesmellcreatedbytradi-effectsofchangingeconomic,sociopoliticalandtionalmustard-productionmethods.culturalfactorsonthesupplyofecosystemser-vicesissummarizedinTable3.6.Thetableindi-3.4Environmentaldriverscatesthatformanyproduction-system/ecosystem-servicecombinationstheoverallreportedeffect•Climatechangeisconsideredbycountriestobeofthisdriverismixed(i.e.notdominatedeitherhavinganegativeeffectonbiodiversityforfoodbyresponsesindicatingnegativeeffectsorbyandagriculture(BFA)andecosystemservicesinallthoseindicatingpositiveeffects).Mostcountriesproductionsystems.Coastalareasarelikelytobereportingpositiveeffectsofchangingeconomic,particularlyaffected.sociopoliticalandculturalfactorsrefertochangesinfoodhabitsassociatedwithhealthconcerns•Thedistributionandphenologyofimportantorgreaterawarenessoftheenvironmentalandassociated-biodiversityspeciesareexpectedtochangesocietalimpactsofagricultureandfoodproduc-asaresultofclimatechange,withpossiblenegativetion.Reporteddevelopmentsinthiscategoryeffectsonmanyproductionsystems,especiallyonincludegrowthintheconsumptionoforganicecosystemservicessuchaspollinationandpestandfoodsandtheestablishmentofcertificationdiseasecontrol.schemesforsustainablyproducedfoodsandotheragriculturalproducts.Forexample,Argentina•Meteorologicaldisasterscanhaveseverelong-termreportsacertificationschemeforgoatmeatfromeffectsonBFA,withforestproductionsystemsandatraditionaltranshumantsysteminnortherncoastalareasappearingtobeparticularlyvulnerable.PatagoniathataimstopromotetheconservationCountriesnotenegativeeffectsonecosystemservices.oftheproductionsystem,thelocalgoatbreedandthegoatherders’traditionalknowledge12•Acrossproductionsystems,countriesnotethe(seeSections3.9and8.7forfurtherinformationnegativeeffectsofpests,diseasesandinvasivespeciesoncertificationschemes).Anotherfactornotedonthesupplyofecosystemservices.Severalofthebyanumberofcountriesisincreasinginterestininvasivespecies,however,arealsoreportedunderlocallandscapesandbiodiversity−includingthosecertaincircumstancestoprovideecosystemservicesassociatedwithfoodandagriculturalsystems−themselves.ascomponentsofnationalheritage.AnexamplefromSwitzerlandispresentedinBox3.1.3.4.1ClimatechangeSeveralcountriesreportimpactsofculturalClimatechangeaffectsBFAandecosystemser-and/orsocio-economicchangesontheuseofwildvicesbothdirectlyandindirectly.Directimpactsincludethosecausedbychangesinrainfall,12ThereportcitesLópezRaggietal.(2008).13ThereportcitesHoward(2003).78thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Box3.1Human-madegrasslandsasaculturalandecologicalassetSwitzerland’sspecies-richmountaingrasslandsarearesultTocombatthedeclineofdrygrasslandsingeneral,andofhundredsofyearsofextensiveagriculturalactivitymountaindrygrasslandpasturesinparticular,theFederalthatmaintainsopenandsemi-openhabitatsbelowtheOfficefortheEnvironmenthasestablishedaninventorytimberline.Withouthumaninterference,mostoftheseofdrygrasslandsofnationalimportance.In2010,thehabitatswouldquicklyreverttotheirnaturalforeststate,FederalCouncilapprovedaFederalOrdinanceontheresultinginthelossoftheexistingbiodiversity.implementationoftheFederalInventoryofDryGrasslands.Theinventoryincludes3000itemsrepresenting0.5percentTheprimaryfunctionofthesegrasslandsistoprovideofthenationalterritory(FederalOfficefortheEnvironmentfodderfordomesticgrazinganimals.However,landscapesofSwitzerland,2018).andspeciesdiversityplayanincreasinglyimportantroleinattractingtourists,whichcreatesadditionalincomeMountaingrasslandintheVald’Hérens,CantonofValais.©FederalOfficeformountainregions.WiththeongoingintensificationforAgricultureofSwitzerland.ofagricultureinthesurroundinglowlands,mountaingrasslandsincreasinglyfunctionasrefugesforspeciesthatSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofSwitzerland.wereoncecommonthroughoutEurope.Mountaingrasslandsoccupy940000ha,oralmostaquarterofthecountry’stotallandarea,andarestillactivelyused.However,thereisatrendtowardsintensificationofgrasslandmanagementnearmountainfarmsandextensiveuseofmarginalgrasslandsfurtheraway,andthisislikelytoincrease.Inparticular,increasesinthelevelofnitrogeninputandalteredgrazingand/ormowingregimeshavehadsignificantnegativeeffectsontheextentanddiversityofmountaingrasslands.temperatureandthefrequenciesofeventsasthecoffeeberryborer(Hypothenemushampei),suchasdroughts,cyclones/hurricanes,floods,havealsoextendedtohigherelevations–forfiresandearlyorlatefrostsandbychangesinexampleinEastAfrica(e.g.Jaramilloetal.,2011)plantfloweringseasonsandgrowingperiods,−promptingcoffeefarmerstospraypesticidesinanimalbreedingseasons,theoxidationrateofnewlyopenedhighlandenvironments.Irrigationsoilorganicmatterandtherangesandpopula-tocountertheeffectsofadrierclimateormoretiondynamicsofinvasivespecies,pests,pathogenserraticrainfallmaydisruptriverflowsandleadanddiseasevectors.Indirectimpactsincludethosetonegativeeffectsonfisheries(Cochraneetal.,associatedwithclimatechangeadaptationandeds.,2009).mitigationstrategies.Forexample,risingtemper-aturesinthetropicsarepushingcoffeegrowingTemperaturechangesassociatedwithclimatetowardshigherelevationsinmountainousareas,changecanleadtoshiftsinfloweringperiodsandleadingtoreplacementofnaturalvegetationmismatchesbetweenthemandtheactiveperiods(Läderachetal.,2017).Thisexposesmoresoiltoofpollinatinginsects,withnegativeconsequenceserosionanddegradationandaffectswaterregu-bothforpollinatorpopulationsandforpollina-lation,habitatprovisioningandotherecosystemtionservices(Kjøhl,NielsenandStenseth,2011),services.Therangesofsomeimportantpests,suchalthougheffectsonpollinationmaybemitigatedbythepresenceofadiverserangeofpollinatorsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE79Drivers,statusandtrendsPartB(Bartomeusetal.,2013).Otherseasonalabnor-periods,waterlevels,mixingregimes,waterclaritymalitiessuchasmorefrequentcoldorwindydaysandfoodwebsandgreaterriskofalien-speciesinspringcanalsodisruptpollinationservices,withinvasions(Speedetal.,2016).Climatechangeisapollinatordiversityagainpotentiallyplayingamajorthreattotheworld’scoralreefs,forexamplebufferingrole(ChristmannandAw-Hassan,2012).viatheeffectsofhigherwatertemperatures,oceanShiftingclimaticzonesarelikelytorequirepolli-acidificationandincreasingfrequencyofextremenatorspeciestoaltertheirgeographicalranges.weatherevents(Heron,EakinandDouver,2017;Somespeciesmaystruggletodothiswithsuffi-Wilkinson,2008)(seealsoSection4.5.4).cientspeed(Bedford,WhittakerandKerr,2012).Countrieswereinvitedtoprovideinforma-Theeffectsofclimatechangeonsoilecosys-tiononcasesinwhichassociatedbiodiversityistemsarecomplexandinvolvealargenumberofbelievedtobeaffectedbyclimatechange,indicat-interactingprocessesandinteractionswithotheringtheseverityandfrequencyoftheeffectsanddrivers.Togetherwiththediversecharacteristicsoftheproductionsystemsinwhichtheyoccur.Fifty-soilecosystemsthemselves,thismeansthatitisdif-fivecountriesprovidedinformation.Thefollow-ficulttopredictoutcomesforsoilbiodiversity(Cockingspecificthreatsarementionedinthecountryetal.,2011).Temperature,moistureandcarbon-reports:changesintemperature(37reports);dioxidelevelsaffectthecompositionofsoilinverte-changesinprecipitationpatterns(34);droughtsbrateandmicro-organismcommunitiesandmany(31);pestsanddiseases(22);floods(20);changesofthefunctionstheyperform,bothdirectlyandviainsealevel(18);changesinphenology(8);soiltheireffectsonothercomponentsoftheecosys-erosion(8);wildfires(8);changesinnutrientcyclestem(e.g.plants).Asclimaticconditionschange,the(7);andunspecifiedextremeevents(6).Lessfre-distributionofproductionsystemscanbeexpectedquentlyreportedthreatsincludedesertification,toshift.Someexistingrelationshipsbetweenplantstrongwindsandchangesinsnowcover.Thespeciesandsoilmicro-organismandinvertebratemostfrequentlyreportedclimatechange-relatedcommunitiesarelikelytobreakdown,asmanysoilthreatstoassociatedbiodiversityvarybyregion.invertebratesarerelativelyimmobileandthoseFigure3.1showsabreakdownofresponsesbythatcanmovemaynotnecessarilyadaptwelltoproductionsystemandregion.newlocationseveniftheclimateissuitable,forexamplebecauseofdirectorindirecteffectsofInformationprovidedbycountriesonthephotoperioddifferences(ibid.).impactofclimatechangeonthesupplyofeco-systemservicesissummarizedinTable3.7.InTheimpactsofclimatechangeonaquaticecosys-almostallcasesimpactsarereportedtobeneg-temsincludethoseassociatedwithchangesintheative.Pestanddiseaseregulation,natural-hazardtemperaturesoflakes,riversandoceans,whichmayregulation,watercycling,habitatprovisioningaffectspecies’reproductivepatternsandgrowth,andpollinationaretheecosystemservicesmostandtheirphysiology,morphologyandbehaviourfrequentlyreportedtobeaffectedbyclimatemoregenerally(e.g.Spalding,RaviliousandGreen,change.Severalcountriesprovideinformationon2001;Speedetal.,2016).Impactsonaquaticbio-threatsaffectingparticularregionsandecosystemsgeochemicalprocessesareexpectedtoaffectthewithintheirnationalterritories.Forexample,Perurolesofaquaticecosystemsascarbonsinksormentionsthethreatthatclimatechangeisposingsources(BoydandHutchins,2012;Ericksonetal.,tohighAndeanecosystems(vitaltowater-and2015;Wronaetal.,2006).Oceanacidificationasclimate-regulationservices)asaresultofrisingaresultofincreasedabsorptionofcarbondioxidetemperaturesandobstaclestoaltitudinalmigra-threatensmarineorganismsthatusecarbonatemin-tions.InthecaseoftheAmazonianforests,iteralstoformshellsandskeletons(CBDSecretariat,notesthatclimaticchangesarepredictedtoleadto2009).Climatechangecanalsobeexpectedtolead“savannization”,whichwouldaffectthesupplytoreductionsinwetlandareas,changesinfloodingofwildfoods,includingfish,medicinalplantsand80thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Figure3.1Reportedclimatechange-relatedthreatstoassociatedbiodiversity,(A)byregionand(B)byproductionsystemNumberofcountriesA40Africa3530Asia2520Europe1510LatinAmericaand5theCaribbean0NearEastandNorthAfricaNorthAmericaPaciﬁcNumberofresponsesB60Cropssystems50Forestrysystems40Livestocksystems30Aquaculture20Fisheries10Mixedsystems0Agriculture(unspeciﬁed)Notspeciﬁed(unsmeeved)tcyclesSoilerosWildologyrevelFloodsasesghtsionrepeciﬁentsionﬁresOtheinpheninsealndDrouprecipperatutriendiseitattemExtrePestsinnuChangesaesiningesChanChanChangChangesgesNotes:PartAofthefigureshowsthetotalnumberofcountriesthatreportedtherespectivethreatforatleastoneproductionsystem,brokendownbyregion.Agivencountrymayhavereportedagiventhreatformorethanoneproductionsystemcategory.PartBofthefigureshowsthetotalnumberofresponsesreferringtotherespectivethreat,brokendownbyproductionsystem.Fifty-fiveoutofatotalof91reportingcountriesreportedatleastonethreat.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE81Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.7Reportedeffectsofclimatechangeontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofclimatechangeonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems---------Livestocklandlesssystems---------Naturallyregeneratedforests---------ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting---------thePSthatreportanyeffectofthe---------driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries---------10–17Fedaquaculture+/---------18–25Non-fedaquaculture---------26–33Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)---------34–42Irrigatedcropsystems(other)---------Rainfedcropsystems---------Mixedsystems---------Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.othergoods,aswellasregulatingservicessuchasairtherehasbeenamarkedwarminganddryingofpurification,temperatureregulation,watercyclingtheclimateinthevicinityofHulunLake(alargeandfloodregulation,withseriousconsequenceslakeinInnerMongolia),withadeclineinthesizeofforthelocalpopulation.Inthecaseofmarineeco-thelake,deteriorationofthegrasslandsaroundit,systems,expectedimpactsofclimatechangearedesertificationandareductioninvegetationcover.reportedtobepotentiallycatastrophicowingtoThesechangesarereportedtobeaseverethreattorisingtemperaturesandintenserainsinthenorthseveralterrestrialspecies.ofthecountry:ecosystemservicespredictedtobeaffectedincludeclimateregulationandthesupplyNumerousothercountrieshighlightclimateoffishandotherproducts,withimpactsonhumanchangeasamajorthreattobiodiversityininland-nutrition,particularlyamongresource-poorcoastalwaterandcoastalecosystems.Predictedeffectspopulations.Chinareportsthatinrecentdecadesrelatemainlytodriersummersortomoreintenserainfallthatmayresultinfloodsandlandslides82thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3thataffecthabitatssuchaslakes.Withregardtoseaweedhasincreasedfishpopulationsandthusmarineecosystems,theNetherlandsreportsthatledtolargercatchesforsomefishers.risingseatemperaturesinthesouthernNorthSeahaveresultedinchangesinthefishcommunity,Asidefromspeciestargetedbycapturefisher-withspeciesthatpreferwarmertemperaturesies,anumberofotherwildfoodsarereportedto(e.g.seabass)becomingmorecommonandbethreatenedbyclimatechange-relatedeffects.thosethatprefercoolerwaters(e.g.plaiceandForexample,Eswatinireportsthatalteredprecip-cod)becominglesscommonormovingtodeeperitationpatternsanderraticrainfallarepredictedwater.14Similarly,Egyptreportsthatrisingtem-tohinderthegerminationofwildfruitsandperatureswillleadtonorthwardsshiftsintheotherwildfoodplants.Perunotesthatchangesrangesoffishspecies,withimpactsonfisherytofruitingseasonsareexpectedtoreducetheproduction.Mexiconotesthatitsfisheriessectoravailabilityofwildfruitssuchascamu-camuisconsideredhighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange(Myrciariadubia),humarí(Poraqueibasericea)viatheeffectsofcurrentandpredictedchangesandpijuayo(peachpalm–Bactrisgasipaes).inwatertemperature,salinity,nutrientavailabil-Finlandnotesthatclimatechange-relatedthreatsityandotherfactorsthatinfluencethenumberassociatedwiththecountry’snorthernpositionanddistributionofmarineandfreshwaterbiota.includedeclinesintheavailabilityofwildmush-SeveralcountriesfromthePacificregionmentionroomsandberriesasaresultofpolewardmove-theeffectsofcoralbleaching,particularlyduringmentoftheconiferouszone.ItalsomentionsElNiñoyears.thatearlierfloweringwhenthereisstillariskoffrostexposuremayalsonegativelyaffecttheAnumberofislandnationsmentionthesevereavailabilityofwildberries.threatstheyfacefromclimatechange.Forexample,theBahamasreportsthatoutofalltheidentified3.4.2Naturaldisastersthreatstobiodiversity,climatechangeisconsid-eredtobethemostserious:80percentoftheEcosystemsandfoodandagriculturalproductioncountry’slandmassiswithin1.5metresofsealevelareoftenseriouslyaffectedbynaturaldisasters.16and90percentofitsfreshwaterlenses15arewithinForexample,astudyofpost-disasterneedsassess-1.5metresofthelandsurface,makingground-mentscovering74medium-tolarge-scaledis-waterresourceshighlyvulnerabletocontamina-astersin53developingcountriesbetween2006tion.Itfurthernotesthatitisveryvulnerabletoand2016showedthatagricultureaccountedforclimate-relatedthreatssuchascoralbleaching,23percentofalllossesanddamageincurred(FAO,increasinglypowerfulhurricanesandrisingsea2018e).Wheredroughtsareconcerned,agricul-levels.SaintLuciamentionsthatrisingtempera-tureabsorbed83percentoftheeconomicimpact.turesandchangingoceancurrentshaveledtoanOverall,thecropsectorwasthemostaffectedincreaseinthequantityofSargassumseaweed(49percentofalldamageandlosses),followedalongtheeasterncoastsofCaribbeanislands.Itbythelivestocksector(36percent)(seeFigure2.1notesthatmarineplantsandanimalsbecomeinSection2.3).Themostdamagingtypesofdisas-trappedanddieinthicksheetsofseaweedandthatterinthecropsectorwerefloods,inthelivestockunderanaerobicconditionstheseaweeddegradessectordroughts,intheforestsectorstorms,andinandemitsastenchthatcreatesproblemsforcoastalfisheriesfloodsandstorms(ibid.).Datafromthecommunities.Italsomentions,however,thattheInternationalDisasterDatabaseEM-DAT17indicatethatthenumberofdisastersreportedworldwide14ThereportcitesDulvyetal.(2008)andTerHofstedeand16Thecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcountriestoreportRijnsdorp(2011).on“natural”disasters.Theuseofthistermisnotintendedtosuggestthathumanactionsdonotcontributetomany15Afreshwaterlensisabodyoffreshwaterthathaspercolateddisastersinthiscategory.throughthesoilandfloatsontopofdenserseawaterbelow(Bailey,JensonandOlsen,2009).17http://www.emdat.be/thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE83Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure3.2Globaltrendsintheoccurrenceofnaturaldisasters−1980to2017240Numberofdisastersperdisastertype2202001801601401201008060402001982198419861988199019921994199619982000200220042006200820102012201420161980EarthquakesYearStormsDroughtFloodsSource:EM-DAT,theOFDA/CREDInternationalDisasterDatabase,www.emdat.beincreasedrapidlybetweenthe1960sandtheearlyremainspoorlyunderstood.Disastersofvarious2000sbeforereachingaplateau(RenaudandkindsarewidelyrecognizedasthreatstoplantMurti,2013).Figure3.2showsglobaltrendsin(crop),animal(livestock),forestandaquaticnaturaldisastersfortheperiod1980to2017.geneticresources,althoughthelevelsofthreatposedtoparticulargeneticresources(species,Disasterriskisinfluencedbycomplexandinter-varieties,breeds,etc.)aregenerallynotwellactingdriversthataffectbothexposure18andestablished(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,vulnerability.19Thelatterisgenerallyassociated2015a,2018e).Whereassociatedbiodiversityandwithpoorland-useplanning,poverty,rapidurban-thesupplyofecosystemservicesareconcerned,izationandecosystemdegradation(FAOandinformationonimpactsisgenerallyavailableatUNISDR,2017;Sudmeier-Rieuxetal.,2017).Severaltheecosystemratherthanthespecieslevel.Forofthedriversdiscussedelsewhereinthischapterexample,coastalandestuarinewetlandsinsome(e.g.climatechange,populationgrowth,land-useareascanbethreatenedbyhurricanes(Mortonchange,overexploitationofnaturalresources,pol-andBarras,2011).Sedimentlossmeansthaticiesandtechnologicalinnovations)areinvolved.affectedwetlandsmaybeunabletorecoverprop-erly(ibid.).ManywetlandsaresubjecttomultipleDespitetheimpactthatdisastershaveonthehazards,withfloodingthemostpervasive(Kusler,foodandagriculturesector,theirlinktoBFA2009).TherolesplayedbyBFAinreducingdisasterriskarediscussedinSection2.3.18“People,property,systems,orotherelementspresentinhazardzonesthataretherebysubjecttopotentiallosses”Countrieswereinvitedtoreportanydisasters(UNISDR,2009).thathadhadasignificanteffectontheirBFAduringtheprecedingtenyears.AsshowninTable3.8,19“Thecharacteristicsandcircumstancesofacommunity,systemorassetthatmakeitsusceptibletothedamagingeffectsofahazard”(UNISDR,2009).84thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Table3.8Naturaldisastersreportedtohavehadasignificanteffectonbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureand/oronecosystemservicesinthepasttenyearsTypeofdisasterReportingcountries(numberofcountries)Droughtsandheatwaves(32)Afghanistan,Angola,Argentina,Belgium,BurkinaFaso,China,Croatia,ElSalvador,Eswatini,Ethiopia,Gambia,Germany,Guyana,Hungary,India,Ireland,Jordan,Kenya,Mali,Nicaragua,Niger,Panama,Peru,SaudiArabia,Slovenia,Spain,SriLanka,SyrianArabRepublic,Togo,VietNam,Yemen,Zambia,ZimbabweFloods(31)Angola,Argentina,Bangladesh,BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,China,CostaRica,Croatia,Ecuador,Ethiopia,Germany,Guyana,Hungary,India,Ireland,Mali,Nepal,Panama,Peru,SaudiArabia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,SriLanka,Sudan,Togo,UnitedKingdom,VietNam,Yemen,Zambia,ZimbabweFiresandwildfires(21)Angola,Argentina,Cameroon,China,CostaRica,Eswatini,Ethiopia,France,Jordan,Kenya,Mexico,Niger,Panama,SaudiArabia,Slovenia,Spain,SriLanka,Sudan,SyrianArabRepublic,UnitedStatesofAmerica,VietNam,ZimbabweOilspills,miningpollution,chemicalAngola,Belgium,China,Finland,Hungary,JordanLebanon,Mexico,Nepal,Niger,Norway,Peru,industrialaccidents(17)Sudan,SriLanka,VietNamEpidemics(inanimalsandplants)andBelgium,BurkinaFaso,China,Estonia,Germany,Niger,Peru,Poland,SaudiArabia,Slovenia,Sudan,pestanddiseaseoutbreaks(15)Sweden,UnitedStatesofAmerica,Zambia,ZimbabweCyclones/typhoons/hurricanes(13)Bangladesh,China,CookIslands,CostaRica,ElSalvador,Fiji,France,Grenada,India,Samoa,SolomonIslands,VietNam,YemenStorms(11)Argentina,Croatia,France,Germany,Hungary,Ireland,Panama,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,UnitedKingdomLandslides(9)Argentina,Bangladesh,Cameroon,Nepal,Panama,Peru,Spain,SriLanka,VietNamCold,frostandheavysnowepisodes(7)Belgium,Croatia,Ireland,Jordan,Peru,Slovenia,UnitedKingdomVolcaniceruptions(6)Argentina,Cameroon,Ecuador,ElSalvador,Ireland,SolomonIslandsEarthquakes(5)CostaRica,Nepal,India,SolomonIslands,SpainTsunamis(4)Bangladesh,India,SolomonIslands,YemenHeavyrainfallandhailstorms(4)Ethiopia,Hungary,Slovenia,ZambiaAvalanches(2)Nepal,SpainArmedconflicts(2)Lebanon,YemenNotes:Althoughtheguidelinesreferredto“naturaldisasters”,somecountriesreportedonhuman-madedisasterssuchasarmedconflicts,oilspills,miningpollutionandchemicalindustrialaccidents.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.meteorologicaldisastersarethemostcommonlydescribemultipleeffectsonthesupplyofecoreportedcategory.Manycountryreportsnotesystemservices.Grenada,forexample,reportstheexacerbatingeffectsofclimatechange.thatthemajorlossesofforestspeciesandforestInformationprovidedonhowdisastersareaffect-covercausedbyhurricanesin2004and2005sub-ingthesupplyofparticularecosystemservicesisstantiallyreducedthesupplyofservicessuchassummarizedinTable3.9.Hereagain,innearlyallpollination,pestanddiseaseregulation,andproductionsystemsandfornearlyallecosystemnutrientandwatercycling.Itnotesthateffectsservices,negativeimpactsarebyfarthemostfre-havebeenlonglastingandthattheimpactsofquentlyreported.Giventhedevastatingimpactsthehurricanesarestill(asof2016)beingfelt,withthatsomedisastershaveontheaffectedareas,manypartsofthecountrycontinuingtosufferitisperhapsnotsurprisingthatmanycountriesfromwatershortagescausedbythesedisasters.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE85Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.9Reportedeffectsofnaturaldisastersontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofnaturaldisastersonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems---------Livestocklandlesssystems---------NaturallyregeneratedforestsPlantedforests---------ProportionofSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting---------thePSthatreportanyeffectofthe---------driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries---------10–16Fedaquaculture+/---------17–23Non-fedaquaculture---------24–30Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)---------31–38Irrigatedcropsystems(other)---------Rainfedcropsystems---------Mixedsystems---------Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Firesareanothercategoryofdisasterwidelyreported.SolomonIslands,forexample,men-reportedtobeaffectingBFA.20Forexample,Malitionsthat(inadditiontocyclones)earthquakes,reportsthathuman-madebushfiresareoneofthevolcaniceruptionsandtidalwaveshaveseriousmostimportantcausesofdegradationofitsvege-impactsonitscoastalenvironments.Itnotesthattationandsoils.Itnotesthatfiresslowthegrowthintheareaaffectedin2007byanearthquakeandoftrees,reducesoilorganicmatterlevelsandhavetsunamitherehasbeenconsiderablelossofreefsrestrictedthedistributionofsomespecies.Impactsandseagrassbedsasaresultoflandformliftingofgeologicaldisastersarealsoquitewidelyandunderwaterlandslides.20ThefrequencyandintensityoffiresarelikelytoincreaseManywildfoodspeciesarereportedtobevul-underclimatechangeinseveralpartsoftheworld(Barberonerabletodrought,forexamplemangosinNauruetal.,2015).andaguaje(Mauritiaflexuosa)inPeru.Togomen-tionslossesofwildfoodscausedbyadroughtin86thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Box3.2Linksbetweenbiodiversity,biodiversitylossanddiseaseriskAnincreasingnumberofemerginginfectiousdiseasesinof90studiesonvariousdiseasesthataffecthumans,humans,animalsandplantshavebeenreportedoverrecentwildlife,livestockorplantsconcludedthattheyprovidedecades(Andersonetal.,2004;Fisheretal.,2012;Jonesbroadsupportforanegativeeffectofdiversityondiseaseetal.,2008).Thishasbeenlinkedtorapidhabitatchangestransmission(Johnson,OstfeldandKeesing,2015).Thecausedbyurbanizationandagricultureintensificationmagnitudeoftheeffect,however,appearstoberelatedto(Hasselletal.,2017).Empiricalstudiesshowthathighlevelsthestructureofspeciescommunitiesandnotonlytospeciesofbiodiversityareassociatedwithhighlevelsofpathogendiversityperse(Civitelloetal.,2015).diversity(MorandandLajaunie,2017).However,increasesinepidemicsandtheriskofdiseaseemergenceareassociatedSimilareffectsoperateattheinfraspecies(genetic)withdecreasedbiodiversity(ibid.),asdeforestationandlevel.Speciesthathavehighgeneticdiversitymaysustainagriculturalintensificationincreasecontactsbetweenahighdiversityofpathogens,butwitheachpathogenwildlife,domesticanimalsandhumans,favouringthespreadshowinglowtransmissionandrarelycausinganepidemic.ofzoonoticdiseases(Keesingetal.,2010).Incontrast,whilespeciesthathavelowgeneticdiversitymaysustainfewerpathogens,thesepathogensmayhaveEmpiricalstudieshavealsoshownthatspecies-richhosthightransmissibilityandthepotentialtocausedramaticcommunitiescontributetoreducingthetransmissionofepidemics(Heesterbeeketal.,2015;Karvonenetal.,2016;infectiousdiseases,aphenomenonknownasthe“dilutionKingandLively,2012).effect”.Theeffecthasbeenobservedinstudiesonseveralvector-borneandzoonoticdiseases.Ameta-analysisSource:ProvidedbySergeMorand.2013andbyafloodin2008.Perunotes21thattheexcessiveuseofpesticides,fire,antibioticsorclimaticeventswillcauselong-termchangesintillage.Diseaseepidemiologyis,inturn,affectedforeststructure,compositionandplantdiversitybyarangeofdrivers,includingclimatechange,andexertadditionalpressureonalready-reducedtradeandchangesinlanduse.Lossofbiodiversityterrestrialmammalpopulations.canitselfbeariskfactor(seeBox3.2).3.4.3Pests,diseasesandinvasiveInvasivealienspeciesareregardedasamajoralienspecies22threattobiodiversity(e.g.CBDSecretariat,2006).Alienspeciesmaybeintroducedintoanewecosys-Pestsanddiseasesaffectfoodandagriculturetemaccidentally,forexampleasaresultoftradeworldwideandcanposeathreattothesupplyortravel(WittenbergandCock,2001).However,ofecosystemservicesandtothesurvivalofsometheymayalsobeintroduceddeliberatelyaspartcomponentsofBFA,particularlyspeciesorwithin-ofvariousmanagementmeasures,includingforspeciespopulationsconfinedtosmallgeographi-biologicalcontrolpurposes,andlaterturnoutcalareas.Asidefromtheirdirecteffects,diseasestobeinvasive(MyersandCory,2017).EcologicalcanalsothreatenBFAindirectly,forexamplechangesandimbalancescausedbyhumanactionswhentheirpresencetriggerspracticessuchascanalsocontributetoinvasions.Forexample,shrubencroachmentbyinvasivethornyspeciesis21CitingBodmeretal.(2014).oftenaresultofovergrazing(e.g.Kgosikomaand22Thetermalienspecieshasbeendefinedas“aspecies,Mogotsi,2013;seealsoSection3.6.3).subspeciesorlowertaxon,introducedoutsideitsnaturalInvasivespecieshavehadsubstantialimpactsonpastorpresentdistribution”andaninvasivealienspeciesasvariousimportantcomponentsofBFA.Forexample,“analienspecieswhoseintroductionand/orspreadthreatentheNewZealandflatworm(Arthurdendyusbiologicaldiversity”(CBD,2002).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE87Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.10Reportedeffectsofpests,diseasesandinvasivealienspeciesontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofpests,diseasesandinvasivealienspeciesonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland–basedsystems-----+/-+/--+/-Livestocklandlesssystems+/-----+/----Naturallyregeneratedforests---------ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting---------thePSthatreportanyeffectofthe-----0---driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries------+/---9–17Fedaquaculture-----+/----18–25Non-fedaquaculture---------26–33Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)---------34–41Irrigatedcropsystems(other)-----0+/---Rainfedcropsystems---------Mixedsystems----000-0Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.triangulates)isasignificantthreattoearthwormsNumerousinvasivespecieshavehadsevereintheUnitedKingdomandsomeotherEuropeanimpactsonforests.Forexample,Hymenoscyphuscountries(MurchieandGordon,2013).Invasivefraxineus,afungusthatcausesashdiebackdisease,plantsmayaffecttheabundanceandcommunityhasbeenrapidlyspreadingacrossmuchofEuropestructureofmycorrhizalfungioraffecttheleaflitter,(ForestryCommission,2018).Ashdiebackandtheandhencethehabitatsoflitter-dwellingarthropodsemeraldashborer(Agrilusplanipennis),abeetleandotherinvertebrates(Coleetal.,2006;JordanetthatisspreadingwestwardsacrossEurope,areal.,2012;Turbéetal.,2010).Invasiveherbivorescanposingamajorthreattoashtree(Fraxinusexcel-influencesoilecosystemsviatheireffectsonthesior)populations(Thomas,2016).Lossoftheashstructureofplantcommunities(althoughnotinallwouldhaveasignificantimpactonbiodiversity.caseswithanegativeimpactonsoilbiodiversity)Forexample,44speciesintheUnitedKingdom(e.g.Bellinghametal.,2016;Stritaretal.,2010).(4lichens,11fungiand29invertebrates)are88thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3considered“obligate”ash-associatedspeciesandSriLankareportsthattheclownknifefish(Chitalaafurther62(19fungi,13lichens,6bryophytesandornatus),firstintroducedasanornamentalaquar-24invertebrates)tobehighlyassociatedwiththeiumfish,isaffectingsomeofthecounty’smostash(Mitchelletal.,2014).threatenedendemicfreshwaterfishpopulations.TheNetherlandsmentionsthatthePacificoysterManyaquaticecosystemsarealsoaffectedby(Crassostreagigas),aninvasivealienspeciesthatinvasivealienspecies,whichcancauseproblems,hasbeenspreadingthroughthecountry’swatersinteralia,bypreyingonnativespecies,impedingsincethe1960s,isconsideredaseriousthreattowatercoursesandaffectingecologicalprocessesthefunctionsofcoastalwaters,includingshellfishsuchasnutrientcycling(MEA,2005b).Majorcultureandtheprovisionoffeedingareasforbirds.examplesincludewaterhyacinth(EichhorniaItnotes,however,thatreefscreatedbythisspeciescrassipes),ahighlyinvasivespeciesthatcoverscanprovideanimportanthabitatforcertainspe-andchokesmajorwaterwaysandlakesurfacesincies.23Afewcountriesmentionthethreatposedbymanycountries,negativelyaffectingbiodiversity,hybridizationbetweeninvasivealienspeciesandfisheries,hydroelectricproduction,transportationnativespecies.Forexample,ZambiareportsthatandlocaleconomiesacrosslargepartsofAfricatheNiletilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),anescapeeandAsia(CABI,2018).fromfishfarms,isnotonlycompetingwithindig-enousfishbutalsolikelytobealteringthegeneticInformationprovidedbycountriesonthecompositionofnativecichlidspecies.effectsofpests,diseasesandinvasivealienspeciesonthesupplyofecosystemservicesissummarizedCountrieswereinvitedtoreportexamplesofinTable3.10.Theecosystemservicesmostofteninvasivealienspeciesthathadhadasignificantreportedtobenegativelyaffectedarepollination,effectonBFAand/orecosystemservicesinthepestanddiseaseregulationandhabitatprovision-precedingtenyears.The59countries24thating.Severalcountriesreportthatinvasivespeciesrespondedreportedatotalof1077suchcases,and/orpestsanddiseasesarebecomingmoreprev-involving633distinctspeciesand509distinctalent,withanumbernotingthatclimatechange,genera.ThemostcommonlyreportedspeciesarehabitatdestructionorchangesinagriculturalshowninTable3.11.Halfofthereportedinvasivepracticesareexacerbatingfactors(seebelowforalienspeciesareplants,46percentanimals,andfurtherinformation).Someprovidespecificexam-theremaining4percentfungi,chromists,virusesplesoftheeffectsofpests,diseasesandinvasiveorbacteria(Figure3.3).Almost60percentarealienspeciesonassociatedbiodiversityandthereportedbyAsianorEuropeancountries.supplyofecosystemservices.Forinstance,Zambiareportsthatinvasivealienspecieshavenega-Withregardtothecausesofspeciesinva-tivelyaffectedthehabitatsofsomepollinators.sions,somecountryreports,asnotedabove,TheBahamasmentionsthatthelionfish(Pteroismentionalinktoclimatechange,forexamplevolitans),aninvasivespeciesthatenteredtheinthecaseofthethreatposedbyKikuyograsscountry’swatersinrecentyears,isathreatboth(Pennisetumclandestinum)tothepáramotobiodiversityandtofisheries.Morespecifically,itnotesthataswellasfeedingonthejuveniles23ThereportcitesSmaal,KaterandWijsman(2009).andadultsofcommerciallyimportantfishspecies24Angola,Argentina,Bangladesh,Belarus,Belgium,Bulgaria,suchasgruntsandsnapper,thelionfishisfearedtobeaffectingcoralreefsbypredatingonherbi-BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,China,CookIslands,Croatia,voresthatkeepthereefsfreeofalgae.InordertoEcuador,Egypt,ElSalvador,Estonia,Eswatini,Ethiopia,Fiji,counteracttheimpactofthelionfish,thecountry’sFinland,France,Gambia,Grenada,Guyana,Hungary,India,FisheriesDepartmentisintroducinginitiativestoIraq,Ireland,Jordan,Kenya,Lebanon,Mali,Mexico,Nepal,encouragetheconsumptionofthespecies(seeNetherlands,Niger,Norway,Palau,Panama,PapuaNewSection4.4foradditionalinformation).Guinea,Peru,Poland,Qatar,Samoa,SaudiArabia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,SriLanka,Sudan,Sweden,Switzerland,Togo,Tonga,UnitedKingdom,UnitedStatesofAmerica,VietNam,Yemen,Zambia,Zimbabwe.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE89Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.11InvasivealienspeciesreportedbyfiveormorecountriesaspresentinoneormoreproductionsystemsProductionsystemswherereportedImpactImpacton(indecreasingorderoffrequency)onBFAecosystem(numberofresponses)services(numberofresponses)SpeciesCommonNumberNegative(Latinname)EnglishofNeutralnamePositivecountriesNegativeNeutralPositiveSelf-recruitingcapturefisheries,culture-basedfisheries,irrigatedcropsystems(rice),mixedsystems(livestock,crop,EichhorniaWater21forestand/oraquaticandfisheries),fedaquaculture,irrigated14031313crassipeshyacinthcropsystems(non-rice),non-fedaquaculture,livestock1601grassland-basedsystems,naturallyregeneratedforests,1412502plantedforests,rainfedcropsystems33022402Livestockgrassland-basedsystems,naturallyregenerated02103303Largeleafforests,irrigatedcropsystems(rice),plantedforests,irrigatedlantana0100Lantanacamara14cropsystems(non-rice),mixedsystems(livestock,crop,forest10114012201and/oraquaticandfisheries),rainfedcropsystems,livestock01000110landlesssystems1300CyprinuscarpioCommon10Self-recruitingcapturefisheries,fedaquaculture51(Cont.)carpNaturallyregeneratedforests,livestockgrassland-basedProsopisjulifloraIronwood10systems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),irrigatedcrop70systems(rice),mixedsystems(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandfisheries),plantedforests,rainfedcropsystemsMikaniaNaturallyregeneratedforests,livestockgrassland-basedmicranthaBittervine9systems,irrigatedcropsystems(rice),livestocklandless40systems,mixedsystems,plantedforests,rainfedcropsystemsChromolaenaNaturallyregeneratedforests,plantedforests,livestockodorataSiamweed9grassland-basedsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(rice),50livestocklandlesssystems,rainfedcropsystemsOreochromisMozambique8Self-recruitingcapturefisheries,culture-basedfisheries,fed60mossambicustilapiaaquacultureLivestockgrassland-basedsystems,naturallyregeneratedPartheniumforests,mixedsystems(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquatichysterophorusSanta-Maria8andfisheries),plantedforests,rainfedcropsystems,irrigated50cropsystems(non-rice),irrigatedcropsystems(rice),livestocklandlesssystemsHarmoniaaxyridisHarlequinRainfedcropsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),ladybird7livestockgrassland-basedsystems,mixedsystems(livestock,50crop,forestand/oraquaticandfisheries),plantedforestsIrrigatedcropsystems(rice),self-recruitingcapturefisheries,SalviniamolestaGiantsalvinia7culture-basedfisheries,fedaquaculture,mixedsystems50(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandfisheries),rainfedcropsystemsBemisiatabaciSweetpotato6Rainfedcropsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),20whiteflyirrigatedcropsystems(rice)MicropterusLargemouth6Self-recruitingcapturefisheries50salmoidesbassOncorhynchusRainbow6Fedaquaculture,self-recruitingcapturefisheries40mykisstroutOreochromisNiletilapia6Self-recruitingcapturefisheries30niloticus90thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Table3.11(Cont.)InvasivealienspeciesreportedbyfiveormorecountriesaspresentinoneormoreproductionsystemsProductionsystemswherereportedImpactImpacton(indecreasingorderoffrequency)onBFAecosystem(numberofresponses)services(numberofresponses)SpeciesCommonNumberNegative(Latinname)EnglishofNeutralnamePositivecountriesNegativeNeutralPositiveSelf-recruitingcapturefisheries,culture-basedfisheries,PistiastratiotesWaterlettuce6irrigatedcropsystems(rice),mixedsystems(livestock,crop,301301forestand/oraquaticandfisheries),naturallyregeneratedforestsTutaabsolutaTomato6Irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),rainfedcropsystems,101001leafminerirrigatedcropsystems(rice),naturallyregeneratedforestsLeucaenaWhiteMixedsystems(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandleucocephalaleadtree6fisheries),naturallyregeneratedforests,livestockgrassland-300300basedsystemsMerremiapeltataMerremia5Naturallyregeneratedforests,mixedsystems(livestock,crop,300100forestand/oraquaticandfisheries)AmbrosiaCommon5Rainfedcropsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),mixed301200artemisiifoliaragweedsystems(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandfisheries)CeratitiscapitataMedfly5Rainfedcropsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),mixed100100systems(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandfisheries)CheraxAustralian5Self-recruitingcapturefisheries500200quadricarinatusredclawClariasgariepinusNorthAfrican5Self-recruitingcapturefisheries,fedaquaculture410220catfishRainfedcropsystems,mixedsystems(livestock,crop,forestHeracleumGiant5and/oraquaticandfisheries),livestockgrassland-based400200mantegazzianumhogweedsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),naturallyirrigatedcropsystems,plantedforestsPacifastacusSignalcrayfish5Self-recruitingcapturefisheries,fedaquaculture,culture-300200leniusculusbasedfisheries,non-fedaquacultureNaturallyregeneratedforests,plantedforests,mixedsystemsFallopiajaponicaJapanese5(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandfisheries),irrigated400200knotweedcropsystems(non-rice),livestockgrassland-basedsystems,rainfedcropsystemsRobiniaNaturallyregeneratedforests,irrigatedcropsystems(non-pseudoacaciaBlacklocust5rice),plantedforests,mixedsystems(livestock,crop,forest121301and/oraquaticandfisheries)Mixedsystems(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandSolidagoCommon5fisheries),rainfedcropsystems,livestockgrassland-based220301canadensisgoldenrodsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice),naturallyirrigatedcropsystems,plantedforestsMixedsystems(livestock,crop,forestand/oraquaticandSolidagogiganteaTallgoldenrod5fisheries),rainfedcropsystems,irrigatedcropsystems(non-310301rice),livestockgrassland-basedsystems,naturallyirrigatedcropsystemsRainfedcropsystems,livestockgrassland-basedsystems,VarroadestructorVarroamite5irrigatedcrops(other),mixedsystems(livestock,crop,forest400200and/oraquaticandfisheries),plantedforestsNote:Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE91Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure3.3Invasivealienspeciesreportedbycountriestobeimpactingbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture,(A)bytypeoforganismand(B)byregionAOtherChromistsarthropods2%1%Insects16%PlantsCrustaceans50%2%Ray-ﬁnnedﬁsh12%Birds3%Mammals5%Molluscs4%Otheranimals3%Fungi2%BAfricaAsiaEuropeandCentralAsiaLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanNearEastandNorthAfricaNorthAmericaPaciﬁc050100150200250300350NumberofresponsesNotes:A“response”isamentionbyaspecificcountryofaspecificcomponentofbiodiversity(speciesorgenus).Outof91reportingcountries,59providedacombinedtotalof1077responses.Asinglespeciesorgenusmaybereportedbymorethanonecountry.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.ecosysteminEcuador.Zimbabwementionsthat(e.g.naturaldisasters)ascontributingtotheintro-heightenedclimaticvariability,includingfloodsductionofinvasivespecies.25Palaureportsthat,inanddroughts,areincreasingsusceptibilitytoinva-thelast20years,landclearing,roadconstructionsivespecies,withnegativeimpactson,interalia,andotherhumanactivitieshaveenabledtheinva-wildfoods.MexicoreferstoanumberofhumansivevineMerremiapeltatatothrive.actions(e.g.modernizationoftransportsystems,mining,biologicalcontrolpracticesandartificially25ThereportcitesComitéAsesorNacionalsobreEspeciesjoiningwaterbodies)andnaturalphenomenaInvasoras(2010).92thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture33.5AdvancesandinnovationsTheadoptionofaprecautionaryapproach26inscienceandtechnologytoadvancesinscienceandtechnologyhasbeenwidelyadvocated.Inthecaseofcapturefisheries•Advancesinscienceandtechnologyarelargelyseen(includingspeciesintroductions),detailedguide-aspositivebycountriesandaswaysofreducinglinesontheapplicationoftheprecautionarynegativeeffectsofotherdriversonbiodiversityforapproachhavebeenelaborated(FAO,1996b).foodandagriculture(BFA).Technologiesthathavehad,orcouldhave,•ScienceandtechnologyarecrucialtothegenerationpositiveeffectsonBFAincludenanotechnology,ofknowledgerelatedtogenes,speciesandwhichoffersmultipleopportunitiestoimproveecosystemsandhencetothesustainableuseanddetectionandmonitoringandthussupportconservationofBFA.rationaldecision-making,resource-useefficiencyandprecisiontargeting,allofwhichhavethe•SometechnologieshavenegativeeffectsonBFApotentialtoreduceenvironmentalimpacts.Foranditsroleinthesupplyofecosystemservices.Theexample,theuseofnanosensorsallowsdetec-precautionaryapproachprovidesaframeworkthattionofplantdiseasesbeforesymptomsbecomecanguidetheadoptionofscienceandtechnologyevident,meaningthatinfectedplantscanbeadvancesinagricultureandfoodproduction.removedtopreventthespreadofdiseaseandreduceoreliminatetheneedtousepesticidesAdvancesandinnovationsinscienceandtechnol-(ChenandYada,2011).AnotherexamplefromogycanhavebothpositiveandnegativeeffectsthefieldofcropproductionistheuseofroboticsonBFAandassociatedecosystemservices,oftenandnanosensorstoimprovemechanicalweedingbyincreasingorreducingtheimpactofotherandhencereduceoreliminatetheneedforchem-driversdiscussedinthischapter.Althoughitcanicalherbicides(Duhanetal.,2017;Westwoodbearguedthatitishowthetechnologiesareusedetal.,2018).Inadditiontodevelopmentsofratherthanthefactthattheyexistthat“drives”thiskind,advancesin“nature-based”solutionsimpactsonBFAandthesupplyofecosystemser-involvingthedeploymentofcomponentsofBFAvices,therearesometechnologiesthatopenmajorcanprovideenvironmentallyfriendlymeansofnewopportunitiesformoresustainablemanage-addressingthevariouschallengesfacingfoodmentandotherswhoseuseonanysignificantandagriculture.ManyoftheseapproachesarescaleinevitablyinvolvesseriousnegativeimpactsdiscussedinSection2.4andinChapter5.oncomponentsofbiodiversityand/orsubstantialhomogenizationoftheproductionsystem.Theimpactsofdevelopmentsingeneticsonthemanagementofplant(crop),animal(livestock),Anytechnologyusedtocontrolpests,weedsorforestandaquaticgeneticresourcesarediscusseddiseasesthatistoxictonon-targetorganismsisintherespectivesectoralglobalassessmentspub-apotentialthreattoassociatedbiodiversity.ForlishedbyFAO(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,example,unintendednegativeimpactsofpesticide2015a).Inadditiontoopeningnewopportuni-useonsoilbiodiversityhavebeendocumentedtiesinthefieldsofcharacterizationandgenetic(FAOandITPS,2015)(seealsoSection3.6.2).improvement(seeChapters5and6forbriefHowever,impactsonBFAcanalsoarisebecauseofthewaysinwhichanewtechnologyinfluences26The1992RioDeclarationonEnvironmentandDevelopmentthebroadermanagementoftheproductionstatesthat“inordertoprotecttheenvironment,thesystem.Forexample,inareaswheregeneticallyprecautionaryapproachshallbewidelyappliedbyStatesmodifiedglyphosate-resistantcropcultivarshaveaccordingtotheircapabilities.Wheretherearethreatsofbeenadopted,forinstanceinpartsofArgentinaseriousorirreversibledamage,lackoffullscientificcertaintyandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica,thishastendedshallnotbeusedasareasonforpostponingcost-effectivetoleadtoasimplificationoflandscapesascropmeasurestopreventenvironmentaldegradation”(Principle15)rotationsdecline(Schutteetal.,2017).(UNCED,1992).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE93Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.12Reportedeffectsofadvancesandinnovationsinscienceandtechnologyontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofadvancementsandinnovationsinscienceandtechnologyonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems+++++++++Livestocklandlesssystems+++++++++Naturallyregeneratedforests+++++++++ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting+++++++++thePSthatreportanyeffectofthe+++++++++driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries+++++++++11–18Fedaquaculture+++++++++19–26Non-fedaquaculture+++++++++27–34Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)+++++++++35–41Irrigatedcropsystems(other)+++++++++Rainfedcropsystems+++++++++Mixedsystems+++++++++Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.discussionsofdevelopmentsinthesefields)areseenasameansofcounteringthenegativegenetictechnologiescontributetootheraspectseffectsthatotherdriversarehavingonBFAandofBFAmanagementsuchastheenforcementofthesupplyofecosystemservices.Awidevarietylawsrelatedtoforestryandtotradeinendan-oftechnologiesarehighlighted,rangingfromgeredspecies(FAO,2014a).thoseusedforcharacterizationandmonitoringofcomponentsofBFAtothoseusedinconser-Informationprovidedbycountriesonthevation,varioussustainablemanagementprac-effectsofadvancesandinnovationsinscienceandtices,educationorawarenessraising.Amongtechnologyonthesupplyofecosystemsservicesisthelatter,forexample,EstoniamentionsthatsummarizedinTable3.12.Inallproductionsystemsmobilephoneapplicationshavebeendevelopedandforallecosystemservices,positiveimpactsaretoinformpeopleaboutvariouscomponentsofbyfarthemostfrequentlyreported.Thecountrybiodiversityincludingmushrooms,amphibians,reportsgenerallyindicatethattechnologies94thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3epiphytelichensandbirds.Wherepromoting•Variousmanagementpracticeshavebeenidentifiedsustainablemanagementisconcerned,Mexicothatcanlimittheharmfuleffectsofotherdriversreportsadvancesinthedevelopmentofmore-andmayevenhavepositiveeffectsonBFAandselectivecapturesystemsforfisheriesthatecosystemservices.reducebycatch.Spainmentionsthattechnolog-icaladvancesandrecentinnovationsinaquacul-•Pollution,fromwithinproductionsystemsandbeyond,turehavefosteredpositiveinteractionsbetweenremainsamajorcauseofdeclineinthepopulationsaquacultureandthesurroundingenvironmentofmanyimportantspeciesofassociatedbiodiversity.andassociatedbiodiversity.TheUnitedStatesofExcessnutrients,pesticideresidues,urbaneffluent,Americareportsthattheuseofgeneticallymod-plasticsandheavymetalsareamongthepollutantsofifiedcropssuchasBtmaizehasledtoadecreasemostconcern.intheapplicationofinsecticides,andthattheuseofherbicide-tolerantvarietieshasincreased•Overharvesting,particularlyinforestandaquaticlevelsofadoptionofconservationtillagerelativeecosystems,aswellasexcessiveorbadlymanagedtolevelswithconventionalcrops.Italsonotes,grazingandbrowsingbylivestock,aresubstantialhowever,thatwhilethetoxicityandpersistencethreatstomanycomponentsofBFA.ofglyphosate,themostcommonlyusedherbi-cidefortolerantvarieties,arelowerthanthose3.6.1Changesinlandandwateruseofherbicidesformerlyused,27theemergenceofandmanagementglyphosate-resistantweedsmaytosomeextentoffsettheadvantagesoftheadoptionofherbi-Changesinlandandwateruseandmanagementcide-tolerantcropsasithasledfarmerstoraiseencompassawiderangeofeffects,manyofwhichapplicationratesinrecentyears.willinfluenceorbeinfluencedbyotherdriversdiscussedinthischapter.Inthecontextofter-Negativeeffectsmentionedincludethoseasso-restrialecosystems,suchchangeshaveclassicallyciatedwithtechnologiesthatallowmoreeffec-beenstudiedandcategorizedusingtheconcepttiveharvestingofwildfoodsandhaveledtoof“land-usetransitions”(e.g.Foleyetal.,2005;overexploitation.SomecountriesnotethatnewMazoyerandRoudart,2006;Ruthenberg,1980).technologiesarecontributingtothedisplacementAccordingtothisconcept,changesinlanduseoftraditionallifestylesandthelossoftraditionalfollowaunidirectionalpathwayofsuccessionecologicalknowledge(seealsoSection3.9).fromthenaturalecosystemsofthepre-settle-mentperiod,throughsmallholdersubsistence3.6Driversatproduction-systemagriculture,tolandscapesdominatedbyinten-levelsiveagricultureinterspacedwithurban,recrea-tionalandconservationareas.Thisclassicalview•Lossanddegradationofforestandaquaticecosystemsbroadlyreflectsthehistoryofland-usechangesand,inmanyproductionsystems,transitiontoinmanytemperateandtropicalregionsoftheintensiveproductionofareducednumberofspecies,world,especiallythosewhereforestsoncedom-breedsandvarieties,oftencoupledwithinappropriateinated,withtheprocessbeingmostcompletemanagementpractices,remainmajordriversoflossinpartsofEurope,temperateAsiaandNorthofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)andAmerica.However,changestakingplacetodayecosystemservices.inlocationswheretheland-transitiontrajectoryislesscompletedonotnecessarilyfollowthe27ThereportcitesWHO(1994)andNRC(2010).Itnotes,sequentialpatternofpasteventselsewhere.Forhowever,thatrecentpublicationshaveraisedquestionsexample,manyofthehundredsofthousandsofregardingthetoxicityofglyphosate.hectaresofforestclearedinvariouspartsoftheworldeachyearareincorporateddirectlyintolarge-scale,commerciallyoriented,intensivecroporlivestockproductionsystemswithoutpassingthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE95Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBthroughaphaseofbeingusedbysmallholders.Landuseforlivestockproductionhastradi-Thefollowingparagraphsbrieflydescribemajortionallyinvolvedeitherintegratedcrop–livestockrecentland-usetrendsinvariousecosystemsusedsystems(seeSection5.5.1)orextensivegrass-forfoodandagriculture.land-basedsystems.Inplaces,initiallyindevel-opedregionssuchasEuropeandNorthAmerica,Theworld’stotalforestareahascontinuedbutinrecentdecadesincreasinglyinotherregions,todeclineinrecentyears(FAO,2018b)(seemixedproductionhastendedtogivewaytospe-Section4.5.5forfurtherdiscussionoftrendsincializedintensivecropproductionsystemsontheforestecosystems).Inthetropicsandsubtropics,onehandand“landless”livestocksystemsonthetheexpansionofcommerciallarge-scaleagricul-other.Inthecaseofgrasslandproduction,tradi-tureaccountedfor40percentofforestlossduringtionalmanagementsystemsandpractices,notablytheperiod2010to2015(FAO,2016e).Smallholdermobilepastoralism,havedeclinedinmanypartsfarmingaccountedfor33percentoftheloss,oftheworld(FAO,2009a,2015a).Largeareasurbanizationandinfrastructurefor10percenteachofspecies-richgrasslandhavebeenreplacedbyandminingfor7percent(ibid.).Thesepatterns,croplandsorhigh-yieldingsingle-speciesgrass-however,varyconsiderablyfromregiontoregion.lands(seeSection4.5.6).Inothercases,changesForexample,Hosonumaetal.(2012)estimatedthatinmanagementhavecontributedtograsslandsduringtheperiod2000to2010transformationbecomingovergrownwithshrubs.Extensivecom-tocommercialagricultureaccountedforalmostmercialgrasslandlivestockproductionhasalso70percentofforest-arealossinLatinAmerica,declinedinsomeplacesoverrecentyears.Forcomparedtoabout35percentinAfricaandAsia.Inexample,expansionofsoybeanproductioninAfrica,40percentwaslosttosubsistencefarmingSouthAmericaistakingplaceonlandpreviouslyandupto10percenttomining(ibid.).clearedofforestforlivestockproduction(DeSyetal.,2015)–withthesoyproducedgoingtofeedInrecentyears,forestloss(mostlynativeforest)animalsinanincreasingnumberoflarge-scalehasbeenpartiallyoffsetbynaturalexpansionofintensivelandlesslivestockoperations,bothinforest(2.2millionha/yearduringtheperiod2010theregionandelsewhere(Moderneletal.,2016).to2015),oftenontoabandonedagriculturalland,ThesevariouschangeshavebeenaccompaniedbynotablyinEuropeandCentralAmerica,andbyanincreaseintheglobalpopulationsizesofallforestplantations(3.1millionha/yearduringthemajorlivestockspecies,althoughwithconsidera-period2010to2015),particularlyinpartsofAsiableregionalvariations(FAO,2015a).(FAO,2016e).Land-usechangesassociatedwithlivestockpro-Inadditiontoreductionsintheabsoluteextentductionthreatenbiodiversityinvariousways.Directofforestarea,forestfragmentationisamajoreffectsincludethosecausedbyeffluentsfromland-threattobiodiversityandecosystem-servicepro-lessproductionunitsorotherintensivesystemsvision(Haddadetal.,2015),asisconversionfromescapingintowaterbodiesandthosecausedbynaturalforeststomonocultureforestplantationsexcessiveorbadlymanagedgrazing.Indirectinsomepartsoftheworld(e.g.Ahrendsetal.,effectsincludethoseassociatedwithdemandfor2015;Edwardsetal.,2010;Hosonumaetal.,2012;rawmaterialstoproduceconcentratefeeds(GoddeWarren-Thomas,DolmanandEdwards,2015).Itetal.,2018).Livestockproductionisalsooneofhasbeenestimatedthat70percentoftheworld’sthemainsourcesofgreenhouse-gasemissions,remainingforestareaiswithin1kmofaforestaccountingfor14.5percentofallglobalemissionsedge(Haddadetal.,2015).Fragmentationhasbysomeestimates(Gerberetal.,2013).Thelossimplicationsforhabitatstructureandquality,anddegradationofgrasslandareasaroundthemicroclimate,hydrology,andwildliferecoloni-worldhasnegativeimplicationsformanyspecies,zationanddispersal.Italsoincreasesaccessibilityincluding,forexample,manybirds(seeBox3.3).andthusincreasespressureonwildfoodsandotherformsofassociatedbiodiversity.96thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Box3.3UnsustainablymanagedproductionsystemsareakeythreattobirdspeciesBirdLifeInternationalclassifiestheextinctionriskofalltheLong-termtrenddataforEurope(1980to2016)arebasedworld’sbirdsfortheInternationalUnionforConservationofonnationalbreeding-birdsurveysin28countriescollatedNatureRedList.Their2017assessmentconcludedthatandsynthesizedbythePan-EuropeanCommonBird1469speciesofbirds(13percentofextantspecies)areMonitoringScheme(EBCC,2017;Gregoryetal.,2005,2008;globallythreatenedwithextinction(BirdLifeInternational,GregoryandvanStrien,2010).Alargebodyofresearchin2018).WhilebirdsprovidemanyecosystemservicestoEuropehasattributedthesteepdeclineoffarmlandbirdsproductionsystems,unsustainablemanagementofthesetoageneralprocessofagriculturalintensification,whichsystemshasanegativeimpactonbirdpopulations.Asshownhasadverselyaffectedmanyothertaxainadditiontointhefigurebelow(ontheleft)thethreemostimportantbirds(Donald,GreenandHeath,2001;Donaldetal.,2006;threatsglobally(thosewiththelargestnumberofspeciesGregoryetal.,2005).facingthehighestlevelofthreat)areagriculture,whichaffects911threatenedbirdspecies(73percent),loggingandSimilartrendsareseeninthemarineenvironment.woodharvesting,whichaffect669species(54percent),andIncreasedfishingpressureisaffectingseabirdnumbers,invasivealienspecies,whichaffect422species(34percent)especiallylong-livedspeciessuchasalbatrosses(Anderson(Butchartetal.,2010).etal.,2011a).AtBirdIsland(SouthGeorgia),long-termmonitoringanddemographicstudieshaverevealedsteadyInrecentdecades,bothincreasesintheextentdeclinesof2to4percentperyearoverthelastfewdecadesofcropland(particularlymarkedinthetropics)andforthewanderingalbatross(Diomedeaexulans),grey-headedintensificationofagriculturehavedriventhelossofalbatross(Thalassarchechrysostoma)andblack-browednaturalhabitatsandincreasedthreatstobirds(BirdLifealbatross(T.melanophrys)asaresultofbycatchfromlonglineInternational,2013).Forexample,theEuropeanFarmlandfisheries(Croxalletal.,1998;Pardoetal.,2017).BirdIndexshoweda55percentdeclineincommonfarmlandbirdsbetween1980and2016,andthedownwardtrendSource:ProvidedbytheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(RSPB)andappearstobecontinuing(seefigurebelowontheright).BirdLifeInternational.EExxppaannssiioonnaannddiinntteennssiiﬁﬁccaattiioonnooffaaggrriiccuullttuurreeNumberofspeciesEEuurrooppeeaannUUnniioonnWWiillddBBiirrddIInnddeexx11998800ttoo22001166PopulationIndex(1980=100)aarreetthheemmoossttiimmppoorrttaannttooffmmaannyytthhrreeaattssaaffffeeccttiinngg112200tthhrreeaatteenneeddbbiirrddssppeecciieess110000112200001100000088008800006600660000440000440022000022000000InLoulturel&coHunvasiveggingEnermmercting&speciegyproialdevtrappinsClimaangen&mmenttechainﬁreininggimortatiosions&PoltherdistulutiervicerbanocncorrideFishorseries119988001199885511999900119999552200000022000055220011002200115522002200ChductioelopgngereweaeAgric&AAllllccoommmmoonnbbiirrddss((nn==116688ssppeecciieess))CCoommmmoonnffoorreessttbbiirrddss((nn==3344ssppeecciieess))ranspintrun&CCoommmmoonnffaarrmmllaannddbbiirrddss((nn==3399ssppeecciieess))sSource:EBCC/RSPB/BirdLifeInternational/StatisticsNetherlands.sidentiaHumTanReHHiigghh//mmeeddiiuummiimmppaaccttLLoowwiimmppaaccttUUnnkknnoowwnniimmppaaccttSource:Butchartetal.,2010.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE97Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBAgricultureaccountsforthelargestshareofandfunctionalcomplexityeliminatevitalcompo-waterwithdrawalsworldwide(approximatelynentsofnaturalflood-controlmechanisms,inhibit70percentofthetotal),althoughtheproportionstherechargingofwetlandsanddestroyandfrag-takenbyindustry(approximately20percent)andmenthabitatsthatsupportfisheries(Fribergbydomesticuse(approximately10percent)areetal.,2016;Gleick,SinghandShi,2001).Weirs,increasing,asisthesharetakenbyurbanareasrel-damsandotherbarriershaveinterferedwiththeativetoruralareas(FAO,2011a).Thistrendismoremigratoryroutesofseveralfishandriver-dolphinpronouncedinhigh-andmiddle-incomecountriesspecies,andreducedconnectivityalongthelengththaninlow-incomecountries,whereagricul-ofmostlargerivers(Addyetal.,2016;Pivari,Paccaturalwithdrawalsstillaccountfor90percentofandSebrian,2017).Thelossofriparianforeststhetotal.Theareaequippedforirrigationhasincreasestheriskofseasonalfloodingandresultsmorethandoubledworldwideoverthelastfiveinthelossofhabitatandnurserygroundsforfishdecades,from139millionhato301millionha(anandotheraquaticspecies(Larsenetal.,2012;increasefrom10percentto20percentofthetotalNRC,2002).Inplaces,however,successfuleffortscultivatedlandarea),whilewaterwithdrawalforhavebeenmadetoimprovewaterquality,con-irrigationgrewfrom1540km3to2710km3perstructfishpassagesandrestorewaterwaybankstoyearoverthesameperiod.About80percentofcreatespawninghabitatsandincreasefishpopu-thiscapacityislocatedinlow-tomiddle-incomelationsizes(seeSection5.4forfurtherdiscussion).countries(ibid.).TheconsequencesofirrigationexpansionforBFAarevariableandcontextspecific.Acrossproductionsystems,muchoftheworld’sHowever,majorirrigationinfrastructuredevel-soilisinadegradedandoftendeterioratingopmentsareoftenassociatedwiththeexpansionstate(FAOandITPS,2015).Keythreatstosoilofmarket-orientedmonoculturessuchassugarbiodiversityandthecapacityofsoilstodelivercaneorcotton,whiletheinfrastructureassociatedecosystemservicesincludeland-usechangesthatwithirrigationschemes(dams,channels,etc.)caninvolvevegetationclearanceorthesealingofalsoaffectaquaticbiodiversity(e.g.Tendalletal.,soilsunderpermanentcoversuchasconcrete,the2014;Veronesetal.,2012).Poorlymanagedirri-increasingfrequencyofforestfires,thespreadofgationcanresultinsalinization,theaccumulationinappropriatecrop-productionpracticesandover-ofwater-solublesaltsinthesoil,whicheventuallygrazing(Turbéetal.,2010;Orgiazzietal.,eds.,inhibitscropgrowth.Atleastafifthofirrigated2016).Globally,33percentoflandismoderatelylandisbelievedtobesalt-affectedtosomedegreetohighlydegradedduetoerosion,salinization,(PitmanandLäuchli,2002),withresearcherscompaction,acidificationandchemicalpollutionsuggestingthathalfofallarablelandmightbeofthesoil(FAOandITPS,2015).Aroundafifthaffectedby2050(Butcheretal.,2016).oftheEarth’svegetatedsurfaceshowspersistentdecliningtrendsinproductivity,leaving1.3billionWetlandsandinlandaquaticecosystemspeoplelivingondegradingagriculturallandaroundtheworldarefacingarangeofexpand-(UNCCD,2017).ingdemands,includingthoseassociatedwithagriculture,urbandevelopment,floodprotection,Themanagementofacropproductionsystemtransportandhydropowergeneration.Theseareinvolvesdecisionswithregardto(interalia)whatgivingrisetoanumberofseriousthreatstofresh-tillagepracticeswillbeused,whichcropspecieswaterbiodiversity,includingchannelizationoforvarietieswillbegrown,whethertreesorlive-watercourses,habitatfragmentationandlossofstockwillbeintegratedintothesystem,howriparianforests(Angelopoulos,CowxandBuijse,cropresidueswillbemanaged,whatandhow2017;Boulton,EkebomandGislason,2016;Carrizoexternalinputssuchasfertilizers,herbicidesandetal.,2017;Speedetal.,2016).Thedegradationpesticideswillbeappliedandwhetherhedgesoffreshwaterecosystemsandlossoftheirphysicalanduncultivatedstripswillbeleftaroundfieldsorplots.Allthesedecisionswillinfluencethe98thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3characteristicsandthediversityofthelocalsoilagementonthesupplyecosystemservicesindif-faunaandflora.ferentproductionsystemsissummarizedinTable3.13.Inalargemajorityofcases(i.e.productionSoilbiodiversityisgreatlyinfluencedbythesystembyecosystemservicecombinations)reportsquantityandqualityoforganicmatterpresentofnegativeimpactsoutnumberreportsofposi-inthesoil.Thebiodiversityinoverexploitedsoilstiveimpacts.Insomeproductionsystemcategoriesislessabundant,dominatedbyfewerspecies(livestockgrassland-based,livestocklandless,nat-andcharacterizedbysimplertrophicnetworksurallyregeneratedforests,rainfedcropandirri-(Creameretal.,2016).Lossofsoilorganicmattergatedcrop[non-rice]),thisisthecaseforalleco-mayleadtoweakersoilstructure,soilsealing,systemservices.Moreover,forseveralvitalecosys-surfacecrustingand/orcompaction,reducingthetemservicessuchaspollination,pestanddiseasesoil’scapacitytocaptureandstorewater,buffercontrolandwaterpurification,thenumberofitspHandregulateitssalinity.countriesreportingnegativeeffectsexceeds(oratbestequals)thenumberreportingpositiveeffectsDeclinesinthesoil’sorganic-matterandnutri-acrossallproductionsystems.However,foralleco-entcontentarecausedbymisbalancesbetweensystemservicesthereareatleastsomereportsofinputsandoutputs.Inputsareprovidedbyplantpositiveimpacts.Themostfrequentlyreportedlitterandbytheadditionoforganicmatterandpositiveeffectsareontheproductionofoxygennutrients(e.g.intheformofmanure–FAO,inplantedforestsandnutrientcyclingandsoilfor-2018f).Lossesoccurthroughthedecompositionofmationandprotectionservicesinmixedsystems.organicmatterandsoilerosion.Nutrientscanalsobelostvialeaching,volatilizationandremovalThecountryreportsdonotalwaysincludeinharvestedproducts.Soil-nutrientdepletiondetailsofthemechanismsthroughwhichland-throughnegativenutrientbalancesiswidespreadorwater-usechangesaregivingrisetothethroughoutmuchofsub-SaharanAfrica(TittonellreportedchangesinthesupplyofecosystemandGiller,2013).services.However,someexamplesareprovided.Withregardtoaquaticsystemsforinstance,aSoilbiodiversitywillgenerallybenefitfromnumberofcountriesstressthenegativeimpactmanagementmethodsthatincreasetheinputofthatwater-managementpracticessuchastheorganicmatterandreduceitsloss,forexamplefragmentationofwatercoursesthroughthemulching,manuringandcomposting.Increasingcreationofdams,levees,irrigationsystemsorcropdiversityintheformofrotationsorintercrop-flood-protectionbarriershavehadonaquaticpingtendstoincreasesoilbiodiversity(Tiemannbiodiversity.Severalmentionthatdamsandetal.,2015;Zander,JacobsandHawkins,2016).hydroelectric-powerschemeshaveledtodeclinesTillagegenerallyhasanegativeeffectonsoilbio-inriverfishstocks.Developmentsofthiskindarediversity(e.g.Creameretal.,2016;Nielsenetal.,reportedtohaveblockedthemigrationroutes2011;Tsiafoulietal.,2015).Forfurtherdiscussionofcommerciallyvaluablefishspecies,disturbedofsoil-managementpractices,andthestatusandthespawninggroundsandhabitatsofarangeoftrendsoftheiruse,seeSection5.6.3.aquaticspecies,contributedtothelossofforesttreesnearwatercoursesandnegativelyaffectedAppropriatemanagementofnon-cultivateddownstreamhabitatsincludingthoseinestuariesareaswithinagriculturallandscapesisalsovitalandcoastalareas.Forexample,Iraqreportsthattothesupplyofmanyecosystemservices.Forvariouslarge-scalewater-diversionprojectshaveexample,thehealthofpollinatorpopulationsdegradedtheTigris−Euphratesalluvialsaltmarshoftendependsonthefloristicdiversityofareasandgreatlyaffectedlanduseinthisarea.Itnotessuchasfieldmargins(Carvalheiroetal.,2010;alsothattheseeffectshavebeenexacerbatedbyHollandetal.,2015;Rickettsetal.,2008).Furtheradecreaseinrainfallinrecentyears.informationcanagainbefoundinChapter5.Theinformationprovidedbycountriesontheeffectsofchangesinlandandwateruseandman-thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE99Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.13Reportedeffectsofchangesinlandandwateruseandmanagementontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofchangesinlandandwaterusemanagementonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems---------Livestocklandlesssystems---------Naturallyregeneratedforests---------ProportionofcountriesreportingPlantedforests-+/-+/--+/--+/-+/-+thePSthatreportanyeffectoftheSelf-recruitingcapturefisheries+/-----+/----driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries+/--+/-+/--+/-+/--+10–17Fedaquaculture+/----+/-+/-+/--+/-18–25Non-fedaquaculture0-+/--+/-+/-+/-++/-26–33Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)-+/--++/-+---34–42Irrigatedcropsystems(other)------+/---Rainfedcropsystems---------Mixedsystems-+/-+/-+/-+++/-+/-+/-Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.SeveralcountriesmentionthatfreshwaterorWithregardtothemanagementofmarineandmarinebiodiversityandrelatedecosystemservicescoastalecosystems,theBahamasreportsthatfish-havebeennegativelyaffectedbywetlandcon-eriesarebeingcompromisedbythecreationofversionforuseincrop,livestockoraquaculturenavigationchannelsandthephysicaldestructionproductionorbythedestructionorpoormanage-ofhabitatssuchascoralreefsandmangrovesformentofforests.Forexample,Argentinareportsinfrastructuredevelopment(docksandpiers).thatinappropriatemanagementofforestsintheWherewildfoodsfromforestsareconcerned,theupperstretchesofriverbasinshasledtochangesintypeofland-usechangemostcommonlyreportedwaterqualityandquantityinlow-lyingareasandtobehavinganimpactisdeforestation,inmanythattheconversionofforestsintograsslandsiscaseslinkedtoagriculturalexpansionandinsomeaffectingthefeedingandbreedinggroundsoffishtootherfactorssuchasurbanexpansion,miningspeciestargetedbyartisanalandsportfisheries.andinfrastructuredevelopment.100thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture33.6.2Pollutionandexternalinputsassociatedwithinappropriateirrigationpracticesandthelatterwithhighratesofammonium-basedThereisabundantevidencethatintensificationoffertilizerapplication(FAOandITPS,2015).crop,livestockandaquaculturesystemsthroughexcessiveuseofsyntheticinputsadverselyaffectsThediversityandfunctionsofsoilinvertebratesBFAandparticularlyassociatedbiodiversityandmicro-organismsareknowntobeaffected(e.g.Angelinietal.,2013;BrodeurandVerabythepresenceofexcessivenutrientsandbytheCandioti,2017;VanDijketal.,2013;Geigeretuseofherbicidesandpesticides(Ceulemansetal.,2010;Hussainetal.,2009;Pelosietal.,2013;al.,2014;Ewaldetal.,2015;Hussainetal.,2009;White,2017).TheuseofnutrientinputsinexcessWolmaransandSwart,2014).However,thepro-ofefficientlevelsresultsinpollutionofsoil,aircessesinvolvedarecomplexandalotofuncer-andwater(e.g.Carpenteretal.,1998;vanDijk,taintyremainsastohowparticularsubstances,LesschenandOenema,2016).Althoughnutri-andcombinationsofsubstances,affectparticularentinputsinallformsmayhavenegativeeffectsorganismsandhowtheseeffectsareinfluencedwhenusedinexcess,nutrientscarriedinmineralbyenvironmentalfactorsandbyothermanage-fertilizersareparticularlysusceptibletoendingmentpractices(Lo,2010;Goulson,2013;Sanchez-upaspollutants,owingtotheirhighconcentra-Morenoetal.,2015;Sebiomo,Ogunderoandtionandsolubility(althoughnotnecessarilyintheBankole,2011;Turbéetal.,2010;Wuetal.,2014).caseofphosphorusfertilizers),theirvolatility(inAlthoughresearchontheimpactofmicroplasticssomecases)andthechangestheyinduceintheinthesoilislimited,thereisevidencethattheysoilecosystemwhenusedforanextendedperiodaffectthebiophysicalenvironmentandbiodi-(changingthepH,promotingoxidationoforganicversityofthesoil(Rochman,2018;DeSouzamatter,modifyingsoilbiota,etc.)(e.g.Baraketal.,Machadoetal.,2018).Forexampleearthworms1997;Fonteetal.,2012;Guo,2010;Mäderetal.,havebeenshowntohavereducedgrowthrates2008;Marschner,KandelerandMarschner,2003).andincreasedmortalityiftheyingestmicrobeadsContaminationofsoilswithpesticideresiduesis(HuertaLwangaetal.,2016).alsoamajorconcerninintensivecrop-productionsystems(FAOandITPS,2015;Rodríguez-Eugenio,ThereisincreasingevidencethatsomeclassesofMcLaughlinandPennock,2018).pesticidesthreatenarthropodpollinatorsworld-wide(IPBES,2016a).HighherbicidedosescanbeIntensivelandlessandintensivegrassland-baseddeleterioustotheflorawithinandaroundagri-livestockproductioncreateslargeamountsofculturalfields(EganandMortensen,2012;Gabanutrient-richeffluentandsolidresidue,oftenetal.,2016),withknock-oneffectsonbiodiver-containinghighconcentrationsofantimicrobi-sityathighertrophiclevels,forexampleinsectsals,pathogens,heavymetalsandotherpollut-andbirds.Oneproblemassociatedwithpesticideants(FAO,2006b;Maron,SmithandNachman,useisthesynergistictoxiceffectthatsomemole-2013;Modernel,AstigarragaandPicasso,2013).culeshavewhenappliedinmixtures.MostactiveIndustrialandurbansourcesarealsocontributingingredientsaretestedbeforetheyarereleasedtothecontaminationofsoilswithpollutantssuchontothemarket.However,thetestsaredoneonasheavymetalsandmicroplastics(Alloway,2013;thepureproductinitscommercialformulationChaeandAn,2018;Ngetal.,2018;Tóthetal.,2016;(Brodeuretal.,2014).Mostfarmers,however,useWuanaandOkieimen,2011).Othersignificantsoilsuchproductsinmixtures(e.g.aherbicideplusanpollutantsincludepersistentorganicpollutants,insecticideinthesamewatersuspension),andevi-polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons,radionuclidesdenceobtainedusingbiologicalindicatorsshowsandantimicrobial-resistantbacteria(Rodríguez-thatsomeofthemostcommonmixturesincreaseEugenio,McLaughlinandPennock,2018).Human-thetoxicityofallactiveingredients(ibid.).Itisinducedsalinity(seeSection3.6.1)andacidificationalsoimportanttonotethatthetoxicityofactivearewidespreadproblems,theformermostlyingredientshasincreasedovertime,reducingthethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE101Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBdosageneededtohaveanimpact(Letourneau,Ithasbeenestimatedthatmorethan80percentFitzsimmonsandNieto,2017).ofwastewatergloballyisreleasedintotheenvi-ronmentwithoutadequatetreatment(WWAP,Anumberoffactorsaredrivingincreaseduse2017).Aquaticpollutionisexacerbatedwhenofpesticidesandherbicidesinsomeareas.Forecosystemssuchasforests,grasslandsandwet-example,introductionofglyphosate-resistantlandsthatprovidewaterpurificationservicesaregeneticallymodifiedcropcultivarsinNorthanddestroyedordegradedandwhenriverslosetheirSouthAmericaandthePacificledtogreateruseabilitytoself-purifyduetochangesinthebiotaofglyphosate,leadinginturntotheemergencethatperformthisfunction(Ostroumov,2005;ofglyphosate-resistantweedsthatresultedintheWWAPandUN-Water,2018).Problemsarealsoapplicationofeverhigherdosesofthisherbicidecausedbytheoperationofdams,whichresultsin(Benbrook,2012;Mortensenetal.,2012),withthedischargeofwaterwithlowoxygenlevelsintopossibleconsequencesforcertainsoilorganismsdownstreamareas(WWF,2004).Anotherconcern(VanBruggenetal.,2018;Gaupp-Berghausenetisthepassageofpersonal-careproductsandal.,2015).Pestpressuresthattriggerhighdosesofpharmaceuticalsintotheaquaticenvironmentpesticideuseappeartobeincreasingasaresultofviadomesticsewage.Someofthesepollutantsclimatechange(Cannon,1998;Cilasetal.,2016;containmicroplastics(UNEnvironment,2016b)Tayloretal.,2018).andsomearebelievedtomimicnaturalhormonesinhumansandotherspecies(UNEnvironment,Theincreasingcontaminationoffreshwater2008;Vilela,BassinandPeixoto,2018).systemswithpathogensandchemicalpollutants,includingnutrients,isamajorglobalthreattoSeawaterqualityandmarineandcoastalbio-aquaticbiodiversity(Dudgeon,2012;Okanoetdiversityallaroundtheworldarealsoseriouslyal.,2018).Themostsignificantproblemaffectingaffectedbypollution(FAO,2011a).TheproblemwaterqualitygloballyiseutrophicationcausedbyisbecomingincreasinglywidespreadnearheavilynitrogenandphosphorusrunofffromagriculturalpopulatedregionsofLatinAmericaandSoutheastland,flowsofdomesticsewageandindustrialAsia,threateningmarinefoodsourcesandtheeffluents,andatmosphericinputsfromfossil-fueleconomicactivitiesofcoastalcommunities(UNcombustionandforestfires(FAOandIWMI,2018;Environment,2008,2016c).So-called“deadzones”Russietal.,2013;UNEnvironment,2016a).Lakescausedbyexcessnitrogenunderminefishpro-throughouttheworldareaffectedbyeutrophi-ductionandotherecosystemservices(Halpernetcation,andthoseinsomeregions(Scandinavia,al.,2009).28CoastalpollutionisoneofthemanynortheasternUnitedStatesofAmerica/easternthreatsfacingcoralreefs(seealsoSection4.5.4).CanadaandChina)areaffectedbyacidificationForexample,theGreatBarrierReefoffthecoastof(Gleick,SinghandShi.,2001).LakesandreservoirsAustraliaisseriouslyaffectedbynutrientandpes-areparticularlysusceptibletotheeffectsofpollu-ticiderunofffromsugar-canefarmingandothertion,asthewaterthatflowsintothemcarryingtypesofagriculture(QueenslandGovernment,sediments,dissolvednutrientsandotherpollutants2017;Schaffelkeetal.,2017).normallyremainsstandingforsometime,leadingtoproblemssuchasalgalblooms,otherspeciesAnemergingthreattomarinewildlifeisincreas-invasionsandhypoxia(Speedetal.,2016).Anissueingpollutionbymicroplastics.Microplastics(plasticthathasrecentlybeenreceivingincreasingatten-particlesoflessthan5mmindiameter)areclassifiedtionisnitrateaccumulationinthevadosezoneintotwogroups.Primarymicroplasticsareplastics(i.e.thepartoftheEarth’scrustsituatedabovetheaquifers)inareaswherehighlyintensiveagricul-28Sucheffects(andthosenotedaboveforfreshwaterandtureispractised.Ascottetal.(2017)describethisterrestrialsystems)areamongthosethatledRockströmetasalatent“nitratebomb”thatcouldcausemajoral.(2009)toconcludethattheEarthmayhavecrossedthedamagetoaquaticbiodiversityifreleased.so-calledplanetaryboundary(i.e.theuppertolerablelimit)forthedisruptionofitsnitrogenandphosphoruscycles.102thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Table3.14Reportedeffectsofpollutionandexternalinputuseontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofpollutionandexternalinputsonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems-+/--------Livestocklandlesssystems---------Naturallyregeneratedforests---------ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting---------thePSthatreportanyeffectofthe---------driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries---------10–17Fedaquaculture+/-----+/----18–25Non-fedaquaculture+/-----+/-+/---26–33Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)---------34–43Irrigatedcropsystems(other)---------Rainfedcropsystems---------Mixedsystems---------Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.directlyreleasedintotheenvironmentintheformondarymicroplasticpresent(DuisandCoors,2016;ofparticulatessmallerthan5mm,whilesecond-Koelmansetal.,2014;Sundt,SchulzeandSyversen,arymicroplasticsoriginatefromthedegradation2014).Ingestionofmicroplasticsbyaquaticfaunaoflargerplasticitemsonceexposedtothemarine(fish,turtles,birds)hasbeenshowntoinhibitenvironment(BoucherandFriot,2017).Theglobalhatching,decreasegrowthratesandalterfeedingreleaseofprimarymicroplasticsintotheoceanispatterns(LönnstedtandEklöv,2016).estimatedataround1.5milliontonnesperyear(ibid.).GiventhelargeamountofplasticenteringInformationfromthecountryreportsonhowtheocean,itisassumedthatsecondarymicroplas-pollutionandexternalinputusearedrivingchangesticsarefarmoreprevalent,butbecausefragmen-inthesupplyofecosystemservicesinspecifictationratesofplasticsarelargelyunknown,thereproductionsystemsissummarizedinTable3.14.arenoestimatesavailablefortheamountofsec-Perhapsnotsurprisinglygiventheconnota-tionsoftheword“pollution”,negativeimpactsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE103Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBarefarmorefrequentlyreportedthanpositivebodiesandchangesinthestructureofriparianones.Wherepositiveimpactsarereportedandcommunities.Thecountryreportsprovidelittlespe-explanationsprovided,theynormallyrelatetocificinformationonpollutionproblemsassociatedthebenefitsofusingadditionalexternalinputsinwithaquaculture.However,VietNamreportsthatsystemswhereuseiscurrentlyverylow.Countriesintensiveaquaculture,inparticularcatfishfarminghighlightarangeofdifferenteffects.InthecaseintheMekongDelta,hassignificantlycontributedofgrasslandsystemsforexample,someEuropeantoeutrophicationinsurroundingwaters.countriesnotethattheoveruseofnitrogenandphosphorusfertilizersisdirectlyaffectingspeciesSeveralcountriesnotetheimpactsofpollut-diversity.ThereportfromtheNetherlands,forantsfromminingandotherindustriesonaquaticinstance,citesastudy(MelmanandVanderHeide,ecosystems.Forexample,Zambiamentionsthat2011)thatfoundthatthenumberofgrassandherbeffluentsfromtheminesofitsCopperbeltandspeciesinunfertilizedgrasslandswithrelativelyNorthwesternprovincesnegativelyaffectthepoorsoilsisbetween20and30,whileinfertilizeddiversityofdragonfliesandotherbenthicinver-grasslandthenumberofspeciesisbetween5andtebratesinmajorriversystemsasaresultof15.Thereportfurthernotes(citingLEI,2015)thatelevatedlevelsofredox,electricalconductivityalthoughaveragegrasslandfertilizationratesintheandturbidity.29ZimbabwementionsthatmoreNetherlandshavedeclined,theystillremainhigh.thanamillionpeopleareillegallypanningforAmongexamplesfromthecropsector,Chinamen-goldalongitsriversandthatthisisresultingintionstheproblemofso-called“whitepollution”,theclearanceoftreesanddigginginriverbeds,i.e.pollutionofthesoilwithplasticfilmsusedforwhichinturncausesoilerosionandlandslidesmulching,andthenegativeeffectsofexcessher-thatleadtothesiltationofwaterbodiesandbicideuseonthenativeflorasurroundingagricul-destructionofaquaticbiodiversity.Itfurtherturalfields.Egyptnotesthattheexcessiveuseofnotesthattherehasbeenanincreaseintheusefertilizersandpesticideshasledtothedeclineofofmercury,ironandcyanidetoprocessoreandimportantcomponentsofagriculturalbiodiversitythatthishaspollutedwatercoursesandaffectedsuchasowls,kitesandvariouspollinators.thelivelihoodsourcesoflocalpeople.MexicomentionsthatoilspillsintheGulfofMexicoWhereaquaticecosystemsareconcerned,havecausedtremendousdamagetomarineandmanycountriesreportthatpollutantsoriginatingcoastalecosystems,biodiversityandeconomicfromcropandlivestockproductionarenegativelyactivitiessuchasfishingandaquaculture.affectingbiodiversity.Forexample,Spainreportsthatpollutionfromagriculturalrunoffhasaffected3.6.3Overexploitationandthecompositionandabundanceofaquaticmicro-overharvestingorganismcommunitiesandothercomponentsofaquaticbiodiversity.ItalsonotesthatthispollutionOverexploitationandoverharvestingareseriousmayalterthephysicalandchemicalcompositionofthreatstotheworld’sbiodiversityingeneralthemarinebed,influencing,inturn,thebiologi-(Maxwelletal.,2016)andtoBFAspecifically.calcompositionandstructureofbenthiccommu-Aswellasaffectingtargetpopulationsdirectlynities.Argentinamentionsthatagriculturalrunoffthroughremoval,overharvestingcanaffectthemseemstobethemostsignificantsourceofpollu-indirectlybymodifyingtheirhabitats.Itcanalsotioninaquaticecosystems,notinginparticularthatadverselyaffectnon-targetedcomponentsofBFAsoybeanproductionisaffectingwetlandbiodiver-inthesurroundingecosystem.Forexample,over-sityinsurroundingareasandisleading,interalia,harvestingofwoodyspeciesforfuelortimbercantochangesinthepopulationsizesofvariousaquaticleadtomajorchangesinthelocalenvironment,organisms,changesinthephysiologyandbehaviourincludinginitsmicroclimateandhydrology,offishandamphibians,eutrophicationofwater29ThereportcitesChamaandSiachoono(2015).104thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3nutrient-cyclingprocessesandcapacitytoprovidetransformationofthevegetationstructureandhabitatservices.Overharvestingofwildspeciesecologyoftheaffectedarea(Archeretal.,2017).ofplantsoranimalscanleadtomisbalancesMechanismsinvolvedincludereducedcompeti-introphicnetworksthataffectthesurvivaloftionfromgrassesasaresultofselectivegrazing,non-targetspecies(e.g.BaumandWorm,2009).reducedfrequencyoffiresasaresultofremovaloffinefuel,andseeddispersalbylivestock(ibid.).Arangeoffactorscanleadtotheoverharvest-Overgrazedwetlandsoilsthathavelosttheirper-ingofwildfoods.Forexample,16oftheworld’s36manentsurfacecoveroftenbecomesalinizedandbiodiversityhotspotsareinareaswherethehumanaccumulatesurfacesalt,especiallyindryregionspopulationsuffersfrommalnutritionandhunger(e.g.DiBellaetal.,2014;Zhangetal.,2015).(Treweek,BrownandBubb,2006),whichclearlyhasthepotentialtoplacepressureonwildbiodiversityTheeffectsoflivestockgrazingongrasslandbio-usedasasourceoffood.Overharvestingcanalsodiversityandassociatedecosystemservicesdependbetriggeredbythecommercializationofspeciesgreatlyonthetypeofgrasslandinvolved(vegeta-thathavepreviouslybeenusedexclusivelyforlocaltionstructure,climaticandhydrologicalregimes,subsistence(Kala,2009).Overharvestingformedic-soiltypeandgeomorphology)andarealsoaffectedinalpurposescanbeanotherthreat(Schippmann,bythetypesofanimalsstockedandhowgrazingLeamanandCunningham,2002).ismanaged(Briske,ed.,2017).Insomegrasslandproductionsystems,vegetationismoreinfluencedWhereaquaticecosystemsareconcerned,over-byenvironmentalvariablessuchasrainfallpatternsharvestingoffishandotherspeciesisathreatboththanbylivestock(ibid.),andinvariouscircum-tobiodiversityandtothelong-termsustainabilitystanceswell-managedgrazingcanbeameansofoffisheries(Speedetal.,2016).AccordingtoFAOpromotingbiodiversityandthesupplyofecosys-(2018a),33.1percentofmarinefishstocksaretemservices(FAO,2016f).However,itisalsoclearclassifiedasoverfished.ThebluefintunaofthethatinmanylocationsexcessiveorbadlymanagedNorthernPacificOceanprovidesanemblematicgrazingisanimportantdriverofsoilerosionandexample.By2016,overfishinghadledtoafallofbiodiversityloss(e.g.FAO,2016f;Kairisetal.,2015;about97percentinitspopulationrelativetoesti-PalmerandBennett,2013).matedunfishedlevels;alargemajorityofthecatchwereyoungfishthathadnotyetreachedrepro-Informationfromthecountryreportsontheductiveage(ISC,2018).AccordingtoWWF(2015),effectsofoverharvestingandoverexploitationonmorethan85percentoffishstocksintheworld’sthesupplyofecosystemservicesissummarizedoceansareatsignificantriskof“illegal,unreportedinTable3.15.Giventhatthisdriverbydefinitionandunregulated”fishing.Changesinfishingactiv-givesrisetoadverseeffectsatleastonthetar-itiesbyinternationalfleetsareexertingparticulargetedspecies,itisnotsurprisingthatthatneg-pressureinthewatersofsomedevelopingcoun-ativeeffectsonecosystemservicesarefarmoretriesthrough,interalia,theuseof“flagsofcon-frequentlyreportedthanpositiveeffects.venience”(Ferrel,2005;MillerandSumaila,2014).OvergrazingismentionedasaproblembyOvergrazingisaparticularformofoverharvest-countriesfrommostregions.Forexample,Spaininginwhichtheharvestisextractedvia(mostly)mentionsthatstockingratesonitsrangelandsaredomesticatedherbivores.Impactsincludelossofhigherorlowerthanthoseappropriateforlocalsoilcoverandconsequentincreasesinthesoil'sconditions,especiallyintheMediterraneanregion,susceptibilitytoerosionanddeclinesinitscapacityandthatthisisleadingtolanddegradationintocaptureandretainwater,cyclenutrients,etc.Asseverallocations.Thiseffect(incombinationwithnotedabove,grazingcanalsocontributetotheareductioninthespatialfrequencyofhedgerows−spreadofwoodyvegetation,leadingtothelossoftenasaresultoflandconsolidation)isreportedofgrasslandbiodiversity(includingforagespeciestobedisruptinghabitatsandleadingtothelossofusedbylivestock)andpotentiallytoacompleteecosystemservicessuchasbiologicalpestcontrolthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE105Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable3.15Reportedeffectsofoverexploitationandoverharvestingontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofoverexploitationandoverharvestingonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems---------Livestocklandlesssystems---------Naturallyregeneratedforests---------ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting---------thePSthatreportanyeffectofthe---------driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries---------12–18Fedaquaculture+/---------19–25Non-fedaquaculture-+/-00-0---26–32Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)---------33–40Irrigatedcropsystems(other)---------Rainfedcropsystems---------Mixedsystems-+/--------Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.andcontrolofwaterrunoff.Finlandmentionsthemostseriousthreatstoitsdesertenvironment.thatovergrazingbyreindeerisnegativelyaffect-Itnotesthatinthepastnomadicpastoralistskeptingthequalityandabundanceoflichenpastures.smallherdsandmovedthemfromoneplacetoStockingpressureisreportedtohaveincreasedasanotheraccordingtotheavailabilityofwaterandaresultoftheintroductionoffencesandsupple-naturalvegetation,whichprovidedthemainsourcementarywinterfeeding,whichallowslargerherdsoffeedfortheanimals.Today,incontrast,herdsofreindeertobekeptthancouldbesustainedbyarereportedlylarge,managedundersedentarythepasturesalone.SriLankamentionsthatover-systemswithinrelativelysmallareas,suppliedwithgrazingbybuffaloandcattleinprotectedareaswaterandfedonimportedfeed.Theresultinghashadnegativeconsequencesforbiodiversityovergrazing,whichhasbeenexacerbatedinrecentandthesupplyofecosystemservices.TheUnitedyearsbyscarcityofrainfall,hasledtoerosionandArabEmiratesreportsthatovergrazingisoneoftheremovalofnaturalvegetation,includinga106thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3significantdeclineinsomepalatableplantspeciesecosystemsandtheirbiodiversity.Again,coun-suchasarfaj(Rhanteriumepapposum)andsome-triesmainlynoteimpactsonthesupplyoffoodtimestheirreplacementbypoisonousplantssuchasratherthanonanyotherecosystemservices.ForCalotropisproceraandRhazyastricta.example,SolomonIslandsmentionsthatoverex-ploitationforbothsubsistenceandcommercialImpactsoftheoverharvestingofwildfoodsandpurposeshasresultedinthedepletionofseveralforestproductsofvariouskindsarealsowidelyimportantspecies,includinggreensnails,blacklipreported.Forexample,Nepalreportsoverhar-andgoldlipshells,coconutcrabs,giantclamsandvestingandoverexploitationofsomewildfoodssandfish(seacucumber).Somecountriesspecifically(e.g.mushrooms,fernsandbambooshoots),medic-notetheimpactofdamagingfishingpractices.Forinalplantsandvariousotherforestproducts,butexample,Sudanreportsthatsomefishpopula-notesthatalackofrelevantstudieshaspreventedtionsaredecreasingasaconsequenceoftheuseassessmentofthespecificeffectsthesepracticesofdestructivefishinggear,theviolationofclosedhavehadonecosystemservices.Inmostcases,thefishingperiodsandillegaltrawling.VietNamimpactsreportedbycountriesareonthesupplymentionsthatdestructivefishingmethodssuchasoftheharvestedresourcesthemselvesratherfishingwithpoisonandcreatingelectricshockstothanonthewidersupplyofecosystemservices.stunandkillfisharewidelyusedinbothcoastalMalireportsthattheremovalofwoodforchar-andinlandwaters.Useofpoisonisreportedtobecoalproductionemptiesforestsandsavannahsofseverelythreateningover80percentofthecoun-resources.Somespecies−kantakara(Combretumtry’scoralreefs.glutinosum),Africanrosewood(Pterocarpuserinaceus),small-leavedbloodwood(P.lucens)Lackofregulationisnotedasanexacerbatingandthegumarabictree(Acacianilotica)−arefactorinsomereports.Forexample,inadditiontoreportedtobeparticularlyendangeredbecausetheabove-notedproblems,SolomonIslandsmen-ofthecalorificvalueoftheirwood.Otherssuchastionsthatcompaniesengagedincoralexportsareguelé(Prosopisafricana)andsiri(Burkeaafricana)notmonitoredorsupervisedbyanyauthorityandareintensivelysoughtafterastheircharcoalisthatthisisleadingtothedeclineofreefecosystems.popularinlocalcrafts.3.7PoliciesMostEuropeancountriesdonotindicatethatwildfoodsarebeingaffectedbyoverharvesting.•PoliciesdirectlyaddressingthemanagementofManyreportsfromthisregionnotethatlegisla-biodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA),andtionhasbeenputinplacetoprotectpotentiallyparticularlythosethatrestrictunsustainablepractices,threatenedresources.Insomecases,however,areconsideredbymanycountriestohavepositivecommercialcollectionofwildfoodresourceseffectsondiversityandthesupplyofecosystemresultsinoverexploitationand/orotherwisedam-services.However,negativeimpactsarealsoreported,agingthelocalenvironment.Thisisreportedtobeforexampleinthecaseofpoliciesfavouringthecase,forexample,withwildherbsinSloveniainappropriatemining,damorreservoirconstructionandlocallywithwildberriesinFinland.orroadbuilding.Somecountriesnotethatsocio-economicfactors•TheimpactsofpoliciesconsideredfavourabletoBFAcaninfluenceexploitationrates.Forinstance,ortothesupplyofecosystemserviceshaveoftennotCroatiamentionsthatunemploymentincreasesbeenadequatelyassessed.threatstowildmushroomspecies,aspeoplegatherthemtosupplementtheirincomes.Jordan•PoliciesintendedtopromotethesustainablereportsthatpovertydrivestheoverexploitationofmanagementofBFAareoftenweaklyimplementedaswildfaunaandwildedibleplantsandmushrooms.aconsequenceofshortagesofresources,inadequatestakeholderinvolvementandconflictsofinterest.OverfishingishighlightedbycountriesfromallregionsasathreattofreshwaterandmarinethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE107Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBBFAcanbeaffectedbothbypoliciesthatarespe-limitsonthenumberofdayswhenspeciescanbecificallyintendedtopromoteitssustainableusecaught,regulationoffishingpracticesandestab-andconservationandbytheimpactsofotherlishmentofmarineprotectedareas)imposedbypolicies.TheformerincludepoliciesthatrestrictpoliciesatEuropeanUnionandnationallevelsunsustainablepracticessuchasinappropriateusehavemeantthatfishingpracticesintheNorthSeaoffertilizersandpesticides,establishprotectedhavebecomemoresustainable.Itnotesthatmor-areasorlimittheharvestingofwildspeciessotalityratesimposedbyfishinghavedecreasedbyastopreventtheiroverexploitation.Manypoli-about35percentsince2000andthatspawning-ciesofthiskindhavebeenputinplaceatbothstockbiomassisstartingtorecover.30nationalandinternationallevels(seeChapter1foranoverviewofglobalpolicyagendasandSomecountriesnotethatdespitemajorpolicyChapter8forfurtherdiscussionofBFA-relatedinitiativestheirBFAremainsunderthreat.Forpoliciesingeneral).However,itisoftendifficultexample,FinlandreportsthatEuropeanUniontodeterminetheextenttowhichsuchmeasurespoliciesthataimtopromotetheutilizationofeco-arebeingimplementedandwhatinfluencetheysystemprocessessuchasnutrientcyclingandbio-arehavingonthestatusofBFA.PoliciesthathavelogicalcontroltoreplaceexternalinputsinfoodindirecteffectsonBFAandecosystemservicesareandagriculturalproductionhavesofaronlybeenverydiverseinnatureandcanincludethoseinflu-implementedtoalimitedextentandnotesthatencinganyofthedriversdiscussedinthischapter.theoverallimpactofpolicymayhaveremainedManyofthesepolicieshavehadasignificantnegativeasaresultofafocusontheeconomicnegativeeffectonBFA.Examplesincludethoseperformanceofindividualfarmsratherthanonthatsupportagriculturalintensification,favouroverallsustainability.SeveralEuropeanUnionindustrialdevelopment,miningordevelopmentmembercountriesnotethatsuchmeasuresareofinfrastructuresuchasroads,reservoirsorlarge-increasinglydifficultforfarmerstocomplywith.scaledamsinareaswheretherearehighlevelsThisisoftenascribedtothehighcostsassociatedofBFA(e.g.IAASTD,2009;Laurance,Sayerandwithlandandlabourresources,andinsomecasesCassman,2014;WorldBank,2008).tothelowpricesfarmersreceivefortheirproduce,whichforcesthemtointensifyproductionperunitInformationprovidedbycountriesontheareausingthecheapestavailablemeans,evenifeffectsofpoliciesonthesupplyofecosystemtheyarenotsustainable.AnotherissueraisedinservicesissummarizedinTable3.16.Positivesomecountryreportsisalackofadequateassess-effectsonecosystemservicesaremorefre-mentoftheimpactofpoliciesonBFAandthequentlyreportedthannegativeeffectsformostsupplyofecosystemservices.Forexample,Finlandproductionsystemsandtypesofecosystemreportsthatoverrecentdecadeslegislativeandservice.Countriesthatprovidedetailsofpositivevoluntarymeasureshavealleviatedpressuresonoutcomesinclude,forexample,Estonia,whichnaturalresourcescausedbythreatssuchasover-reportsthatpolicymeasuresaimedatprotectinggrazingandtheoverexploitationofforests,forsoilsandtheenvironmenthavebenefitedsoilfor-examplebypromotingtheestablishmentofripar-mationandprotectionservices,andArgentina,ianbufferzonesandtheprotectionofkeyhabi-whichmentionsthatitsexport-taxpoliciesontats.Itnotes,however,thattheeffectivenessofsoybeanandexportquotasforwheatandbeefsuchmeasuresintermsofimprovingthesupplyofhaveindirectlycontributedtothediversificationecosystemservicesremainsunconfirmed.Severalofagriculturalsystemsasaresultofeconomiccountriesprovideexamplesofpoliciesandlegaldecisionstakenbyindividualfarmers.Severalinstrumentsthatsupportthemaintenanceofcountriesmentionfisheriespoliciesthathavehadtraditionalknowledge(seeSection8.8.4).positiveimpactsonbiodiversity.Forexample,theNetherlandsreportsthatrestrictions(catchlimits,30ThereportcitesICES(2013).108thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Table3.16Reportedeffectsofpoliciesontheprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservices,byproductionsystemEffectsofpoliciesonecosystemservicesProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems+/-+++/-+++++/-Livestocklandlesssystems+++++++++Naturallyregeneratedforests+++++++++ProportionofPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriescountriesreporting+++++++++thePSthatreportanyeffectofthe+++++++++driver(%)Culture-basedfisheries+++++++++10–17Fedaquaculture+++++++++18–25Non-fedaquaculture+++++++++26–33Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)+++++++++34–43Irrigatedcropsystems(other)+++++++++Rainfedcropsystems+++++++++Mixedsystems+++++++++Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttheeffects(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ofthisdriverontheprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(positive[+],negative[-]or“noeffect”[0])thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedeffects(+/-)areindicated.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanyeffectofthedriver(positive,negativeor“noeffect”)ontheprovisionoftherespectiveecosystemservice.SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.CountriesreportinglesspositiveoutcomesdiverseecosystemsandthattheprojectsrepresentincludeVietNam,whichnotesthatpoliciespro-athreattobiodiversity.motingtheconstructionofdams,reservoirs,roadsandotherinfrastructurehavecausedthedegrada-3.8Driversofwomen’stionandfragmentationofecosystems,destroyinginvolvementinthehabitatsandcreatingbarrierstospeciesmigra-managementofbiodiversitytions.Theseeffectsarereportedtobeleadingforfoodandagriculturetolong-termnegativeimpactsonwildlifepopu-lations.Ecuadormentions,interalia,itsdecisionAsdiscussedingreaterdetailinSection8.2,toallowopen-pitmining.Althoughthemethodswomenplayvitalrolesinthemanagementoftobedeployedaretermedlowimpactandenvi-BFA.Thecountry-reportingguidelinesspecificallyronmentallyfriendly,itnotesmostofthesitesinvitedcountriestoreportondriversaffectingtheidentifiedforminingoperationsareinhighlybio-thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE109Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBinvolvementofwomeninthemaintenanceandasafactorfacilitatingtransitionoutoffoodanduseofBFA.Responsesindicatethatanumberofagriculture-relatedlivelihoodactivities.socio-economicandenvironmentalchangesaretransformingwomen’srolesinthemanagementSeveralcountriesalsoacknowledgethatofBFAandaretosomeextentalteringtraditionalwomen’sparticipationinBFAmanagementisdivisionsoflabourbetweenmenandwomen.Theconstrainedbyalackofaccesstoexternalinputsfactorshighlightedrangefromimprovedaccessandproductiveresources.Somenotethesignifi-toeducationtoincreasingdemandforproductscanceofincreasinglevelsofpoverty.Forexample,typicallyproducedbywomen.ResponsesdonotJordanandZambianotethatthisfactorhasledalwaysincludeexplicitindicationsofhowsuchtohighernumbersofwomenparticipatinginchangesareaffectingBFA,i.e.whethertheyhavewild-foodcollection.Somementiontheeffectsofimpactintermsofpromotingorconstrainingthetheso-calledfeminizationofagricultureresult-sustainableuseoftheseresources.Thefocusisalsoingfromtheoutmigrationofmenfromruralmainlyonchangesatproduction-systemlevel,suchareasbecauseofpovertyandlackofjoboppor-asincreasesordecreasesinwomen’sparticipationtunities.China,forexample,notesthatwomeninparticularaspectsofmanagement(asopposedhaveincreasinglybeentakingresponsibilityforto,forexample,changesinlevelsofinvolvementdecision-makinginagriculture.Itmentionsthatinpolicy-making,research,etc.).increasingworkloadsmayhavepushedwomentowardsmorerapidadoptionofunsustainableSeveralcountriesmentionthatalternativelive-andbiodiversity-erodingpractices,includingthelihoodopportunitiesforwomenarereducingadoptionofcropvarietiesthatrequiretheuseoftheirrolesasmanagersofBFA.Bangladesh,forlargeamountsofchemicalfertilizersandpesti-example,reportsthatsuchchangeshaveledtoacides.Women’slackofeducationinsustainabledeclineinwomen’sparticipationinpoultrybreed-agriculturalpracticesisreportedtobeanexac-ing.Ontheotherhand,severalcountriesreporterbatingfactor.Nepalnotesthatlabourshort-thatchangingeconomicconditionshaveprovidedages,combinedwithflowsofremittancesandwomenwithnewopportunitiestomarketthetheincreasingavailabilityofcheapalternativeproductstheyhavetraditionallybeeninvolvedproductsonlocalmarkets,havecontributedtoinsupplying,includingbothwildfoods(e.g.theabandonmentoflocalcrops.HighlevelsofreportedbyCameroonandSriLanka)andcropwidowhoodareanotherfactornotedbysomeandlivestockproducts(e.g.reportedbyEswatini).countries.Eswatini,forexample,reportsthattheHIV/AIDSpandemichasontheonehandmeantInsomecases,women’sparticipationinspe-thatmanywomenhavelosttheirhusbandsandcificactivitieshasbeenpromotedbytheweak-aretakingtheleadinfarm-managementdecisionseningofsocioculturalbarriersdefininggenderandontheotherthatwomen’srolesasprimaryroles.Forexample,Grenadanotesthatwomen’scaregiverslimitstheamountoftimetheyhavegreaterself-relianceandindependencehasledavailableforagriculture.tomoredirectinvolvementinfarming,withsomeactivitiesnowdominatedbywomen.ForAgricultural“modernization”isreportedtobeexample,over90percentofthecountry’sfloweraffectingwomen’srolesinsomecountries.Forgrowersarereportedtobewomen.Similarly,example,GuyananotesthatmechanizationhasEswatinireportsthatbetteraccesstomarketsledtodisplacementofwomenfromthericeindus-fromwhichtheyweretraditionallyexcludedhastry,wheretheyusedtoberesponsibleforlandledtoincreasedparticipationofwomenincattlepreparation,planting,weeding,harvestingandproduction,atraditionallymale-dominatedsector.processing.BangladeshnotesthatthespreadofSeveralcountrieshighlightwomen’sincreasingcommercialorchardplantationsgrowingcropsaccesstoeducation,eitherasafactorfacilitatingsuchasbananasinhillyareashassweptawaylocaltheirparticipationinthemanagementofBFAorplantsthatwomenreliedontodiversifytheirdiets.110thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDriversofchangeofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture3Anumberofcountriesnotethatenvironmentaltothedisappearanceoftraditionalknowledgedriverssuchasclimatechangeandlanddegrada-bydrivingthedeclineoftraditionalfarmingprac-tionarecompromisingwomen’sinvolvementintheticesandindigenousvarietiesandbreeds.LossofuseandmanagementofBFA.SeveralhighlightthecomponentsofBFAasaresultofoverexploitationparticularvulnerabilityofwomentotheimpactsofandoverharvestingisalsowidelyreportedtobeclimatechangeonagricultureandlocalecosystems.havinganegativeeffectonthemaintenanceofJordan,forinstance,reportsthatclimatechangeistraditionalknowledgerelatedtotheseresources.likelytoreducetheavailabilityofwildfoodsandAfewcountriesnotethattraditionalknowledgeaddtotheburdenonwomenfromtraditionalcom-isperceivedtobeprimitive,inferiorandrelatedmunities,whoareresponsibleforcollectingwildtopoverty.Grenada,forexample,statesthatfoodsandinfuturewillprobablyhavetowalkcolonialisminstilledabeliefthatforeignproductslongerdistancestofindthem.Somecountriesnotearesuperiortolocalonesandthatthishasledtowomen’svulnerabilitytonaturaldisasterssuchasthereplacementoftraditionalvarietiesandlocaldroughtsandhurricanes.Variousunsustainablefoodswithimportedones.Advancesandinnova-managementpracticesandchangesinlandandtionsinscienceandtechnologyarereportedtowaterusearereportedtobethreateningwomen’shavemainlynegativeeffectsonthemaintenancelivelihoodsviatheirimpactsoncommon-propertyoftraditionalknowledge.resourcessuchasfuelwood,fodderandwildfoods,resourcesuponwhichwomenareoftendispro-Dietarytrendsandchangesinconsumerportionatelydependent.Examplesincludelanddemandsarereportedtohavebothnegativeandconversion(Zambia),overfishing(Jamaica,Nepal),positiveeffectsonthemaintenanceoftraditionaldeforestationandsoilerosion(Jamaica),overgraz-knowledge.Somecountriesreportthattheavail-ing(Yemen)anddisturbanceoffoodwebsasacon-abilityofprocessedfoodshasreducedtheuseofsequenceofinfrastructuredevelopment(Nepal).traditionalfoods.However,anumberofEuropeancountriesnotethatanincreasedinterestintra-3.9Driversoftraditionalditionallocalfoodsinacademiaandamongtheknowledgeofbiodiversityforwiderpubliciscontributingtothemaintenancefoodandagricultureanduseoftraditionalknowledgeassociatedwiththem.France,forexample,notesthatdesignated-Countrieswereinvitedtoprovideinformationonoriginlabelspromotethecontinueduseoftradthemostsignificantdriversaffectingthemainte-itionalfoodsandtheconservationofknowledgenanceanduseoftraditionalknowledgerelatingtoassociatedwiththeirproduction.BFA.ThemajorityofdriversreportedtobehavinganegativeeffectonthemaintenanceoftraditionalSeveralcountriesreportthatpolicieshaveaknowledgeareconnectedtodeclininguseofsuchpositiveeffectonthemaintenanceanduseofknowledgeandthereforedecliningtransmissiontraditionalknowledge(seeChapter8forfurthertothenextgeneration.Manycountriesreportthatinformationonrelevantpoliciesandlegalframe-traditionalknowledgeisvanishingalongwiththeworks).Somecountriesmentionthateffortstooldergeneration,withyoungerpeoplenotinter-recordtraditionalknowledgeinwritinghaveestedinacquiringit.Driverswidelyreportedtocontributedtoitscontinueduse.Severalreportbeaffectingtheuseoftraditionalknowledgeinitiativesandorganizationsthatcontributeincludepopulationgrowth,urbanizationandthetotheactivemaintenanceoftraditionalprac-lossoftraditionalrurallifestyles.Manycountriesticesthroughavarietyofculturalactivities(seereportthatmarket-drivenindustrializationofChapter8forexamples).Anumberofcountriesagricultureandfoodprocessingiscontributingalsoreportthateducationalmeasures,suchasawarenessraisinginschools,universities,ontel-evisionandonline,havehadasignificantimpactontheuseoftraditionalknowledge.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE111Chapter4ThestatusandtrendsofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureKeymessages•Manykeycomponentsofbiodiversityforfoodand•Assessmentandmonitoringofthestatusandtrendsagriculture(BFA)atgenetic,speciesandecosystemofBFAatnational,regionalandgloballevelsarelevelsareindecline.unevenandoftenlimited.Whiledecliningtrendsareclear,lackofdataoftenconstrainstheplanningand•Evidencesuggeststhattheproportionofanimalprioritizationofeffectiveremedialmeasures.breedsatriskofextinctionisincreasing,andthat–forsomespeciesandinsomeareas–cropdiversity•Prioritiesforimprovingthemonitoringofthestatusinfarmers’fieldsisdecreasingandthreatstoandtrendsofBFAinclude:diversityareincreasing.Nearlyathirdoffishstocks––addressingtheknowledgeanddatagapsthatareoverfishedandathirdoffreshwaterfishspeciesexistacrossallcategoriesofBFA;assessedareclassedasthreatened.––establishingorstrengtheningmonitoringprogrammesforBFAandprovidingthese•Countriesreportthatmanyspeciesthatcontributeprogrammeswiththeresourcesneededtotovitalecosystemservices,includingpollinators,operateoverthelongterm;naturalenemiesofpests,soilorganisms,andwild––improvingmethodsforrecording,storingandfoodspecies,areindeclineasaconsequenceanalysingdataonchangesinthestatusofofthedestructionanddegradationofhabitats,speciesandhabitatsinandaroundproductionoverexploitation,pollutionandotherthreats.systems,andmakingthemaccessibletothosethatneedthem;and•Forests,rangelands,mangroves,seagrasses,coral––addressingskillgaps,suchasshortagesoftrainedreefsandwetlandsingeneral–keyecosystemstaxonomists,andexploringinnovativeoptionsforthatdelivermanyessentialservicestofoodimprovingknowledgeofstatusandtrends,suchandagriculture,includingsupplyoffreshwater,asinvolvingnon-specialist“citizen-scientists”inprotectionagainststorms,floodsandotherhazards,monitoringsomecomponentsofBFA.carbonsequestrationandprovisionofhabitatforcountlessspecies–aredecliningrapidly.4.1Introductiontherelevantresourcesandcapacityareavailable.Arangeofdifferentaspectsofdiversitycanpoten-Approachestomonitoringthestatusandtrendstiallybemonitored.Forexample,ecosystemscanbeofbiodiversitytofoodandagriculture(BFA)varymonitoredbasedontheirgeographicalextent,butacrosssectorsandacrosscategoriesofbiodiversity,alsoonvariousmeasuresoftheirquality.Speciesdepending,interalia,onwhatdataareconsideredandwithin-speciesgroups,suchasvarietiesandusefulformanagementpurposes,howdifficultbreeds,cansimplybecounted(i.e.“richness”cansuchdataaretocollect,andtheextenttowhichbemonitored),butitisalsopossibletoestablishthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE113Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBextinction-riskcategoriestowhichspecies(orcontributionstoglobalfoodoutput,withonlyninewithin-speciespopulations)canbeassignedandaccountingfor66percentoftotalcropproductionintomonitormovementsbetweencategories.Risk2014.Althoughitisnotpossibletomakedefinitivecategorization,inturn,canbebasedonmoreorstatementsaboutglobaltrendsintheerosionoflesscomplicatedmethods,dependingontheavail-on-farmcropdiversity,evidencesuggeststhat,overall,abilityofdataonpopulationsizes,structuresandthediversitypresentinfarmers’fieldshasdeclinedtrends,geographicaldistributions,threatsandandthatthreatstodiversityaregettingstronger.otherfactors.Ifpopulationdataareavailable,itis•Theworld’slivestockproductionisbasedonabout40alsopossibletocalculatestatisticsbasedonthedis-animalspecies,withonlyahandfulprovidingthevasttributionoftheindividualorganismswithinapop-majorityofglobaloutputofmeat,milkandeggs.Asofulationacrossspecies(orbreeds,varietiesorother2018,7745outof8803reportedlivestockbreedsarecategories)andtomonitorhowthesechangeoverclassedaslocal(i.e.reportedtooccurinonecountrytime.Asidefrommeasuresbasedonunitssuchasonly);594ofthesebreedsareextinct.Amongextantspecies,breedsorvarieties,itisalsopossiblesimplylocalbreeds,26percentareclassedasbeingatriskoftocountthenumberofindividualorganismsorextinction,7percentasnotatriskand67percentasmeasuretheamountofbiomasswithinaparticularbeingofunknownriskstatus.categoryofbiodiversity(seeforexampleBox4.3).•Thenumberoftreesspeciesintheworldisestimatedtobeabout60000.Globally,morethan700speciesThischapterpresentsanoverviewofthestatusarenowincludedintree-breedingprogrammes.ThereandtrendsofBFAcategorybycategory,begin-isnosystematicglobalmonitoringsysteminplaceforningwithshortdiscussionsofplant(crop),animalintraspecificdiversityintreespecies.(livestock),forestandaquaticgeneticresources•Countriesreportthefarmingof694aquaticspecies(furtherdetailsforeachcanbefoundintheandothertaxonomicgroups.In2016,globalcapturerespectiveFAOglobalassessments–[FAO,forth-fisheriesharvestedover1800speciesofaquaticanimalcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a]).Thenextsectionandplants.Withinthesethousandsofspeciesthereareprovidesanoverviewofthestatusandtrendsofnumerousgeneticallydistinctstocksandphenotypes.associatedbiodiversity1involvedinthesupplyofAsof2015,33percentoffishstockswereestimatedtoparticularcategoriesofregulatingandsupportingbeoverfished,60percenttobemaximallysustainablyecosystemservices.Italsopresentsanoverviewoffishedand7percenttobeunderfished.trendsinthesupplyoftheservicesthemselves.Thisisfollowedbysectionsonthestatusandtrendsof4.2.1Plantgeneticresourcesforfoodwildfoodsandanumberofecosystemsreportedandagriculturebycountriestobeofparticularimportancetofoodandagriculture.Finally,keyneedsandprioritiesforGlobally,thereareapproximately382000speciesimprovingthestateofknowledgeonthestatusofvascularplants(RBGKew,2017),outofwhichandtrendsofBFAarepresented.alittleover6000havebeencultivatedforfood(IPK,2017).Ofthese,asof2014,fewerthan4.2Plant,animal,forestand200specieshadsignificantproductionlevelsaquaticgeneticresourcesforglobally,2withonlynine(sugarcane,maize,rice,foodandagriculturewheat,potatoes,soybeans,oil-palmfruit,sugarbeetandcassava)accountingforover66percent•Whilemorethan6000plantspecieshavebeenofallcropproductionbyweight(FAO,2017j).cultivatedforfood,fewerthan200makesubstantialThegeneticdiversitywithincropspeciescanbebroad.However,thepreciseextentofsuchdiversity1SeeSection1.5forfurtherinformationonthevarious2ThisreferstothenumberofspeciesforwhichproductioncategoriesofBFA.statisticsarerecordedinFAOSTAT.114thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4isdifficulttoquantify.Awidelyapplicableindi-Theevidencepresentedinthecountryreports4catorformonitoringwithin-speciesdiversityhaspreparedforTheSecondReportontheStateofyettobedeveloped.ImportantdimensionsoftheWorld’sPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandconcernaregeneticerosionandgeneticvulner-Agriculture(SecondSoW-PGRFA)(FAO,2010a)5abilityatwithin-specieslevel.Geneticerosionindicatesthat,overall,thediversitypresentinwithinspecieshasbeendefinedas“thelossoffarmers’fieldshasdeclinedandthatthreatstoindividualgenesandthelossofparticularcom-diversityareincreasing(althoughthesituationbinationsofgenes(i.e.ofgenecomplexes)suchvariesgreatlydependingonthecountry,loca-asthosemanifestedinlocallyadaptedlandraces”tion,typeofproductionsystem,etc.).Thereis(FAO,1997).Thetermissometimesusedinaconsiderableconsensusthat,overall,theshiftnarrowsense,i.e.referringtothelossofgenesfromtraditionalproductionsystemsutilizingoralleles,andsometimesinabroadersense,i.e.farmers’varieties/landracesto“modern”pro-referringtothelossofvarieties.Geneticvulner-ductionsystemsdependingonofficiallyreleasedabilityhasbeendefinedas“theconditionthatvarieties6isleadingtogeneticerosion.Manyresultswhenawidelyplantedcropisuniformlyfarmers’varieties/landracesarereportedtohavesusceptibletoapest,pathogenorenvironmen-disappearedortohavebecomerarer.However,talhazardasaresultofitsgeneticconstitution,thesituationiscomplex.Forexample,itappearstherebycreatingapotentialforwidespreadcropthatmanyfarmerswhoplantmodernvarietieslosses”(FAO,1997).alsocontinuetomaintaintraditionalvarieties.StudiesoftrendsingeneticdiversitywithinIndicatorsofgeneticerosionwouldideallyreleasedvarietiesalsoindicateacomplexsitua-focusonchangesinthefrequencyofallelesoftion,withsomereportingnoreduction,orevenimportancetocropproduction(andgivethemincreasesindiversityovertime.Newlyadoptedmoreweightthanlessimportantones),providevarietiescanaddgeneticdiversitytoanagricul-ameasureoftheextentofpotentialloss(e.g.byturalsystem.However,insomecasestheymayestimatingthefractionofgeneticdiversityatriskcompletelysubstitutetheoriginalones.Therelativetothetotaldiversity)andallowassess-balanceofdiversityisthereforedifficulttoassess.mentofthelikelihoodoflossoveraspecificItisalsodifficulttomakedefinitivestatementstimeperiodintheabsenceofintervention(FAO,abouttrendsingeneticvulnerability.However,2010a).Indicatorsforgeneticvulnerabilitycouldmorethanhalfthecountryreportspreparedforbebasedonanumberofdifferentpopulation-theSecondSoW-PGRFAindicatethepresenceoflevelattributes,forexampledifferencesinlevelssignificantgeneticvulnerability.ofresistanceto,ortoleranceof,actualandpoten-tialmajorpestsanddiseasesorabioticstressesThediversityofcropwildrelativeshasdecreased(ibid.).Intheabsenceofdatathatcanserveasinsomeareasandappearstobeparticularlythreat-moreaccurateindicatorsofgeneticvulnerabil-enedinplaceswheretheclimaticconditionsareity,asimpleproxyistheextenttowhichsinglechangingbutspeciesmigrationispreventedbyvarietiesdominateoverlargeareasofland.Thisecogeographicalbarriers.isbasedontheassumptionthatgeneticvulnera-bilityishigherwhenlargeareasarecroppedwith4Notethatelsewhereinthischapter,unlessindicatedotherwise,one(oronlyafew)varieties.3theterm“countryreports”referstothecountryreportssubmittedascontributionstoTheStateoftheWorld’s3See,forexample,Indicator42ofthemonitoringframeworkforBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.See“AboutthistheSecondGlobalPlanofActionforPlantGeneticResourcespublication”foradditionalinformation.forFoodandAgriculture:“Theleastnumberofvarietiesthattogetheraccountfor80%ofthetotalareaforeachofthefive5Unlessotherwiseindicated,thematerialpresentedinthismostwidelycultivatedcrops”(FAO,2016m).subsectionisbasedonthisreport.6Inotherwords,varietiesdevelopedandmadeavailablebybreedingprogrammes.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE115Drivers,statusandtrendsPartB4.2.2Animalgeneticresourcesforextinction.”AsofMarch2018,7745breedsoutfoodandagricultureofthe8803breedsrecordedbyFAOwereclassedaslocalbreeds(i.e.reportedpresentinonlyoneThenumberofanimalspeciesdomesticatedforcountry).Atotalof594localbreedswereextinct.useinfoodandagricultureisrelativelysmall.TheAmongextantlocalbreeds,26percentwereclas-GlobalDatabankforAnimalGeneticResources,sifiedasbeingatriskofextinction,7percentashostedbyFAO,recordsdataon38species.7Atnotatriskand67percentasbeingofunknown11globallevel,thestatusandtrendsofanimalriskstatus.Acomparisonofdatafrom2006andgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricultureare2014showsaslightdecrease(29to26percent)inassessedlargelyonthebasisofsummarystatis-theproportionoflocalbreedsclassifiedasbeingticsonbreedriskstatus,i.e.theproportionsofatriskofextinction.12However,theapparenttheworld’sbreedsthatarecategorizedasbeingtrendneedstobeinterpretedwithcautiongivenatrisk,notatrisk,extinctorofunknownrisktheabove-mentionedlimitationsinthestateofstatusaccordingtotheclassificationsystemusedreporting.Overthesameperiod,theproportionbyFAO.8Since1993,FAOhaspublishedglobaloflocalbreedswithunknownstatusincreaseddataofthiskindinanumberofreports,themostfrom62percentto67percent.IfallbreedsarerecentbeingStatusandtrendsofanimalgeneticconsidered,regardlessofwhetherornottheyareresources–2018(FAO,2018g).9Theapproachhasclassedaslocal,59percentareclassedasbeingsomelimitationsinthatittreatsallbreedsequallyofunknownriskstatus,10percentasnotatrisk,regardlessoftheirsignificancetotheoverall24percentasatriskand7percentasextinct.diversityofthespecies(orsignificanceintermsofotherpossibleconservationcriteria).ItalsoonlyAmongtheextantspeciesregardedashavingregisterschangeswhenbreedsmovefromonebeenthewildancestorsofmajorlivestockrisk-statuscategorytoanother.Lackofregularlyspecies,themostseriouslyatriskaccordingtoTheupdateddataonthesizeandstructureofbreedInternationalUnionforConservationofNaturepopulationsisamajorpracticalconstrainttotheRedListofThreatenedSpeciesTM(TheIUCNRedmonitoringofriskstatusinmanycountries,par-List)13aretheAfricanwildass(Equusafricanus)ticularlyinthedevelopingregionsoftheworld.10andthewildBactriancamel(Camelusferus),bothofwhichareclassifiedasCriticallyEndangered.SustainableDevelopmentGoalIndicator2.5.2Thewildwaterbuffalo(Bubalusarnee)andis“Proportionoflocalbreedsclassifiedasbeingthebanteng(Bosjavanicus)areclassifiedasatrisk,not-at-riskoratunknownlevelofriskofEndangered.TheIndianbison(Bosgaurus),wildyak(Bosmutus),mouflon(Ovisorientalis),wild7Someoftheseareinfactgroupsofspecies(e.g.deer)orfertilegoat(Capraaegagrus)andswangoose(Ansercyg-interspeciescrosses(e.g.dromedary×Bactriancamelcrosses).noides)areclassifiedasVulnerable.TheEuropeanrabbit(Oryctolaguscuniculus)isclassifiedasNear8Breedsareassignedtoriskcategoriesonthebasisofthesize,Threatened.14Overall,itappearsthatahigherstructureandtrendsoftheirpopulations.DataaredrawnproportionoflivestockwildrelativespeciesarefromtheGlobalDatabankforAnimalGeneticResources,thethreatenedwithextinctionthanmammalianandbackboneofFAO’sDomesticAnimalDiversityInformationSystem(DAD-IS).Countriesareresponsibleforenteringdataon11Breedsareconsideredtobeofunknownriskstatusifnotheirbreedpopulationsintothesystem.populationdatahavebeenreportedtoFAOduringtheprecedingtenyears.9Unlessotherwiseindicatedthedatapresentedinthissubsectionaretakenfromthisreport.12BothsetsoffigureswerecalculatedonthebasisofthedatarecordedinDAD-ISasofMarch2018.10In2013,theCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureadoptedthefollowingindicatorsforthediversity13TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Version2018-1.ofanimalgeneticresources:thenumberoflocallyadapted14Thisreferstothestatusofthewildrabbitinitsnaturalrange.breeds;theproportionofthetotalpopulationaccountedforbylocallyadaptedandexoticbreeds;andthenumberofbreedsOutsideitsnaturalrange,thespeciesiswidespreadandoftenclassifiedasatrisk,notatriskandunknown.Theindicatorsconsideredapest.havenot(asof2018)beenfullyputintooperationbecausethenecessaryclassificationofbreedsaslocallyadaptedorexotichasnotbeencompleted.116thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4birdspeciesingeneral.Asof2010,25percentofmuchofthischangehavingoccurredduringthespeciesinorderGalliformes(chickenrelatives),twentiethcentury.Forestsstillcover30.6percent83percentofspeciesintribeBovini(cattlerela-oftheworld’slandareaand,whileglobalforesttives),44percentofspeciesinsubfamilyCaprinaearea,and–whileglobalforestareacontinuesto(sheepandgoatrelatives)and50percentofshrink–therateofannualnetlossofforestshasspeciesinfamilySuidae(pigrelatives)wereclassi-decreasedsignificantlyoverrecentdecades(FAO,fiedasthreatened(McGowan,2010).2016g)(seeSection4.5.5forfurtherinformation).4.2.3ForestgeneticresourcesThereisnosystematicglobalmonitoringsysteminplaceforintraspecificdiversityintreespecies.ThetotalnumberofextanttreespeciesintheTheSoW-FGRprovidesanoverviewofthestateworldremainsuncertain.However,itisestimatedofknowledgeinthisregard.Schemesforgenetictobeabout60000(Beechetal.,2017).ThecountrymonitoringofforesttreeshavebeenproposedatreportssubmittedforTheStateoftheWorld’sglobal(Namkoongetal.,1996,2002)andregionalForestGeneticResources(SoW-FGR)listnearlylevels(e.g.Aravanopoulosetal.,2015).However,8000speciesoftrees,scrubs,palmsandbamboo,theyhavenotyetbeenimplemented,andonlyofwhichabout2400areactivelymanagedfortheaveryfewcountrieshavetestedsuchschemesproductsand/orservicestheysupply(FAO,2014a).inpractice(e.g.Konnertetal.,2011).LossofGlobally,morethan700speciesarenowincludedintraspecificdiversityineconomicallyimportantintree-breedingprogrammes.treespecieshasbeenamajorconcerninforestmanagementfordecades.ForestmanagementThestatusandtrendsofforestgeneticresourcespracticescanhavegeneticimpactsontreepop-aremonitoredatecosystem,speciesandintraulations.However,theyneedtobeassessedonspecificlevels.However,theseeffortsareham-acase-by-casebasis.Theextentoftheimpactperedbymanymethodologicalandothercon-dependsonthemanagementsystemandthestraints.Mostcountriesfacedifficultiesinassess-standstructure,aswellasonthedemography,ingtheirprimaryforestarea.Forestdegradation,biologicalcharacteristicsandecologyoftheforestrestorationandspeciescompositionarealsospecies(Wickneswarietal.,2014).Intemperatedifficulttomonitorprecisely.Monitoringoftheforests,forexample,silviculturalinterventions,riskstatusoftreespeciesiscurrentlynotcompre-suchasthethinningofstands,usuallyhavelimitedhensiveglobally,althoughanumberofcountriesgeneticconsequences(Lefèvre,2004),andmanyareabletomonitorthestatusofalltheirtreesilviculturalsystemsmaintaingeneticdiversityinspecies.TheGlobalTreeAssessment,15aninitiativetreepopulationsratherwell(GeburekandMüller,ledbyBotanicGardensConservationInternational2005).However,ifforestmanagementpracticesandtheIUCN/SpeciesSurvivalCommissionGlobalchangeevolutionaryprocesseswithintreepopu-TreeSpecialistGroup,aimstoprovideconserva-lations,thiscanhaveamoreprofoundimpactontionassessmentsforalltheworld’streespeciesbythegeneticdiversityofsubsequentgenerationsof2020(Newtonetal.,2015a).trees(Lefèvreetal.,2014).Globally,forestgeneticresourcesarebeing4.2.4Aquaticgeneticresourcesforthreatenedanderodedbyconversionofforestsfoodandagriculturetoagriculture,unsustainableharvestingoftreesforwoodandnon-woodproducts,grazingandGlobally,therearemorethan31000speciesbrowsing,climatechange,forestfiresandinva-offinfish,52000speciesofaquaticmolluscs,sivespecies(FAO,2014a).Inmanypartsofthe64000speciesofaquaticcrustaceansandworld,vastareasoflandoncecoveredbyforests14000speciesofaquaticplants(Balianetal.,2007;havebeenconvertedtootherlanduses,withChambersetal.,2008;Lévêqueetal.,2008;WoRMS,2018).In2016,globalcapturefisheriesharvested15https://www.bgci.org/plant-conservation/globaltreeassessment/thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE117Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBover1800species,includingfinfish,crustaceans,fishedorunderfished)declinedfrom90percentinmolluscs,echinoderms,coelenteratesandaquatic1974to66.9percentin2015(ibid.).FAOdoesnotplants(FAO,forthcoming).Withinthesethousandsprovideanequivalentanalysisforinlandfisheries.ofspeciestherearenumerousgeneticallydistinctThestateofinlandcapture-fisheryresourcesisstocksandphenotypes.moredifficulttomonitorforanumberofreasons,includingthediffusecharacterofthesector,theFisheriesandaquaculturedatasubmittedtolargenumberofpeopleinvolved,theseasonalFAObyitsmembercountriesprovidevaluableandsubsistencenatureofmanysmall-scaleinlandinformationonvariousaspectsofaquaticBFA.fisheries,thefactthatmuchofthecatchiscon-However,informationisnotalwaysreportedatsumedlocallyortradedinformally,andthefactthespecieslevel.Thisisespeciallyproblematicforthatpopulationscanbegreatlyaffectedbyactiv-inlandfisheries,whereoverhalfofallproductionitiesotherthanfishing,includingstockingfromisnotdesignatedbyspecies(Bartleyetal.,2015).aquacultureanddiversionofwaterforotherusesInthecaseofaquaculture,availabledatasuggestsuchasagricultureandhydroelectricdevelopmentthatmorespeciesarenowbeingfarmedthanever(FAO,2012b).WhilethereisnodedicatedFAOpro-before,especiallyasmoremarinefishesarebeinggrammeaddressingthestateofinlandfisheries,bredincaptivity(Duarte,MarbàandHolmer,2007;theThirty-secondSessionoftheFAOCommitteeFAO,2016h).CountryreportspreparedforTheonFisheriesrecommended“thedevelopmentofStateoftheWorld’sAquaticGeneticResourcesaneffectivemethodologytomonitorandassessforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,forthcoming)thestatusofinlandfisheries,tounderpintheirreportthefarmingof694speciesandothertax-value,togivethemappropriaterecognitionandonomicgroups.Asof2016,FAOhadrecordedtosupporttheirmanagement…[and]requesteddataonabout598speciesusedinaquaculture:thatFAOdevelopthisassessmentmethodology,369finfishspecies(includinghybrids);104molluscincludingbroaderecosystemconsiderationsthatspecies;64crustaceanspecies;7amphibianandimpactinlandfisheries”(FAO,2016h).reptilespecies(excludingalligators,caimansorcrocodiles);9otheraquaticinvertebratespecies;Top-levelcarnivoresarereportedtohaveand40speciesofaquaticalgae(FAO,2018a).declinedinmanymarineandinlandfisheries(Paulyetal.,1998).Thisisreferredtoas“fishingThelevelofmonitoringofspeciesandpopula-downthefoodweb”andcanindicateoverfishingtionsharvestedinmarineandinlandfisheriesand(ibid.).Insuchcases,theproductivityofafisheryraisedinaquaculturevariessubstantiallyacrossremainshigh,especiallyininlandwaters,aslowerthesesubsectorsandacrosstheworld.Monitoringtrophic-levelspeciesincreaseinabundanceintheofdiversityatintraspecieslevelisrelativelyundevel-absenceoflargerpredators;however,thevalueofopedintheaquaticsectorascomparedtotheterres-thefishdropsasthelarge,more-valuablespeciestriallivestockandcropsectors(FAO,forthcoming).disappear(Welcomme,1999).Thestateoftheworld’smarinefisheriesisThestatusofmanyaquaticspeciesisassessedassessedbyFAOthroughtheanalysisofoverbyconservationandtradeorganizations.The400stocksoffish.Speciestargetedbymarinefish-IUCNRedList16classifiesover1300marinespecieseriesareclassifiedaccordingtowhethertheyare(includingplants,fish,molluscs,crustaceansandoverfished(fishedatbiologicallyunsustainableotherinvertebrates)andover5200wetlandspecieslevels),maximallysustainablyfished(fishedatbio-asEndangered,ThreatenedorVulnerable.17Amonglogicallysustainablelevels)orunderfished.Asoffreshwaterfish(notthewiderrangeofbiodiversity2015,33.1percentoffishstockswereestimatedtomentionedabove),outof5785speciesthathadbeoverfished,59.9percenttobemaximallysus-tainablyfishedand7.0percenttobeunderfished16http://www.iucnredlist.org/(FAO,2018a).Theshareoffishstockswithinbio-17TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Version2017-3.logicallysustainablelevels(maximallysustainably118thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4beenassessedforTheIUCNRedListattheendof•Manycountriesreportdeclinesinthepopulationsof2011,60wereconsideredextinct,8Extinct,8Extinctbirds,batsandinsectsthatcontributetopestandintheWildand1679(29.3percent)threateneddiseaseregulation.Habitatlossandunsustainable(Carrizo,SmithandDarwall,2013).Ifitisassumedmanagementpracticesinthefoodandagriculturethatthe1062speciesclassifiedasdatadeficientaresectorarenotedasparticularthreats.threatenedinthesameproportionasspeciesforwhichdataareavailable,theproportionofthreat-•Soilbiodiversityisunderthreatinallregionsoftheworld.enedspecieswouldamountto36.1percentoftheManyindicatorspointtodeclinesinsoilhealth,andtotal(ibid.).However,notallthefishspeciesassessedecosystemservicesprovidedbysoilsareatsevererisk.byIUCNareusedforfoodandagriculture.TheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangered•Theprovisionofwater-relatedecosystemservices,SpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)18maintainshazardregulation,habitatprovisioning,andair-qualityinformationonthestatusofaquaticspeciesthatandclimate-regulationservicesiscloselytiedtothearetradedinternationally.Severalspeciesusedinhealthandintegrityofseagrassbeds,mangroves,fisheriesandaquaculture(e.g.sturgeons,tunasandcoralreefs,wetlands,forestsandrangelands,allofsharks)areontheCITESAppendices.19whichareindeclineglobally.4.3AssociatedbiodiversityThissectiondiscussesthestatusandtrendsofcom-ponentsofassociatedbiodiversity,i.e.thebiodi-•Acrossallproductionsystems,over450speciesareversitypresentinandaroundproductionsystemsreportedbycountriestobemanagedtopromotethatcontributestothesupplyofsupportingandthesupplyofecosystemservicessupportingfoodregulatingecosystemservices.20Whileecosystemproductionandagriculture,withavastlyhighernumberservicesgenerallyrelyonthehealthyfunctioningofunmanagedspeciesalsoessentialtotheseservices.ofwholeecosystems,somespeciesplayparticu-larlysignificantrolesinthesupplyofparticular•ComponentsofBFAoftenprovideorcontributetoservices.21Someofthesespeciesarespecificallymultipleecosystemservices,andthisneedstobebuiltmanagedforecosystemservicesthatsupportfoodonintheirmanagementandinthemanagementoftheproductionandagriculture.productionsystemswheretheyarefound.Thefirstsectionbelowintroducesthecompo-•Manyspeciesofassociatedbiodiversityarereportednentsofassociatedbiodiversityreportedbycoun-bycountriestobeunderthreatfromhabitatalterationtriestobespecificallymanagedtopromotetheandloss,overexploitation,pollution,pests,diseasessupplyofecosystemservices.Thesecondprovidesandinvasivespecies,andagricultureintensification.anoverviewofthestateofinformationsystemsandmonitoringprogrammesforassociated•Reportsofbee-colonylossesareontherise;16.5percentbiodiversity.Thethirdprovidesanoverviewofofvertebratepollinatorspeciesarethreatenedwithcountries’responsesonthestatusandtrendsofglobalextinction(risingto30percentforislandspecies).associatedbiodiversity.ThenextsevendiscussDeclinesinwild-pollinatorpopulationsarereportedbythestatusandtrendsofassociatedbiodiversityseveralcountries,withthemajorthreatsreportedtoinvolvedinthesupplyofparticularcategoriesofincludehabitatlossandfragmentation,useofpesticides,ecosystemservices,basedoninformationfromdeclineinthediversityoflandscapesandplantthecountryreportsandothersources.Theyalsocommunities,andclimatechange.discusswhatcountriesreportedontrendsinthesupplyoftheservicesthemselves.18https://www.cites.org/eng20SeeSection1.5forfurtherdiscussion.19TheCITESAppendicesarelistsofspeciesaffordedparticular21SeeSection2.2furtherdiscussionoftherolesofBFAinthetypesorlevelsofprotectionfromoverexploitation.ForfurthersupplyofecosystemservicesandSection4.5fordiscussioninformation,visittherelevantpageoftheCITESwebsiteofthestatusandtrendsofanumberofimportantecosystem(https://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.php).categories.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE119Drivers,statusandtrendsPartB4.3.1Associated-biodiversityspeciesmanagedaresoilformationandprotectionandmanagedforecosystemserviceshabitatprovisioning(Figure4.1).Incropproduc-tionsystems,pestanddiseaseregulationistheThecountry-reportingguidelinesspecificallymostfrequentlytargetedecosystemservice,withinvitedcountriestolistspecies(orsubspecies)manycountriesreferringtotheuseofbiologicalofassociatedbiodiversitythatareinonewayorcontrolagentsandtothemanagementofinvasiveanothermanagedinproductionsystemstohelpspecies.Theuseofcovercropstopromotenutri-provideregulatingorsupportingecosystemser-entcyclingandsoilformation,orforhabitatpro-vices.Sixty-eightcountriesprovidedresponses,visioningthroughthecreationofriparianbufferreferringtoatotalof462distinctterrestrialandzones,isalsomentioned.Inrainfedsystemsinaquaticspecies,includingmicro-organisms,inver-particular,aconsiderablenumberofassociated-tebrates,birds,mammals,andtreesandotherbiodiversityspeciesarereportedtobespecificallyplants.Theecosystemserviceforwhichthelargestmanagedforpollination.Inaquaticproductionnumberofspeciesarereportedtobemanagedissystems,habitatprovisioningisthemostcommonlypestanddiseaseregulation,followedbyhabitatreportedecosystemserviceforwhichassociated-provisioning,soilformationandprotection,nutri-biodiversityspeciesarebeingmanaged.Forentcyclingandpollination.Thewesternhoneybeeexample,mangrovespeciesarenotedtoprovide(Apismellifera),whichismanagedforpollinationspawninggroundsforfishandotheraquaticpurposes,isthespeciesmostfrequentlymentionedspecies.Severalcountriesmentionplantingtrees,(Table4.1).Severalcountriesalsomentionmanag-shrubsandgrassesaswindbreaksandtoprotectingecosystemsandlandscapefeaturestoimprovecoastalandotherareasagainstvarioushazards.thedeliveryofecosystemservices,includingtheSome,forexample,mentionplantingtreessuchmanagementofforests,wetlands,lakes,riparianastheMediterraneancypress(Cupressussemper-bufferzonesandhedgerows(seeforexamplevirens)aroundforestsforfire-controlpurposes.Sections4.3.7,4.3.8,4.3.9,4.3.10and4.5).Overall,thelargenumberofassociatedbio-Amongthespeciesandgeneramanagedinpro-diversityspeciesmanagedinvariousproductionductionsystemsforthedeliveryofregulatingorsystemsandthemultiplicityofecosystemservicessupportingecosystemservices,16arereportedtotheysupplyreflecttheirenormousvalueandbemanagedformorethanoneservice(Table4.2).theirgreatpotentialtosupportfoodandagri-Theseincludeninetreeandsevennon-treeplantculturalproduction.speciesandgenera.Acaciaspp.arereportedtobemanagedforthelargestnumberofdistinct4.3.2Informationandmonitoringecosystemservicessupportingfoodandagricul-systemsonassociatedbiodiversityture(eight).CountrieswereinvitedtoreportonnationalThenumberofspeciesofassociatedbiodiversityinformationsystemsonassociatedbiodiversity.thatarereportedtobemanagedforecosystemFifty-sevencountryreportsindicatethepresenceservicesisparticularlylargeinrainfedcropsystemsofatleastonesuchinformationsystem(247are(413species),followedbymixedsystems(307),reportedintotal).Anadditionalfourreports22spe-naturallyregeneratedforests(298),livestockcificallyindicatetheabsenceofanysuchsystems.grassland-basedsystems(256),plantedforestsOver40percentofthesystemsreportedarein(249)andirrigatedcrop(otherthanrice)systemsEuropeancountries.Severalexamplesofinforma-(191).Severalofthesespeciesarereportedtobetionandmonitoringsystemsaredescribedinthemanagedinproductionsystemsinmorethanone“stateofknowledge”subsectionsofSections4.3.4sectorofproduction(Figure4.1).to4.3.10andinBoxes4.6and8.8.Inforest,livestockandmixedproduction22ThosefromtheGambia,Slovakia,SriLankaandSuriname.systems,theecosystemservicesforwhichthelargestnumbersofspeciesarereportedtobe120thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Table4.1ExamplesofspeciesandgenerareportedbycountriestobemanagedforregulatingorsupportingecosystemservicesinproductionsystemsEcosystemservice(numberSpeciesorgenusCommonnameCountriesofdistinctspeciesreported)AcoruscalamusFlagrootNepalPestanddiseaseregulation(144)AphelinusmaliWoollyaphidparasiteNepal,Peru,SyrianArabRepublic,YemenAzadirachtaindicaNeemtreeJordan,Nepal,NigerBacillusthuringiensisBtEcuador,India,PeruCecidocharesconnexaGallflyPalau,PapuaNewGuineaCtenopharyngodonidellaGrasscarpFiji,SyrianArabRepublicCryptolaemusmontrouzieriMealybugdestroyerIndia,Jamaica,SyrianArabRepublicHabrobraconhebetorNiger,SyrianArabRepublicChevronedwaterhyacinthNeochetinabruchi,weevil,mottledwaterhyacinthPapuaNewGuinea,SriLanka,SudanN.eichhorniaeweevilBangladesh,India,NepalHabitatprovisioning(125)TrichodermaharzianumWildcabbageCroatia,France,SyrianArabRepublicSoilformationandprotection(111)TyphlodromuspyriAfricanmahoganyIreland,UnitedKingdomNutrientcycling(76)BrassicaoleraceaNepalmangoChad,TogoKhayasenegalensisChinesearborvitaeBangladeshMangiferasylvaticaTamarindChinaPlatycladusorientalisKhuskhusvetiverChad,Ecuador,YemenTamarindusindicaWhiteleadtreeJamaica,ZimbabweChrysopogonzizanioidesMerkbaBrazil,MexicoLeucaenaleucocephalaScotspineYemenPanicumturgidumIronwoodIreland,SloveniaPinussylvestrisBrazil,YemenProsopisjulifloraRyeBangladeshRhizobiumleguminosarumMexicanmahoganyIreland,UnitedKingdomSecalecerealeSwieteniahumilis,MexicoS.macrophyllaBradyrhizobiumelkanii,TigerwormBrazilB.japonicumWinterthornEiseniafetidaBarleyBulgaria,JamaicaFaidherbiaalbidaCommonlentilBurkinaFasoHordeumvulgareWhiteleadtreeSweden,UnitedKingdomLensculinarisRedearthwormJordan,YemenLeucaenaleucocephalaBrazil,ZimbabweLumbricusrubellusRyeBulgariaRhizobiumleguminosarumCommonvetchBrazil,NepalSecalecerealeSweden,UnitedKingdomViciasativaJordan,Yemen(Cont.)thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE121Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable4.1(Cont.)ExamplesofspeciesandgenerareportedbycountriestobemanagedforregulatingorsupportingecosystemservicesinproductionsystemsEcosystemservice(numberSpeciesorgenusCommonnameCountriesofdistinctspeciesreported)ApismelliferaWesternhoneybeeBangladesh,Belgium,Bhutan,BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,Ecuador,Eswatini,Gambia,Pollination(49)ApisceranaEasternhoneybeeGermany,Hungary,Jamaica,Lebanon,Buff-tailedbumblebeeNepal,Netherlands,Niue,Norway,Panama,BombusterrestrisPeru,Poland,Spain,Sweden,Straw-colouredfruitbatSwitzerland,Yemen,Zambia,ZimbabweOtherBombusspp.(B.canariensis,ignites,morio)Bhutan,SriLankaEidolonhelvumBelgium,Germany,Hungary,Netherlands,Norway,SwedenBelgium,BrazilBurkinaFasoHeterotrigonaitamaMasonbees(redmasonbee,Malaysiablueorchardbee)Germany,UnitedStatesofAmericaOsmiaspp.(O.bicornis,SloveniaO.lignaria)CrabappleMalussylvestrisAlnusacuminataAlderEcuadorProductionofoxygen/gasKhayasenegalensisAfricanmahoganyNiger,Togoregulation(30)RobiniapseudoacaciaBlacklocustChinaTectonagrandisTeakNepal,TogoCoffeaarabicaArabicacoffeePanamaPhragmitesaustralisCommonreedJordan,Lebanon,UnitedKingdom,YemenWaterpurificationandwasteAvicenniagerminansBlackmangroveMexicotreatment(25)SorghumhalepensisJohnsongrassJordan,YemenPanicumvirgatumOldswitchpanicgrassUnitedStatesofAmericaEiseniafetidaTigerwormNepalNaturalhazardregulation(27)AlnusglutinosaEuropeanalderSloveniaAvicenniaspp.(A.alba,Blackmangrove(api-api,whiteBangladesh,YemenA.marina)mangrove)NigerBauhiniarufescensBhutanNapiergrassCenchruspurpureusChrysopogonzizanioidesKhuskhusvetiverJamaicaCupressussempervirensMediterraneancypressJordanPiceaabiesNorwayspruceSwitzerlandAtriplexhalimusMediterraneansaltbushJordan,YemenWatercycling(25)AndropogongayanusBluestemgrassNigerLeucaenaleucocephalaWhiteleadtreeBrazilOncorhynchusmykissRainbowtroutFinlandNote:Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.122thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Table4.2SpeciesandgeneramostfrequentlyreportedtobemanagedformultiplesupportingandregulatingecosystemservicesHabitatprovisioningNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingPestanddiseaseregulationPollinationProductionofoxygen/gasregulationSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentTotalnumberofecosystemservicesforwhichthespeciesismanagedSpeciesorCommonNumberofcountriesCountriesgenusnameAngola,BurkinaFaso,Chad,China,Jordan,Acaciaspp.Acacias3122232116Mexico,Nepal,Niger,SaudiArabia,Sudan,Pinusspp.Pines32111412Yemen,ZimbabweChina,Ireland,Mexico,Brassicaspp.Brassicas1111318Peru,Slovakia,SloveniaBulgaria,Ireland,Jordan,Trifoliumspp.Clover141118UnitedKingdom,SlovakiaBulgaria,Ireland,Jordan,EucalyptusEucalyptus1111217Norway,Slovakia,Swedenspp.Cameroon,Ecuador,Peru,Senegal,SudanCrotalariaShowy1111116BrazilspectabilisrattleboxBulgaria,Jordan,YemenMedicagoMedick13116Finland,Ireland,Jordan,spp.Slovenia,YemenPopulusspp.Aspen2136NigerBauhinia111115BrazilrufescensBrazilCanavaliaJackbean111115Brazil,Mexico,ZimbabweensiformsBrazilCajanuscajanPigeonpea111115Jordan,Sweden,UnitedLeucaenaWhite121215KingdomleucocephalaleadtreeChad,Ecuador,YemenTithoniaTree111115Chad,Niger,TogodiversifoliamarigoldHordeumBarley12114vulgareTamarindusTamarind3113indicaKhayaAfrican2123senegalensismahoganyNote:Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE123Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.1Regulatingandsupportingecosystemservicesforwhichassociatedbiodiversityisreportedtobemanaged,bysectorofproductionPollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpuriﬁcationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationOther1002003004005006000NumberofresponsesAquaticsectorCropsectorForestsectorLivestocksectorMixedsystemsOther/notspeciﬁedNotes:A“response”isanindicationbyacountrythataparticularspeciesorothertaxonomicgroupismanagedwithinaparticularproductionsystemtopromotethesupplyofaparticularecosystemservice.Severalofthe462distinctspeciesthatfeaturedintheresponseswerementionedbymorethanonecountryand/orformorethanoneproductionsystem.Thetotalnumberofresponsesis1228.Forpresentationpurposes,productionsystemsaregroupedbysectorofproduction.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Inmostcountries,thereportedinformationtodatabasesofspeciesriskstatus,thesystemssystemsweredevelopedinthecontextofenvi-reportedincludeavarietyofsourcesofinforma-ronmentalmonitoringprogrammesandnottiononassociatedbiodiversity,includingnewslet-becausethemonitoredspeciesareconsideredofters,nationalreportsonthestateofbiodiversityimportancetofoCorodpsandagriculture.Forexample,producedbyrelevantministries(e.g.forestryormostcountrieshFoarevsetryestablished“redlists”thatenvironment),radioandtelevisionprogrammes,summarizethesLtivaetstuocskandtrendsofnativefloraInternetresources,institutes,universities,labora-andfaunaspecieAsqauancdultuthreethreatsaffectingthem.tories,museumsandencyclopaedias.Moreinfor-mationcanbefoundintheregionalsynthesisFisheriesreportspreparedaspartofthereportingprocessforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodTheselistsareuMsuixeadllsyystbemassedonamethodologyandAgriculture.24similartothatusAegdricfuoltrurTeheIUCNRedList(Box4.1)andarereviewed(uanstpreecigﬁeud)larintervals.23InadditionThereportedinformationsystemsareusedtomonitorarangeofdifferentcomponentsofNotspeciﬁed24Theregionalsynthesisreportswillbemadeavailableat23TheIUCNRedListallowsspeciestobegroupedaccordinghttp://www.fao.org/cgrfa/en/tothetypesofecosystemsinwhichtheyoccur,includingagricultural,forestandmarineecosystems.However,itdoesnotallowthistobedoneforparticularroles,orassumedroles,inthesupplyofregulatingorsupportingecosystemservices(pollination,pestcontrol,etc.)withintheseecosystems.124thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Box4.1TheInternationalUnionforConservationofNatureRedListofThreatenedSpeciesTMTheInternationalUnionforConservationofNatureRedIncreaseinthenumberofspeciesassessedforListofThreatenedSpeciesTM(TheIUCNRedList)istheTheIUCNRedList(2000–2018)world’smostcomprehensivesourceofinformationonspeciesextinctionrisks,andcontainsawealthofSpecies100000informationonfactorsaffectingspeciessurvival,including90000ondistributionranges,populationtrends,ecology,80000conservationactions,threatsandtradeanduse.Asof70000November2018,morethan96500specieswereincluded,60000over26500ofwhichwerethreatenedwithextinction,50000including40percentofamphibians,34percentofconifers,4000033percentofreef-buildingcorals,25percentofmammals30000and14percentofbirds.2000010000Source:TheIUCNRedListversion2018-2.Note:Forfurtherinformation,seehttps://www.iucnredlist.org02009201220152018200020032006YearTotalspeciesassessedTotalthreatenedspeciesBox4.2Weimerskirch,2001).Whenpiecedtogether,suchtrendsandBirdsasindicatorspecieswarningsignsdemonstratewhere,andhowmuch,climatechangeisaffectingtheecosystemsthatindustriessuchasAvianspeciescanactasvaluableindicatorsoffishingdependupon.environmentalchangeandcomplexshiftsinecosystemdynamicsthatmaybedetrimentaltofoodandagriculture.Seabirdnumberscanalsobeadirectindicationoffish-Forexample,seabirdsareexcellentindicatorsofclimatestockdepletion.AstudyonsardinefisheriesintheGulfchangethankstotheirbehavioural,socialandlife-historyofCaliforniademonstrated(takingElNiñoinfluencesintotraitsandthevastamountoflong-termdataavailableonaccount)thatadecliningproportionofsardinesinthethem(GrémilletandBoulinier,2009).Seabirdsgenerallydietsofthreeseabirdspecies(theCaliforniabrownpelicanhavehighlyspecializeddietsandrelyonjustafew[Pelecanusoccidentalis],Heermann’sgull[Larusheermanni]preyspecies,whoseabundanceanddistributioncanandtheeleganttern[Thalasseuselegans])gaveareliableshiftdramaticallyinresponsetoabruptenvironmentalforecastofdiminishingcatchperuniteffortinfisherieschanges(BirdLifeInternational,2009).Risingsea-surfacelandingsinsubsequentyears.ThisallowedsuccessfultemperaturesinAntarcticahaveledtoareductioninmitigationorreduced-catchmeasurestobeimplemented,theabundanceofAntarctickrill(Euphausiasuperba),ahelpingtostabilizefisheriesincome(Velarde,Ezcurraandkeypreyspeciesformanyseabirds,andanincreaseinAnderson,2013).theabundanceoflessfavourablefood.Thishasaffectedseveralseabirdpopulations,includingemperorpenguinsSource:ProvidedbytheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(RSPB)and(Aptenodytesforsteri)inTerreAdélie,whosepopulationBirdLifeInternational.declinedby50percentduringaperiodofabnormallywarmtemperaturesandpoorkrillproduction(BarbraudandthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE125Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBassociatedbiodiversity,includingparticularecosys-Table4.3temcategories(e.g.forests,grasslandsoraquaticRiskstatusofassociatedbiodiversityforwhichaecosystems),protectedareas,individualspecies,significantthreatofextinctionorlossisreportedspeciesingeneral(e.g.viatheabove-mentionedredlists),rareorendangeredspecies,specifictax-RiskstatusResponsesDistinctspeciesonomicgroups(e.g.amphibiansandreptiles,bats,bees,birds,butterflies,freshwaterandmarineExtinct(EX)1717fish,fungi,lichensormosses)orothercatego-riessuchascroppestsandtheirnaturalenemies.ExtinctintheWild(EW)11SeveralEuropeancountriesmentionmonitoringeffortsformicro-organisms(includingbacteria,CriticallyEndangered154151virusesandprotists)andfungi,includinggroupsthatareofimportancetofoodandagriculture,(CR)suchasmycorrhizalfungi,soilmicrobes,plank-tonicmicrobesandrumenmicrobes.DespitetheseEndangered(EN)811766variousinitiatives,however,countriesgenerallymakeitveryclearthattherearemanygapsandVulnerable(VU)304300weaknessesinmonitoringprogrammesandinfor-mationsystemsforassociatedbiodiversity.EvenDataDeficient(DD)1313wheredemographicdataoncomponentsofasso-ciatedbiodiversityarecollected,itoftenremainsNearThreatened(NT)6563unclearhowtheserelatetothegeographicaldis-tributionofproductionsystems,whichmakesitLeastConcern(LC)3638moredifficulttodrawconclusionsregardingpos-sibleeffectsonfoodandagriculture.Threatened362336LackofcapacityiswidelyreportedbycountriesNotknown3434tobeasignificantconstrainttothemonitoringofassociatedbiodiversity.SomecountriesindicateNotspecified277261thatmuchofthemonitoringworkthatdoestakeplaceisdoneby(expertornon-expert)volun-Total20741900teers.Forexample,Finlandreportsthatinitiativesofthiskindaccountforapproximately70percentNotes:A“response”isamentionbyaspecificcountryofaofallitsbiodiversity-relatedmonitoringwork.specificcomponentofbiodiversity(speciesorhighertaxonomicMonitoringofbutterfliesandbirdsislargelygroup).The“threatened”categoryencompassesallresponsesvolunteer-basedinmostcountriesinEurope.indicatingthataspeciesisthreatenedbutwithoutfurtherEffortsarealsobeingmadetodevelopmethod-specificationofthedegreeofthreataccordingtotheIUCNRedologiesbasedonindicatorspeciesthatcanbeListCategoriesandCriteria.Thefiguresrefertotheriskstatusesusedevenwherecapacityislimited.Forexample,assignedtospeciesinthecountryreports.Analysisbasedon91theBelauNationalMuseum,incooperationwithcountryreports.thePalauConservationSocietyandthePalauSource:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sInternationalCoralReefCentre,isreportedtoBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.havecompletedpreliminarystudiesaimedatiden-tifyingbirdspeciesthatcouldbeusedasindicators4.3.3Overviewofstatusandtrendsfornear-shoreenvironmentalqualityandecosys-temhealth.SeeBox4.2forfurtherinformationonCountrieswereinvitedtolistanycomponentsbirdsasindicatorspecies.ofassociatedbiodiversityforwhichthereisevi-denceofasignificantthreatofextinctionorlossofimportantpopulations,tospecifythedegreeofthethreataccordingtotheclassificationsysteminuseinthecountryorfollowingtheCategoriesandCriteriaofTheIUCNRedList,andtoprovideadescriptionofthethreat.TheresponsesaresummarizedinTable4.3.Seventy-ninepercentoftheresponsesindicateCriticallyEndangered,Endangered,VulnerableorThreatenedstatus,and82percentofdistinctspeciesmentionedfallintothesecategories.Atotalof2074responses,from48countriesandcovering1900distinctspecies,wereprovided.Morethanhalfoftheseresponsescomefromthreecoun-tries,Bangladesh,MexicoandPanama.Thegroups126thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Figure4.2Reportedthreatstoassociatedbiodiversity,byregionNumberofresponsesAfrica297Asia505EuropeandCentralAsia212LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean779NearEastandNorthAfrica20%40%60%80%2930%100%AgriculturalintensiﬁcationandexpansionOverexploitationChangesinlandusePests,diseasesandinvasivespeciesClimatechangePollutionDeforestationWater-cyclealterationHabitatalterationandlossOtherHuntingandpoachingNotreportedNotes:A“response”isamentionbyaspecificcountryofaspecificcomponentofbiodiversity(speciesorhighertaxonomicgroup).NodataareavailableforNorthAmericaorthePacific.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.ofspeciesthatfeaturemostfrequentlyincountries’eel(Anguillaanguilla),thePalmyrapalm(Borassusresponsesareplants,followedbybirds,fishandaethiopum),theEuropeanroller(Coraciasgar-mammals.Plantsaccountfor1032(63percent)ofrulus),theleatherbackseaturtle(Dermochelystheresponsesreferringtospeciesthatareclassedcoriacea),Duvaliasulcate(asucculentplant),asCriticallyEndangered,Endangered,VulnerableGlobulariaarabica(alowshrub),thehousefinchorThreatened,birdsfor180(11pAegrrciceunltutr)a,lfinitsehnsifﬁocartiona(nHdaexepmansoiornhousmexCihcaanngeussin),lantdhuesehippopotamusClimatechangeDeforestation125(8percent),mammalsfor83(5Hpabeitractealntetr)a,tiofnunangdiloss(HippopotamusamHpuhntiibngiuansd),ptohacehinAgfricanmahog-for74(5percent),reptilesfor61(4pOeverrceexpnloti)t,ataiornthro-any(KhayasenegalPeesntss,idsi)s,eatsheseanodcinevlaositve(sLpeecoiepsarduspods25for37(2percent),molluscsfoProl2lu2tio(n1percent),pardalis),theoliverWidatleerycyscleeaaltteurartitolne(Lepidochelysamphibiansfor13(1percent)andseOathceurcumbersforolivacea),thepomeNgotrraepnoartteed(Punicagranatum),4(lessthan1percent).theclapperrail(Ralluslongirostris),thewhite-Thespeciesmostfrequentlymentioned,forheadedvulture(Trigonocepsoccipitalis),biznau-anyriskcategory,includethewesternhoneygita(Turbinicarpusschmiedickeanus)(acactus)bee(Apismellifera),thegreenturtle(Cheloniaandthethirstythorn(Vachelliaseyal).mydas),thehawksbillseaturtle(EretmochelysForthemajorityofspecieslistedbycountries,imbricate),theloggerheadseaturtle(Carettanospecificindicationisprovidedthattheyarecaretta),theWestAfricanebony(Diospyrosbeingdeliberatelymanagedfortheircontribu-mespiliformis),theHimalayanyew(Taxuswal-tionstothesupplyofecosystemservicestofoodlichiana),thebaobab(Adansoniadigitata),theandagriculture.CountriesmadeextensiveuseEurasianskylark(Alaudaarvensis),theEuropeanofnationalredlistsassourcesofinformation.Insomecases,ecosystemsincludedinredlists25Arthropodspeciesmentionedincludeinsects,spiderswerematchedwiththeproduction-systemcat-andcrustaceans.egoriesusedinthecountry-reportingprocessthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE127Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.3Reportedtrendsinassociatedbiodiversity,byproductionsystemProductionsystemMicro-organismsInvertebratesNumberofcountriesLivestockgrassland-basedLivestocklandless4022Naturallyregeneratedforests38Plantedforests3733Self-recruitingcaptureﬁsheries16Culture-basedﬁsheries23Fedaquaculture14Non-fedaquaculture18Irrigatedcrops(rice)36Irrigatedcrops(other)41Rainfedcrops34MixedVertebratesPlantsLivestockgrassland-based40(shadLivestocklandless22political/co38Naturallyregeneratedforests50%100%0%50%37Plantedforests3316Self-recruitingcaptureﬁsheries23Culture-basedﬁsheries14Fedaquaculture18Non-fedaquaculture36Irrigatedcrops(rice)41Irrigatedcrops(other)34RainfedcropsMixed100%0%DecreasingStableIncreasingNotknown/reportedNotes:Thefiguresrefertotheten-yearperiodpriortothepreparationofthecountryreports.“Numberofcountries”referstothenumberofcountries–outof91providingreports–thatreportedtrendsforthefourcategoriesofassociatedbiodiversityintherespectiveproductionsystem.“Notknown/reported”referstocaseswherenoresponseisprovidedorwheretheinformationisindicatedtobenotknownornotapplicable.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.(seeSection1.5)andallspeciesincludedintheThemainthreatsreportedarehabitataltera-respectiveredlistsconsideredtobeassociated-tionandloss(490responses),deforestation(547),biodiversityspecies,i.e.therewasanassumptionoverexploitation(286),pollution(134),huntingthateachofthesespeciesplaysaroleinthefunc-andpoaching(86),changeinlanduse(52),pests,tioningoftherespectiveecosystem.diseasesandinvasivespecies(49),agricultural128thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4intensificationandexpansion(19),water-cycleofcountriesreportingrangedfrom36(natural-alteration(14)andclimatechange(5).Figure4.2hazardregulation)to43(habitatprovisioning).providesaregionalbreakdown.ThenextsevensectionsdiscussthestatusandFigure4.3summarizestheinformationtrendsofassociatedbiodiversityinvolvedinthereportedbycountriesontrendsoverthelastsupplyofparticularcategoriesofecosystemser-tenyearsinthestatusofvariouscategoriesofvices,basedoninformationfromthecountryreportsassociatedbiodiversity(micro-organisms,inver-andothersources.Theyalsodiscusswhatcountriestebrates,vertebratesandplants).26Itpresentsreportedontrendsinthesupplyoftheservicesanoverviewofnumberofcountriesreportingthemselves.Withregardtothetrendsinthelatter,itinformationontrendsandaproportionalbreak-shouldbenotedthatrelationshipsbetweenBFAanddownofthisinformationbyproduction-systemthesupplyofecosystemservicesarecomplexandcategoryandtypeoforganism.thattrendsinthediversityordistributionofcom-ponentsofBFAwilloftennotbereflectedstraight-Overall,forallproductionsystemsandalltypesforwardlyintrendsinthesupplyecosystemservices.ofassociatedbiodiversitycombined,33percentofresponsesindicatedecreasingtrends,15percent4.3.4Associatedbiodiversityforstabletrendsand19percentincreasingtrends;pollination33percentindicatethatinformationisunknownornotapplicable.ThebreakdownpresentedinIntroductionFigure4.3highlightsthegenerallylimitedamountNearly90percent28ofallflowering-plantspecies,ofinformationavailableonmicro-organismsinincludingthevastmajorityofthoseintropicalproductionsystems,inparticularinforestproduc-forests,savannahwoodlands,mangrovesandtionsystems.Trendsininvertebrate,vertebratetemperatedeciduousforests,depend,tosomeandplantspeciesprovidingsupportingandreg-degree,onanimalpollination(othermeansofulatingecosystemservicesinvariousproductionpollentransferincludeself-pollinationandpol-systemsarebetterassessed.linationbywindandwater)(Bradbear,2009;Ollerton,WinfreeandTarrant,2011).29Thirty-Countrieswereinvitedtoreportonchangesfivepercentoftheworld’stotalcropproductioninregulatingorsupportingservicesdetectedinbyvolumecomesfromspeciesthatare,atleastspecificproduction-systemcategoriesovertheinpart,pollinatedbyanimals(Kleinetal.,2007).precedingtenyears,27todescribethetrendsLevelsofpollinatordependencevarysignificantlyreportedand,ifpossible,toprovideinformationamongcrops,withthehighestlevelsfoundmainlyonbaselinelevels,measurementsandindicatorsinfruits,vegetablesandnuts(ibid.).Pottsetal.used,extentofchange,likelycause(s)andref-(2016)reportafigureofUSD235–577billionforerencestosourcesofinformation(Table4.4).Atheannualvalueoftheenhancementsthatanimaltotalof46countries(51percentofthosethatpollinatorsmaketoglobalcropoutput.30providedcountryreports),includingcountriesfromallregions,providedinformationontrends28Thisrangesfrom78percentintemperate-zonecommunitiesinatleastoneecosystemservice.Forindividualto94percentintropicalcommunities(IPBES,2016a;Ollerton,categoriesofecosystemservices,thenumbersWinfreeandTarrant,2011).26Specifically,countrieswereinvitedtoprovidequalitative29Pollinationalsooccursinaquaticenvironments.Whileuntilassessmentsoftrends(stronglyincreasing,increasing,stable,recentlyitwasthoughtthatanimalpollinationdoesnotdecreasingandstronglydecreasing)ortoindicatethatcontributetopollinationunderwater,ithasbeenfoundthatinformationwasnotknownornotapplicable.marineinvertebratescontributetothepollinationoftheseagrassThalassiatestudinum(VanTussenbroeketal.,2016).27Specifically,countrieswereinvitedtoprovidequalitativeassessmentsoftrends(stronglyincreasing,increasing,stable,30Thefigure(inflatedto2015USDvalue)isbasedontheworkdecreasingandstronglydecreasing)ortoindicatethatofLautenbacketal.(2012),whousedproductionandpriceinformationwasnotknownornotapplicable.figuresfor2009.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE129Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable4.4ReportedtrendsinthestateofprovisionofregulatingandsupportingecosystemservicesinproductionsystemsProductionsystems(PS)PollinationPestanddiseaseregulationWaterpurificationandwastetreatmentNatural-hazardregulationNutrientcyclingSoilformationandprotectionWatercyclingHabitatprovisioningProductionofoxygen/gasregulationLivestockgrassland-basedsystems↘↗↙↘↔↘↘↗↙↘↘Livestocklandlesssystems↔↗↙↗↙↔↗↙↗↗↙↘↘Naturallyregeneratedforests↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↗↙PlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheries↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↗↗↗ProportionofCulture-basedfisheriescountriesreporting↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙thePSthatreport↗↙↗↙↗↙↘↗↙↗↙↗↙anytrends(%)0–10Fedaquaculture↔↗↙↗↙↗↗↗↙↗↗↙↗↙11–20Non-fedaquaculture↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙↔↗↙↗21–30Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)↗↙↘↘↔↘↘↘↘↗↙31–40Irrigatedcropsystems(other)↗↙↘↘↗↙↘↘↗↘↗↔StableRainfedcropsystems↗IncreasingMixedsystems↗↙↘↗↙↗↙↗↙↘↗↙↘↗↙↘Decreasing↗↙Mixedtrends↗↙↗↗↙↗↙↗↗↙↗↙↗↙↗↙Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttrends(increasing,stableordecreasing)inthestateofprovisionofeachecosystemserviceineachproductionsystem.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandecosystemserviceindicatethesametrend(increasing,decreasingorstable)thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedtrendsareindicated.Theemptycellscorrespondtocasesinwhichfewerthanfivecountriesprovidedaresponse.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanytrendsinthestateoftherespectiveecosystemservice(increasing,stableordecreasing).SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandadiscussionofecosystemservices.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.AnimalpollinationincropproductionsystemsisbirdsaspollinatorsisdiscussedfurtherinBox4.5.largelysuppliedbymanagedandwildbeespecies.Somespeciesofpollinatorsarespecialists(i.e.visitHowever,thereareimportantpollinatorsamongonlyoneorafewplantspecies),whileothersothergroupsofinsects,includingflies,butterflies,aregeneralists(i.e.visitawiderangeofspecies).moths,waspsandbeetles,aswellasamongbats,Similarly,therearespecialistplants,pollinatedbyabirdsandrodents(FAO,2018i,IPBES,2016a).31Forsmallnumberofspecies,andgeneralistplants,pol-example,ithasbeenestimatedthatbatsplaysomelinatedbyabroadrangeofspecies(IPBES,2016a).partinthepollinationofatleast500Neotropicalspeciesfrom96genera(Vogel,1969).TheroleofStateofknowledgeScientificstudies,citizen-scienceprojectsand31Morethan90percentoftheleadingglobalcroptypesarevisitedindigenousandlocalknowledgeallhelptobuildbybeesandaround30percentbyflies.Eachoftheotheranimalupunderstandingoftheeconomic,environmentalpollinatortaxavisitslessthan6percentofthecroptypes.andsocioculturalvaluesofpollination,threatsto130thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4pollinatorpopulations,andthestatusandtrendsmanagedassociatedbiodiversity,itsannualinven-ofwildandmanagedpollinators,pollinator-toryofbeehivesprovidesaformof“indirect”mon-dependentcropsandwildplantsatvariousitoring.Anumberofcountriesmentionthat–asscales.Atgloballevel,thethematicassessmentanalternativetogatheringdataonpollinatingofpollinators,pollinationandfoodproductionanimalsthemselves–monitoringplantreproduc-publishedin2016bytheInternationalPanelontivesuccessorpollen-depositiondeficitsmaybeBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES,2016a)aneffectivemeansofmeasuringpollinatortrends.remains,asof2018,thelatestmajorassessmentHowever,thisapproachwillonlyworkiftheeffectsconductedonthetopic.ofotherinfluences,suchasclimateandfloralher-bivory,canbeaccountedfor(FAO,2008a).Theavailabilityofdataonthestatusandtrendsofpollinatorsvariessignificantlybyregion,Butterflymonitoring,whereitoccurs,iscountryandtypeofpollinator.DataaremorereportedtobelargelyconductedonavoluntarycompleteinEuropeandNorthAmericathanbasisbyexpertsandenthusiasts.Forexample,elsewhereintheworld.Withintheseregions,Germanynotesthatvolunteersconductweeklymanagedpollinatorspeciesarebetterdocu-walksalongsetroutes(transects),recordingallmentedthanwildpollinators,becausetheyare(i)speciesofdiurnalbutterflies,yearafteryear.33Therecognizedaseconomicallyimportant,(ii)easierpopulationdataobtainedareusedtotracktrendstomonitor(theyarekeptinboxes)and(iii)theirinbutterflypopulationsatlocal,subnationalandtaxonomyisrelativelywellunderstood(IPBES,nationallevels.Butterfliesarealsoamongthe2016a;NRC,2007).Areportonthestatusofpol-groupsofspeciesreportedtobemonitoredbylinatorsinNorthAmerica(NRC,2007)notesthattheDutchNetworkEcologicalMonitoring34pro-despiteconstraintsassociatedwithalackofcapac-grammeintheNetherlands.35Again,thesedataityintaxonomyandidentification,quitealargearemostlycollectedbyvolunteers.Theresultsamountofinformationisavailableonpollinatorarepublishedby,amongothers,theNetherlandspopulationtrends.However,thequalityofthisEnvironmentalAssessmentAgencyandStatisticsinformation,andhencethestateofknowledgeNetherlands.Around16000volunteersareonstatusandtrends,variesfromtaxontotaxonreportedtobeactiveintheprogramme’svarious(ibid.).TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpeciesmonitoringnetworks.36Irelandalsomentionstheassessmentcovers58outofthe130commonestablishmentofbutterflyandbumblebeemoni-crop-pollinatingbeespeciesinEuropeandNorthtoringprogrammes.37America(IPBES,2016a).InformationonthestatusandtrendsofotherThecountryreportsindicatethat,acrossallpollinatorsisgenerallylimited.TheIUCNRedListregions,beesarethemostwidelymonitoredgroupprovidesinformationontheglobalstatusofmanyofpollinatorspecies.Honeybeesarethemostfre-vertebratepollinators(e.g.hummingbirdsandbatquentlymentioned,butsomecountriesalsoreferspecies).Themigratoryhabitsofspeciesbelongingtomonitoringofbumblebees,stinglessbeesandtothesegroupssometimesrequirethatmonitoringother(wild)beespecies.Relevantinitiativesmen-workisdoneonamulticountryscale(FAO,2008a).tionedinthecountryreportsincludethebeeMexicoandtheUnitedStatesofAmericaarecol-monitoringframeworkdevelopedintheUnitedlaboratinginseveralinitiativesofthiskind(ibid.).KingdomaspartofEngland’sNationalPollinatorStrategy(DEFRA,2014).Numbersofbeehivesare33See,forexample,http://www.tagfaltermonitoring.dewidelymonitored.32Ethiopia,forexample,notes(inGerman).thatdespiteagenerallackofinformationon34http://www.netwerkecologischemonitoring.nl/home32See,forexample,thecountrydataprovidedinFAO’sstatistical35Therearealsonetworksformammals,birds,reptiles,databaseFAOSTAT(http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home).amphibians,fish,dragonflies,floraandmushrooms.36ThecountryreportcitesDeGroot(2014).37http://www.biodiversityireland.iethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE131Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBDataonflypopulations(Diptera)arelimited(FAO,theaverageseasonallossofhoneybeesinthe2008a).However,someevidencecanbegleanedUnitedStatesofAmericahasreportedlyaveragedfromcasestudies(seebelow).Overall,theriskaround31percent,farexceedingthe15percenttostatusofmostoftheworld’sinsectpollinator17percentlossratethatcommercialbeekeepersspecieshasnotbeenassessed(IPBES,2016a).considertobeaneconomicallysustainableaver-age.41AfewcountryreportsfromnorthwesternStatusandtrendsEuropementionthatthestateofinsectcoloniesingeneral,andofbeecoloniesinparticular,iscur-StatusandtrendsofpollinatorsrentlybelowtheoptimalthresholdforpollinationDatafromFAO’sstatisticaldatabase,FAOSTAT,offloweringplantsinarablelandandgrassland.showthatthenumberofmanagedwesternhon-ey-beehivesisincreasingglobally.In1961,coun-Withregardtowildpollinators,IPBES(2016a)triesreportedfewerthan50millionhives.In2016,concludesthatthey“havedeclinedinoccurrencetheyreportedmorethan90.5millionhives,pro-anddiversity(andabundanceforcertainspecies)ducingnearly1.8milliontonnesofhoneyannu-atlocalandregionalscalesinNorthWestEuropeally.IPBES(2016a),however,notesthat,despiteandNorthAmerica”andnotesthatwhilealacktheoverallupwardtrendsglobally,importantsea-ofdataprecludesgeneralstatementsaboutothersonalcolonylossesareknowntooccurinsomeregions,localdeclineshavebeenrecorded.InEuropeancountriesandinNorthAmerica(dataEurope,9percentofbeeandbutterflyspeciesforotherregionsoftheworldarelargelylacking).arethreatened,andpopulationsaredecliningin37percentofbeeand31percentofbutterflyConcernsaboutcolonylossesarereflectedinspecies(excludingdatadeficientspecies,whichsomeofthecountryreports.Forexample,theinclude57percentofbeespecies[ibid.]).42TrendsreportfromtheUnitedStatesofAmericanotesofthiskindarereflectedinthecountryreportsthathoneybeeshavebeeninseriousdeclineforfromEurope.ThereportfromtheUnitedKingdom,decades:therewereapproximately5.7millionforexample,referstoworkshowingthatamongmanagedhoney-beecoloniesinthecountryinthe216beespeciesmonitorednationally,70percent1940sandapproximately2.74millioncoloniesinshowedadeclineindistributionbetween19802015.Itfurthernotesthatsharpcolonydeclinesand2010.Withregardtothecountry’sbutterflyoccurredfollowingtheintroductionofthemitepopulations,thereportindicatesthatrecentyearsVarroadestructor38in1987,andagainaround2006(2008to2013)haveseennooverallchange,butwiththefirstreportsofcolonycollapsedisorder.39thatlong-termfigures(1976to2013)showthatThenumberofmanagedhoney-beecoloniesinthethepopulationsof50percentofbutterflyspeciescountryseemstohavestabilizedinrecentyears,havedecreased.Severalcountryreportsfromthebutthisisreportedtohaverequiredincreasedregion,includingthosefromIreland,Norway,effortsbythebeekeepingindustry.40Since2006,PolandandSwitzerland,referspecificallytoadeclineinbumblebees.Seriousdeclinesintwo38Anexternalparasitethatattackshoneybeesandspreadsbumblebeespecies,thegreatyellowbumblebeevirusesamongthem.(Bombusdistinguendus)inEuropeandFranklin’sbumblebee(B.franklini)inthewesternUnited39ThetermcolonycollapsedisorderdescribesacomplexsetStatesofAmerica,arehighlightedbyIPBES(2016a).ofinteractingstressors,includingexposuretopesticidesandInbothcases,effectsonproductionsystemshaveotherenvironmentaltoxins,poornutrition(resultinginpartyettobeexamined(ibid.).fromdecreasedavailabilityofhigh-qualityanddiverseforage),exposuretopests(e.g.Varroamites)anddisease(viral,bacterial41ThecountryreportcitesSteinhaueretal.(2015).andfungal)thatcausehighcolonylosses(USDA,2012).42Dataforotherregionsarecurrentlyinsufficienttodraw40Whenoverwinteringcolonylossesarehigh,beekeepersgeneralconclusions.compensatefortheselossesby“splitting”onecolonyintotwoandsupplyingthesecondcolonywithanewqueenbeeandsupplementaryfoodinordertoquicklybuildupcolonystrength.132thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Box4.3Monitoringtotalflyinginsectbiomassover27yearsinprotectedareasinGermanyInsectsplayacentralroleinthesupplyofseveralecosystemthroughouttheseasonandacrossallhabitattypesstudiedservices,includingpollination,biologicalcontrolandnutrientsuggeststhatlarge-scalefactorsmustbeinvolved,butcycling,andprovideafoodsourceforawiderangeofspecies,thatanalysisofdataonclimate,landuseandlocalhabitatincludingmanybirds,mammalsandamphibians(Noriegaetcharacteristicsindicatesthatchangesinthesefactorsal.,2018).Adeclineininsectnumbersthereforehasseriouscannotexplainthedecline.Theymentionthatagriculturalimplicationsforecosystemfunctioning,dynamicsandintegrity.intensification“(e.g.pesticideusage,year-roundtillage,increaseduseoffertilizersandfrequencyofagronomicBasedonlong-terminsect-trappingresultsfrommeasures)”,althoughnotincorporatedintotheiranalysis,63nature-protectionareasinGermany,Hallmannetal.maybeaplausiblecause(almostallthestudysiteswere(2017)concludedthatovertheperiod1989to2016flying-closetoagriculturalfields).Theyalsonotethattheeffectinsectbiomassunderwentaseasonaldeclineof76percent“musthavecascadingeffectsacrosstrophiclevelsand(“seasonal”referstotheperiod1Aprilto30October)andanumerousotherecosystemservices.”mid-summerdeclineof82percent.Followingthisandothersimilarstudies,GermanyThefactthatallsamplingsiteswerewithinnature-initiatedanActionProgrammeforInsectProtection(seeprotectionareasmakesthedeclineevenmorealarming.https://www.bmu.de/insektenschutz/).TheauthorsnotethatthepresenceoftheeffectAmongcountriesfromotherregions,BrazilTheIUCNRedList,that16.5percentofspeciesreportsthatits1173speciesoffaunaclassifiedasarethreatenedwithglobalextinction(increas-beingthreatenedwithextinctioninclude85birdingto30percentforislandspecies),withaspecies,63lepidopteranspecies,29beetlespecies,trendtowardsmoreextinctions.Reganetal.7batspeciesand4beespeciesthatcanbecon-(2015)reportthatamong1089birdspeciesandsideredpollinators.Someothercountriesreport343mammalianspeciesidentifiedaspollinators,anecdotalindicationsoftrends.Forexample,18oftheformerand15ofthelattermovedintoGrenadamentionsthatfarmersfrequentlyahigherIUCNRedListrisk-statuscategoryduringcommentonfallingnumbersofbutterfliesandtheperiod1988to2012(withtwomammalianotherinsectsintheirfields,butnotesthatnospe-speciesmovingintheoppositedirection).Thecificstudieshavebeenconductedtoconfirmthismostseriousthreatstovertebratepollinatorsperceivedchangeortoidentifypossiblecauses.intermsofthenumberofspeciesaffectedarereportedtobehabitatlosscausedbyunsustaina-Asnotedabove,dataonpopulationtrendsinbleagriculture(seriouslyaffectingbothbirdandinsectpollinatorsotherthanbeesandLepidopteramammalianpollinators),huntingandtrappingaregenerallylimited.However,somestudies(athreattomammalsinparticular)andinva-provideinsightsintolocaltrendsordriversofsivealienspecies(athreattobirdsinparticular)changeamongrelevanttaxonomicgroups.For(ibid.).Keydriversofchangeaffectingpollinatorsexample,Lagucki,BurdineandMcCluney(2017)arefurtherdiscussedinChapter3.reportnegativeeffectsofurbanizationonflies(Diptera),amongothergroupsofflyingarthro-Statusandtrendsofpollinator-dependentcropspods.Hallmannetal.(2017)reportseveredeclinesAstudyundertakenbyAizenetal.(2009)usingFAOintotalflying-insectbiomassoverrecentdecadesdataconcludedthattheglobaleconomicimpor-atsitesinGermany(seeBox4.3).tanceofpollinator-dependentcropsrelativetopollinator-independentcropsincreasedsignificantlyWherevertebratepollinatorsareconcerned,IPBES(2016a)estimates,basedondatafromthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE133Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBbetween1961and2006.Yieldgrowthandstabil-levels.SeveralEuropeancountriesmentionthattheityinpollinator-dependentcropshave,however,establishmentofflowerstripsinandaroundfieldsbeenlowerthaninpollinator-independentcrops(incentivizedthroughagri-environmentalschemes)(Aizenetal.,2009;IPBES,2016a).Thereasonsformayhaveledtoanincreaseinthenumberofpol-thishavenotbeenclearlyestablished.However,linatorsinsurroundingareas.Inthecaseofrainfedmanystudiesatlocalscalesshowthatcroppro-andirrigatedcrop(non-rice)systems,somecoun-ductionishigherinfieldswithdiverseandabun-tries(e.g.ZambiaandSwitzerland)reportthatdantpollinatorcommunitiesthaninfieldswithinvasiveplantspeciesarereplacingplantspeciesless-diversepollinatorcommunities(Garibaldietthatpollinatorsdependonforfood.al.,2016).Pollinatordensityanddiversitydepend,inturn,onthecharacteristicsofthelocalenviron-Withregardtograssland-basedlivestocksystems,ment(e.g.thequalityandquantityoffoodandZambiareportsthatwildpollinatorsareamongnestingresources)andonmanagementpracticesinthecomponentsofBFAthathavebeennegativelyagriculture.Forexample,Kleinetal.(2007)reportaffectedbyarecentdeclineinthenumberoflive-casestudiesforninecropsonfourcontinentsthatstockherds(causedbydiseaseoutbreaks).Norwayindicatedthatagriculturalintensificationjeopard-notesthatthegradualabandonmentofextensiveizeswild-beecommunitiesandtheirstabilizinggrazingisleadingtothedisappearanceofhabi-effectonpollinationservicesatthelandscapescaletatsthatbenefitpollinators.Conversely,Argentina(seeSection5.6.7forfurtherinformationonlinksreportsthatovergrazingingrasslandsystemsisbetweenmanagementpracticesandpollinatorreducingpollinatorhabitat.Lossofhabitatinnatu-diversityandpollinationservices).rallyregeneratedforestsisreportedtobeaffectingpollinatorsinanumberofcountries.Somecoun-Statusandtrendsofpollinationtries,however,mentionthatforestarea,particu-Countries’responsesontrendsinthesupplylarlyplantedforestarea,isincreasingandthatthisofpollinationservicesinparticularproductioniscreatinghabitatforpollinators.LoggingandthesystemsaresummarizedinTable4.4.Inlivestockoverharvestingofnon-woodforestproducts(specif-grassland-basedsystems,reportsofdecreasingicallyplants)arereportedtobeamongthecausestrendspredominate.Incrop,forestandmixedoflossofpollinatorhabitatinforests.Grenadasystems,trendsaremixed(i.e.neitherpositivenormentionsthatnaturaldisasterssuchashurricanesnegativenorstabletrendspredominate).Somehavedisturbedforestecosystems,withdeleteriouscountriesreportperceiveddeclines(quantitativeeffectsonpollinators.dataaregenerallylacking)inthestateofpolli-nationservicesinagriculturewithoutspecifyingSeveralcountriesreportthateffortstoraisewhichproductionsystemsareaffected.awarenessoftheimportanceofpollinatorshavehadpositiveeffects.Poland,forexample,reportsWhereexplanationsforreportedtrendsarepro-thatgrowingawarenessoftheimportanceofvided,theyoftenapplytomorethanoneproductionhoneybeesinincreasingcropyields,alongwithsystem.Manycountriesidentifytheuseofpesticides,growingdemandforpollinationservicesinlargehuman-inducedhabitatlossandfragmentationplantationsofinsect-pollinatedcrops,isexpectedandclimatechangeasmajorcausesofdeclinesintoleadtoincreasinginterestinbeekeepingandpollinatorabundanceacrossproductionsystems.anincreaseinthehoneybeepopulation.Severalcountriesreportthattheavailabilityoffoodsourcesforpollinatorsinagriculturalproduc-4.3.5Associatedbiodiversityforpesttionsystemsisbeingjeopardizedbyadeclineinanddiseaseregulationthediversityoflandscapesandplantcommunities.Nepal,however,notesthatcropdiversificationinIntroductionitsrainfedcropsystemshasincreasedpollinationPest,diseaseandweedregulationisacrucialeco-systemserviceforfoodandagriculture.Thedirect134thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4providersofthisserviceareavastcategoryoffoundthatnegativeinteractionsamongnaturalassociatedbiodiversityknownasbiologicalcontrolenemiesconstrainedpestcontrolaslandscapesagents(BCA).Non-BCAbiodiversitycontributesbecamemorecomplex.However,otherstudiesindirectlytothecreationofapest-suppressivehavefoundincreasinglandscapecomplexitytoenvironmentby,interalia,providingalternativebecorrelatedwithincreaseddiversityandeffec-foodsourcesandshelterforBCAs(e.g.Settleetal.,tiveness(timing)ofBCAactivity(e.g.Dominiket1996).BCAscanbedeliberatelyintroduced(aug-al.,2017;Settleetal.,1996).mentativeandclassicalbiologicalpestcontrol)ormanagedindirectlybymanipulatingthelocalenvi-Thecountryreportslistmanyassociatedbio-ronmentandwiderlandscapetopromotetheirdiversityspeciesasbeingactivelymanagedtopresence(conservationbiologicalcontrol).Seeprovidepest-anddisease-regulatingservices,Section5.6.6forfurtherinformationontheroleswhetherdirectlyorindirectly(e.g.viahabitatpro-ofBCAsinintegratedpestmanagement.visioningforBCAs)(seeSection4.3.1).Themajor-ityarepredatoryandparasitoidinvertebratesBCAsaretaxonomicallydiverseandincludeassociatedwithcropproduction.manyspeciesofbacteria,fungi,invertebratesandvertebrates.ThemostsignificantfunctionalStateofknowledgegroupsofBCAsareparasitoidinsects,predators,Thecountryreportsindicatevaryinglevelsofherbivores,entomopathogenicorganisms(bacte-knowledgeonthestatusandtrendsofspeciesria,fungi,nematodesandviruses)andantifungalthatprovidepestanddiseasecontrolservices.fungi(Box4.4).TherolesofbirdsinthesupplyAnumberofcountriesreportextensivemonitoringofecosystemservices,includingpestanddiseaseofrelevantcomponentsofassociatedbiodiversity.regulation,arediscussedinBox4.5.ExamplesincludeSwitzerland(agro-environmentmonitoringprogrammesimplementedbytheRelationshipsbetweenthestatusofBCApop-FederalOfficeforAgriculture),theUnitedKingdomulationsandthesupplyofpest-controlservices(Bees,WaspsandAntsRecordingSociety;arecomplex.ThepresenceofmorethanoneFarmlandBirdIndicator),theUnitedStatesofBCAspeciesthatpreysonagivenpestmaynotAmerica(NationalInvertebrateGeneticResourcesalwaysaddtotheeffectivenessofregulationProgram)andGermany.Somecountriesreportservices(Martinetal.,2013;Rafikov,BalthazarthatmonitoringactivitiesareimplementedonaandvonBremen,2008;Straub,FinkeandSnyder,lesssystematicbasis.Forexample,Croatiamen-2008).Generallyspeaking,however,so-calledtionsthatsomemonitoringofnaturalenemiesfunctionalredundancyisconsideredlikelyto(spidersandmites)isdoneunderitsReportingincreasetheresilienceofpest-controlservicesbyandEarlyWarningSysteminAgriculture.GuyanareducingtheriskthatallBCAsforaparticularnotesthatalthoughitdoesnothavemonitor-pestwillbelost(e.g.becauseofclimatechange)ingprogrammesforassociatedbiodiversity(Beedetal.,2011;Cocketal.,2011).Anincreaseinitsriceproductionsystems,natural-enemyintheabundanceandspeciesrichnessofBCAspopulationsarerecordedaspartofpest-cansometimesleadtoantagonisticrelation-monitoringactivities.Somecountriesnotethatshipssuchassuperpredation(predationofpred-someinformationonthestatusandtrendsofators)andhyperparasitoidism(parasitoidismBCAsisobtainedviaindividualresearchprojects.ofparasitoids)(Griffin,ByrnesandCardinale,Moreover,evenamongcountriesthatmakeno2013;Hollandetal.,2012;Landis,WrattenandspecificreferencetothemonitoringofBCAsorGurr,2000;Martinetal.,2013).Thesekindsofothercomponentsofbiodiversitythatcontrib-trophicrelationshipsamongBCAs,andhenceutetopestanddiseasecontrolservices,somepotentiallythesupplyofpest-controlservices,ofthesespeciesareprobablycoveredbymoni-areaffectedinturnbythecharacteristicsofthetoringprogrammesreportedtobeundertakenlocallandscape.Forexample,Martinetal.(2013)thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE135Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBBox4.4ThemainfunctionalgroupsofbiologicalcontrolagentsParasitoids.Speciesbelongingtothisgroupspendpartoftoadsandfrogs,althoughtheimportanceoftheirrole(astheirlifecycles(usuallythelarvalstage)insideoronthewellasthatofreptiles)inbiologicalcontrolremainspoorlysurfaceofahost,killingitintheprocess.Approximatelyunderstood(HockingandBabbit,2014).10percentofknowninsectspeciesareparasitoids(Godfray,1994).ParasitoidbiologicalcontrolagentsareusedinEntomopathogenicfungi.Thisgroupcomprisesagriculturalsystemsonalargescaleinaugmentative,membersoftheFungiKingdomthatinvadearthropodclassicalandconservationbiologicalcontrol(Heimpelandtissuesandreproduceinthem,killingthehost.SeveralCock,2018;Jonssonetal.,2008;VanLenterenetal.,2018).species(e.g.BeauveriabassianaandMetarhiziumExamplesincludewaspsofthesuborderApocrytaandanisopliae)areimportantinthecontrolofgrasshoppersandseveralfamiliesofflies,forexampletheTachinidaefamily.locusts(JaronskiandGoettel,1997).Predators.ThisgroupincludesmanyarthropodspeciesAntifungalfungi.Thisgroupcomprisesmembersofthe–includingmembersoftheAcari(mites),Araneae(spiders),FungiKingdomthatlimitthedevelopmentoffungaldiseaseOpiliones(harvestmen),Odonata(dragonflies),Hemipterainplantsbykillingorcompetingwiththedisease-causing(e.g.assassinbugs),Thysanoptera(thrips),Neuropterafungiorbypromotingplantresistance.Examplesinclude(lacewings),Coleoptera(beetles),Diptera(flies)andTrichodermaspp.(Johnetal.,2010;Zeilingeretal.,2016).Hymenoptera(ants,beesandwasps)(Cocketal.,2011)–aswellasanumberofvertebrates(amphibians,birds,fish,Entomopathogenicnematodes.Thesenematodesmammalsandreptiles).Predatorshelptocontrolawideinvadethetissuesofmanytypesofinsects(includingrangeofpestspecies,althoughsomemayfeedonusefulLepidoptera,ColeopteraandDiptera).Importantexamplesspeciesaswell.SubcategoriesofthisfunctionalgroupincludeSteinernemaspp.andHeterorhabditisspp.(Cockincludeaerial,aquatic(subsurface-andsurface-dwelling),etal.,2011).vegetation-dwellingandground-dwellingpredators(Hollandetal.,2012).ThefirstgrouphavegooddispersionEntomopathogenicbacteria.Animportantspeciesabilityandcanpredateonpestsintheair.ExamplesincludeinthiscategoryisthebacteriumBacillusthuringiensis,manyspeciesofflyinginsects(e.g.familieswithintheorderswhichsynthesizesacompound(Bt)thatistoxictoinsects.Odonata,HymenopteraandDiptera)andinsectivorousbirdsandbats.Aquaticpredatorsincludemanyspeciesofinsects,Entomopathogenicviruses.Althoughanumberofinbothlarvalandadultforms.Aquaticpredatorsusedvirusfamiliesareknowntoinfectarthropods,baculovirusesspecificallyascontrolagentsincludefishspeciesinstandoutwithinthisgroupbecauseoftheirabilitytorice-fieldsystems(e.g.commoncarp[Cyprinuscarpio]andkillinsectswithhighspecificity.ThesevirusesarecommonlyNiletilapia[Oreochromisniloticus]),Labridae(wrasses)usedasbiopesticidesagainstlepidopteranpestsemployedasremoversofsealiceinsalmoncages,anda(e.g.theAnticarsiagemmatalisnuclearpolyhedrosisvirusnumberofcarnivorousspecies(e.g.bronzefeatherbackusedtocontrolthevelvetbeancaterpillaronsoybean[Notopterusnotopterus])usedtocontroltilapiabreedingbyandtheHelicoverpaarmigeranuclearpolyhedrosisviruspredatingontheiryoung.Groundpredatorsareassociatedusedtocontrolthecottonbollworm[Reid,Chanandwiththesoilsurfaceandtheupperlayerofthesoil.vanOers,2014]).PredatorymitesofthefamilyPhytoseiidae,forinstance,playanimportantroleinaugmentative,classicalandWeed-andalgae-damagingherbivores.Herbivoresconservationbiocontrolofpestmitesandinsectsinopen-suchasCurculionidae(weevils)andChrysomelidae(leaffieldandgreenhousecrops(Calvoetal.,2015;Maozetal.,beetles)helpcontrolweedsincroplands(Cocketal.,2011).2014;YaninekandHanna,2003).OtherexamplesincludeFishsuchasthegrasscarp(Ctenopharyngodonidella)aregroundandrovebeetles.Predatoryamphibiansincludeusedinirrigationsystemstocontrolaquaticweeds(HalwartandGupta,2004).Rabbitfish(Siganusspp.)andscats(Scatophagusspp.)helpcontrolfoulingepiphyticalgaeinmarinefishcages.136thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Box4.5TherolesofbirdsinthesupplyofsupportingandregulatingecosystemservicesPestcontrol:PestpredationbybirdsenhancescropyieldsSeeddispersal:Vertebrates,includingbirds,aretheinmanyregions.Morethan50percentofbirdspeciesaremainseeddispersersforfloweringandwoodyplantsprimarilyinsectivores(Wennyetal.,2011).(Sekercioglu,2006).Nearly33percentofbirdspeciesdisperseseeds,primarilythroughfruitconsumption,butTheEuropeanpiedflycatcher(Ficedulahypoleuca)hasalsothroughscatter-hoardingofnutsandconiferseeds.beenshowntobeamajorsuppressorofinsectsharmfulSeeddispersalbenefitsplantsbyincreasingthelikelihoodtoforestvegetation,especiallydestructivemothsandthatseedswillcolonizeareaswithfavourablegerminationcaterpillars.Becauseofthesebenefits,plantationownersconditions.activelyencouragethepresenceofpiedflycatchersbyprovidingthemwithnest-boxes(BirdLifeInternational,Removingcarrion:Vulturesfulfilanextremely2015).Thesuccessofsuchschemesmeanstheuseofimportantecologicalroleasscavengers,helpingtokeepnest-boxesforflycatchersandtitshasbecomeastandardtheenvironmentfreeofcarcassesandwastethatspreadmanagementtoolthroughoutEuropeanforests(ibid.).diseaseamongpeopleandlivestock.VulturesinSouthAsiahavedeclineddrasticallyoverrecentdecades.Forexample,AstudyinacacaoagroforestysysteminCentraltheabundanceoftheIndianvulture(Gypsindicus)andSulawesi,Indonesia,foundthatexclusionofinsectivoroustheslender-billedvulture(Gypstenuirostris)declinedbybirdsandbatsincreasedinsect-herbivoreabundance,despite96.8percentbetween1992and2007(Prakashetal.,2007).thepresenceofotherinsectivorouspredators,aneffectThisislargelybecauseofwidespreaduseofthethatdecreasedthefinalcropyieldby31percent,equatinganti-inflammatorydrug“diclofenac”inlivestock(Ogada,toalossofUSD730perhaperyear(Maas,CloughandKessingandVirani,2012).ThedrugishighlytoxictoTscharntke,2013).AstudyinCostaRicaontheeffectofbirdvultures,whichingestitwhenfeedingonlivestockpredationonthecoffeeberryborer(Hypothenemushampei),carcasses.Declinesinvulturepopulationsmeantthatapestthatoftendevastatescoffeecrops,demonstratedcarcassesbecamemoreprevalent,whichinturnledtothatinfestationsnearlydoubledwhenbirdswereexcludedincreasesinferaldogpopulations,andhenceincreasedfromforagingoncoffeeshrubs(Karpetal.,2013).Similarly,therisktohumansofcontractingrabiesviadogbitesthefindingsofastudyonacoffeefarminJamaicaled(Markandyaetal.,2008).Basedonthecostsofcommercialresearcherstoconcludethatthevalueofcoffeeberryborercarcass-disposalplants,thevalueofasinglevultureremovalbybirdsequatedto12percentofthetotalcrophasbeenestimatedatabout600000Indianrupeesvalue(Johnson,KellermannandStercho,2010).(approximatelyUSD9200)(IUCN,2016a).India,NepalandPakistanbannedtheuseofdiclofenacasaveterinarydrugPollination:Birdsarethoughttobeparticularlyin2006,andsurveyssuggestthatvulturepopulationshaveimportantaspollinatorsincircumstanceswherethedensitystabilized,althoughnumbersstillremaintoolowacrosstheandactivityofpollinatinginsectsislimited,forexampleinregion(e.g.Prakashetal.,2012).cold,high-rainfallordryconditionsoronisolatedislandswithpoorinsectcolonization(CronkandOjeda,2008).Source:ProvidedbytheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(RSPB)andBirdlifeInternational.Andersonetal.(2011b)demonstratedthatseedoutputofthebird-pollinatedshrubNewZealandgloxinia(Rhabdothamnussolandri)was84percentlowerandshrubregeneration55percentloweratsitesinNewZealandthathadlosttwooutofthreemajoravianpollinatorspeciesthanatsiteswhereallthreespecieswerepresent.Studieshavedemonstratedstrongrelationshipsbetweenbirdsandtheplantstheypollinate:oftentheroleofthebirdspeciescannotbesubstitutedbyotherpollinatorssuchasinsects(NabhanandBuchmann,1997).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE137Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable4.5Examplesofassociated-biodiversityspeciesorspeciesgroupsthatcontributetopestanddiseaseregulationreportedtobeunderthreatCountrySpecies/groupDegreeofthreatMainthreat(s)ArgentinaInsectivorousbirdsModerateLossofhabitatinproductionzones,agrochemicalsBelgiumVUIntensiveagricultureBurkinaFasoAlaudaarvensis(Eurasianskylark)VUCookIslandsThreatenedPoaching,habitatdestruction,pesticidesusceptibilityPerdixperdix(greypartridge)ThreatenedEstoniaHighChangesinuseofarableland(e.g.drainage,changesEmberizacitrinella(yellowhammer)ENinmechanization,changesincrops),disappearanceofGuyanaENdead,hollowanddrytrees,pollution,acidificationIrelandMiliariacalandra(cornbunting)Forestry,disappearanceofdead,hollowanddrytrees,LebanonENchangesintreespeciesinforests,changesintheageNorwayBatsstructureofforests,disappearanceofoldforestsand/orENbigtrees,clear-cuttingCollocaliasawtelli(Atiuswiftlet)ForestryAcrocephaluskerearako(CookIslandsreedwarbler)Lossofhabitat(mainlycausedbyfires),climatechange,Pomareadimidiata(Rarotongaillegalhunting,pollutionmonarch)Habitatlossduetoland-usechange,pollutionAploniscinerascens(Rarotongastarling)Habitatlossduetoland-usechangeCoraciasgarrulus(Europeanroller)CR(Cont.)Cucujuscinnaberinus(flatbarkbeetle)CRCalosomainquisitor(lessersearcherCRbeetle)Synallaxiskollari(hoary-throatedENspinetail)EN:2speciesOdonata(damselflyanddragonflyVU:2speciesspecies)NE:9speciesCardueliscarduelis(EuropeanENgoldfinch)SpiderspeciesinlivestockEN:3speciesgrassland-basedsystemsVU:25speciesVU:8speciesSpiderspeciesinrainfedcropsystemsVU:5speciesCentipedespeciesinsemi-naturalforestsEN:3speciesVU:23speciesSpiderspeciesinsemi-naturalforestsforotherpurposesorforwhichthepurposeisstrandsofreporting,however,manycountrynotspecified.ItisalsolikelythatthestatusofreportsnotemajorweaknessesinmonitoringmanagedBCAsisatleasttosomedegreemoni-programmesforBCAs.tored,althoughthisisoftennotstatedexplicitlyinthecountryreports.MonitoringprogrammesStatusandtrendsforpestsanddiseasesthemselvesexistthrough-While,asdescribedabove,thestateofknowledgeouttheworld.Notwithstandingthesevariousremainsveryfarfromcomplete,thecountryreports138thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Table4.5(Cont.)Examplesofassociated-biodiversityspeciesorspeciesgroupsthatcontributetopestanddiseaseregulationreportedtobeunderthreatCountrySpecies/groupDegreeofthreatMainthreat(s)Tinamusmajor(greattinamou)ENCrypturellussoui(littletinamou)ENCraxrubra(greatcurassow)ENNothocercusbonapartei(highlandENtinamou)PanamaPharomachrusmocinno(resplendentENquetzal)Odontophorusgujanensis(marbledENwood-quail)Geotrygonchiriquensis(ChiriquíENquail-dove)Alaudaarvensis(Eurasianskylark)VUHabitatlossCrexcrex(corncrake)ENOtusscops(Eurasianscopsowl)ENSloveniaJynxtorquilla(Eurasianwryneck)VULaniusminor(lessergreyshrike)VULaniuscollurio(red-backedshrike)VULullulaarborea(woodlark)ENSriLankaSpiderspeciesThreatened:100speciesHabitatloss,excessiveuseofpesticidesEN:40speciesCR:21speciesBatspeciesNT:7species(23%)Renovationandreassignmentofhistoricbuildings,OnSwissRedList:15intensiveagricultureandforestrypractices,land-usespecies(50%)changes,useofpesticides.Habitatfragmentationduetothepresenceofinfrastructure(e.g.communicationroutes,lights)SwitzerlandOdonata(damselflyanddragonflyEX:2species(3%)Habitatloss(e.g.fragmentation,drainage)species)CR:12species(16%)EN:7species(10%)VU:5species(7%)Carabidae(groundbeetleandtigerOnSwissRedList:148Habitatloss(e.g.drainingofmoors),intensivebeetlespecies)species(29%)agricultureChrysopidae(lacewingspecies)OnSwissRedList:21Lossofhabitatforlarvaespecies(18%)Notes:CountriesfollowedtheIUCNRedListCategoriesandCriteria(IUCN,2012)(CR[CriticallyEndangered];EN[Endangered];EX[Extinct];NT[NearThreatened);VU[Vulnerable])exceptwherestatedotherwise.Thenumbersinthe“Degreeofthreat”columnindicatethenumbersofspeciesintherespectiveriskcategoryandthepercentagesindicatetheproportionoftheevaluatedspeciesintherespectivetaxonomicgroupfallingwithintherespectiveriskcategory.SeeCordillotandKlaus(2011)formoreinformationontheSwissRedListclassificationsystem.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.provideanumberofindicationsofthestatusofinspidersandpredatoryinsectsincropfields.individualBCAspecies,groupsofBCAsorspeciesNepalmentionsageneraldeclineinthediver-categoriesthatincludesubstantialnumbersofsityofthenaturalenemiesofpests.TheUnitedBCAs.Forexample,BangladeshreportsadeclineKingdomreportsthatitsindicatorforfarmlandthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE139Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBbirds(manyofwhichareinsectivorous)43declinedasearthworms,ants,beetles,termites,spidersandby55percentbetween1970and2013.Similarly,moles)(seeFigure4.4andTable4.7).Theseorgan-theUnitedStatesofAmericareportsadeclineismsarevitaltoarangeofprocessesthatbuildofalmost40percentinitsgrasslandbirdindexandmaintainthecapacityofthesoiltosupportbetween1968and2014.Indianotesthedeclineplantgrowth,regulatewaterflowsandstoreofparasitoidwasps(Ichneumonidae,Braconidaecarbon(Balvaneraetal.,2016;FAOandITPS,2015;families)andparasitoidflies(Tachinidae).Table4.5Beedetal.,2011;Okoth,OkothandJefwa,2013)presentsexamplesfromthecountryreportsofthe(seeTable4.6forasummary).Allthesefunctionsreportedriskstatusofcomponentsofassociateddependoncomplexwebsofinteractionsbetweenbiodiversitythatcontributetopestanddiseasedifferentfunctionalandtaxonomicgroupsofsoilcontrol,alongwith(whereavailable)themainorganisms.Plantsandabove-groundanimalsreportedthreatstothesespecies.alsocontribute,forexamplebysupplyingnutri-entinputsorprotectingthesoilagainsterosionCountries’responsesontrendsinthesupplyof(AngersandCaron,1998b;Graham,Grandyandpest-anddisease-regulationservicesinparticularThelen,2009;Vanni,2002).production-systemcategoriesaresummarizedinTable4.4.Reportsofdecreasingtrendspredom-Aquaticorganismsarevitaltotheformationinateinallthreecropproduction-systemcatego-ofpondsediments,theaccumulationofdepos-ries,whileincreasingtrendspredominateinmixeditsinfloodplainsandriverbeds,andnutrientsystems.Inallotherproduction-systemcategories,cyclingwithinthesesedimentsanddepositsandtrendsaremixed(i.e.neitherpositivenornegativeinthewideraquaticenvironment(Haueretal.,norstabletrendspredominate).Manycountries2016;Palmeretal.,2000).MoreinformationonreportfactorsthatarethreateningBCAsinandbiodiversitythatcontributestonutrientcyclingaroundproductionsystems,includingtheuseofinaquaticecosystemsisprovidedinSection4.3.7.agrochemicals(particularlypesticides),habitatlossandfragmentation,overexploitationandStateofknowledgeclimatechange.ForfurtherdiscussionofdriversTheroleofsoilbiotainthesupplyofecosystemofchange,seeChapter3.serviceshasbecomeakeyfocusforsoilscienceoverthelastfewdecades(FAOandITPS,2015),andsoils4.3.6Associatedbiodiversityforandsoilbiodiversityingeneralhavebeenreceiv-soil-relatedecosystemservicesingincreasingattention.RecentmilestoneshaveincludedthelaunchoftheGlobalSoilBiodiversityIntroductionInitiativein2011,theestablishmentoftheGlobalThissectionaddressesthestatusandtrendsofSoilPartnershipin2012,andtheinaugurationofcomponentsofBFAinvolvedinsoilformationandWorldSoilDayin2013.44Thefirstmajorglobalprotectionandinnutrientcycling.Thebiotaofassessmentofsoilsandhowtheyarechanging,Thethesoilitselfishighlydiverse(Orgiazzietal.,eds.,StatusoftheWorld’sSoilResources(FAOandITPS,2016).Componentsincludemicro-organisms(e.g.2015),waspublishedin2015.Thefollowingyearfungi,bacteria,algae,nematodesandprotozoa),sawthepublicationoftheGlobalSoilBiodiversitymesofauna(invertebratesrangingfrom0.1mmtoAtlas(Orgiazzietal.,eds.,2016),whichprovided2mminlength,andincludingmites,springtailsthefirstcomprehensiveoverviewofthegeograph-andmolluscs)andmacrofauna(largeranimalssuchicalandtemporaldistributionofsoilbiodiversityinbothnaturalandmanagedecosystems.Anumber43Elevenoutof19speciesarepredominantlyinsectivorousofregionalsoil-biodiversitysurveyinginitiativesduringthespringandsummerandthereforehaveapotentialroleincontrollinginsectpests(DEFRA,2017).However,littleis44InDecember2013,the68thUNGeneralAssemblydeclared5knownabouttheeffectivenessofthesespeciesaspestcontrolDecemberastheWorldSoilDay.agents(ibid.).140thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Figure4.4ThesoilfoodwebAsimplifiedsoilfoodwebMeso-andMacrofaunaMicrofaunaMeso-and(e.g.arthropods)(e.g.nematodes)MacrofaunaPredatorsRootfeeders(e.g.arthropods)ShreddersPLANTSShootsandrootsFUNGIMicrofaunaBirdsMycorrhizalfungi(e.g.nematodes)SaprophyticPredatorsMicrofaunafungi(e.g.nematodes)PredatorsORGANICMATTERBACTERIAProtistsDeadplantandanimalEarthwormsMammalstissues,organiccompoundsandmetabolitesfromorganismactivities1stTrophiclevel:2ndTrophiclevel:3rdTrophiclevel:4thTrophiclevel:5thandhigherPrimaryproducersDecomposers,litterShreddersHigher-levelpredatorsTrophiclevel:andsoilorganicmatterPredatorsHigher-levelpredatorsfeedersGrazersMutualistsPathogensandparasitesRootfeedersSource:Orgiazzietal.,eds.,2016.©EuropeanUnion,2016.havealsobeenestablished,includingtheAfricanindicatethattheyhaveamonitoringsysteminSoilMicrobiologyProjectandactivitiesundertheplaceexplicitlyfororganismsthatplayaroleinsoilEnvironmentalAssessmentofSoilforMonitoringfunction.Thelevel(samplingfrequencyandtypeProject,45ashavevariousnationalinitiatives,forofanalysis)andcoverage(numberofspeciesmon-exampleinseveralEuropeancountries(Gardietitored)ofthesesystemsvarygreatlyfromcountryal.,2009)(seealsoBox4.6).tocountry.SomecountriesdescribemonitoringeffortsfocusedonaparticularcomponentofsoilThecountryreportsgenerallyindicatethatbiodiversity.Forexample,EstonianotesthatitsknowledgeofthebiodiversitythatcontributesAgriculturalResearchCentremonitorsthediversitytosoilformationandprotectionandtonutrientanddistributionofearthworms.SriLankamentionscyclinginproductionsystemsislimitedandthatmonitoringactivitiesforsoilbiodiversityinspecifictrendsinthestatusoftheseresourcesarenotmon-productionsystems:arthropoddiversityinpaddyitored.Amongthe91reportingcountries,eightfieldsandmicrobialdiversityinvariousfarmingsystems.Othercountriesmentionmore-general45https://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/projects/envassothestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE141Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBTable4.6ThefunctionsofsoilorganismsTypeofsoilorganismMajorfunctionsPrimaryproducersPlants,algae,bacteriaCaptureenergyUsesolarenergytofixcarbondioxideAddorganicmattertosoilDecomposersBacteria,fungiBreakdownorganicresiduesImmobilize(retain)nutrientsintheirbiomassCreateneworganiccompounds(cellconstituents,wasteproducts)thataresourcesofenergyandnutrientsforotherorganismsProduceorganiccompoundsthathelpbindsoilintoaggregatesEnmeshandbindsoilaggregateswithfungalhyphaeConvertnitrogenintoplant-available,leachableorgaseousforms(nitrifyinganddenitrifyingbacteria)Competewithorinhibitdisease-causingorganismsMutualistsBacteria,fungiEnhanceplantgrowthProtectplantrootsfromdisease-causingorganismsFixnitrogen(somebacteria)Formmycorrhizalassociationswithrootsandimproveaccessanddeliveryofkeynutrients(e.g.phosphorus)andwatertotheplant(somefungi)PathogensandparasitesBacteria,fungi,nematodes,Potentiallycausediseasemicro-arthropodsConsumerootsandotherplantparts,causingdiseaseParasitizenematodesorinsects,includingdisease-causingorganismsRootfeedersNematodes,macro-arthropodsConsumeplantroots(e.g.cutworm,weevillarvae,Potentiallycausesignificantcropyieldlossessymphylansandwhitegrubs)BacterialfeedersProtozoa,nematodesGrazeonbacteriaReleaseplant-availablenitrogenandothernutrientswhenfeedingonbacteriaFungalfeedersNematodes,micro-arthropodsGrazeonfungiControlmanyroot-feedingordisease-causingpestsStimulateandcontroltheactivityoffungalpopulationsEcosystemengineersEarthworms,termites,antsMaintainsoilstructureEnhancesoilaggregationbypassingsoilthroughtheirgutsShreddersMacro-arthropodsBreakdownresidueandenhancesoilstructureProcessorganicresidueintosmallerfragmentsShredplantlitterastheyfeedonbacteriaandfungiHigher-levelpredatorsNematode-feedingnematodes,Controlpopulationslargerarthropods,mammals,Controlpopulationsoflowertrophic-levelpredatorsbirds,othervertebratesLargerorganismsimprovesoilstructurebyburrowingLargerorganismscarrysmallerorganismsoverlongdistancesSource:BasedonTugel,LewandowskiandHappe-vonArb,eds.(2000).monitoringsystems.TheNetherlands,forexample,inplaceforsoilbiodiversity,relevantactivitiesreportsanationwidemonitoringprogrammeforaresometimesconductedwithintheframeworksoilbiodiversity(seeBox4.6).Chinaindicatesthatofindividualprojects.Forexample,Norwaymen-ithasdevelopedanationalbiodiversitymonitoringtionstheLivingTopsoilproject,underwhichsoilnetworkanddraftedmonitoringguidesfor,interbiodiversityandhealthareassessedandfarmersalia,soil-dwellinganimals.Informationonmonitor-arethenencouragedtomodifytheirmanage-ingactivitiesconductedbyFrance’sObservatoryofmentpracticestoimprovesoilhealth.TheUnitedAgriculturalBiodiversityisprovidedinBox8.8.Kingdomreportsapilotprojectthatisidentify-ingandcharacterizingsoil-organismcommuni-Somecountriesindicatethatwhiletheyhavetiesusinggeneticbarcodingandmetabarcodingnosystematicnationalmonitoringprogrammes142thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Table4.7TypicalnumbersofsoilorganismsinhealthyecosystemsAgriculturalsoilsPrairiesoilsForestsoilsBacteria100millionto1billion100millionto1billion100millionto1billionFungiPerteaspoonofsoil(1gramdry)SeveralyardsTenstohundredsofyardsSeveralhundredsofyardsin(dominatedbyvesicular-(dominatedbyvesicular-deciduousforestsarbuscularmycorrhizalfungi)arbuscularmycorrhizalfungi)Onetofortymilesinconiferousforests(dominatedbyectomycorrhizalfungi)ProtozoaSeveralthousandflagellatesandSeveralthousandandamoebae,Severalhundredthousandamoebae,onehundredtoseveralonehundredtoseveralhundredamoebae,fewerflagellateshundredciliatesciliatesNematodesTentotwentybacterial-feedersTenstoseveralhundredSeveralhundredbacterial-andAfewfungal-feedersfungal-feedersFewpredatorynematodesManypredatorynematodesArthropodsPersquarefootUptoonehundredFivehundredtotwothousandTentotwenty-fivethousandManymorespeciesthaninagriculturalsoilsEarthwormsFivetothirtyTentofiftyTentofiftyindeciduousMoreinsoilswithhighorganicAridorsemi-aridareasmayhavewoodlandsmatternoneVeryfewinconiferousforestsNote:1foot=0.3048m;1yard=0.9144m;1mile=1.609344km.Source:ThetableisincludedinthecountryreportoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica(alsopublishedinTugel,LewandowskiandHappe-vonArb,eds.[2000]andonlineintheSoilbiologyprimeroftheNationalResourcesConservationServiceavailableathttps://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053860).approaches.Denmarkmentionsastudyofthepropertiesinpredeterminedareasofthecountryeffectsoftheherbicideglyphosateandnitro-(about40km2aresurveyedeachyear).Thedatagenfertilizeronsmallterrestrialbiotopessuchcollectedprovideabasisforidentifyingtrendsinashedgerowsandfieldmargins,whichmeas-soiltextureandhealth.ured,interalia,impactsonbiodiversityandfunc-tionaltraitsinsoilfauna.46TheUnitedStatesofStatusandtrendsAmericareportsanexampleofindirectmonitor-Asummaryoftheregionaltrendsinsoilbiodi-ing,notingthatusingdatafromtheNationalversitylossasidentifiedbyFAOandITPS(2015)ResourceInventory(asurveyconductedonceispresentedinTable4.8.Amongthetenfactorseveryfiveyears)andotherstudies,trendsinsoil-identifiedasmajorthreatstothecontinuedpro-managementpracticescanbemonitoredasavisionofsoilecosystemservices,thelossofsoilproxyforsoilhealth–withafocusonsoilcarbon,biodiversityislistedasthefourthmostimportant,soilerosion,adoptionofreduced-tillagepractices,aftersoilerosion,organic-carbondeclineandadoptionofcroprotationsandadoptionofcovernutrientimbalance.Asthetableshows,althoughcrops.Countriesalsoreportanumberofotherinformationislimited,therearegroundsforinitiativesthat,whilenotstrictlyfocusedonmon-seriousconcernaboutthestatusofsoilbiodiver-itoringofsoilbiodiversity,nonethelesscontributesityinallregionsoftheworld.Manyindicatorsoftotheaccumulationofknowledgeontheirsoilsoilhealthareindeclineandecosystemservicesresources.Forexample,Norwayreportsa“soilprovidedbysoilsareunderseverethreat(ibid.).mapping”initiativethatinvolvessurveysofsoilFigure4.5showstheoutcomeofthefirstattempt46ThecountryreportcitesDamgaardetal.(2016).tomapsoilbiodiversityatglobalscale(Orgiazzietal.,eds.,2016).Itcombinestwodatasets:thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE143Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.5MapoftheSoilBiodiversityIndexSoilBiodiversityIndexHighLowNotavailableWaterIceSource:Orgiazzietal.,eds.,2016.©EuropeanUnion,2016.Figure4.6MapofpotentialthreatstosoilbiodiversityPotentialthreatstosoilbiodiversityVerylowLowModerateHighVeryhighNotavailableWaterIceSource:Orgiazzietal.,eds.,2016.©EuropeanUnion,2016.144thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4distributionofmicrobialbiomass,asaproxyforsoildesertification;andclimatechange.Specificmicro-organismdiversity(Serna-Chavez,Fiererandproxieswerechosentorepresentthespatialdistri-VanBodegom,2013);anddistributionof14groupsbutionofeachthreat(Orgiazzietal.,eds.,2016).ofsoilmacrofauna,asaproxyforsoil-faunadiver-Alldatasetswereharmonizedona0to1scaleandsity(Orgiazzietal.,eds.,2016).Thetwodatasetssummed,withtotalscorescategorizedintofivewereharmonizedona0to1scaleandsummedtoriskclasses(verylowtoveryhigh).Somepotentialgenerateanindex.Duetothecurrentlackofdata,threats,suchassoilsealingandsalinization,wereimportantgroupsofsoilorganismssuchasnema-notincludedduetoalackofdata.Theexercisetodes,collembolansandmitesarenotincludedtheindicatedtheneedforbetterdatacollectionthatindex.Thereisthusaneedforsignificantlymorewillallowthedevelopmentofconservationactionsresearchanddatacollection.specificallyforsoil-dwellingorganisms.Figure4.6showsafirstglobalmapofthedistri-Asnotedabove,themajorityofcountryreportsbutionofpotentialthreatstosoilorganisms.Ariskdonotincludedetailedinformationonthestatusindexwasgeneratedbycombiningeightpotentialandtrendsofcomponentsofassociatedbiodiversitystressorsofsoilbiodiversity:lossofabove-groundinvolvedinsoilformationandprotectionanddiversity;pollutionandnutrientoverloading;over-nutrientcycling.Somecountries,however,providegrazing;intensiveagriculture;fire;soilerosion;partialortentativestatementsinthisregard.ForBox4.6TheNetherlands’soilbiologicalmonitoringprogrammeIntheNetherlands,thenationwidesoilbiologicalmonitoringIngeneral,theabundanceofsoilorganismswasfoundprogrammeBISQ(BiologicalIndicatorofSoilQuality)wastobehigherinthesoilofdairyfarmsthaninthatofarabledevelopedwiththeaimofcollectingdatathatwouldenableland.Earthworms,especially,appearedtobescarceinpolicy-makerstoassessthequalityandresilienceofsoilarableland,andwerevirtuallyabsentinmixedforestsandecosystemservices.BISQisconsideredtorankamongtheheathlands.Nematodeabundancewashighestindairymostadvancedsoil-monitoringsystemsintheworld.farmsonpeatandlowestintheminerallayerofmixedforestonsand.BISQlinkssoilfunctioningtosoilbiodiversity.First,themostimportantlife-supportfunctionsofthesoilwereDatafromBISQhavebeenusedtodevelopbenchmarksidentiﬁed:decompositionoforganicmatter;nutrientcycling;fortencombinationsofsoiltypeandlanduse.Foreachofsoil-structureformation;plant–soilinteractions;thesecombinations,alimitednumberofmonitoringsitesandecosystemstability.Next,ecologicalprocesseslinkedwereselectedthatwereconsideredtobewellmanagedtothesefunctionsweredescribed.Finally,thedominantandtorepresentrelativelygood-qualitysoilecosystems.soil-organismgroupsandecological-processparametersTheaverageoftheBISQparametersforthesesiteswasweredeterminedandcombinedintoanindicatorsystemtakenasabenchmarkforagood-qualitysoilecosystem.(seetablebelow).Inagriculture,thesebenchmarkscanservetohelpfarmersimprovesoilqualityandestablishmore-sustainablefarmingAbout300locations,withdifferentcombinationsoflandpractices.Innatureconservation,thebenchmarkscanguideuseandsoiltype,wereselected,andfrom1999onwardsmanagersofprotectedareasintheireffortstorestoresampleswerecollectedfromabout60locations(farms,formeragriculturallands.naturalareasandurbansites)andanalysedforsoil-biologicalcharacteristics.Becauseofbudgetconstraints,soilThemainlessonlearnedfromtheprogrammeisthatsamplingwasdiscontinuedin2014,butthedataobtainedbiologicalsoilmonitoring,withmeasurementscarriedoutsofarcontinuetobeusedforpolicyformulation.Samplingformorethan15yearsonasemi-routinescale,isfeasible.mayrestartwhenbudgetbecomesavailableagain.(Cont.)thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE145Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBBox4.6(Cont.)TheNetherlands’soilbiologicalmonitoringprogrammeTheBISQindicatorframeworkLifesupportEcologicalprocessesDominantsoil-organismIndicatorsfunctionsgroupsandecologicalprocessTaxonomicdiversitypertrophiclevelDecompositionofFragmentationparametersorganicmatterTransformationoforganicsubstrateTaxonomicdiversitypertrophiclevelEarthworms,enchytraeids,mites,BacterialDNApolymorphismCarbonandnitrogenmineralizationwood-relatedfungiModel-derivednitrogenproductionBacterialdegradationroutesConcentration,biomass,thymidineLitter-anddung-relatedfungiincorporationGeneticallydiversemicroﬂoraActive/inactivecystsMaturityindexTrophicinteractionsFunctionaldiversityMaturityindexNutrientcyclingMicrobialactivityMicro-organismsFunctionaldiversityPredationmicrofaunaNumberoforganismsProtistsBiomassSoil-structureBioturbationandformationofsoilNematodesFunctionaldiversityformationaggregatesSpringtailsNitrateproductionfromNH4+MitesPlantparasiticindexPlant–soilUptakeofN,P,H2OandheavymetalsFood-webstructure;food-webinteractionsNitriﬁcationEarthwormspyramidFeedingonplantrootsEnchytraeidsMyceliumhyphaeEcosystemstabilityTrophiclinks;loopsandcascadeeffectsMycorrhizalmacrofungiNitrifyingbacteriaNematodesandfungalpathogensStructureofcommunityAfterRutgersetal.,2009.Source:ProvidedbyMartinBrink,drawingonBritishEcologicalSociety(2016),CBS,PBLandWUR(2016),Rutgersetal.(2014,2009)andpersonalcommunicationwithMichelRutgers(NationalInstituteforPublicHealthandtheEnvironment,theNetherlands),24November2016.example,theUnitedStatesofAmericanotesthatmentionsnegativetrendsamonggrasslandinver-theabove-mentionedsoil-relatedmonitoringtebratesandmicro-organisms.Theseeffectsactivitiesindicatepositivetrendsintheimplemen-areattributedtoadeclineinlivestocknumberstationofthemanagementpracticesconsidered(causedbydiseaseoutbreaks)thathasdisruptedpotentialproxiesforthestatusofsoilbiodiversity.soil-formationprocesses,althoughthereportalsoOthercountriesthatindicateatleastsomepositivementionsthatoverstockingandovergrazingintrendsincludeEthiopia,whichreportsthatthecommunalareashavenegativelyaffectedsoilsplantingoftreesthatsymbioticallyfixnitrogenandtheircapacitytosupplywater-relatedeco-hashadapositiveeffectonsoilmicro-organismsystemservices.Grenadanotesthatfarmershavediversityinplantedforestsystems.Countriesreportedadeclineinearthwormnumbers.reportingunfavourabledevelopmentsincludeElSalvador,whichnoteslarge-scalesoilerosionCountries’responsesontrendsinthesupplyofassociatedwithlossofforestcoverandmentionssoil-relatedecosystemservices(i.e.nutrientcyclingthatthishasbeenaccompaniedbylossofsoilandsoilformationandprotection)inparticularinvertebratesandmicro-organisms.ZambiaproductionsystemsaresummarizedinTable4.4.Wherenutrientcyclingisconcerned,reports146thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Table4.8Summaryofregionalextent,trendsanduncertaintiesofsoil-biodiversitylosspresentedintheStatusoftheWorld’sSoilResourcesConditionandtrendConfidenceRegionSummaryVerypoorPoorFairGoodVerygoodInconditionIntrendSub-SaharanSub-SaharanAfricasuffersahigh↘Africarateofdeforestation.Theareasmost↗↙affectedarethoseinthemoistareasof↘WestAfricaandthehighlandforests↗↙oftheHornofAfrica.Cultivation,↘introductionofnewspecies,oil↗↙explorationandpollutionreducethepopulationofsoilorganisms,thus↗↙reducingfaunalandmicrobialactivities.LimitedinformationisavailableforsoilAsiabiodiversityinAsia.SomereportsshowhighmicrobialbiodiversityinthesoilsEvidenceandconsensusarelowoforganicfarminglands.EvidenceandconsensusEuropeandLossofbiodiversityisexpectedinthearelimitedEurasiamosturbanizedandcontaminatedareasoftheregion.However,thereareAdequatehigh-qualityalmostnoqualitativeestimationsofevidenceandthebiodiversitylossinsoils.highlevelofconsensusLatinAmericaLossofsoilbiodiversityissuspectedto↗↙Variableandtheoccurindeforestedandoverexploited↗ImprovingCaribbeanagriculturalareas.↘DeterioratingNearEastandTheextentoflossofsoilbiodiversityNorthAfricaduetohumanimpactislargelyunknownintheNearEastandNorthAfricaregion.Morestudiesneedtobeundertakentounderstandthescopeoftheproblem.NorthAmericaTheextentoflossofsoilbiodiversityduetohumanimpactislargelyunknowninNorthAmerica.Theeffectsofincreasingagriculturalchemicaluse,especiallypesticideuse,onbiodiversityareamajorpublicconcern.Knownlevelofcarbonlosssuggestssimilarlossinbiodiversity.SouthwestRatesoflossweremostlikelyhighestPacificduringtheexpansionofagriculture,particularlyoverthelast100years,andthismayhaveslowed.However,informationonbaselinesandtrendsislackinginnearlyalldistrictsandcountries.Source:FAOandITPS,2015.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE147Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBofdownwardtrendspredominateinlivestockbodiesandtheocean(Acreman,2004).Ecosystemsgrassland-basedsystems,irrigatedcropsystemsandthelivingorganismswithintheminfluencetheandculture-basedfisheries.Inmostothersystems,hydrologicalcycleandhencetheamountofwatertrendsaremixed(i.e.neitherpositivenornega-availableatparticularlocationsatparticularpointstivenorstabletrendspredominate).Inthecaseintime:forexample,whetherornotthereissuffi-ofsoilformationandprotectionservices,reportscientwatertomeettheneedsofplantsduringtheofnegativetrendspredominateinlivestockgrowingseasoninacroppingareaorwhetherorgrassland-basedsystemsandinallcategoriesofnotavulnerableareaishitbyflooding.cropsystem.Reportsofpositivetrendspredomi-nateforplantedforestsystems(possiblyreflectingVegetationandsoilsarevitaltothecontrolofincreasingareasofplantedforestsinsomecountries)waterflowsinterrestrialecosystems.Vegetationandlandlesslivestocksystems.Trendsaremixedpromotestheinfiltrationofwaterintothesoil,(i.e.neitherpositivenornegativenorstablethushelpingtorechargeundergroundaquiferstrendspredominate)fornaturallyregeneratedandloweringfloodrisk(Acreman,2004).Soilforests.While,asinthecaseofotherecosystembiota–plants,micro-organismsandinvertebrateservicecategories,levelsofreportingarelow,theandvertebrateanimals–modifiesthestructuresubstantialproportionofcountriesthatreportofthesoilandaffectsthepathwaysandratesofnegativetrendsinmajorfood-producingsystemswaterinfiltration,influencingthecapacityofthereinforcestheconcernsthathaveemergedfromsoiltoholdwater(BIOIntelligenceService,2014;theglobalassessmentsdescribedabove.SansandMeixner,2016)(seeSection4.3.4forfurtherinformationonthestatusandtrendsofAfewcountryreportsprovideinformationassociatedbiodiversitycontributingtosoil-relatedlinkingtrendsinsoil-relatedecosystemservicesecosystemservices).Plantsalsoreturnwatertothetomanagementpracticesinspecificproductionatmospherethroughtranspiration(Acremanetsystems.Forexample,thereportfromPanamaal.,2014;Stewart,1977)andinsomecasesinflu-mentionsthatingrasslandsystemstheuseofher-encetheamountofprecipitationthatfallsinthebicidesandantiparasiticlivestockdrugsisleadinglocalarea(Spracklen,ArnoldandTaylor,2012;tocontaminationofthesoil,affectingsoilinverte-Wrightetal.,2017)(seeBox4.7).bratesandinhibitingsoil-formationandnutrient-cyclingservices.Similarly,BangladeshreportsthatAswellasinfluencingthequantityofwatersoilformationandprotectionarebeinghamperedavailable,biodiversityalsoinfluenceswaterinareaswheresoilmicro-organismdiversityisquality,includingbycyclingnutrientswithinaffectedbytheuseofpesticidesandfertilizers.waterbodiesandbetweenthemandotherecosys-Furtherinformationontrendsinmanagementtems.Nutrient-cyclingservicesareessentialtothepracticesthatareconsideredbeneficialtosoilhealthofaquaticecosystems.Ontheonehand,biodiversitycanbefoundinSection5.6.3.aquaticorganismsclearlyneedtobeabletoaccesssufficientquantitiesofnutrientstoallowthem4.3.7Associatedbiodiversityfortogrowandreproduce.Ontheother,however,water-relatedecosystemserviceswaterbodiescanbecomeoverloadedwithnutri-ents,forexampleinagriculturalareaswherethereIntroductionisaheavyuseoffertilizers,andthiscanhaveneg-Waterisvitaltoallspeciesandtoallecosystemativeimpactsonbiodiversityandthesupplyoffunctionsandservices.WhilemuchoftheEarth’secosystemservices(seeChapter3).estimated1.4billionkm3ofwaterisinlong-termstorageinoceans,icecapsandaquifers,aboutAmyriadofinterconnectedphysical,physio-41000km3circulatesbetweentheatmosphere,thechemical,chemicalandbiologicalprocessessurfaceoftheland,subsurfacezones,freshwatercontributetowater-purificationandnutrient-cyclingservicesinaquaticecosystems(Cardinale,2011;Ostroumov,2002,2005).Somespecies148thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Box4.7Páramos–avitalproviderofwater-regulatingservicesunderthreatWhatarepáramos?haveextraordinarywater-retentioncapacity(ibid.).ManyPáramosarehigh-altitudeecosystemsfoundmainlyinaofthelargesttributariesoftheAmazonbasinhavetheirdiscontinuousbeltstretchingalongtheAndeanmountainheadwatersinpáramoecosystems,whichthushelpsustainrangefromtheCordilleradeMeridaintheBolivarianRepublicthelivesandlivelihoodsofmillionsofpeople,providingofVenezuelatotheHuancabambadepressioninnorthernwaterfordomestic,agriculturalandindustrialconsumptionPeru,passingthroughColombiaandEcuador(Buytaertetal.,andforuseingeneratinghydropower(Buytaertetal.,2006).2006;IUCN,undated).ThereareseparatepáramocomplexesinCostaRicaandintheSierraNevadadeSantaMarta,Whyarepáramosunderthreat?Colombia(Hofstede,SegarraandMena,2003).Thecountryreportsmentionseveralthreatstothepáramosandtheecosystemservicestheyprovide.Forexample,thePáramoecosystemsextendfromtheuppertreelinetoreportfromPerustatesthatthecountry’spáramosaretheperennialsnowborder(3200to5000metresaboveseaundergoingaprocessoftransformation,desertificationlevel)(IUCN,undated).Itisestimatedthattheyhostaroundanderosion,mainlyasaresultofovergrazing,extractive5000differentplantspecies,ahighproportionofwhichareactivities,intensiveagricultureandpollution.Itnotesendemic(i.e.foundnowhereelse)(Buytaertetal.,2006).thatthisisdirectlyaffectingtheecosystem’scapacitytoSpeciesthatoccupythepáramoshavedevelopedremarkablemoderateextremeevents,preventerosion,maintainsoiladaptationstoharshphysiochemicalandclimaticconditionsfertilityandmaintaingeneticdiversity.Ecuadormentionssuchaslowatmosphericpressure,intenseultravioletradiationthattheinvasivealienspeciesKikuyugrass(Pennisetumandthedryingeffectsofthewind(ibid.).clandestinum)representsathreattopáramos,asitcouldoutcompetenativespeciesand,givenitsvalueasafodder,Howdopáramoscontributetowaterregulation?promotemorelivestockgrazinginmountainareas.CostaPáramosplayakeyroleinregulatingwaterflows(BuytaertRicareportsthat,accordingtoascenariostudy,climateetal.,2006):rainfallishighandmaybesupplementedbychangewillleadtoaltitudinalshiftsinlifezonesthatwillfogcondensation;waterconsumptionislowastheleavesofpotentiallyresultinthedisappearanceofthecountry’sthetussockgrassesareprotectedagainstradiationanddrypáramosinthecomingdecades.airbyaccumulateddeadleavesandbecausetheherbaceousvegetationconsistsofxerophyticspecies(plantsadaptedSources:CountryreportsofCostaRica,EcuadorandPeru(plusthereferencestoalackofwater);thetussockgrassesanddwarfshrubscitedinthetext).protectthesoilandreduceevaporation.ThesoilsthemselvesPáramosecosystemonthefoothillsofPuracéNationalParkintheAndes,Espeletiaspp.,commonlyknownasfrailejones,aretypicalplantsofColombia.©NigelDudley.páramosecosystems.©NigelDudley.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE149Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBplayparticularlyprominentroles.Forexample,(Salixspp.),cattails(Typhaspp.),theoystersomeplantspecies,suchasthewaterhyacinthmushroom(Pleurotusostreatus)andbamboos(Eichhorniacrassipes),duckweed(e.g.Lemna(Bambusaspp.)(seeSection4.3.1).Treesarepar-spp.),aquaticferns(e.g.Azollaspp.),cattailsticularlywidelymentioned,asistheimportance(Typhaspp.)andreeds(Phragmitesspp.),areofsoils,wetlandecosystems,forestsandriparianrecognizedfortheirabilitytoremovetoxicsub-areas.Forexample,theUnitedStatesofAmericastancessuchasheavymetalsfromwaterbodieshighlightstheimportanceofthesoilasafilterthat(RamsarConvention,2011a).47Filter-feedingimproveswaterquality,andalsonotestheroleanimals,suchasascidians(seasquirts),cirripedsplayedbyriparianbuffersinreducingtheamount(barnacles),bryozoans(colony-forminginverte-offertilizerandotheragriculturalchemicalsbratessometimesreferredtoasmossanimals),passingfromfarmlandintowaterways.Countriesbivalves(e.g.clams,oysters,musselsandscallops),alsonoteanumberofmarineandcoastaleco-polychaetes(bristleworms)andsponges,playasystemsasimportantsuppliersofwater-purifica-conspicuous“cleaning”roleintheecosystemastionservices.Forexample,NorwaymentionskelptheyremovesuspendedparticlesfromthewaterforestsandSolomonIslandsmentionscoralreefs,(Ostroumov,2005).However,virtuallyallthemangroves,seagrassbedsandintertidalmudspeciesinanaquaticecosystemareinvolvedinecosystems.Severalgroupsofaquaticspeciesarewater-purificationandnutrient-cyclingprocesses,notedascontributorstomarinewater-purifica-eitherdirectly(e.g.bytrapping,transforming,tionservices,includingshellfishandmicro-organ-accumulatingand/ortranslocatingpollutantsviaisms(Mexico)andmicroalgae(Peru).theirbehaviouralactivitiesandphysiologicalpro-cesses)orindirectly(e.g.byreleasingoxygenintoStateofknowledgethewater,mixingthewatercolumn,influencingAsdescribedabove,awiderangeoftaxonomicthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofthewaterandfunctionalgroupsoforganisms,acrossabycontributingorganicmatter,orinfluencingtherangeofdifferentecosystems,contributetobehaviourofotherorganismssuchapreyspecies)water-purificationandwater-cyclingservices.(Ostroumov,2002,2005;Vanni,2002).However,althoughtheprocessesinvolvedmaybebroadlyunderstood,inmanycaseslittleisknownInadditiontoprocessesoccurringwithinabouttheunderlyingecologicalmechanismsthatwaterbodiesthemselves,water-purificationser-keeptheminoperationorabouttherelationshipsvicesareprovidedbyotherecosystemsthroughbetweenthediversityanddistributionofBFAwhichwaterflows(forests,grasslands,etc.)(FAO,andprovisionoftheseservices(Cardinale,2011;2007d;OregonStateUniversity,2008;Ostroumov,Harrisonetal.,2014;Ostroumov,2005).2005).Aswithwater-cyclingservices,thecapac-ityoftheseecosystemstopurifywaterisgreatlyWaterqualityitselfhasnotyetbeenassessedaffectedbythestateofthevegetationandthecomprehensivelyatglobalscale.In1978,thesoilswithinthem–andinturnonawiderangeGlobalEnvironmentMonitoringSystemforofcomponentsofbiodiversitythatcontributetofreshwater(GEMS/Water)wasestablishedundersoilhealthorhelpmaintainplantcommunities.48theauspicesoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme,theUnitedNationsEducational,InresponsetoaquestionaboutspeciesScientificandCulturalOrganization,themanagedspecificallytopromotewater-relatedWorldHealthOrganizationandtheWorldecosystemservices,countriesmentionapprox-MeteorologicalOrganization(UNEnvironment,imately80species.Examplesincludewillows2016c).TheGEMS/WaterDataCentremaintainstheGlobalWaterQualitydatabaseandinfor-47Itshouldbenotedthatsomeofthosespeciesareinvasiveinmationsystem(GEMStat),whichstoresdatasomeregionsoftheworld.receivedfromaglobalnetworkofnational48SeeSection4.5forfurtherdiscussionofthestatusandtrendsofrangelands,forestsandwetlands.150thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4focalpoints(ibid.).Aglobalassessmentofwaterarangeofecosystems,includingriverandarte-quality(Meybecketal.,1989;UNESCO,WHOandsianbasins,ancient,montaneandcraterlakes,UNEnvironment,1996)waspublishedin1988.salinelagoons,salt-marshesandmangroves.However,inconsistenciesinspatialandtempo-OtherexamplesincludestudiesofthestatusofralcoverageanddifferencesintherangesoffreshwaterbiodiversityintheEasternHimalayavariablesreportedmeantthattheassessment(Allen,MolurandDaniel,2010),WesternGhatsreliedonsourcesotherthantheGEMS/Water(Moluretal.,2011)andIndo-Burmabiodiversitydatabase(UNEnvironment,2016c).In2016,UNhotspots(Allen,SmithandDarwall,2012).EnvironmentpublishedAsnapshotoftheworld’swaterquality:towardsaglobalassessment(ibid.),Inasfarasthecountryreportsmentionresearchaprestudyaimingtoprovidesomeofthebuildingormonitoringprogrammesaddressingtheroleblocksofaglobalassessmentandtoprovideaofbiodiversityinthedeliveryofwater-cyclingpreliminaryestimateofthestateofwaterqualityandwater-purificationservices,itisgenerallytoinfreshwaterecosystems,withafocusonlakesnotealackofknowledgeoralackofstudiesonandriversinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica.relevantcomponentsofbiodiversity(e.g.micro-organisms),onthecapacityofparticularecosys-Thestatusofrelevantecosystemsandgroupstemstodelivertheseservicesorontrendsintheofspeciesareassessedandmonitoredunderasupplyoftheseservices.Finlanddoes,however,numberofglobalinitiatives.Forexample,IUCNmentionwaterpurificationamongtheecosystemmonitorstheconservationstatusofmarineandservicesforwhichtherehasbeenarapidgrowthfreshwaterinvertebratesandhowtheyarebeingofresearchinrecentdecades.affectedbyenvironmentalchanges(Collenetal.,2012).TheIUCNSpeciesProgrammeMarineStatusandtrendsBiodiversityUnitassessesextinctionrisksforAsdiscussedabove,whilewater-relatedsupport-marinevertebrates,plantsandselectedinverte-ingandregulatingecosystemservicesdependtobrates,includingthoseinimportantecosystemsalargedegreeontheextent,distributionandsuchascoralreefs,mangrovesandseagrassbedsgeneralhealthofrelevantecosystemsandona(GMSA,2017).TheGlobalCensusofMarineLife,49verywiderangeofdifferentorganisms,someconductedbetween2000and2010toassessandspeciesplayparticularlyprominentroles.Intheexplainthediversity,distributionandabundancecaseofwaterpurificationservices,theseincludeofmarinelife,resultedinthecreationofaglobalaquaticplantsandvariousgroupsofaquaticinver-marine-lifedatabase(seeChapter6formoretebrates.Theriskstatusofspeciesinthesecate-information).Moreinformationonrelevanteco-goriesis,ingeneral,relativelypoorlymonitored,systemassessmentscanbefoundinSection4.5.ascomparedtothatofvertebrates,forexample.DatafromTheIUCNRedListforsomerelevantRegionalandnationalinitiativeswithintaxa–Maxillopoda(crustaceanssuchasbarnaclestheframeworkofTheIUCNRedListhavepro-andcopepods),Holothuroidea(seacucumbers),videddetailedreviewsofthestatusofpar-Bivalvia(e.g.clams,oysters,musselsandscallops)ticulargroupsofaquaticspecies.Forinstance,andPolychaeta(bristleworms)–aresummarizedtheEuropeanRedListofNon-MarineMolluscsinFigure4.7,disaggregatedbyclass.(Cuttelod,SeddonandNeubert,2011)providesinformationonthestateoffreshwaterbivalvesCountries’responsesontrendsinthesupplyandgastropods.AstudyofAfricanfreshwaterofwater-purification,waste-treatment,water-biodiversity(Darwalletal.,2011)addressesthecyclingandnutrient-cyclingservicesinparticularstate,diversity,distributionandconservationproductionsystemsaresummarizedinTable4.4.of,interalia,freshwatermolluscsandplantsinWherewater-purificationandwaste-treatmentservicesareconcerned,trendsaremixed(i.e.49http://www.coml.org/neitherpositivenornegativenorstabletrendsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE151Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.7GlobalriskstatusofinvertebratesintheclassesBivalvia,Holothuroidea,MaxillopodaandPolychaetaNumberofspeciesBivalvia10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%784HolothuroideaVUDDNTLC371102MaxillopodaPolychaeta20%100%EXCRENNote:EX(Extinct);CR(CriticallyEndangered);EN(Endangered);VU(Vulnerable);DD(DataDeficient);NT(NearThreatened)andLC(LeastConcern).Source:TheIUCNRedListversion2017-2.predominate)inallproductionsystemsexceptlive-Chinareportsthatwater-purificationservicesin(shadesofgrastockgrassland-basedandirrigatedcropsystems,theMiyunReservoirwatershedinBeijinghavepolitical/conceptuawherereportsofnegativetrendspredominate.declinedsubstantiallyasaresultoftheexpan-Inthecaseofwater-cyclingservices,reportsofsionofconstructionandotherland-usechanges.positivetrendspredominateinplantedforest,fedFinlandmentionsthatrecentmilderwintersmayaquacultureandirrigated(non-rice)cropsystems.havedisruptedthewater-purificationfunctionofAlthoughfewresponsesareprovidedforthesevegetationonlandsurroundingwaterbodies,anproductionsystems,reportsofstabletrendspre-effectreportedtohavearisenbecausesoilsaredominatefornon-fedaquacultureanddecreas-increasinglyunfrozenduringthenon-vegetativeingtrendsforirrigatedricesystems.Inalltheperiodwhenplantsarelessabletointerceptremainingproductionsystemstrendsaremixed.erodedmatter.Panamalistswater-purificationFewcountriesprovideinformationontrendsinservicesamongthosepredictedtodecreaseasnutrient-cyclingservicesinaquaticproductionaresultofanetlossofforestarea.TheGambiasystems.Inthecaseoffedaquaculturesystems,notesthatchangesinlandusearediminishingtheincreasingtrendspredominate.Decreasingcapacityofforeststoprovidewater-purificationtrendspredominateforculture-basedfisheries.andwaste-treatmentservices.TheCookIslandsForotheraquaticsystems,trendsaremixed.Thementionsthattheremovaloftreesfromlittoralvariousreportsofpositivetrendsinaquacultureforestsmaybeincreasingalgalgrowthandsedi-systemsmayrelatetotheproactiveintroductionmentationinsomelagoonareas.Switzerland,inofmanagementtechniquesandstrategiesaimedcontrast,providesamorepositiveassessmentofataddressingconcernsabouttheenvironmentaltrendsinwater-relatedecosystemservices,notingimpactsofthesesystems.thatthecapacityoflakesandriverstopurifywaterhasprobablyincreasedasaresultofresto-Reasonsfornegativetrendsareindicatedinarationefforts.Thecapacityofthecountry’sforestsnumberofcountryreports.Themostfrequentlytoprovidewater-purificationservicesisreportedmentioneddriversincludedeforestation,expan-tohavebeensecuredfordecadesthroughappro-sionoftheagriculturalfrontierandincreasedpriateforestmanagement.livestockgrazinginriparianorcoastalareas.152thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE44.3.8Associatedbiodiversityforrecognized,asistheimportanceofpeatlands,natural-hazardregulationgrasslandsandfloodplainsinfloodprotection(BravodeGuennietal.,2005;Ferrarioetal.,Introduction2014;GEAS,2013;Narayanetal.,2016;RamsarNatural-hazardregulationisdefinedintheConvention,2011b,2011c,2015a).Soilbiodiver-guidelinesforthepreparationofcountryreportssityplaysaparticularlysignificantroleinresil-asthe“capacityofecosystemstoameliorateiencetodroughtsandfloods,viaitsinfluenceandreducethedamagecausedbynaturaldis-onthesoil’scapacitytoabsorbandholdwaterasters.”Numerousmechanismscancontribute(FAO,2011a).Moreinformationonthestatus(seeSection2.3)anditisdifficulttodistinguishaandtrendsofrelevantecosystems,andofsoilclearlydefinedsubsetofassociatedbiodiversitybiodiversity,isprovidedinSections4.5and4.3.4,thatcontributestohazardregulation.Servicesofrespectively.thiskindareoftenprovidedbywholeecosystemsorlandscapes.However,withinthesesystemsThefrequencyandintensityofmanytypessomespecies(wildordomesticated),orfunc-ofnaturaldisastersareexpectedtoincreasetionalgroupsofspecies,mayplayaparticularlyasaresultofclimatechange(IPCC,2012).Thedirectorsignificantroleinhazardregulation,rolesplayedbyBFAincarbonsequestration(seeandsomeofthesemaybemanagedspecificallySection2.2),andhenceinclimatechangemitiga-inordertopromotetheseroles.Thecountrytion,thusalsomakeanimportantcontributiontoreportsmentionanumberofspeciesorgroupshazardregulation.inthisregard(seeSection4.3.1).AlargemajorityofthesearetreesmanagedforstormprotectionStateofknowledgeandaswindbreaks,includingmangrovesforpro-Anumberofmonitoringsystemsfornaturaldisas-tectionofcoastalareas.Tree,grassandfoddertersareinoperationatgloballevel,includingthespeciesthathelptoprotectriverbanksandlimitGlobalDisasterAlertandCoordinationSystem,50landslidesarealsomentioned.JordanreportstheInternationalDisasterDatabase(EM-DAT)51plantingcypresses(Cupressussempervirens)andandclimate-andweather-relatedinformationcarobtrees(Ceratoniasiliqua)aroundforestssystemsoperatedbytheWorldMeteorologicalforfire-controlpurposes.FurtherdiscussionandOrganization.52ManycountrieshavenationalexamplesoftherolesofBFAinnatural-hazardmonitoringandassessmentprogrammesforregulationcanbefoundinSection2.3.Thevariouskindsofnaturalhazards.Generally,impactsofdisastersonBFAarediscussedinhowever,theseglobalandnationalinitiativesdoSection3.4.2.notinvolveanyparticularfocusoncomponentsofBFA(orbiodiversityingeneral)thatprovideSeveraltypesofecosystemthatareusedinhazard-regulatingservices.foodandagriculturalproductionand/orprovidehabitatsforassociatedbiodiversityandwildfoodTherearealsoanumberofglobalandnationalspeciesarenotedfortheirmajorcontributionsinformationsystemsdevotedtoecosystemsasso-tohazardregulation.Forexample,evidenceciatedwithfoodandagriculturethatarerec-frommanycountriesindicatestheimportantognizedasplayinganimportantroleinhazardroleofforestsinfloodprevention,andthereisregulation.Inthecaseofforests,forexample,alsogrowinginterestintheirrolesinmitigatingFAO’sCountryStatsystem53makesavailabledataotherhazardssuchasavalanchesandrockfallsfromtheGlobalForestResourceAssessment,(UNEnvironment,2010).Therolesofwetlandafive-yearlyassessmentofabout90variablesandcoastalecosystemssuchasmangroves,coralreefsandsalt-marshesinfloodcontrol,shoreline50http://gdacs.orgstabilizationandstormprotectionarealsowidely51https://www.emdat.be52https://public.wmo.int/en53http://countrystat.org/default.aspxthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE153Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBcoveringtheextent,condition,usesandvalues4.3.9Associatedbiodiversityforofforestsandotherwoodedland(FAO,2016i).habitatprovisioningWherewetlandecosystemsareconcerned,theGEO-WetlandsInitiative2017–2019,aglobalIntroductionpartnershipcoordinatedbytheUniversityofAsdiscussedinChapter2,thesurvivalofanyBonn(Germany),WetlandsInternationalandspeciesinthewilddependsonitsaccesstosuf-theRamsarConventionSecretariat,isworkingficientsuitablehabitat,i.e.toenvironmentsthattoestablishaGlobalWetlandsObservingSystemallowmembersofthespeciestomeettheirphys-(GEOBONSecretariat,2016).Furtherdiscussioniologicalneeds,protectthemselvesfromhazardsofrelevantinformationsystemscanbefoundinandreproduce.AhabitatistypicallycreatedSection4.5.andmaintainedviaawiderangeofinteractionsamongandbetweenabioticstructuresandpro-Statusandtrendscesses(climate,geology,etc.)andcomponentsofAsdiscussedabove,theroleofBFAinnatural-biodiversity.Habitatservicesarethustoalargehazardregulationdependslargelyonthestatusextentproductsofwholeecosystemsratherthanofwholeecosystemsratherthanonthatofindi-ofspecificcomponentswithinthem.Somespeciesvidualspecies.Globaltrendsinthestatusofrele-may,however,playaparticularlysignificantrolevantecosystemcategoriesareoftennegative(seeinthesupplyofparticularhabitatservices,eitherSection4.5forfurtherdiscussion).becausetheyplayakeyroleinshapingandmain-tainingtheoverallcharacteristicsoftheecosys-Countries’responsesontrendsinthesupplytemorbecausetheyareakeycomponentoftheofhazard-regulationservicesaresummarizedhabitatofaspecificspecies,forexampleprovidinginTable4.4.Reportsofupwardtrendspredomi-ananimalspecieswithamajorsourceoffoodornateinthecaseoffedaquaculturesystems,whileanestingsite.Inturn,somehabitatsareparticu-reportsofstabletrendspredominateinlivestocklarlysignificant,forexamplebecauseoftheexcep-andirrigatedricesystems.Formostproductiontionalrichnessofthebiodiversitytheysupportsystems,however,trendsaremixed(i.e.neitherorbecauseoftheirroleinsupportingspeciesatpositivenornegativenorstabletrendspredomi-keypointsintheirlifecycles,forexampleduringnate).Fewcountriesprovidefurtherdetailsonthemigration(TEEB,2010).reportedtrends.ItispossiblethatinsomecasesreportedupwardtrendsindicateanincreaseinThecountryreportsnotetheimportanceoftheneedfornatural-hazardregulationrathervariouscomponentsofBFA,mainlyatecosystemthananimprovementinthecapacityofecosys-level,inhabitatprovisioning.Mostfrequentlytemstodeliverthisservice.mentionedareforests,followedbymarineandcoastalecosystems,suchasmangrovesandcoralThelimitedextenttowhichcountrieswerereefs,non-marinewetlands(includingwaterbod-abletoprovideinformationonthestatusandiessuchaslakesandrivers),mountains,grasslandstrendsofhazardregulationservicesinfoodandanddeserts.Afewcountriesalsomentioncropagriculturalsystemsreflectsagenerallackofsystemsandspecificcomponentswithinthem(e.g.informationontrendsinthisecosystemservice.fieldmargins)asimportanthabitats.CountriesForexample,asof2010,trendsinnatural-hazardalsoreportanumberofspeciesofassociatedbio-regulationinmostoftheecosystemsinEuropediversityasbeingactivelymanagedforthepro-werereportedtobeunknown(EEA,2015).visionofhabitatservices.ThesearemostlytreeDeliveryofthisserviceinEuropewasreportedtospecies,forexampletamarind(Tamarindusindica),beinamixedstateinwetlandsandinadegradedacacias(Acaciaspp.),eucalyptuses(Eucalyptusstateinlakesandrivers,withtrendsreportedtospp.),Africanmahogany(Khayasenegalensis)andbestableinbothcases(ibid.).whitebeams(Sorbusspp.)(seealsoSection4.3.1).154thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Thestatusandtrendsofseveralkeyecosysteminformationontheoccurrencesofrarespeciesservices,includingwetlands,forests,coralreefs,andtheirhabitats.Itnotesthatthedatabaseslistmangroves,seagrassbedsandrangelands,aredis-species,naturalcommunitiesandecosystemsincussedinSection4.5.needofprotectionandcontaininformationonthevegetationstructureandcomposition,succes-Stateofknowledgesionpatterns,naturaldisturbances,distributionTrendsintheextentofvariouskeyecosystemsandrarityofspecificcommunitytypesthroughoutofimportancetofoodandagriculturethatservetheirgeographicranges.Chinamentionsusingaasvitalhabitatsforlargenumbersofspeciesarehabitat-qualityindextoevaluatethebiodiversitymonitoredatglobal,regionalornationallevels.maintenancefunctionofhabitats.AnumberofThesemonitoringeffortsincreasinglyincludecountriesalsomentionhabitat-monitoringactiv-theuseofsatellitetechnologies/remotesensingitiesimplementedinthecontextofspecificpro-(Bunceetal.,2008;CommitteeonthePeacefuljects,particularlyinthefieldofconservation.UsesofOuterSpace,2015;Lucasetal.,2015).Forexample,theEU-fundedprojectBIOdiversitymul-Statusandtrendsti-SourcemonitoringSystem:fromSpacetoSpeciesCountries’responsesontrendsinthesupplyof(BIO_SOS)hasdevelopedtheEarthObservationhabitatservicesinparticularproductionsystemsDataforHAbitatMonitoring(EODHaM)system,aresummarizedinTable4.4.Reportsofpositiveastandardizedframeworkforhabitatmappingtrendspredominateinforestproductionsystems.andmonitoring(Lucasetal.,2015).ThesystemInallfisheriesandaquaculturesystems,trendshasbeenappliedsuccessfullytoNatura200054aremixed(i.e.neitherpositivenornegativenorsitesandtheirsurroundingsinafewEuropeanstabletrendspredominate).Reportsofnegativecountries,butalsoatotherlocationsinEuropetrendspredominateincropandlivestocksystems,andbeyond,andisexpectedtobemorewidelyreflectingboththeanalysisoftrendsinmajoreco-adoptedbythemanagersofprotectedsites(ibid.).systemcategoriespresentedbelowinSection4.5andtheanalysisofdriversofchangepresentedWeaknessesinhabitat-monitoringprogrammesinChapter3.Manycountrieshighlightongoingarewidelyrecognizedinthecountryreports.habitatdegradationordestruction,ornotetheHowever,arangeofmonitoringactivitiestar-continuedprecariousnessofmanyhabitatsdespitegetingrelevantecosystemsarereported(againtheintroductionofconservationprogrammes.ForfurtherdiscussioncanbefoundinSection4.5).example,Chinareportsthatitsabove-mentionedSeveralcountriesmentionnationalhabitat-mon-habitat-qualityindexesshowthatfortheperioditoringschemesorrefertoinstitutionsthatkeep2000to2010alargeproportionofstudiedecosys-trackofthestatusofimportanthabitatsatnationaltemswereestimatedtobeoflowhabitatqualityorsubnationallevels.Forexample,Norwaymen-andthattheextentofecosystemswithhighertionsthattheNorwegianBiodiversityInformationhabitatqualitywasdeclining.Switzerlandmen-Centre55undertakeshabitatriskassessments,dis-tionsthatalmosthalfofitshabitatsarelistedasseminatesinformationonthestateofhabitatsthreatenedonitsredlistsandnotesthat“nega-andmanagesthecountry’sRedListforhabitattivedevelopmentsoutweighthepositivedevelop-types.TheUnitedStatesofAmericareportsthatmentsintermsoftheareaandqualityofhabitatsthedatabasesoftheStateNaturalHeritagethatmeritspecialconservationefforts.”Thefind-ProgramsoperatedbyTheNatureConservancy,56ingsoftheEuropeanUnion’smonitoringactivi-anon-profitconservationorganization,containtiesforanumberofhabitatsrelevanttofoodandagriculturearediscussedinBox4.8.54http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm55http://www.biodiversity.noFigure4.8presentstheriskstatusofspecies56http://www.nature.orgincludedonTheIUCNRedList,brokendownbythestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE155Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBBox4.8TrendsinthestateofhabitatsintheEuropeanUnionTheEuropeanUnion’sHabitatsDirective,adoptedin1992,1commoninthecaseofdunes,grasslands,coastalhabitatsNaimstoprotectbiodiversitybypromotingtheconservationandwetlands.adofhabitatsandwildfloraandfauna.MemberstatesarePrrequiredtoreporteverysixyearsontheirimplementationofWheretrendsareconcerned,30percentofallassessedthedirective.Themostrecentlycompletedroundofreportinghabitatsfellintothe“unfavourable–deteriorating”1©coveredthe2007to2012period.Findingswerepublishedcategoryand33percentintothe“unfavourable–stable”2©in2015.Theconservationstatusandtrendsofmajorhabitatcategory.Only4percentwereclassifiedas“unfavourable–3©groupsaresummarizedinthefollowingfigure.improving”.Wetlandhabitats,followedbygrasslands,werethecategoriesforwhichthehighestproportionof4Only16percentofallhabitatassessmentsundertakeninassessmentsindicatednegativetrends.5thisroundofreportingindicateda“favourable”status.Most6foundthestatusofecosystemstobeeither“unfavourable–1CouncilDirective92/43/EECof21May1992ontheconservationofnatural7inadequate”(47percent)or“unfavourable–bad”habitatsandofwildfaunaandflora(availableathttp://ec.europa.eu/(30percent).Unfavourableassessmentswereparticularlyenvironment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm).(shadesofgrayG1political/conceptual)ConservationstatusofhabitattypesConservationstatustrendsofbymainhabitatgrouphabitattypesbymainhabitatgroupG2G3DuneshabitatsG4G5CoastalhabitatsGrasslandst©Bogs,miresandfensForestsFreshwaterhabitatsHeathandscrubSclerophyllousscrubRockyhabitats0%20%40%60%80%100%0%20%40%60%80%100%FavourableUnknownUnfavourable–badFavourableUnfavourable–improvingUnfavourable–inadequateUnfavourable–unknowntrendUnknownUnfavourable–stableUnfavourable–decliningSource:EuropeanCommission,2015.habitattype.57Habitatsofparticularinteresttoterrestrial(whichincludesarableland,pasture-foodandagricultureincludeartificialaquaticland,plantationsandruralgardens),forests,grass-(whichincludesaquacultureponds,irrigatedland,lands,marinecoastal,marineintertidal(whichseasonallyfloodedagriculturalland,maricultureincludesmangroves),marineneritic(whichincludescagesandmari/brackishcultureponds),artificialmacroalgal/kelphabitats,coralreefsandseagrasshabitats),savannahs,shrublandsandwetlands.Of57MoreinformationontheHabitatsClassificationSchemethese,thehabitatswiththehighestproportion(version3.1)isavailableathttp://www.iucnredlist.ofspeciesclassedasExtinct,ExtinctintheWild,org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/CriticallyEndangered,EndangeredorVulnerablehabitats-classification-scheme-ver3156thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Figure4.8GlobalriskstatusofspeciesincludedinTheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies,byhabitatNumberofspeciesArtiﬁcial-aquatic3214Artiﬁcial-terrestrial10037753Cavesandsubterraneanhabitats1355DesertForest31850Grassland8060Marinecoastal18341461Marine2365deepoceanﬂoorMarineintertidalMarineneritic8660Marineoceanic2148(shadesofpolitical/concepRockyareas4349Savannah4950Shrubland12512Wetlands24331Other314Unknown10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%21850%100%EXEWCRENVUDDNTLCNotes:EX(Extinct);EW(ExtinctintheWild);CR(CriticallyEndangered);EN(Endangered);VU(Vulnerable);DD(DataDeficient);NT(NearThreatened)andLC(LeastConcern).Speciescanbeassignedtomorethanonehabitat.Source:TheIUCNRedListversion2017-3.areforests(29percentofspecies),marinecoastaltreesandshrubs,arethedirectprovidersofthishabitatsandwetlands(both22percent).service,astheyareabletotrapparticulateandgaseouspollutantsfromthesurroundingair.4.3.10AssociatedbiodiversityforCapacitytodothisvariesfromspeciestospeciesair-qualityandclimateregulationdependingoncharacteristicssuchasleafstructure,sizeandgrowthrate,evergreenversusdeciduousIntroductioncharacter,andpollutiontolerance(Baróetal.,AsdiscussedinChapter2,BFAplaysasignificantrole2014;Smith,2012;Yangetal.,2005).Awiderrangeinair-qualityregulation.Plants,andinparticularofspeciescontributeindirectly,forexamplethethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE157Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBpollinatorsandsoilorganismsthatplantsdependStateofknowledgeuponinordertoreproduceandgrow.ThesupplyofAsnotedabove,climate-regulationservicesarethisserviceisparticularlysignificantinurbanareas,normallyregardedastheoutcomeofcomplexwherepollutionlevelstendtobehighandwhereprocesseswithinecosystemssuchasforests,grass-largenumbersofpeoplearepotentiallyexposedtolands,wetlandsandoceans(orwithinsubcom-harmfuleffects(e.g.Gupta,ChaudhariandWate,ponentssuchassoils)thatinvolvethecombined2008;Nowaketal.,2014;Yangetal.,2005b).effectsofmanydifferentspeciesandtaxonomicandfunctionalgroupsoforganisms.ThestateClimate-regulatingservicesoperateatbothofknowledgeonthestatusandtrendsofrele-globalandlocallevels.Ecosystemssuchasforests,vantecosystemsisdiscussedinSection4.5andongrasslands,wetlandsandaquaticecosystems–thestatusandtrendsofbiodiversitycontribut-bothmarineandfreshwater–playakeyroleiningtotheformationandmaintenanceofsoilsintheEarth’scarboncycleandhenceincontrollingSection4.3.6.thelevelsofgreenhousegasesintheatmosphere.Complexmechanismsandinteractions,involvingaTheavailabilityofhigh-resolutionsatellitewiderangeofdifferentcomponentsofbiodiver-imagerymeansthatitisbecomingeasiertomonitorsity,governtheuptakeandreleaseofcarboninchangesintheextentoftreecover,includingintheseecosystems(Beedetal.,2011;Cocketal.,urbanareas,whereair-qualityregulationservices2011;LaffoleyandGrimsditch,2009;Nellemannareparticularlysignificant(e.g.McGeeetal.,etal.,2009;PullinandWhite,2011).Forfurther2012).Airqualityandatmosphericgreenhouse-discussion,seeSection2.2.gasconcentrationsaremonitoredundervariousnationalandinternationalinitiatives.ForThecountryreportsmentionanumberofexample,the2016version58oftheWorldHealthspeciesthatareactivelymanagedfortheprovisionOrganization’sGlobalAmbientAirPollutionofair-qualityandclimate-regulationservices(seeDatabase59recordsannualmeanconcentrationsSection4.3.1).Thespeciesinquestionarealmostofparticulatematterfromover3000humanset-exclusivelytrees.Thevastmajorityofreportingtlements,mostlycities,in103countries(WHO,countriesalsomentionforestecosystemsasmajor2016).Real-timeair-qualitydatacollectedbycarbonsinks,insomecases(e.g.Cameroonandenvironmental-protectionagenciesatmoretheUnitedArabEmirates)referringspecificallythan10000stations60in1000majorcitiesintotheroleofmangroves.Anumberofcountries80countriescanbeaccessedviatheWorldAirhighlightthecontributionsofgrasslands,and/orQualitywebsite61(WorldAirQuality,2018).Themarineorfreshwaterecosystems.AfewexamplesUnitedStatesofAmerica’sNationalOceanicandoftherolesofindividualspeciesotherthantreesAtmosphericAdministration’sGlobalGreenhousearementioned.Forexample,FinlandandPanamaGasReferenceNetwork62measurestheatmos-mentionthepotentialsignificanceoftheroleofphericdistributionandtrendsofcarbondioxide,dungbeetlesinreducingthereleaseofgreen-methaneandnitrousoxide,aswellascarbonhousegasesfrombovineexcreta(forfurthermonoxide,animportantindicatorofairpollu-informationonthiseffect,seeforexamplePiccinition(GlobalGreenhouseGasReferenceNetwork,etal.,2017andSladeetal.,2016).Spainmen-2017).Clearly,however,changesinair-qualityindi-tionstheroleofalfalfa(Medicagosativa)incropcatorsdonotnecessarilycorrespondtochangesinsystems,notingthatcroprotationsthatincludeforagelegumesreducetheuseoffertilizersand58ThelatestversionavailableasofOctober2018.thereforelimitgreenhouse-gasemissions.The59http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/UnitedStatesofAmericanotesthatthepollina-tionactivitiesofnativewildbeesmaintainplantcities/en/communitiesthatprovidevaluableecosystemser-60AsofSeptember2018.vices,includingcarbonsequestration.61http://aqicn.org/here/62https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/158thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Box4.9Soilcarbonassessmentinitiatives–examplesfromtheUnitedStatesofAmericaSoilsactaseitherasinkorasasourceofatmospherictheNationalResourcesConservationServiceandColoradocarbondioxide,dependingontheiruseandmanagement.StateUniversity.IthelpsfarmersandranchersunderstandSoilpropertiessuchastexture,mineralogy,drainageclassandassesstheimpactsofchangesinlandmanagement.anddepthaffecthowmuchcarbonisretainedandreleased.Thelatestversion,COMET-FARM™,isawhole-farm/ranchTheRapidCarbonAssessmentprojectwasdevelopedtocarbonandgreenhouse-gasaccountingandreportingobtainstatisticallyreliableestimatesofcurrentcarbonsystemthatcanestimatethe“carbonfootprint”forallorstocksinsoilsintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,takingintopartofafarm/ranchoperationandallowsuserstoevaluateconsiderationecosystemproperties,soiltypewithrespecttodifferentoptionsforreducinggreenhouse-gasemissionscarbonretention,landcoverandagriculturalmanagement.andsequesteringmorecarbon.AsitusesdetailedspatiallyApproximately32500soilprofileshavebeensampledatexplicitdataonclimateandsoilconditionsforspecific6500locationstodevelopthelargestsoil-carbondatasetinlocations,andallowsfarmersandrancherstoenterdetailedtheworld.Reportsareavailablefortotalcarbonstocksforinformationontheirfieldandlivestockoperations,itisablecropland,ConservationReserveProgramland,forestland,toproduceaccurateestimatestailoredtospecificsituations.pasture,rangelandandwetland.ThedatawillbevaluableforcalibratingmodelssuchasCOMET(seebelow)andSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,quantifyingland-managementimpactsonsoilcarbonforwithadditionalinformationfromtheCOMET-Farmwebsite(http://environmentalmarkets.cometfarm.nrel.colostate.edu/Home).Note:ForfurtherinformationontheRapidCarbonAssessment,seetheTheCarbOnManagementEvaluationTool(COMET)projectwebsite(https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/isanonlinetooldevelopedthroughapartnershipbetweensurvey/?cid=nrcs142p2_054164).thecapacityofecosystemstoprovideregulatingcarbonstocks.SomeexamplesfromtheUnitedservices.TheyarealsoaffectedbyemissionslevelsStatesofAmericaarepresentedinBox4.9.andbyclimaticeffects.StatusandtrendsThecountryreportsprovidelittleindicationthatThestatusandtrendsofvariousecosystemsthateffortsarebeingmadetoevaluatetheimpactofplayamajorroleinthesupplyofservicesinthispopulationtrendsinspecificcomponentsofBFAcategory(particularlyclimateregulation)aredis-onthesupplyofair-qualityorclimate-regulationcussedinSection4.5.services.Withregardtotheabove-mentioneddung-beetleexample,FinlandnotesthatalthoughCountries’responsesontrendsinthesupply50percentofitsdung-beetlespeciesarered-ofair-qualityandclimate-regulationservicesinlisted,ithasnotbeendeterminedwhethertheirparticularproductionsystemsaresummarizedindeclinehasaffectedclimateregulationornutri-Table4.4.Reportsofdownwardtrendspredom-entcyclinginpastures.Moregenerally,itnotesinateinlivestocksystemsandupwardtrendsinthatdataonpopulationchangesinmanyfunc-plantedforestsystems,irrigatedcrops(non-rice)tionallyimportantspeciesinagriculturalandandnon-fedaquaculture.Trendsaremixedforforestsystemsareunavailable.Severalcountries,otherproductionsystems(i.e.neitherpositivenorhowever,mentioninitiativesrelatedtothemon-negativenorstabletrendspredominate).Severalitoringofcarbonstocksinforestandagriculturalcountriesnotethesignificanceoftrendsinforestsystems.Forexample,Zambiareportstheestab-areatothesupplyofair-qualityandclimate-lishmentofanationalforest-monitoringsystemregulationservices.Forexample,BurkinaFasothat,interalia,keepstrackofchangesinforestmentionsthatitsnetcarbonemissionsfromthethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE159Drivers,statusandtrendsPartB“landuse,land-usechangeandforestry”sector63Indiscussionsofwildfoods,adistinctionisarenegativethankstoforestprotectionandsometimesdrawnbetweensubsistenceandcom-reforestationefforts.Malaysiamentionsthatitsmercialfishing.Inthecaseofforests,wildfoodspolicyofretainingatleast50percentofitslandareoftenreferredtoasacategoryofnon-woodunderpermanentforestcoverinperpetuityhasforestproducts,andincludeplants,mushrooms,contributedtoreducinggreenhouse-gasemis-wildmeat,andinsectsandotherinvertebrates.sionsandmaintainingandenhancingcarbonsequestration.Contrarytowhatisoftenassumed,evidencedemonstratesthatasignificantproportionof4.4Wildfoodswildfoodcomesfromareasusedforcropand/orlivestockproduction,orfromaroundthehome•Thecountryreportsrefertoover2800distinctwild(Powelletal.,2014).Incropandmixedproduc-speciesasbeingusedforhumanfood.TheIUCNRedtionsystems,alargevarietyofwildherbs,insects,ListofThreatenedSpeciescontainsover9600wildfish(e.g.inricefields),weedsandunmanagedspeciesreportedtobeusedforthispurpose.plantsareoftenharvestedforfood:seeBharuchaandPretty(2010)andHalwart(2006)forexample.•Closeto20percentofthespeciesrecordedinTheBecauseoftherelativeabundanceoffoodsources,IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpeciesassourcesofseveralgamespeciesthriveinhabitatmosaicsofhumanfoodareclassedasthreatened.swiddensandforest,andcanserveasvaluablesourcesofprotein(Parry,BarlowandPeres,2009).•ThemainthreatstowildfoodsreportedbycountriesThecontributionofwildfoodstofoodsecurityareoverexploitation,habitatalterationorloss,andnutritionisdiscussedingreaterdetailinpollutionandchangeinlanduse.Section2.6.6.AccordingtothedefinitionprovidedinSection1.5,4.4.1Stateofknowledgewildfoodsarefoodproductsobtainedfromnon-domesticatedspecies.However,thedis-Informationontheuse,stateandconservationoftinctionbetweenwildanddomesticatedfoodswildfoodsremainslimited,asfewassessmentsofisnotclearcut:wildfoodslie“alongacontin-wildfoodsareconductedatnational,regionaloruumrangingfromtheentirelywildtothesemi-globallevels,eventhoughthesefoodsrepresentandomesticated,orfromnonoticeablehumanimportantpartoftheglobalfoodbasket(Bharuchainterventiontoselectiveharvesting,transplant-andPretty,2010).Informationonnon-woodforesting,andpropagationbyseedandgraft”(Harris,productsisavailabletovaryingdegreesinnational1989).Wildfoodproductsareobtainedfromdatabases,dependingontheimportanceofsuchavarietyofsourcesincludingplants,bacteria,productstotherespectivecountry(Sorrenti,2017).animalsandfungi.Theymaybeharvested(gath-However,aswildfoodsareoftencollectedinfor-eredorhunted)fromwithincultivatedproductionmally,theyareusuallyoverlookedininvento-systemsorfromnaturalorsemi-naturalecosys-riesandeconomicassessments(Schulp,Thuillertems.AsnotedinSection2.6.6,capturefisheriesandVerburg,2014).Commercialfisheriesareaninmarineandfreshwaterecosystemsareproba-exception.However,fisheriesmaynotbemoni-blythelargestexampleofthehumanuseofwildtoredcloselywhentheyareconductedasartisanal,foods,providingatotalof90.9milliontonnesofsubsistenceorrecreationalactivities.aquaticanimalsandplantsin2016(FAO,2018a).Informationonwildfoodsoftencomesfrom63“Agreenhousegasinventorysectorthatcoversemissionsandethnobiological/ethnobotanicalinventories,removalsofgreenhousegasesresultingfromdirecthuman-usuallycarriedoutbyuniversitiesorresearchinducedlanduse,land-usechangeandforestryactivities”institutes.Manysuchassessmentsareconducted.(UNFCCC,2017a).However,theytendtobelocalizedandone-offstudies.Othersourcesofinformationinclude160thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4scientificliteraturefromotherfieldsofresearchetal.,2013).Regularassessmentsareconducted(e.g.nutrition),game-bagstatisticsfromnationalforkeycommercialmarinefishstocks(FAO’sorganizations,andlocalcookbooks(whichcanbebiennialassessmentTheStateofWorldFisheriesusedtoidentifywildfoodspeciesandtheiruses).andAquaculture).However,noequivalentsexistfromthemanysmaller-scalefisheriesandminorAlthoughwild-foodusemaynotbeparticularlystockspresentinmarineandfreshwaters.GlobalhighintheEuropeandCentralAsiaandNorthoverviewsofthestatus,trendsanduseofwildAmericaregions,thestatusandtrendsofwildfoodfoodsareprovidedintheMillenniumEcosystemresourcesarebettermonitoredintheseregionsAssessment(MEA,2005b)andinanumberofthanelsewhere.Fishandgamespeciesseemtobeotherrecentreports(BioversityInternational,systematicallymonitoredinmostofthereporting2017;WHOandCBD,2015;HLPE,2017a;Vinceticountriesintheseregions.Monitoringlevelsforetal.,2013).64fungi,wildberries,medicinalplantsandherbsvaryfromcountrytocountry.4.4.2StatusandtrendsSeveralcountryreportsrefertosourcesofinfor-Wild-fooddiversitymationontheuseofwildfoods.TheUnitedStatesProvidingdefinitivefiguresonthenumberofwildofAmerica,forexample,mentionsdataonpartici-speciesusedforfoodworldwideischallengingforpationinhuntingandfishing,thevalueofcaptureseveralreasons,includingdifficultiesintheiden-fisheriesandthevalueofvariousothercommer-tificationofthespeciesinquestion.Inmanycul-ciallyharvestedwildfoodssuchasmushrooms,tures,andevenfromonevillagetothenext,moremaplesyrup,blueberries,ginseng,herbs,andkelpthanonecommonorvernacularnameisusedforandotherseaweed.Dataonsomewildfoodsarethesamespecies(Powelletal.,2014).Nonetheless,includedinnationalstatisticsinsomecountries,thousandsofwildspeciesusedforfoodhavebeenforexampleonthehuntingofsmallgameanddocumentedandrecorded.Forexample,studiesindeerandoncatchesofwildfishinNorwayandAsia,theNearEastandAfrica,conductedatvariousonmarketedwildmushrooms,berries,otherfruitlocationsandatlevelsrangingfromcommunitiestoandmedicinalplantsinBelarus.Datamayalsobeentirecountries,haverecordedtheuseofbetweenkeptbyorganizationssuchasanglingassociations6and800wildfoodspecies,withanaverageof90(asreportedbyPoland).Dataonwild-foodusedoto100speciesrecordedinthecommunity-levelandnot,however,necessarilyprovideagoodindi-otherbelowcountry-levelstudies(Bharuchaandcationofthestatusofthetargetedspecies.ForPretty,2010).Atotalof1154speciesandgeneraofexample,Slovenianotesthattrendsindataonthewildmushroomsusedforfoodhavebeenrecordedharvestingofwildmushroomsdonotsignificantlyfrom85countries(Boa,2004).Aninventoryofreflectchangesintheenvironmentbutrathertheliteratureconductedin2017enumeratedindicatechangesinmarketpricesandinterestin2111edibleinsectspeciesworldwide(Jongema,tradingfungi;year-to-yearchangesmayreflect2017).AsnotedinSection4.2.4,over1800speciesspecificconditionsforfructification.itemsfeatureinFAOcapture-fisheriesdata,includ-ingfish,crustaceans,molluscs,echinoderms,coe-TheIUCNRedListflagsspeciesthatarecon-lenteratesandaquaticplants,mostofthemusedsumed(orhaveanypartsorproductsthatareasfoodorfeed(FAO,forthcoming,2018i).Asofconsumed)byhumansinanypartofthespecies’December2017,9627speciesonTheIUCNRedgeographicranges.However,notalldescribedspecieshavebeenassessedforTheIUCNRedList,64Inaddition,thedraftofafirstevaluationofthescaleandand,amongthosethathave,notallthosethatdriversofsubsistenceandcommercialharvestingofwildareutilizedforfoodwillnecessarilybeflaggedasterrestrialvertebratesforfoodintropicalandsubtropicalsuchinthedataset.Globalinventoriesandassess-regionswassubmittedtoCBDSBSTTA21(Coadetal.,2017).mentshavebeenundertakenforwildediblefungi(Boa,2004)andedibleinsects(vanHuisthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE161Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.9Numberofwildfoodspeciesreported,bytypeandregionNumberofresponsesAfrica1322Asia559Europeand724CentralAsiaLatinAmericaand904theCaribbeanNearEastand310NorthAfricaNorthAmerica26Paciﬁc135World20%40%60%80%39800%100%ReptilesandamphibiansMammalsFishPlantsInsectsCrustaceansOtherFungiBirdsMolluscsNotes:A“response”isthereportofagivenwildfoodspeciesbyagivencountry.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.List(11percentofthetotal)wererecordedasfoodsreportedineachregionispresented,bybeingusedforhumanfood.Almosthalfofthesetype,inFigure4.9.Inadditiontotheseresponses,species(4617)werebonyfishes.Largenumbersofseveralcountriesprovidedinformationontheusebird(1646)andmammal(1237)specieswerealsoofwildfoodswithoutindicatingindividualspeciesrecordedasbeingusedforfood.bytheirscientificnames.Forexample,thereportfromtheUnitedStatesofAmericamentionsthatIntheirreportspreparedforTheSecondStateastudyinthestateofMainefoundthatthetargetoftheWorld’sPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodpopulation,whichincludedNativeAmericans,uti-andAgriculture(FAO,2010a),severalcountrieslized55differenttypesofwildfoodsfromforests,includedlistsofwildspeciesusedforfoodandincludingblueberries,cranberries,chives,fiddle-otherpurposes.Atleast800uniquespecies(fromheadferns,youngdandelionleavesandbeaked55countries)wereexplicitlymentionedasbeinghazelnuts.Spainmentionsthat138cropwildrel-usedforfood.ativeshavebeenidentifiedasbeingusedforfood.Thecountry-reportingguidelines65invitedcoun-Thenumberofwildfoodsreportedbycoun-triestoprovideinformationonwildfoodsknowntriesdoesnotreflectthefullglobalpicture.Fortobeharvested,hunted,capturedorgathered.example,morethan2000speciesofinsectsareThe4323responses(from69countries)featureknowntobeusedashumanfoodworldwide(vanover2822distinctspecies.66ThenumberofwildHuisetal.,2013),whileonly21speciesarereportedbycountries.Reasonsforthisincludethefactthat65Thisreferstothecountry-reportingguidelinesforTheStateofanumberofcountryreports(22outofthe91theWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.submitted)providenoinformationonwildfoods66Additionally,205distinctgenerawerereportedwithoutthespeciesbeingindicated.162thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Table4.9SelectedexamplesofwildfoodspeciesandgenerareportedbycountriesType(numberofspeciesExamplesreported)Plants(1955)Adansoniadigitate,Alliumspp.,Amaranthusspp.,Annonaspp.,Artocarpusaltilis,Capparisspp.,Colocasiaesculenta,Cordiaspp.,Crataegusspp.,Dioscoreaspp.,Diospyrosspp.,Ficusspp.,Garciniaspp.,Grewiaspp.,Moringaoleifera,Morusspp.,Opuntiaspp.,Passifloraspp.,Portulacaoleracea,Prosopisspp.,Prunusspp.,Rosaspp.,Rumexspp.,Rubusidaeus,Sclerocaryabirrea,Solanumspp.,Sorbusspp.,Syzygiumspp.,Tamarindusindica,Vacciniumspp.,Vachelliaspp.,Vitellariaparadoxa,Ximeniaamericana,ZiziphusmauritianaFungi(117)Armillariaspp.,Boletusspp.,Cantharellusspp.,Craterellusspp.,Hydnumrepandum,Lactariusspp.,Leccinumspp.,Lentinusspp.,Morchellaspp.,Russulaspp.,Termitomycesspp.,Tricholomaspp.,Tuberspp.Mammals(187)Alcesspp.,Axisaxis,Capraspp.,Capreolusspp.,Cervusspp.,Cuniculusspp.,Damaspp.,Dasypusnovemcinctus,Hystrixcristata,Lepusspp.,Mazamaspp.,Odocoileusspp.,Oryctolagusspp.,Ovisspp.,Pecarispp.,Pteropusspp.,Susspp.,Sylvilagusspp.,Synceruscaffer,Tragelaphusspp.Birds(156)Alectorisspp.,Anasspp.,Anserspp.,Aythyaspp.,Callipeplaspp.,Coturnixspp.,Duculaspp.,Francolinusspp.,Lagopusspp.,Marecaspp.,Meleagrisspp.,Numidameleagris,Ortalisspp.,Patagioenasspp.,Phasianusspp.,Scolopaxspp.,Streptopeliaspp.,StruthiocamelusInsects(21)Apisspp.,Attalaevigata,Brachytrupesmembranaceus,Gonimbrasiabelina,Gryllusbimaculatus,Olethriustyrannus,Paridesalopius,Raphiaspp.,Rhynchophorusphoenicis,Samiacynthia,VespacinctaCrustacea(30)Birgusspp.,Cardisomaspp.,Farfantepenaeusduorarum,Homarusgammarus,Litopenaeusvannamei,Macrobrachiumspp.,Nephropsspp.,Pacifastacusleniusculus,Pandalusspp.,Palinurusspp.,Procambarusclarki,Scyllaspp.Molluscs(38)Achatinaachatina,Anadaraspp.,Anadaratuberculosa,Archachatinaspp.,Helixspp.,Mytilusspp.,Octopusspp.,Ostreaedulis,Pernaviridis,Potadomaspp.,Scutellastraflexuosa,Sepiaspp.,TivelastultorumFish(262)Acanthocybiumsolandri,Anguillaspp.,Aphareusrutilans,Barbusspp.,Carasobarbusluteus,Channaspp.,Clariasspp.,Coptodonspp.,Coryphaenahippurus,Epinephelusspp.,Gadusmorhua,Heteropneustesfossilis,Labeospp.,Prochiloduslineatus,Salmospp.,Siganusspp.,Sorubimlima,Tenualosailisha,Thunnusspp.,Tilapiaspp.Reptilesandamphibians(45)Crocodylusspp.,Iguanaiguana,Melanochelystrijuga,Varanusspp.Others(5)Holothuriaatra,Isostichopusfuscus,Loxechinusalbus,SpirulinaplatensisNote:Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.andothersdonotprovideanextensiveinventory,anddomesticatedplantspecies,foundmostlyininsomecasesbecausewildfoodsarenotseenwell-conservedforestsandusedmainlybyindige-ascontributingsignificantlytofoodsecurityandnouscommunitiesandbycommunitiesofAfricannutritionintherespectivecountries.Thereisalsoaoriginlivingonthecountry’sCaribbeancoast.biasinthedistributionofreportingcountriesacrosstheregionsoftheworld.Forexample,manymoreThe12generamostfrequentlyreportedbycountriesfromtheEuropeandCentralAsiaregioncountriesareallplants–Ficus(64mentions),Rubuscontributedcountryreportsthancountriesfrom(47),Dioscorea(45),Amaranthus(39),Prunus(39),theAsiaortheNearEastandNorthAfricaregions.Grewia(36),Solanum(35),Ziziphus(30),AnnonaThereportedfiguresthereforeclearlyneedtobe(29),Vaccinium(27),Garcinia(26)andSorbus(26).interpretedwithcaution.Anas(agenusofducks)isalsofrequentlyreported(25mentions).ExamplesofspeciesreportedareSeveralcountriesreportveryhighnumberslistedinTable4.9.Photosofsomeexamplesofwildofwildfoodspecies.Forexample,PerualonefoodsarepresentedinFigure4.10.reports523speciesofediblefruits,ofwhichonly66aredomesticated.NicaraguareportsaseriesofTheproductionsystemsandenvironmentsstudiesthatprovideinformationonsome150wildfromwhichthereportedwildfoodspeciesareharvestedarenotknownornotspecifiedforthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE163Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.10Examplesofwildplantsreportedtobeusedforfood123456789101112Notes:1.Fernaldiapandurata(ioroco)(Source:CountryreportofElSalvador,©EduardoFunes);2.Vacciniumvitis-idaea(cowberry)(Source:NIBIO,©MichaelAngeloff);3.Aroniamelanocarpa(blackchockeberry)(Source:CountryreportofBelarus,©InstituteofFoodGrowingoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesofBelarus);4.Salaccaaffinis(Source:CountryreportofMalaysia,©MohdNorfaizalGhazalli);5.Spondiaspinnata(wildmango)(Source:CountryreportofMalaysia,©MohdNorfaizalGhazalli);6.Ficusroxburghii(Source:CountryreportofMalaysia,©MohdNorfaizalGhazalli);7.Musasp.(Source:CountryreportofMalaysia,©MohdNorfaizalGhazalli);8.Garciniahombroniana(Source:CountryreportofMalaysia,©SalmaIdris);9.Baccaureapolyneura(Source:CountryreportofMalaysia,©KhadijahAwang);10.Irvingiagabonensis(Africanmango)(Source:CountryreportofCameroon,©Oben);11.GumproductfromSenegaliasenegalensis(gumacacia)(Source:CountryreportofNiger,©IdrisaNoma);12.Dioscoreahispida(intoxicatingyam)(Source:CountryreportofMalaysia,©MohdNorfaizalGhazalli).40percentoftheresponses.67Amongtheremain-arereportedtobeobtainedfromforestproduc-ing2530responses,thelargestnumbersofspeciestionsystems(includingplantedandnaturallyregeneratedforests)(26percent),capturefisher-67A“response”isthereportofagivenwildfoodbyagivencountry.ies,aquacultureandotheraquaticenvironments164thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Figure4.11Productionsystemsandenvironmentsinwhichwildfoodspeciesarepresentandharvested,bytypeNumberofresponsesBirds241Crustaceans36Fish349Fungi161Insects24Mammals321Molluscs46Other6Plants20%40%60%80%2733Reptilesand63amphibians3980Total100%0%AquaticPSCropPSForestsLivestockPSMixedPSMultiplePSNotknown/speciﬁedOtherNotes:PS=productionsystems.A“response”isthereportofagivenwildfoodspecies,byagivencountry,inagivenproductionsystem.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.(rivers,canals,ponds,etc.)(9percent),multipledanceisreportedtobedecreasing,followedbyproductionsystems(9percent),otherenviron-thePacific(44percent)andAfrica(33percent).ments(roadsides,homegardens,etc.)(7percent),Thetaxonomicgroupswiththehighestnumbercropproductionsystems(6percent),mixedpro-ofcasesinwhichabundanceisreportedtobeductionsystems(1percent)andlivestockproduc-decreasingareplants(714),followedbyfishtionsystems(1percent)(Figure4.11).(126).Thehighestproportionsofcasesofdeclin-ingabundancearereportedamongcrustaceansTrendsinthestatusofwildfoods(44percent),fish(37percent),molluscsandinsectsCountriesAwqueartiecseicntovritedCtrooppsercotovrideiFnorfeostrsmectaortionLive(sbtoockthsec2to8rpercMeixnetd)sy(sFteimgsure4O.1th3e)r/.noAtmspeocinﬁegdproduc-ontrendsinthestatusofthewildfoodstheytionsystemsandenvironments,forestshavethereported.In60percentofthe4323reportedhighestproportionofcasesinwhichabundanceiscases,trendsareeithernotreportedornotknownreportedtobedecreasing(49percent),followed(Figure4.12).In24percentofcases,therespec-byaquaticproductionsystemsandenvironmentstivewildfoodisreportedtobedecreasinginCropsabundance.Abundanceisreportedtobestable(36percent).ForestryCountrieswerLeivesatolsckoinvitedtoreportonwildCropsfoodspeciesforAwquhaiccuhltutrheereisasignificantthreatin8percentofcasesandincreasinginFor7esptryercentofextinctionorFislhoersisesofimportantpopulations,ofcases.AsiaistheregionwiththLievesthocikghestproportionofcases(46percent)inwAhqiucahcualtubreun-MixedsystemsFisheriesusingthecategoArgireicsulatunredcriteriaofTheIUCNRedMixedsystems(unspeciﬁed)AgricultureNotspeciﬁed(unspeciﬁed)NotspeciﬁedthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE165Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.12Reportedtrendsinthestatusofwildfoodspecies,byregionNumberofresponsesAfrica1322559Asia724904EuropeandCentralAsia31026LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean135NearEastandNorthAfrica3980100%NorthAmericaPaciﬁcWorld20%40%60%80%0%DecreasingStableIncreasingNotknown/reportedNotes:A“response”isthereportofagivenwildfoodspecies,byagivencountry.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Figure4.13Reportedtrendsinthestatusofwildfoodspecies,bytypeNumberofresponsesBirds20%40%60%80%241Crustaceans36Fish349Fungi161InsectsMammals24Molluscs321OthersPlants46Reptilesandamphibians6Total27330%633980100%DecreasingStableIncreasingNotknown/reportedNotes:A“response”isthereportofagivenwildfoodspecies,byagivencountry.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.166thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Figure4.14Riskcategoriesofwildfoodsforwhichasignificantthreatofextinctionorlossisreported,byregionNumberofresponsesAfrica142Asia10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%22378EuropeandCentralAsia282LatinAmerica15andtheCaribbean740NearEast100%andNorthAfricaWorld0%EXEWCRENVUThreatenedDDNTLCNotes:CountriesreportedaccordingtotheIUCNRedListCategoriesandCriteria:EX(Extinct);EW(ExtinctintheWild);CR(CriticallyEndangered);EN(Endangered);andVU(Vulnerable);NT(NearThreatened)andLC(LeastConcern).TheDD(DataDeficient)categoryincludescaseswhereriskstatusisnotreportedornotknown.Inaddition,severalspecieswerereportedtobetobe“threatened”,withoutfurtherspecificationoftheIUCNCategory.NotrepresentedinthefigurearedatafromthecountryreportsoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,whichnotedfivepopulationsofsalmonthathavebeenlistedasendangeredundertheEndangeredSpeciesActand23populationslistedasthreatened,andthecountriesofthePacificregion,whichreportedatotalof12species,allofunknownriskstatus.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.List(IUCN,2012)asreference.Overall,34countrySeveralcountriesthatlistwildfoodsdonotreportsprovideatotal725assessmentsoftheexplicitlyreportanyofthemasbeingthreatened.riskstatusofwildfoodspecies,representingAttheotherendofthespectrum,Cameroon648distinctspecies(someofwhicharereportedreportsthatmostofitswildfoodsarethreatenedbymorethanonecountry).Fourresponsesindi-withextinction.ItindicatesthatthisappliesmostlycateExtinctstatus,64CriticallyEndangeredstatus,tospeciesthatarefoundinlocationsthatdonot70Endangeredstatus,168Vulnerablestatus,244haveprotected-areastatusandareaffectedbyThreatenedstatuswithoutfurtherspecificationagriculture,hunting,grazingandotherhumanoftheIUCNcategory,74Near-Threatenedstatus,activities.Bangladeshnotesthatanumberof45Least-Concernstatusand56Data-Deficientorwildanimals,suchastheswampdeer(Cervusunknownstatus.Theresponsesaresummarized,duvaucelii),theIndianrhinoceros(Rhinocerosbyregion,inFigure4.14.Thelargestnumbersunicornis)andthewildwaterbuffalo(Bubalusofthreatenedwildfoodspeciesarereportedbyarnee),thatwereonceabundantandusedasfoodcountriesfromLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,havebecomeextinctinthecountry.followedbythosefromAsiaandAfrica.ThesefigurescanbeexpectedtodifferfromglobalThemainthreatstowildfoodsreportedbyfiguresbasedonIUCNdata,suchasthosepre-countriesaresummarizedinFigure4.15.Together,sentedinFigure4.16,asthelatterapplytospeciesoverexploitation(27percent),habitatalterationoracrosstheirentirerangesratherthantonationalloss(17percent),pollution(9percent)andchangepopulations,arenotrestrictedtothe91reportinginlanduse(9percent)accountfor62percentofcountries,anddonotfocusspecificallyonspeciesthethreatsreported.consideredtobeunderthreat.Figure4.16showstheriskstatusofspeciesrecordedonTheIUCNRedListasbeingusedforthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE167Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.15ReportedthreatstowildfoodsspeciesLackofregulations2%Overexploitation27%NewpPests,diseasesandinvasivespecies3%adjourHabitatalterationandloss17%PrevioOther3%1©Infrastructuredevelopment3%Pollution9%2©Changesinlanduse9%3©Climatechange4%45Water-cyclealteration4%67Agriculturalintensiﬁcationandexpansion6%G1G2Huntingandpoaching6%G3Deforestation7%G4G5Notes:Percentagesarecalculatedonatotalof1214mentionsofthreatsfor648distinctspecies.Morethanonethreatfrommorethanonecountrymaybereportedforthesamespecies.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.humanfood.AlthoughthAegricnuultumralbinetrensoiﬁfcastiponeacnideesxpanfsioonrtrendsiOnvererxaptloeitsatioonfexploitationandforassessedislowinthefirstChtawngoescinaltaendguoseries,rep-theirimpactsPeostns,bdiisoeadseisvaenrdsiintvyasiivsegspeencieesrallylimited.ClimatechangePollutiontilesandmammalshavethDeefohreisgtahtioenstproportionAsnotedinWSaetcerticoycnlea4lt.e4ra.t1io,nsomedataareavail-ofspeciesclassifiedasCHraitbitcaatalltyeraEtionndaandnlgosesred,ableonothOetrhercommerciallyusedwildfoods.EndangeredorVulnerable.HOunvteinrgaalnld,6po2acphienrgcentofInothercaseNso,trtephoertreedareanecdotalindicationsspeciesareclassifiedasbeingofLeastConcern,orsometimessurveysofrelevantstakeholders.13percentasDataDeficient,9percentasArangeofotherdriversofchange,includingVulnerable,6percentasEndangered,6percentland-usechange,climatechange,naturaldisas-asNearThreatened,4percentasCriticallytersandinvasivealienspecies,arerecognizedEndangeredand1percentasExtinct.Itshouldbeasthreatstowildfoodspecies(seeChapter3notedthatinsectsandotherterrestrialinverte-forfurtherdiscussion).However,knowledgeofbrates,whetherusedforfoodornot,arepoorlytheextentofsuchimpactsisgenerallylimited.representedinTheIUCNRedList.RelevantexamplesfromthecountryreportsareAsdiscussedabove,capturefisheriesareaprovidedbelow.majorcommercialindustry,andassuchareThecountryreportsindicatethatrecentsubjecttorelativelycomprehensiveAmgroicunltiutroalriinntegns.iﬁcatdioencanaddeexspahnasiovneseenadeOcvleinreexpilonitatthioenavailabilityandAsnotedinSection4.2.4,asof2015C,h3an3gepseinrlcaendnutsediversityofarangeofPewstsi,lddisefaoseosdansd.iFnvoarsiveexspaemciepsle,offishstockswereestimatedtobeCloimvaetercfhisanhgeed,NepalreportsthatthPeollsuttaiotnusofitswildedible60percenttobemaximallysustainDaefborleystaftiiosnhedplantspeciesisbelieveWdatetrocyhclaevaleterdateiotnerioratedasHabitatalterationandlossOtherand7percenttobeunderfished(FHAuOnti,ng2a0n1d8poaa)c.hingaresultofthe(oftencNuomtrueploartteidve)effectsofland-Comparedtothesituationinthe1970s,thisusechanges(e.g.expansionofagricultureandisacleardeterioration,althoughtherehaveinfrastructuredevelopment),habitatdestructionbeensomeimprovementsatregionalscales(resultingfromtimberharvesting,fuelwood(ibid.).Forothertypesofwildfoods,evidencecollectionandforestfires),overharvesting,168thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Figure4.16NumberofspeciesclassifiedasusedforhumanfoodonTheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies,bytypeandriskcategoryNumberofspeciesBonyﬁshes4617Birds1646Mammals1237Dicotyledons501Sharksandrays287Crustaceans263Amphibians238Monocotyledons225Molluscs191Reptiles127Gastropods109Seacucumbers75Conifers39Gnetopsida24Cycads15Ferns10Lampreysandhagﬁshes9Fungi8Insects1Total10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%96220%100%EXEWCRENVUDDNTLCNote:EX(Extinct);EW(ExtinctintheWild);CR(CriticallyEndangered);EN(Endangered);VU(Vulnerable);DD(DataDeficient);NT(NearThreatened)andLC(LeastConcern).Source:IUCN,2017a.overgrazingandinvasivespecies.Atthesametime,improvingaccesstoremoteareas.Yemenmen-land-usechanges,suchasinfrastructuredevel-tionsthat,althoughitdifficulttoassesslossesopment,arereportedtohavecontributedtoaccurately,itswildfoodspeciesarebelievedincreasingtheavailabilityofwildfoodsbytobedecliningasaresultofoverharvesting,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE169Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBovergrazing,deforestationandwoodlanddeg-inrecentdecades.Othercountries,however,radation.Omanreportsthatthesupplyofwildreportthatdeclinesintheavailabilityofwildfoods,suchasfigsandberries,fromforesttreesfoodshavehadsignificantimpacts.TheGambia,hasdeclinedovertime.Itindicatesthatthishasforexample,mentionsthatmassivelossesofprobablyoccurredbecauseofthelossofpollina-wildfoodshaveobligedcommunitiestoturntotorpopulations(driveninturnbyextremeheatalternatives(oftenindustriallyproducedfoods)associatedwithclimatechange)andtheeffectstosupplementtheirdiets.Finlandnotesthattheofpestsanddiseases.collapseoffreshwaterpopulationsofnativesal-monidshasmeantthatfoodfromthesesourcesInvasivespeciesarereportedtobeaffectinghasbeenreplacedbyimportedfarmedsalmon.wildfoodstocksinanumberofcountries.ForSimilarly,wildberriesharvestedfromfarmlandsexample,theUnitedStatesofAmericanotesthatandforestshavebeenreplacedbycommerciallydatafromthe1990sand2000sshow44nativeproducedcultivarsandimports.InCameroon,thespeciesoffishtobethreatenedorendangeredimpactsofthelossofwildfoodsarereportedtobyinvasivealienspecies.Italsoreferstoafurtherbenumerous:(i)localcommunitiesloseincome27nativefishspeciesnegativelyaffectedbyintro-fromthesaleofwildfoodproducts,aswellasval-ductions.68Invasivemussels,suchaszebramussels,uablenutritionalbenefits;(ii)migrationincreasesarereportedtocompetewithnativemussels,amongthesepopulationsastheycannolongerclamsandsnails,andtoreduceoxygenavailabilitymakealivelihoodfromthewildfoodproducts;forfishandotheraquaticspecies.(iii)populationmovementsmayleadtoproblemswithlandacquisitionandco-existencewithlocalSaintLuciareportsthatitdoesnotdependcommunities,andmaycauseintertribalconflicts;greatlyonwildfoodsorhunting,butmentions(iv)lossofincomesourcesmayleadtopoverty,thatanecdotalinformationindicatesthatthemiseryandcrime;(v)peoplemayhavedifficultysupplyofwildmeatfromanimalssuchasagoutis,adaptingtheirdietsandlifestylestothelossofopossumsandwildpigsdeclinedasaresultoftraditionalproducts.theeffectsofhurricaneTomas.Itfurthernotes,however,thatpopulationsofwildpigsandred-Manycountriesexpresstheneedforaninven-rumpedagoutis(Dasyproctaantillensis)havetoryoftheirwildfoodspeciesandforthedevel-recoveredtosuchextentthattheyaredisrupt-opmentofplansandstrategiesthatensuretheseingproductiononfarms.Effortsarebeingmadespeciesareconservedandusedsustainably.Thistodomesticatetheagoutiandcontrolthepigs.willrequiretechnicalskillsandequipment,aswellAnotherexamplefromSaintLuciaofhowover-asfinancialresources,allofwhicharecurrentlyabundanceofawildfoodspeciescanbeproblem-inshortsupplyinthisfield.Bangladeshmentionsaticisthecaseofthelionfish(Pteroisvolitans),anthat,whilewildfoodspecieshavebeenusedbyinvasivealienspeciesthatgrowsandreproducesruralcommunitiesacrosstheregionforcentu-quicklyandfeedspredominantlyonreefspeciesries,therearestillnoorganizedprogrammesorsuchassnappers,parrotfishandgrunts.Itsonlyprojectsthathighlight,forexample,thevalueofknownnaturalpredatoristhegrouperfish.Thecropwildrelativesandediblewildplantstofoodlionfishhasbecomecommoninlocalwatersandsecurityandnutrition,bothinnormaltimesandthecountry’sFisheriesDepartmentisnowpromot-intimesoffoodcrisis.Itreportsthat,withalargeingitsconsumption.numberofwildedibleplantspeciesdisappearingasaresultoftheexpansionofagriculturalland,Somecountries,Switzerlandforexample,developmentprojectsandotherfactors,thereindicatethatnodeclinesintheavailabilityofisaneedtodevelopbreedingprogrammesandwildfoodsthathaveaffectedthelivelihoodsofactivitiesthatwillhelptomaintainandsustaina-thosethatdependonthemhavebeenrecordedblyusethesespecies.68ThecountryreportcitesPimentel,ZunigaandMorrison(2005).170thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE44.5Ecosystemsofimportancetopermanentortemporary,withwaterthatisstaticfoodandagricultureorflowing,fresh,brackishorsalt,includingareasofmarinewaterthedepthofwhichatlowtide•Ecosystemsprovidecountlessservicesthataredoesnotexceedsixmetres”(RamsarConvention,essentialtofoodandagriculture,forexample2016).Itisestimatedthatinlandandcoastalwet-providinghabitatsforawiderangeofspeciesthatlandscovermorethan12.1millionkm2globally,contributetoproduction,maintainingflowsof54percentofwhichispermanentlyinundatedfreshwater,removingpollutantsfromwatersuppliesand46percentseasonallyinundated(Ramsarandprovidingprotectionagainsthazards.Convention,2018).•MostkeyecosystemsofimportancetofoodandWetlandsarevitaltofoodproduction.Foragricultureareindeclineglobally.example,wetlandhabitatssuchasmangroves,seagrassbedsandcoralreefs(thesethreeeco-•Inlandandcoastalwetlandsaredecliningrapidly.systemcategoriesarediscussedinmoredetailRecentyearshaveseenmassivelossesofcorals.TheinSections4.5.2,4.5.3and4.5.4,respectively)globalareacoveredbyseagrassbedsiscontracting.providecriticalhabitatsforspeciestargetedbyTheworld’smangroveareadecreasedbyanestimatedsmall-scalefisheriesthatprovidefoodandjobsfor20percentbetween1980and2005;althoughtheratemillionsofpeopleworldwide.Wetlandsunderpinoflosshasslowed,thesevitalecosystemsremainthesupplyofrice,oneoftheworld’smajorstaplewidelythreatened.foodcropsandaparticularlysignificantsourceoffoodinmanylow-incomeandlower-middle-•Globalforestareacontinuestodecline,althoughtheincomecountries(GRISP,2013).Wetlandsalsorateoflossdecreasedby50percentbetweenthemaintainflowsoffreshwater,removepollutantsperiods1990–2000and2010–2015.fromwatersupplies,storecarbonandprovideprotectionagainstflooding(Kumaretal.,2017;•Rangelandscoveratleast34percentofgloballandRussietal.,2013;RamsarConvention,2015b;area.TheyareoftenamongtheecosystemsmostMitschandGosselink,eds.,2015;WWFandIES,affectedbyland-usechangesandlanddegradation.2004).Coastalwetlandsactasfrontlinedefencesagainstnaturaldisasters,resisterosionbywindAsdiscussedinthesectionsabove,thesupplyofandwaves,andprovidephysicalbarriersthatslowecosystemservicesisoftenmoreaffectedbytrendsstormsurgesandtidalwaves(UNEP-WCMC,2014).intheextentandqualityofwholeecosystemsthanbytrendsinthestatusofindividualspeciesorWetlandsprovidehabitatforawiderangeofgroupsofspecies.Thissectionisintendedtocom-species.Forexample,freshwaterwetlandsarehomeplementthoseabovebyprovidingoverviewsoftomorethan125000species,almost10percentthestatusandtrendsoftheecosystemcategoriesofalltheworld’sdescribedspecies(StrayerandmostfrequentlyreportedinthecountryreportstoDudgeon,2010).Wetlandsunderpintheannualbeimportanttothesupplyofecosystemservices.migrationsofvastnumbersofbirds,providingthemTheoverviewsarebasedonthewiderliterature.withcriticalstopoverhabitatsthatofferfoodandInformationfromthecountryreportsonthesig-protection(RamsarConvention,2015a).nificanceofecosystemsandtheirstatusandtrendstothesupplyofparticularecosystemservicesisStatusandtrendspresentedinthesectionsabove.Wetlandsareinseriousdeclineglobally.Davidson(2014)estimatesthatbetween64percentand4.5.1Wetlands71percentofwetlandshavebeenlostsincethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.BothIntroductioninlandandcoastalnaturalwetlandsaredeclin-AsdefinedbytheConventiononWetlands(Ramsaring.Between69percentand75percentoftheConvention),wetlandsare“areasofmarsh,fen,peatlandorwater,whethernaturalorartificial,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE171Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBformerandbetween62percentand63percentland-planningpoliciesandinsufficientenforce-ofthelatterareestimatedtohavebeenlostmentofexistingpolicies(MediterraneanWetlandsoverthisperiod(ibid.).TherateoflossofnaturalObservatory,2012).wetlandsisestimatedtohaveincreasedfrombetween0.68percentand0.69percentayear4.5.2Mangrovesbetween1970and1980tobetween0.85percentand1.60percentayearsince2000(RamsarMangrovesareagroupofwoodyplantsfoundConvention,2018).mainlyinintertidalenvironmentsintropicalandsubtropicalareas(Spalding,KainumaandCollins,Land-usechangeforcommercialdevelopment,2010).Theyhavedevelopedanumberofphysi-drainageschemes,extractionofmineralsandologicalandmorphologicalcharacteristicsthatpeat,overfishing,tourism,siltation,pesticideenablethemtosurviveintheseenvironments,dischargesfromintensiveagriculture,toxicpol-includingaerialroots,propagulesadaptedfortidallutantsfromindustry,andtheconstructionofdispersal,rapidratesofcanopyproduction,highlydamsanddykes(ofteninanattempttoimproveefficientnutrient-retentionmechanisms,andfloodprotection)aremajorglobalthreatstowet-theabilitytocopewithsalinityandmaintainanlands(Adams,2012;RamsarConvention,2015a;appropriatewaterandcarbonbalance(Hogarth,UNCCD,2017).Climatechangethreatenswetlands2015;UNEP-WCMC,2014).Thetermmangroveviachangesinwaterlevels,increasesintempera-isalsoappliedtotheecosystemsinwhichthesetureandtheeffectsofabnormalweatherpatternsplantsgrow.Mangrovehabitatsarehighlypro-(Adams,2012;IPCC,2014).Inmanyplaces,theductiveandbiodiverseareasthatprovideshelteramountofwaterbeingtakenfromaquifersfarandfeedinggroundsforalargenumberofinver-exceedsreplenishmentrates(RamsarConvention,tebrate,fishandbirdspecies,manyofwhichare2015a).Waterdemandisnowgreaterthansupplyindangerofextinction(FAO,2003b;UNEP-WCMC,inmanypartsoftheworldandthisisexpectedto2014).Mangrovesarefoundin123oftheworld’sbethecaseinmanymoreareasinthenearfuturecountries(Spalding,KainumaandCollins,2010).(Bureketal.,2016;MekonnenandHoekstra,TheirglobaldistributionisshowninFigure4.17.2016).Hundredsofthousandsofhectaresofwet-landshavebeendrainedforagriculture.Globally,Mangrovesmakeenormouscontributionstoagricultureaccountsfor70percentofthetotalfoodsecurityandlivelihoods.ThelitterthatfallswaterwithdrawalonEarth(FAO,2016j).Alongfromthemangroveplants,estimatedtoamountwithotherindustriessuchaspapermaking,agri-to10tonnes/ha/year,decomposesinthewatercultureisoftenverywastefulandinefficientinitsintosmallparticlesoforganicmatter(Ezcurra,useofwater(WWFInternationalandInstituteforAburtoandRosenzweig,2009).AlongwiththeEnvironmentalStudies,2004).sedimentstrappedbytherootsystemandthefaunaandepiphyticflorathatflourishinthispartAlthoughalmost2.5millionkm2ofwetlands(asoftheecosystem,theseparticlesareconsumedbyof2018)areprotectedasRamsarSites(Davidsonmarineinvertebratessuchaslobsters,crabs,clamsandFinlayson,2018),additionalwetlandareasareandoystersandbyfishsuchastarpon,snook,protectedunderothermechanisms,andvariouscatfishandsnapperandmanyotherspeciesvaluedwetlandrestorationactivitiesareunderwayinindustrialandartisanalfisheries(BadolaandinAsia,EuropeandNorthAmerica(RamsarHussain,2005;Daruetal.,2013;Ezcurra,AburtoConvention,2015c;MitschandGosselink,2015),andRosenzweig,2009;Nagelkerkenetal.,2008).coverageisstillinadequateandmanywetlandsManyofthesespeciesfindshelterinmangroveremainthreatened(Leadleyetal.,2014;RamsarsystemsasjuvenilesbeforemigratingtoseagrassConvention,2018).Lossanddegradationofwet-bedsindeeperwaterandfinallytorockyandcorallandsareoftencausedorexacerbatedbyalackofreefs(Figure4.18).Mangrove-supportedaquaticstrongland-protectionframeworks,inadequatefoodproduction(fishes,shrimps,crabsand172thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Figure4.17Globaldistributionofmangroves30°135°W90°W45°W0°W45°E90°E135°E180°E45°N0°45°SNote:GlobalMangroveWatchmangrovebaselinefor2010anddistributionofmangrovesbylongitudeandlatitude.Source:Buntingetal.,2018.Figure4.18InterconnectivitybetweencoastalecosystemsCoralreefSeagrassbedMangroveUplandFishandinvertebratesmigrateouttoneighbouringhabitatasadults,supportinglocalandoffshoreﬁsheriesRunoffof:–sediments–nutrientsandpollutants–freshwaterExportoforganicmaterialandnutrientsprovidesfoodtooffshoreorganismsFishandinvertebratescomeintofeed,supportinglocalﬁsheriesReduceswaveenergyReduceswaveenergyStabilizesandbindssediments,absorbspollutantsandexcessnutrientsSource:UNEP-WCMC,2014.molluscs)sustainsthenutritionandlivelihoodsofannualvalueofcommercialfishharvestsfrommillionsofpoorpeople,contributingimmensemangrovesrangedfromUSD62/haintheUnitedamountsofproteintodiets(UNEP-WCMC,2014).StatesofAmericatoUSD600/hainIndonesia.Formanypeople,handcollectingofaquaticproducts,huntingandwoodharvestinginman-Mangroveforests,togetherwithseagrassgrovesaretheonlyavailablesourcesoflivelihoodmeadows(seebelow)andsalt-marshes,areamongsupport.UNEP-WCMC(2006)estimatedthatthethemosteffectiveecosystemsonEarthatcarboncaptureandstorage,andforthisreasonarethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE173Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBsometimesreferredtoas“bluecarbonecosystems”theperiodbetween1980and2005(FAO,2007e).(Alongietal.,2016;McLeodetal.,2011;PendletonLossescontinueinmanyregions,althoughatetal.,2012).Theynotonlystorelargeamountsofaslowerrateglobally(HamiltonandCasey,carbonintheirlivingbiomass,butalsosequester2016;StrongandMinnemeyer,2015).Numerousitlongterminthesoil(Spalding,BrumbaughandattemptshavebeenmadeoverrecentdecadestoLandis,2016).Ithasbeenestimatedthatman-estimatethetotalglobalareacoveredbyman-grovesstoreuptofourtimesmorecarbonthangroves.Resultshavevariedduetothemultiplic-othermajortypesofforest(Donatoetal.,2011).ityofdifferentdatasetsusedandmethodologiesPreventingmangrovelossanddegradationisthusapplied.Usingthehighestspatio-temporalreso-animportantcomponentofeffortstomitigatelutiondataavailable,HamiltonandCasey(2016)climatechange(Murdiyarsoetal.,2015;UNEP-foundaglobalmangroveareaof81849km2inWCMC,2014).Mangrovesalsoprovidewater-2012andprojectedafigureof81485km2forpurificationanderosion-preventionservices,2014.Thesameauthorsreportalossof1646km2protectcoastalareasagainststorms,andoffergloballyovertheperiod2000to2012,whichopportunitiesforeducationalandrecreationalamountsto1.97percentoftheestimatedglobalactivities,includingecotourism(Barbieretal.,totalatthestartofthisperiod.Theregionwith2011;UNEP-WCMC,2014).Theyprovideapoten-thegreatestrateoflossisSoutheastAsia,wheretialrefugeforcoralsthreatenedbyrisingtempera-anestimated3.58percentofmangroveareawasturesandoceanacidification.Astudycarriedoutinlostoverthesameperiod(ibid.).theUnitedStatesVirginIslands(Yatesetal.,2014)foundmorethan30speciesofcoralthrivingamongMangrovelossesaredrivenbyhighlevelsofmangrovesinanareawherenearbyreefshadbeenhumanpressure,includingfromcoastaldevelop-seriouslyaffectedbybleaching.Costanzaetal.ment,agriculture,fishing,aquaculture,timber(2014)estimatedthattheeconomicvalueofeco-extraction,waterdiversionandoverexploitationsystemservicesprovidedbymangrovesandtidal(FAO,2007e;VanLavierenetal.,2012;UNEP-marshesamountedtoUSD194000/ha/year.WCMC,2014).Valiela,BowenandYork(2001)esti-matedthataquacultureaccountedfor52percentStateofknowledgeofmangrovelossgloballyduringthe1980sandOverrecentyearstherehavebeenanumber1990s,withshrimpfarmingaloneaccountingforofeffortstoassesstheglobalstatusandtrends38percent.However,facedwiththesocialandofmangroveecosystems.TheWorldMangroveenvironmentalproblemsassociatedwithinten-Atlas,thefirstglobalassessmentofthestateofsiveshrimpfarming,andwithgrowinginteresttheworld’smangroves,waspublishedin1997inthecarbon-sequestrationandprotectiverolesandupdatedversionpublishedin2010(Spalding,ofmangrovesandtheotherecosystemservicesBlascoandField,eds.,1997;Spalding,Kainumaandtheysupply,manycountriesarenowreceptiveCollins,2010).Theincreasingavailabilityofopenlytoadoptingintegratedmangrove–aquacultureaccessiblehighspatio-temporalresolutiondatahassystems(Ahmed,ThompsonandGlaser,2018).Thisallowedtheemergenceofasystematicapproachtoprovidesrealopportunitiestoreforestabandonedmangrovemappingthatreducesuncertaintiesandshrimpfarmsandotherdegradedmangroveareaspromotesconsistencyinthereportingofstatusandsothattheycanagainsupportproductivecoastaltrends(seeexamplesandreferencesbelow).fisheriesandaquaculture.Forexample,undertheso-calledTambakTumpangsarisysteminStatusandtrendsIndonesia,mangrovessupplynutrientstoplank-Globalmangroveareadeclinedmarkedlyduringtoninaquaculturepondsandalsoreducethethelatetwentiethandearlytwenty-firstcentu-vulnerabilityofthepondstostrongwindsandries,withanestimated20percentlossduringtidalfloodsduringatleastpartofthelifecycleoftheaquacultureventure(VanLavierenetal.,174thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE42012).Climatechangeisalsoathreat,asrisingseatoalossoffisheryyield(Saenger,Gartsideandlevels,erosionandincreasedfrequencyofstormsFunge-Smith,forthcoming).Forexample,large-allhaveseriousimpactsonmangroveecosystemsscalelossesofcommoneelgrass(Zosteramarina)(Blankespoor,DasguptaandLange,2017;MumbymeadowsinEuropeandNorthAmericaintheetal.,2004).1930s,attributedtoaslimemouldparasite,didnotcauseadeclineinfishcatchesasthelossofThemostrecentavailablereview(Polidoroettheeelgrassledtotheexposureofrockysubstrateal.,2010)indicatesthat11outofthe70man-thatwascolonizedbymacro-algaethatservedasgrovespeciesassessedforTheIUCNRedListareanalternativehabitat(Heck,HaysandOrth,2003).classedasThreatened–twooftheseareclassedasCriticallyEndangered(Sonneratiagriffithii,SeagrassbedscontributetonutrientcyclingfoundinpartsofIndiaandSoutheastAsia,andandwaterpurification,helptoprotectcoastalBruguierahainesii,foundinfragmentedloca-areasbystabilizingsediments,sequestratecarbontionsinIndonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,PapuaandserveaskeyhabitatsformarinebiodiversityNewGuinea,SingaporeandThailand),threeas(Barbieretal.,2011;Colesetal.,2007;GreenEndangeredandsixasVulnerable.AfurthersevenandShort,2003;Saenger,GartsideandFunge-speciesareconsideredNearThreatenedorDataSmith,forthcoming).AccordingtoFourqureanetDeficient(ibid.).al.(2012),thegloballossofseagrassessincethebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyhasresulted4.5.3Seagrassesinadecreaseincarbonsequestrationofbetween6millionand24milliontonnesofcarbonperSeagrassesaresubmergedfloweringplantsfoundyear,withcurrentratesofseagrasslossannuallyinshallownearshoremarineandestuarinewatersexposingsoilscontaininganestimated63millioninalmosteverypartoftheworldexceptAntarcticato297milliontonnesofcarbon.Costanzaetal.(GreenandShort,2003).Seagrassbedssupport(2014)estimatedthatasof2011ahectareofhighratesofproductioninvaluablecommercialseagrassoralgaebeddeliveredecosystemser-andartisanalfisheries,includingthosetargetingvicesworthUSD28916peryearonaverage,finfishsuchassnappers,emperors,rabbitfish,whichamountedtoanestimatedglobaltotalofsurgeonfishandflounder,molluscssuchasconch,USD6.8trillionperyear.oysters,mussels,scallopsandclams,crustaceasuchasshrimp,lobsterandcrab,andechinodermssuchStateofknowledgeasstarfish,seaurchinsandseacucumbers(BarbierAnumberofinitiativesarehelpingtobuildknowl-etal.,2011;GreenandShort,2003;Nordlundetedgeofthestatusandtrendsoftheworld’ssea-al.,2018;Saenger,GartsideandFunge-Smith,grassecosystems.Forexample,UNEnvironmentforthcoming).Aglobal-scalereviewofthecontri-WorldConservationMonitoringCentre’s(UNEP-butionofseagrassecosystemstocommercial,arti-WCMC’s)GlobalDistributionofSeagrassesdatasetsanalandrecreationalfisheries(Nordlundetal.,wasusedtocompiletheWorldatlasofseagrasses2018)concludesthatmostfishingintheseecosys-(GreenandShort,2003),thefirstofficialglobaltemsissmallscaleandthusthattheyareofmajorassessmentofthedistribution,statusandtrendsimportancetolivelihoodsinmanycoastalcom-ofseagrassesandthethreatsaffectingthem.Themunitiesindevelopingcountries.Accordingtolatestdataset69canbeviewedinmappedformJacksonetal.(2015),seagrass-associatedspeciesviaUNEP-WCMC’sOceanDataViewer.70Nationalcontribute30to40percenttothevalueofcom-andsubnationalassessmentsarealsopublishedmercialfisherylandingsintheMediterranean.(e.g.Colesetal.,2007andMcKenzieetal.,2017).Declinesinfishproductionfollowingthelossof69Atthetimeofwriting,version6,datedNovember2018.seagrassbedshavebeenrecorded,forexamplein70http://data.unep-wcmc.orgAustralia(Colesetal.,2007).However,therehavebeencasesinwhichlossofseagrassdidnotleadthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE175Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.19GlobaldistributionofseagrassesSource:UNEP-WCMCandShort,2017.TheinternationalmonitoringprogrammesSeagrassWeatherdonetal.,2017).Thereisageneralcon-Watch71andSeagrassNet72keeptrackofthestatussensusthattheglobalextentofseagrassbedsisofseagrassresourcesatsitesaroundtheworldcontractingandthatarangeofhumanactivities(335sitesin19countriesand122sitesin33coun-andnaturalfactorsaredrivingthisprocess(Colestries,respectively).73Bothprogrammesinvolveetal.,2007;GreenandShort,2003;Orthetal.,contributionsfromcoastalcommunities,academia,2006;Waycottetal.,2009).However,changesNGOs,researchinstitutionsandnationalandlocalintheextentofseagrasshabitatarewelldocu-government.ImprovingknowledgeofthestatusmentedonlyinareassuchasEurope,theUnitedandtrendsofseagrassecosystemswillrequireStatesofAmericaandAustraliaandafewspecificbetterstandardizationofsamplingandmonitor-locationsinAfrica,AsiaandSouthAmerica(Duarteingmethods(Duarteetal.,2008;Orthetal.,2006;etal.,2008;Duarte,2017).IthasbeenestimatedShortetal.,2011).Thereisalsoagreatneedforthattheareacoveredbyseagrasshasdeclinedbymoredetailedresearchonspecificseagrasshabi-29percentinthelast100years(Waycottetal.,tats,theirlinkstootherecosystemssuchasman-2009),withthelostseagrassbedsbeingreplacedgrovesandtheirinfluenceonfisheries(Saenger,bynakedmudandsandysoilsorinsomecasesbyGartsideandFunge-Smith,forthcoming).algaebeds(Fourqureanetal.,2012;Heck,HaysandOrth,2003).Waycottetal.(2009)reportthatStatusandtrendstherehavebeensomeincreasesinseagrassareaatSeagrassbedscoveranestimated344958km2localscalesinrecentdecades,butthattheseseemacross128countriesandterritoriesgloballytobesmallrelativetogloballosses.(Figure4.19)(UNEP-WCMCandShort,2017;Whereindividualseagrassspeciesarecon-71www.seagrasswatch.orgcerned,outof70assessedbyIUCN,7areclassedas72www.seagrassnet.orgVulnerableand3asEndangered.Oftheremain-73Figuresfromtherespectiveprogrammewebsitesasofder,48areclassedasbeingofLeastConcern,5asNearThreatenedand7asDataDeficient(IUCN,November2018.176thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE42017a).Twenty-twooftheassessedpopulationseds.,2011).Reefscomeinthreemaintypes:atollshowadecreasingtrend,3anincreasingtrendreefs(ring-shapedreefssurroundinglagoons);and31astabletrend.Trendsfortheremainingbarrierreefs(separatedfromthemainlandbya14areunknown.channelofdeepwater);andfringingreefs(sepa-ratedfromtheshorelineonlybyshallowwaters)Climatechangeisconsideredtobethemain(Spalding,RaviliousandGreen,2001).threattoseagrassecosystemsglobally:changesintemperatureandrainfallarereducingseagrasses’Coralsarefoundinalltheoceansoftheworld,accesstolightandhenceaffectingtheirgrowthfromthetropicstopolarregions,butformreefsandtheirroleasprimaryproducers(Colesetonlyinwaterswithtemperaturesabove18ºC,al.,2007).Extremeclimateeventssuchashurri-whichgenerallylimitsthedistributionofreefscanescandestroyseagrassbeds.Threatssuchastolatitudesbelow30º.Ithasbeenestimatedeutrophication,turbidityandsedimentdischargethatcoralreefscoverapproximately250000km2areoftenbeingexacerbatedbypoorland-useandglobally(Burkeetal.,2011),lessthan0.1percentwater-usepractices,includingwatersheddeforest-oftheEarth’ssurfaceor0.2percentoftheoceanation,clearingofcoastalforests,inappropriatesurface,andthatreefsprotectaround150000kmmanagementoffertilizers,dredginganddestruc-ofshorelinein100countriesandterritories(ibid.).tivefishingpractices(OceanHealthIndex,2018;Waycottetal.,2009).AquaculturecangiverisetoThevalueoftheecosystemservicesprovidedbythreatssuchasinvasive-speciesescapes,eutroph-coralreefsisenormous.Theyprovidevitalhabitatication,shadingandexcessiveinfluxesoforganicfor25percentoftheworld’sknownmarinematter(Duarteetal.,2008;GreenandShort,2003;species(Cesar,BurkeandPet-Soede,2003;KarrWaycottetal.,2009).Lossofpredatorsasaresultetal.,2015).Manymarinefishandinvertebratesofoverfishingcancauseacascadethroughthetargetedbycommercialandartisanalfisheriesfoodwebthatleadstothelossofherbivoresthat(includinggroupers,snappers,sharks,seacucum-cleanseseagrassesoffoulingalgae(Waycottetbersandlobsters)usereefsforfeeding,repro-al.,2009).Diseaseoutbreakssuchasthe“wastingductionandbreeding(Burkeetal.,2011;Jacksondisease”andstanddiebacksthataffectedsea-etal.,2014;DelMonacoetal.,2010).CoralreefsgrassesinNorthAmericaandEuropeinthelastalsoprotectshorelines,coastalcommunitiesandcenturyareanotherthreat(Duarteetal.,2008;coastalecosystemssuchasmangrovesandsea-GreenandShort,2003;Waycottetal.,2009).grassbedsthatserveasnurseriesforawiderangeofspecies(Buddemeier,KleypasandAranson,4.5.4Coralreefs2004;Ferrarioetal.,2014;Saenger,GartsideandFunge-Smith,forthcoming).ReeffisheriesCoralreefsarehighlydiverseaquaticecosystemsarefundamentaltothenutritionofmillionsofthathostvastnumbersofspeciesofalgae,inver-peopleincoastalareasindevelopingcountriestebrates,fishandreptiles(Karretal.,2015).Corals(Cesar,BurkeandPet-Soede,2003).Ithasbeenthemselvesarecolonialanimalsconsistingofestimatedthatone-eighthoftheworld’spopu-mergedfleshypolypsthatliveinsymbioticassocia-lationlivewithin100kmofacoralreef(Burkeettionwithalgaeknownaszooxanthellae:thepolypal.,2011).Costanzaetal.(2014)estimatedthat,protectsthealgaeandprovidesthemwithsomeifallcategoriesofecosystemservicesaretakenessentialnutrientsandthealgaeprovidefoodandintoaccount,thetotalvalueofcoralreefs’con-oxygentothepolyp(Buddemeier,KleypasandtributionstohumanityamountstoapproximatelyAranson,2004;Kempetal.,2012).ThestructureofUSD350000/ha/year.acoralreefconsistsofcalciumcarbonatesecretedbycertaincoralspecies(referredtoasreef-buildingStateofknowledgeorhermatypiccorals)toprovidethemselveswithAnumberofglobalinitiativescontributetomon-aprotectiveexoskeleton(DubinskyandStambler,itoringandreportingonthestateoftheworld’sthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE177Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBcoralreefs.Forexample,theInternationalCoralGlobalOceanAcidificationObservingNetwork79ReefInitiative,74aninformalpartnershipofgov-monitors,andmakesdataavailableon,variablesernments,non-governmentalorganizationsandrelatedtooceanacidificationandtheresponsesinternationalorganizations,publishedfiveStatusofecosystemstothisprocess(GOA-ON,2016;oftheCoralReefsoftheWorldreportsbetweenNewtonetal.,2015b).Dataonvariouscatego-1998and2008,drawingondataandinformationriesofbiodiversityaretargeted,includingdataprovidedbyalargenumberofexpertsaroundspecificallyonthestateofcoral-reefbiodiversity,theworld(e.g.Wilkinson,2008).Ithasalsopub-forexampleonchangesinthebiomassofcorals,lishedseveralreportsonthestatusofcoralreefscorallinealgaeandotherphotosynthesizersinatregionalorsubregionallevels(e.g.Chinetal.,coralreefs,changesinthepopulationstructure2011;Jacksonetal.,2014)andontheimpactsofofcoralsandothercomponentsofreefbiodiver-variousthreatsanddriversofchange(e.g.Salvatsity,andchangesinreefecosystemprocessesandandAllemand,2009).habitatquality(ibid.).TheReefbaseinformationsystem75featuresSignificantnationalinitiativesincludetheaglobaldatabaseofcountry-levelinformationCoralReefInformationSystem(CoRIS),80theoncoral-reefresources,theirstatus,threatsinformationportaloftheUnitedStatesofaffectingthem,andthestatusofmanagementAmerica’sNationalOceanicandAtmosphericactivitiessuchasmonitoringprogrammesandAdministration’s(NOAA’s)CoralReeftheestablishmentofprotectedareas.ItsOnlineConservationProgram,whichprovidesaccesstoGeographicInformationSystem(ReefGIS)allowstheorganization’scoralreefinformationandcoralreef-relatedinformation(e.g.locationsofdataproducts.NOAA’scoralreef-relatedactivitiesprotectedareas,areascoveredbymonitoringincludemapping,monitoringandassessment,programmes,bleachingevents,diseaseoutbreaksalongwithnaturalandsocio-economicresearchandthreatssuchascoastaldevelopmentsandandmodelling(NOAA,2018).TheAustralianmarinepollution)tobedisplayedoninteractiveResearchCouncil’sCentreofExcellenceformaps.TheMillenniumCoralReefMappingProjectIntegratedCoralReefStudies81has,since2005,Seascape,aglobalcoral-reefdatabasecompiledbeenundertakingintegratedresearchsupport-fromanumberofsourcesbyUNEP-WCMCandingthesustainableuseandmanagementofcoraltheWorldFishCentre,incollaborationwithreefsinAustralia(ARC,2018).theWorldResourcesInstituteandTheNatureConservancy,recordstheglobaldistributionofStatusandtrendstropicalandsubtropicalcoralreefs(UNEP-WCMC,Recentdecadeshaveseenmassivelossesofcorals2010).GlobalReefRecord76makesavailablehigh-globally.Declinesareattributedtoanthropo-definitionimageryshotalongtransectsatnumer-genicpressures,particularlytheeffectsofclimateouscoral-reefsitesaroundtheworldbytheXLchange,coastaldevelopmentsandmisuseofCatlinSeaviewSurvey.77TheOceanHealthIndex78fishinggear(trawlers)(Buddemeier,KleypasandhasbeenassessingoceansgloballyeveryyearsinceAranson,2004;Jacksonetal.,2014).Risingtem-2012bysynthesizingdataonarangeofcompo-peraturesaffectthesymbiosisbetweencoralsnents,includingcoralreefareaandconditionandzooxanthellae(seeabove):aprolonged,toprovideindexscoresfor220coastalnationsincreaseofatleast1°Caffectsthealgae’sabilityandterritories(Halpernetal.,2012,2017).Thetophotosynthesize,whichcausesbleachingandsubsequentdeathofthecorals(Heron,Eakinand74https://www.icriforum.org75www.reefbase.org79http://goa-on.org/home.php76www.globalreefrecord.org80https://www.coris.noaa.gov/77531transectsfrom305reefsavailableasofDecember2018.81www.coralcoe.org.au78http://www.oceanhealthindex.org178thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Douver,2017).TemperaturevariationsarealsoFigure4.20associatedwithhigherfrequencyofhurricanesGlobalstatusofreef-buildingcorals(Benderetal.,2010;Holland,2012),whichcannegativelyaffectcoralsbyincreasingtheamountCRENofsedimentinthewater(Cesar,BurkeandPet-1%3%Soede,2003).Overfishing,illegalfishinganddestructivefishingpracticessuchastheuseofDDexplosivesandcyanideposeathreatinsome19%partsoftheworld(Cesar,BurkeandPet-Soede,2003).DeclinesorshiftsinfishpopulationscanVUaffecttheecologicalbalanceofreefcommuni-23%ties,compromisingtheirdynamicsandprocesses(Burkeetal.,2011).Forexample,adecreaseinLCNTthenumberofherbivorescanallowanincrease34%20%inthegrowthofmacro-algae,whichhaveaneg-ativeeffectoncorals(ibid.).Adramaticexamplen=868speciesofthiseffectoccurredinthe1980s,whenacollapse(duetooverfishing)inthenumbersofNote:CR(CriticallyEndangered);EN(Endangered);parrotfish,oneofthemostimportantgrazersofVU(Vulnerable);DD(DataDeficient);NT(NearThreatened)andCaribbeanreefs,coincidedwiththedisappear-LC(LeastConcern).anceofanothergrazingspecies,thelong-spinedSource:TheIUCNRedListversion2018-2.seaurchinDiademaantillarum(Buddemeier,KleypasandAranson,2004;Jacksonetal.,2014;authorsalsoestimatedthatby2050,95percentMumbyetal.,2006).Otherthreatsincludecoastalofreefsgloballywouldbeexperiencingthermalpollution,invasivespecies,coralharvestingandstresssufficienttocauseseverebleachinginmostmining(Buddemeier,KleypasandAranson,2004;years(ibid.).Sincethesestudieswerepublished,Jacksonetal.,2014)theworld’soceanshavesexperiencedthelongestandmostseverecoral-bleachingeventonrecordThepreciseextentofhistoricallossesisdif-(2014to2017)(Hughesetal.,2017,2018).A2017ficulttoestimateasrecordsareincomplete.assessmentofcoral-reefWorldHeritageSitesWilkinson(2008)concludedthattheworldhadconcludedthatall29suchsiteswouldceasetolost19percentofitsoriginalcoral-reefareaexistasfunctioningcoralreefecosystemsbytheandthatafurther35percentwasunderthreatendofthetwenty-firstcenturyundera“busi-oflossinthecomingdecades.Insomeregions,nessasusual”carbon-emissionsscenario(Heron,evengreaterlossesappeartohaveoccurred.EakinandDouver,2017).Forexample,basedondatafrom88locationsintheCaribbean,coveringtheperiods1970toWheretheriskstatusofreef-buildingcoral1983,1984to1998,and1999to2011,Jacksonspeciesthemselvesisconcerned,datafromIUCNetal.(2014)concludedthatcoralcoverdeclined(IUCN,2018)indicatethatoutof868speciesfrom34.8percentinthefirstoftheseperiodstoofcoralsassessed,1percent(6)areclassed19.1percentinthesecondand16.3percentinasCriticallyEndangered,3percent(26)asthethird,i.e.adeclineofmorethan50percentEndangeredand23percent(202)asVulnerable(aoverall.Burkeetal.(2011)rated60percentofthefurther19percentareclassifiedasDataDeficient)world’scoralreefsasbeingunderimmediateand(Figure4.20).Humanassisted-evolutioneffortstodirectthreatfromlocaleffects(overfishing,pol-restorecoralreefsarediscussedinSection5.9.6.lution,etc.)andrated75percentasthreatenedifthermalstressisalsotakenintoaccount.ThesethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE179Drivers,statusandtrendsPartB4.5.5Forestsproductionofforestgoodsandservicesprovidesasourceofincomeformany(FAO,2014a).AroundIntroductionone-thirdoftheworld’spopulation,oraboutThecontributionsofforeststothewell-beingof2.4billionpeople,usewoodasasourceofenergyhumankindareextraordinarilyvastandfarreach-forbasicneedssuchascooking,boilingwateranding(FAO,2016g).Forestsaretheworld’slargestheating(FAO,2018b).repositoryofterrestrialbiodiversity.TheyalsoplayavitalroleinclimatechangemitigationandFAOhasalongtraditionofmonitoringthecontributetosoilandwaterconservationinmanyworld’sforests.Itperiodicallycollectsandanaly-fragileecosystems.Theymakemanysignificantsesdataonforestresourcesthroughseveralwell-contributionstofoodsecurity,livelihoodsandestablishedprocesses,includingtheGlobalForestpovertyalleviation.MillionsofpeopledependonResourcesAssessment(FRA)(FAO,2012c,2017k).foodfromforestsandfromtreeslocatedoutsideManycountriesconductnationalassessmentsforeststoincreasethenutritionalqualityandoftheirforestareasandotherforestvariables,diversityoftheirdiets.Thisisparticularlyimpor-increasinglyusingremotesensingtocomplementtantduringseasonalfoodshortages,extremeground-levelforestinventories.Thedatageneratedclimaticeventsandconflicts.EmploymentinthebysuchassessmentsarereportedperiodicallytotheFRA.TheFRAhascontributedgreatlytoimprovingBox4.10FAOglobaldefinitionofforestFOREST4.Includeswindbreaks,shelterbeltsandcorridorsoftreesLandspanningmorethan0.5hawithtreeshigherthanwithanareaofmorethan0.5haandwidthofmore5mandacanopycoverofmorethan10percent,ortreesthan20m.abletoreachthesethresholdsinsitu.Itdoesnotincludelandthatispredominantlyunderagriculturalorurban5.Includesabandonedshiftingcultivationlandwithalanduse.regenerationoftreesthathave,orareexpectedtoreach,acanopycoverof10percentandtreeheightof5m.Explanatorynotes1.Forestisdeterminedbothbythepresenceoftreesand6.Includesareaswithmangrovesintidalzones,regardlesswhetherthisareaisclassifiedaslandareaornot.theabsenceofotherpredominantlanduses.Thetreesshouldbeabletoreachaminimumheightof5minsitu.7.Includesrubber-wood,corkoakandChristmastree2.Includesareaswithyoungtreesthathavenotyetplantations.reachedbutwhichareexpectedtoreachacanopycoverof10percentandtreeheightof5m.Italsoincludes8.Includesareaswithbambooandpalmsprovidedthatareasthataretemporarilyunstockedduetoclear-cuttinglanduse,heightandcanopycovercriteriaaremet.aspartofaforestmanagementpracticeornaturaldisasters,andwhichareexpectedtoberegenerated9.Includesareasoutsidethelegallydesignatedforestlandwithinfiveyears.Localconditionsmay,inexceptionalwhichmeetthedefinitionof“forest”.cases,justifythatalongertimeframeisused.3.Includesforestroads,firebreaksandothersmallopen10.Excludestreestandsinagriculturalproductionsystems,areas;forestinnationalparks,naturereservesandothersuchasfruit-treeplantations,oil-palmplantations,protectedareassuchasthoseofspecificenvironmental,oliveorchardsandagroforestrysystemswhencropsscientific,historical,culturalorspiritualinterest.aregrownundertreecover.Note:Someagroforestrysystemssuchasthe“Taungya”systemwherecropsaregrownonlyduringthefirstyearsoftheforestrotationshouldbeclassifiedasforest.Source:FAO,2018j.180thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4Table4.10Globalforestareachange(1990–2015)YearForest(thousandha)PeriodAnnualnetchangeRatea(%)Area(thousandha)199041282691990–2000-0.182000–2005-7267-0.11200040556022005–2010-4572-0.082010–2015-3414-0.0820054032743-33082010401567320153999134Note:aCalculatedasthecompoundannualgrowthrate.Source:FAO,2016g.concepts,definitionsandmethodsrelatedtotheincreases,therateofnetforestlossfellbyoverassessmentofforestresources(FAO,2012c).50percentbetweentheperiods1990to2000and2010to2015(Table4.10)(FAO,2016g).82Globally,ResultsfromtheFRAshowasteadydecreasenaturalforestareaisdecreasingandplantedforestintherateofforestlossglobally.Othersourcesareaisincreasing.However,thebulkoftheworld’shave,however,reportedthattherateofforestforestisnaturalforest,withreportednaturalforestlossisincreasing.Thediscrepancyinthefindingsareaaccountingfor93percentofthetotalglobalisexplainedmainlybythefactthatFAOdefinesforestarea,or3.7billionha,in2015.Theannualforestasacombinationoftreecoverandlandnetlossofnaturalforestareadeclinedfromuse(seeBox4.10),whilesomedefineforestonly10.6millionhaperyearduringtheperiod1990tointermsoftreecover.Datasetsbasedsolelyon2000to6.5millionhaperyearduringtheperiodremote-sensingsourcessuchasLandsatimagery2010to2015.cannotdifferentiatebetweentreecoverinagri-culturalproductionsystems(oil-palmplantations,Forestdesignatedprimarilyforbiodiversitycon-coffeeplantations,etc.)andtreecoveronlandservationaccountsfor13percentoftheworld’sthatisnotpredominantlyunderagriculturalorforestarea,or524millionha,withthelargesturbanlanduse.Inaddition,areaswithtreecoverareasreportedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaandthathasbeentemporarilyremovedaspartofaBrazil.Thisareahasincreasedby150millionhaforest-managementschemeortemporarilylostsince1990,althoughtherateofincreaseslowedthroughnaturaldisturbancesarestillconsideredduringthe2010to2015period.OverthislatterforestaccordingtotheFAOdefinition,whileaperiod,Africa,AsiaandSouthAmericaeachremote-sensinganalysisoftreecoverwillinterpretreportedanincreaseofabout1millionhapertheseareasasforestloss.Moreover,newlyestab-yearofareadesignatedfortheconservationoflishedforestcannoteasilybedetectedbyremotebiodiversity,whileEurope,NorthandCentralsensing(FAO,2016g).AmericaandOceaniatogetherreportedanincreaseofabout600000ha.StatusandtrendsForestsandforestmanagementhavechangedsub-Seventeenpercentoftheworld’sforestareaisstantiallyoverthepast25years.Overall,thisperiodlocatedwithinlegallyestablishedprotectedareas,hasseenanumberofpositivedevelopments.accountingforatotalof651millionha.SouthForexample,althoughtheextentoftheworld’sforestscontinuestodeclineashumanpopulations82ThedescriptionofstatusandtrendspresentedheredrawscontinuetogrowanddemandforfoodandlandonFAO(2016g).Exceptwhereotherwiseindicated,allthestatisticspresentedaretakenfromthissourceandrefertothestateofforestresourcesasof2015.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE181Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.21Annualchangeinforestarea(1990–2015)1000haNetgainNetlossSmallchange(gainorloss)50–250>500<50250–500500–250>500250–50NodataSource:FAO,2015d.Americahasthehighestproportion(34percent)withhigh-resolutionsatelliteimageryandrequireofprotectedforest,largelybecauseofthecontri-alongtimeperiodtoassessreliably.ChangesinbutionofBrazil,where42percentofforestareaisforestarea,bycountry,fortheperiod1990tolocatedwithintheprotectedareasnetwork.The2015aresummarizedinFigure4.21.areaofforestwithinprotectedareasincreasedby200millionhabetween1990and2015,buttherateTherearealsodifferencesbetweentheofincreaseslowedduringthe2010to2015period.impactsoflarge-scalecommercialagricultureTheincreaseintheareaofforestwithinprotectedandthoseofsubsistenceagricultureasdeforest-areaswasparticularlyevidentinthetropics,whereationdrivers.Ananalysisofnationaldataforanadditional143millionhaofforestwereput46tropicalandsubtropicalcountriesrepresent-underprotectionbetween1990and2015.ingabout78percentoftheforestareasinthesedomains(Hosonumaetal.,2012)revealedthatTheforest-areachangessummarizedinlarge-scalecommercialagricultureisthemostTable4.9amountedtoadeclineinforestareaprevalentdriverofdeforestation,accountingfrom31.6percentofgloballandareain1990tofor40percent.Localsubsistenceagriculturewas30.6percentin2015.Suchfigures,however,donotfoundtoaccountfor33percentofdeforestation,fullyreflectthecomplicatednatureofdeforesta-urbanexpansionfor10percent,infrastructurefortionorforestconversiontootherlanduse.Forest10percentandminingfor7percent.Moreover,gainsandlossesoccurcontinuously,andwhilealthoughitmaybringothereconomicbenefitsdeforestationcanbeeasilydetectedwithremoteandenhanceglobalfoodsecurity,thelarge-sensing,forestgainsaredifficulttomonitorevenscale,export-focusedcommercialproduction182thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4ofagriculturalcommoditiesmaycontributelittleestablishedmethodsformeasuringandmonitor-tofoodsecurityatthelocalornationallevel.ingthisindicator.Statusandtrendsinforestbio-Hosonumaetal.(2012)notethat,insomecases,diversityarestilldifficultandcostlytomonitor,asland-usechangewasprecededbyforestdegra-thisrequiressubstantialfieldwork,andcountriesdation,forexamplecausedbyunsustainableorlackthenecessaryfinancialresources.Similarly,illegalwoodremoval.83dataonthesocio-economicaspectsofforests,forexampleontheircontributiontolivelihoodsandNaturalforestexpansionmayoccurwhenagri-foodsecurity,arescarce.culturallandisabandoned,forexamplewhenaruralpopulationdeclines,whenlandbecomesso4.5.6Rangelandsdegradedthatitbecomesunproductiveasagricul-turallandorwhenmoreproductiveagriculturalRangelandhasbeendefinedinmanyways,84landbecomesavailableelsewhere.Forestpoliciesusuallybasedonlandcoverorlanduse(Lund,maybeputinplacetoencouragetreeplanting2007).AccordingtotheSocietyforRangewiththeaimofmeetinganticipatedfutureneedsManagement,rangelandsare“landsonwhichforforestgoodsandenvironmentalservices.Thetheindigenousvegetation(climaxornaturalimpactonforestareaof“reversedrivers”suchpotential)ispredominantlygrasses,grass-likeasafforestationpoliciesisparticularlyevidentinplants,forbs,orshrubsandismanagedasahigh-incomecountriessuchastheUnitedStatesofnaturalecosystem.Ifplantsareintroduced,AmericaandthoseinwesternEurope,wherenettheyaremanagedsimilarly.Rangelandsincludedeforestationbottomedoutmanydecadesago.naturalgrasslands,savannas,shrublands,manyHowever,thereisnowevidenceofasimilartrenddeserts,tundras,alpinecommunities,marshesinsomedevelopingcountries.andmeadows”(SocietyforRangeManagement,1998).RangelandsarefoundfromtheAsianIntheperiod1990to2015,93countriessteppestotheAndeanregionsofSouthAmericarecordednetlossesinforestarea(totallingandfromthemountainsofwesternEuropetothe242millionha),while88countriesrecordednetAfricansavannahs.Land-covertypesorbiomesthatgains(totallingalmost113millionha)(FAO,canbeclassifiedasrangelandsmakeupbetween2016e).InAsia,24countriesexperiencedanet6.4billionha(ifdesertsandotherbarrenlandsincreaseinforestareaoverthisperiod,amountingareincluded)and4.5billionha(withoutbarrento73.1millionha,mainlyaresultoflarge-scalelands)globally,85amountingto49percentandafforestationprogrammesinChina.InEurope,34percentofgloballandarea,respectively.Many35countriesrecordedanetincreaseinforestoftheworld’sgrazingsystems,includingthoseinarea,totalling21.5millionha.ThirteencountriesAfricansavannahs,NorthAmericanprairiesandinAfrica,eightinOceania,sixinNorthandCentralAsiansteppes,wereestablishedinnaturalgrass-America,andtwoinSouthAmericaalsorecordedlandsoropenwoodlandslonggrazedbylargenetincreasesinforestareaoverthisperiod.herdsofwildungulates(hoofedanimals).MostEuropeangrasslandsweredevelopedfromforestsAlthoughtherehavebeensignificantadvancesmanycenturiesago.inrecentyearsinthecapacityofcountriestomonitortheirforests,andanunprecedentedLivestockproductionisthemajorlanduseinincreaseintheavailabilityofsatelliteimagerytheworld’sgrasslands.Grassesandleavesconsti-andmonitoringtools,therearestillimportanttutethemostimportantlivestockfeedresourcesgapsandneedsinforestmonitoring.Forexample,thereisstillnoagreedoperationalglobaldefini-84ForacompilationofdefinitionsofrangelandsseeLund(2014).tionofforestdegradation,andconsequentlyno85CalculatedfromFAOSTATlandcoverdatafor2015,including83ThisandthefollowingtwoparagraphsareadaptedfromFAOthefollowingcategories:grassland;shrub-coveredareas;(2016e).shrubsand/orherbaceousvegetation,aquaticorregularlyflooded;andsparselynaturalvegetatedareas.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE183Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.22GlobaldistributionofruminantlivestockproductionsystemsGrassland-basedsystemhyperaridMixedrainfedhyperaridMixedirrigatedhyperaridUrbanGrassland-basedsystemaridMixedrainfedaridMixedirrigatedaridTree-basedsystemsGrassland-basedsystemhumidMixedrainfedhumidMixedirrigatedhumidUnsuitableGrassland-basedsystemtemperateMixedrainfedtemperateMixedirrigatedtemperateNote:GlobalLivestockProductionSystemsbasedonamodifiedversionoftheGLC-Share(FAO,July2014).Source:Robinsonetal.,2018.globally,makingupbetween46percentandoverlongdistances,totrackchangesintheavail-50percentofthelivestockdiet(Herreroetal.,abilityofvegetationandotherresources(ibid.).2013;Mottetetal.;2017).Figure4.22showsthePrecisefiguresforthenumberofnomadicandglobaldistributionoflivestockproductionsystems.transhumantpastoralistsarehardtocomeby,However,notallrangelandsareusedforgrazing.partlybecauseofthedifficultiesinvolvedinAlkemadeetal.(2013)estimatethatthepro-definingthesecategoriesandtrackingthemportionliesbetween10percentand60percent,innationalcensuses.Afigureof100to200dependingonthebiome.EventheFAOland-millionpeoplegloballyisoftencited(e.g.useclassification“permanentgrasslands”,whichIUCN,2011).Grassland-basedsystems(includ-accountsforabout3.5billionhaglobally(2016inggrazedtree-coveredareas),whichharbourfigures),includesabout1.5billionhaofverymar-37percentofalltheworld’scattle,contrib-ginalrangelandsandshrubbyecosystemsthatuted22percentofglobalbeefproductionandhostnolivestock(Mottetetal.,2017).16percentofglobalmilkproductionin2005,respectively(MacLeodetal.,2013).InAfricaandToday’srangelandproductionsystemsincludetheNearandMiddleEast,aridandsemi-aridbothtraditionalpastoralistsystemsandfenced-ingrassland-basedsystemsaccountedforaroundranchingsystems.Rangelandsprovidealivelihood20percentoftheruminant-meatproductioninformorethan600millionpeople(FAO,2011a).2000(Herreroetal.,2014).OutputfromgrazingPastoralismistheonlyfeasibleagriculturalsystemsindevelopingcountries,especiallyinstrategyinmanydryareas(Daviesetal.,2010).aridregionsislow,duetolimitationsinfeedPastoralistsinsomeoftheseareasoperatemobileavailabilityandqualityand,consequently,lowsystemsinwhichherdsaremoved,sometimes184thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4livestockgrowthrates.However,foodandlocationsoforiginofmanydomesticatedlivestockincomefromlivestockplayacrucialroleinsup-breedsandmanyoftheworld’scultivatedplants,portinglivelihoodsinpastoralandotherexten-includingwheat,maize,rice,rye,milletandsivelivestocksystems(Herreroetal.,2013).sorghum,aswellasofforagespecies,forwhichtheyremainimportantgeneticreservoirs.Inadditiontofood,rangelandsprovidefibre,fuelandotherecosystemservices,includingAlthoughafigureof10percentto20percentcarbonsequestration,controlofwatercyclesandrangelanddegradationisoftencited,thereisnoprovisionofhabitatsforwildlife(FAO,2011a,scientificconsensusaboutthedefinitionorthe2014c;Salaetal.,2017).Marshalletal.(2018)extentofrangelanddegradation(Sayreetal.,foundthatthenutrientdiversityandincreased2017).AreviewbyGibbsandSalmon(2015)foundspatialheterogeneitycreatedbyNeolithicpas-thatglobalestimatesoftotaldegradedareavarytoralistsenrichedanddiversifiedAfricansavan-fromlessthan1billionhatoover6billionha.nahlandscapesoverthreemillennia.ManyIPBES(2018a)notesthatrangelandsareamongoftoday’srangelandareasofferpotentialfortheecosystemsmostaffectedbylanddegradationincreasingthesupplyofsupportingandregu-andthat,inmanyrangelands,livestockstockinglatingecosystemservices.However,whentheydensityisatorabovetheland’slong-termcarry-arenotmanagedappropriately,rangelandsareingcapacity,leadingtolong-termdeclinesinplantpronetolossofbiodiversity,storedcarbonandandanimalproduction.Itconcludesthat“thewater-retentioncapacityanddeclinesinproduc-capacityofrangelandstosupportlivestockwilltivity(FAO,2011a).continuetodiminishinthefuture,duetobothlanddegradationandlossofrangelandarea.”TheGlobally,thereareabout780generaand12000effectsofclimatechange,includinggreatercli-speciesofgrass(ChristenhuszandByng,2016).maticvariability,areexacerbatingtheseproblemsRangelandsarenotonlyrichreservoirsofgrasses,andcanbeexpectedtoaddtofuturepressuresonshrubsandtrees,butalsoimportantformanyrangelands(ibid.).kindsoffauna.Forexample,grasslandscontain11percentoftheworld’sEndemicBirdAreas86Herreroetal.(2013)notethatgrasslandsare(White,MurrayandRohweder,2000)andcontrib-oftenattheepicentreofland-usechangepro-utetothemaintenanceofpollinatorsandothercesses,andconcludethatdetailedstudiesontheinsectsthathaveimportantregulatingfunctionsroleandfateofgrasslandsasamultifunctional(FAO,2005a).Theimportanceofgrasslandsforresourcerequireurgentattention.OnekeyareabiologicaldiversityisevidentfromthebiologicalinthisregardisLatinAmerica,whereforestcon-distinctivenessindexdevelopedbyWWF,whichversionintohuman-madegrasslandshasbeenconsidersspeciesrichness,speciesendemism,raritywidespreadinrecentyears.Globally,theextentofhabitattypeandecologicalphenomena,amongofrangelandareachangesovertimeduetoothercriteria.ForNorthAmericaandLatinAmerica,conversionofforestsintograssland,theconver-respectively,10outof32and9of34regionsratedsionofrangelandintocroplandandimprovedas“globallyoutstanding”forbiologicaldistinctive-grasslands,andthereplacementofabandonednessareingrasslandecosystems(WRIetal.,2000).rangelandwithforests.Between2000and2016,GrasslandsprovideecosystemservicesestimatedthegloballandareaunderpermanentmeadowstobeworthUSD18.4trillionperyeargloballyandpasturesdeclinedby4percent(FAOSTAT).(Costanzaetal.,2014).GrasslandsarealsotheTheratesoflandconversionandtheintensityofrangelandusearelikelytocontinuechanging86AnEndemicBirdArea(EBA)is“anareawhichencompassesoverthecomingdecades.Mottetetal.(2017)esti-theoverlappingbreedingrangesofrestricted-rangespecies,matedthatofthe2billionhaofgrasslandcur-suchthatthecompleterangesoftwoormorerestricted-rangerentlyusedforgrazing,1billionhacanbeconsid-speciesareentirelyincludedwithintheboundaryoftheEBA”erednon-convertibleintocroplandbecausethey(Stattersfieldetal.,1998).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE185Drivers,statusandtrendsPartBFigure4.23GlobalgrasslandssuitableandunsuitableforcropproductionandshareoflanduseGrasslandsuitableforcrops,withanimals(1085millionha)Grasslandsuitableforcrops,withoutanimals(197millionhaa)Grasslandunsuitableforcrops,withanimals(1082millionha)Grasslandunsuitableforcrops,withoutanimals(758millionha)0100GrasslandpercentagepercellNotes:Thresholdof25%ratioofactual/potentialyieldusedforsuitability,asdefinedbyIIASAandFAO(2012).LivestockdistributionbasedonGriddedLivestockoftheWorld(Robinsonetal.,2014).Source:Mottetetal.,2017.aretooaridorotherwisemarginal(Figure4.23).oftraditionalsustainablemanagementpracticesForsomeoftheremaining1billionha,theeco-(e.g.asseasonalgrazingreserves).Thisindigenouslogicalcostsofconversionwouldbeprohibitiveprotectionisrarelyrecognizedbygovernment(Searchingeretal.,2015).Theseareasthusofferandisoftenunderminedbygovernmentpoliciespotentialforbiodiversityconservation.(Daviesetal.,2012).Althoughapproximately9percentofdrylands4.6Needsandprioritiesareunderformalprotection,theseareasarenotrepresentativeofalldrylandsubtypes.Forexample,AcrossallcategoriesofBFA,thecountryreportsdesertsaredisproportionatelyrepresented,whileand/orthepreviousglobalassessmentsofgenetictemperategrasslandshaveamongthelowestlevelsresourcesmakeitclearthattherearesubstan-ofprotectionofallbiomes(4to5percent).Tosometialknowledgegapswithrespecttostatusandextent,thisisbecause,traditionally,areaswiththetrends.TheextentandcharacterofthesegapslowesteconomicvalueweretheonesdesignatedvaryfromcategorytocategoryofBFA.Intheasprotectedareas.Largeareasofdrylandsarecaseofdomesticatedspeciesandthosethatareprotectedinformallybylocalcommunitieseitherconsciously(e.g.assacredsites)orasaby-product186thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATusANDTRENDSOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE4widelyharvestedfromthewild,speciesinven-needtostrategicallyplandata-collectioneffortstoriesarelargelycompleteandtherangeofsothattheyprovidethedataneededtosupportwithin-speciespopulations(breeds,varieties,managementdecisionsthatsupportthesustain-etc.)isalsooftenwelldocumented,althoughtoableuseandconservationofcomponentsofBFAvaryingdegreesacrosstheregionsoftheworld.andpromotetheirrolesinthesupplyofecosystemIncontrast,manyassociatedbiodiversityspecies,servicesinfoodandagriculturalsystems.Morespe-particularlymicro-organismsandinvertebrates,cificprioritiesnotedincludeimprovingmethod-haveneverbeendocumented.Aninventoryofologiesforrecording,storingandanalysingdatatheworld’streespeciesalsoremainstobecom-onchangesintheabundanceanddistributionofpleted.Populationtrendsarerelativelywelldoc-speciesandthedistributionofecosystems(includ-umentedforsometaxonomicgroups(particularlyinggeographicinformationsystemfacilities)vertebrates),butinothersknowledgeisalmostandincreasingthesupplyofskilledtaxonomists.non-existentatspecieslevelandverylimitedevenEstablishingorstrengtheningrelevantresearch,ingeneralterms.Whereassociated-biodiversityeducation,capacity-buildingandcooperationspeciesaremonitored,dataareoftennotlinkedprogrammes(includingcooperationbetweenthetospatialdataonthedistributionofproductionpublicsectorandotherstakeholders)iswidelysystems,andhencetheirpotentialsignificancetoemphasized(seeChapter8forfurtherdiscus-particularcategoriesofproductioncanbediffi-sionofneedsandprioritiesinallthesefields).Asculttoevaluate.Inmanycases,thecontributionsnotedinsomeofthesectionsabove,certaintypesofspecificcomponentsofBFAtothesupplyofofassociatedbiodiversityaremonitoredthroughecosystemservicesarepoorlyunderstood,asarecitizen-scienceprojectsandanumberofcountriestheeffectsofparticulardrivers(includingclimatenotethepotentialbenefitsofexpandingactivitieschange)onpopulationsizesanddistributionsandofthiskind.Manycountriesemphasizethepointontheecologicalrelationshipsthatunderpinthethateffectivemonitoringrequiressystematicandsupplyofecosystemservices.long-termcommitment,notinginsomecasestheneedtoclarifyresponsibilitiesincluding,whereThemainneedandpriorityidentifiedintherelevant,establishingnationalbodiestoorganizecountryreportsisimprovingtheavailabilityoforoverseemonitoringactivities.datainalltheabovefields.AlsosignificantisthethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE187PartCStateofMANAGEMENTChapter5ThestateofuseofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureKeymessages•Thesustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversitypracticesandapproachesonwhichtheywereforfoodandagriculture(BFA)callsforapproachesinvitedtoreport.thatinvolvetheintegratedmanagementofgenetic•Althoughcountriesgenerallyindicatethattheresources,speciesandecosystemsinthecontextofimpactsoftheBFA-focusedpracticesonbiodiversityproductionsystemsandtheirsurroundings.areperceivedtobepositive,theyemphasizetheneedformoreresearchinthisregard,evenfor•AwiderangeofmanagementpracticesandpracticeswhereresearchonmanagementissuesisapproachesmakeuseofvariouscomponentsofBFAwellestablished.andthuspotentiallycontributetoitssustainable•ManyBFA-focusedpracticesarerelativelyuse.However,inmostcasesitisdifficulttoevaluatecomplexandrequiregoodunderstandingoftheextenttowhichthesepracticesandapproachesthelocalecosystem.Theycanbeknowledgearebeingusedowingtothevarietyofscalesandintensive,contextspecificandprovidebenefitscontextsinvolvedandtheabsenceofdataandonlyintherelativelylongterm.Manycountriesappropriateassessmentmethods.notemajorchallengesinup-scalingsuchpracticesandtheneedtopromotethemthrough•EightypercentofreportingcountriesindicatecapacitydevelopmentandstrengtheningthatoneormoreoftheBFA-focusedpracticespolicyframeworks.onwhichtheywereinvitedtoreportarebeing•Anumberofmanagementpracticestargetingusedinoneormoretypesofproductionsystem.micro-organismsusedinfoodprocessingandAmuchhigherproportionofOECDcountriesagro-industrialprocesses,orfoundintherumensthannon-OECDcountriesreporttheuseoftheseoflivestockspecies,contributetoimprovingpractices.Seventy-fivepercentofcountriesreportfoodsecurityandnutritionwhilereducingthetheadoptionofoneormoretypesofecosystem,environmentalfootprintoffoodproduction.landscapeorseascapeapproach.•CountriesindicatethatthereisanupwardtrendintheadoptionoruseofalltheBFA-focused5.1Introductiononekindoranother.Itencompassesactivitiesatmanylevels,includingtheecosystem,landscapeThischapterconsidersthestateofuseofbio-andseascape,thefarm(orforest,livestockordiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA).Useisaquacultureholding),theplot(orpond,green-heretakentocomprisethevariousactionsthathouse,etc.),thebiologicalcommunityandthecanbeundertakentomaintainorenhancethepopulation(atspeciesorwithin-specieslevel).capacityofBFAtosupplyecosystemservicesofConservation(i.e.actionsspecificallyfocusedthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE191STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartConpreventingthelossofBFA)andcharacteri-topresentingtheinformationprovidedinthezation(activitiesspecificallyfocusedonimprov-countryreports.1ingknowledgeofBFA)arediscussedseparately(Chapters6and7),althoughtheyareclearly5.2Overviewofmanagementoftencloselylinkedtouse.Thepolicy,legalpracticesandapproachesandinstitutionalframeworks(includingfieldssuchaseducationandtraining,research,coop-Thissectionprovidesanoverviewoftheinfor-erationandtheimplementationofincentivemationprovidedbycountriesontheirimplemen-measures)foruse(andotheraspectsofBFAtationofthevariousmanagementpracticesandmanagement)arediscussedinChapter8.TheuseapproachesthatarefurtherdiscussedintheotherofBFAinbuildingresilientproductionsystemssectionsofthechapter.Countrieswereinvitedtoandlivelihoods,promotingfoodsecurityandreportontheextentofuseofarangeofman-nutrition,andsustainablyintensifyingproduc-agementpracticesandapproachesconsideredtotionisdiscussedinChapter2.Inevitably,therefavourorinvolvetheuseofBFAandontrendsissomeoverlapinthescopeofthesevariousintheiruseovertheprecedingtenyears.Outofchapters.Forexample,manyofthemethodsandthe91countryreports,73(80percent)refertoapproachesdescribedinthischapterarerelevanttheimplementationofoneormoreoftheman-toinsituconservation.Policyandlegalframe-agementpracticesandapproachesinoneormoreworksrelatedtospecificmanagementpracticesproductionsystems.Theremaining18(20percent)arealsomentionedatseveralpoints.Similarly,donotmakeanyexplicitreferencetoanyofthetherearemanylinkagesandoverlapsbetweenpracticesorapproaches.Somecountriesreportasthevariousapproachesandpracticesdiscussedinmanyas21differentpracticesandapproaches.thesectionsofthischapter.FindingsaresummarizedbyregioninTable5.1.Thetableshould,however,beinterpretedwithThechapterisstructuredasfollows.Section5.2cautionasvariationsinthelevelsofdetailpro-presentsashortoverviewoftheinformationvidedinthecountryreportsmeanthatthefiguresprovidedbycountriesontheimplementationofprobablyunderestimatetheactualfrequenciesofthevariouspracticesandapproachesonwhichadoption.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthefigurestheywereinvitedtoreport.Section5.3discussesdonottakeintoaccountthelevelsofadoptionapproachesatecosystem,landscapeandseascape(importanceintermsoflandareaorproductionscales.Section5.4discussesrestorationpracticesoutput)withincountries,i.e.acountrywithainterrestrialandaquaticecosystems.Section5.5lowbutnon-zerolevelofadoptioninonlyoneconsidersdiversification(intermsoftherangeproduction-systemcategoryiscountedintheofspecies,breeds,varieties,etc.raised)atfarmsamewayasacountrywithahighlevelofadop-level(oratthelevelofequivalentholdingsortionacrossmanyproduction-systemcategories.operationsinothersectors).Section5.6consid-ersanumberofspecificmanagementpracticesBearingtheabovecaveatsinmind,generalandapproachesatfarmorwithin-farmlevel(orhighlightsfromTable5.1arethatalargepro-equivalentlevelsinothersectors)thatfavourorportionofcountriesglobally(75percent)reportinvolvetheuseofBFA.Section5.7discussestheoneormoretypesofecosystem,landscapeoruseofmicro-organismsinfoodprocessingandseascapeapproach.Morethanhalfreportsomeagro-industrialprocesses.Section5.8discussesrumenmicrobialdiversity.Section5.9discusses1Throughoutthischapter,unlessnotedotherwise,thetermthemanagementofpopulationsatgeneticlevel“countryreports”referstothecountryreportssubmittedas(domestication,breedingprogrammes,etc.).contributionstoTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodInlinewiththerestofthereport,particularandAgriculture.See“Aboutthispublication”foradditionalattentionispaidtoassociatedbiodiversityandinformation.192thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETable5.1Reportedlevelsofadoptionofselectedmanagementpracticesandapproaches,allproductionsystemsaggregatedAfricaAsiaEuropeLatinNearEastNorthPacificNon-OECDOECDWorldandAmericaandNorthAmericaNumberofreportingcountries199andthe10721991n%CentralCaribbeanAfrica1n%n%n%n%Practicesandapproachesn%Asian%16136875233943n%n%1112n%20223640Ecosystem,landscapeandseascapemanagement2022Anyecosystem,landscapeorseascape1474778208712755380010100527216844044approach4044Landscapemanagement947444156563832311001102433157931343842Integratedland-andwater-useplanning150000000000101001115002527THESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Sustainableforestmanagement63222273042500001101521526(Cont.)thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE193Ecosystemapproachtofisheriesand737556156553118110022022311474aquacultureAgroecology21111152295632300001419632RestorationpracticesRestorationpractices11585561461638215110011027381368DiversificationinproductionsystemsDiversification9476671148638431110033028391263556730Homegardens8425569395314310022025356323331043Agroforestry105363843111003302940947Polyculture/aquaponics526425215001101724842194thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETable5.1(Cont.)Reportedlevelsofadoptionofselectedmanagementpracticesandapproaches,allproductionsystemsaggregatedAfricaAsiaEuropeLatinNearEastNorthPacificNon-OECDOECDWorldPartCandAmericaandNorthAmericaNumberofreportingcountries199andthe10721991PracticesandapproachesCentralCaribbeanAfrica1n%n%n%n%n%n%Asian%161323n%n%n%ManagementpracticesandproductionapproachesOrganicagriculture73766718788504311100330314316844752STATEOFMANAGEMENTLowexternalinputagriculture73755611485314310011024339473336Sustainablesoilmanagement94755611489563231100110273812633943Managementofmicro-organisms8425566264253230011022315262730Conservationagriculture9474449399564310011028398423640Integratedplantnutrientmanagement84255615658503231100220283914744246Integratedpestmanagement73766715658505381100330304215794549Pollinationmanagement5263331252744323110000192612633134Enrichmentplanting7375568356384310011024337373134Reducedimpactlogging7373331043425180011018258422629GeneticimprovementDomestication737667105742521500110202810533033Basebroadening632667104353132300220223110533235Notes:Thefiguresindicatethenumber(andpercentage)ofcountriesreportingtherespectivepracticeorapproachinoneormoreproduction-systemcategories.Blue-colouredcellsindicatecasesinwhich50percentormoreofthecountriesreportthepracticeorapproach.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.THESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5implementationoforganicagricultureinoneoftobepositive.However,countriesveryclearlymoreproduction-systemcategories.Overall,thereexpresstheneedtoimproveunderstandingoftheisamarkeddifferenceinreportingbetweencoun-impactsofdifferentmanagementpracticesandtriesthataremembersoftheOrganizationforapproaches,atvariousscalesfromlocaltoglobal,EconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)onBFAandthesupplyofecosystemservices,asaandthosethatarenot.Withtheexceptionofbasisforbetterdecision-makingamongrelevantintegratedland-andwater-useplanning,homestakeholders.Integratedpestmanagement,inte-gardensandmanagementofmicro-organisms,gratedplantnutrientmanagement,managementforwhichmorenon-OECDcountriesreportimple-ofmicro-organisms,sustainablesoilmanagementmentation,everypracticeorapproachisreportedandlandscapemanagementarethepracticeswithbyahigherproportionofOECDcountries.Afewthehighestproportionsofresponsesspecificallypracticesarereportedbymorethanhalfthereport-indicatingthatimpactsonBFAarenotknown.ingcountriesinaparticularregion.Forexample,allcountriesfromthePacificregionreportimple-Althoughforpresentationpurposesthismentationofintegratedland-andwater-usechapterdevotesaseparatesectiontoeachofplanning,67percentofAsiancountriesreportthemainmanagementpracticesandapproachesadoptionofdiversificationpractices,56percentofthatcountrieswereinvitedtoreporton,inrealitycountriesfromLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanthesepracticesandapproachesdonotexistinreportagroecologicalapproaches,and65percentisolationfromeachother.InordertoimplementofEuropeancountriesreportimplementationofthemeffectively,attentionneedstobegiventolandscapemanagement.anypotentialsynergies,complementaritiesandtrade-offsthatmayexistbetweenthem.GivenQualitativeassessmentsprovidedbycountries2thecurrentgapsinknowledgeonthenatureofontrendsintheuseofmanagementpracticesandtheselinkages,themultiplescalesonwhichtheyapproachesovertheprecedingtenyearsaresum-operateandthemanydifferentstakeholdersthatmarizedinTable5.2.Hereagain,thetableshouldmaybenefitorloseout,thisisasubstantialchal-beinterpretedwithcaution,asvariationsinthelenge.Adoptionorfurtherdevelopmentofalllevelsofdetailprovidedinthecountryreportsthevariousapproachesandpracticesdiscussedmeanthatthefiguresprobablyunderestimatebelowrequiresproducers,andoftenalsoothertheactualfrequenciesofadoption.Reportsofstakeholders,tochangehowtheyoperate.Suchincreasingtrendsoutnumberreportsofnegativechangesnormallyrequireovercominganumberorstabletrendsinalmosteverycombinationofofobstaclesandinvolveadegreeofrisk.Inmanymanagementpractice/approachandproductioncases,theremaybeconflictsofinterest.system.Thestatusandtrendsoftheadoptionofthemanagementpracticesandapproachesfea-TheneedtodevelopandshareknowledgeonturedinTable5.1andTable5.2(amongothers)specifictechniquesandtobuildcapacitytoimple-arefurtherdiscussedintheremainingsectionsmentthem,whereappropriate,isrecognizedasaofthischapter,drawingoninformationfromthepriorityacrossallthepracticesandapproachesdis-countryreportsandothersources.cussedbelow.SuccessfullyimplementingthemwillgenerallyrequireaddressingknowledgegapsatallCountrieswerealsoinvitedtoreportonthelevels,fromidentifyingrelevantresearchquestions,effectsthevariousmanagementpracticesandthroughidentifyingappropriatesupportandadviceapproachesarehavingonBFA.Responsesaresum-tobedeliveredbynationalprogrammesandexten-marizedinFigure5.1.Impactsarelargelyperceivedsionworkers,toaddressingspecificconstraintstoadoptionfacedbyproducersindifferentcontexts.2Morespecifically,countrieswereinvitedtoprovidequalitativeLittleinformationisgenerallyavailableonstrat-assessmentsoftrends(stronglyincreasing,increasing,stable,egiesfortransitioningtomoresustainableman-decreasingandstronglydecreasing)ortoindicatethatagementatfarm(orotherholding),communityinformationwasnotknownornotapplicable.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE195STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable5.2Reportedtrendsintheadoptionofselectedmanagementpracticesandapproaches,byproductionsystemProductionsystems(PS)ManagementLivestockgrassland-basedpracticesandsystemsapproachesLivestocklandlesssystemsNaturallyregeneratedforestsPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriesCulture-basedfisheriesFedaquacultureNon-fedaquacultureIrrigatedcropsystems(rice)Irrigatedcropsystems(other)RainfedcropsystemsMixedsystemsLandscapemanagement↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗Ecosystemapproachto↗↗↗fisheriesRestoration↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗Proportion↗↗↗↗ofcountriesDiversification↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗reportingthePS↗↗↗↗thatreportanyHomegardens↗↔↗↗trends(%)↗0–9Agroforestry↗↗↗↗↔↗↗↗10–19↗↗↗↙↗20–29Polyculture/aquaponics↗↗↗↗↗30–39Organicagriculture↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↔StableLowexternalinput↗↙↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗Increasingagriculture↗↗↗↗↘Decreasing↗↙MixedSustainablesoil↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗management↗↗↗trends↗Managementofmicro-↗↗↗↗organismsConservationagriculture↗↗↗↗Integratedplantnutrient↗↗↗↗managementIntegratedpest↗↗↗↗↗managementPollinationmanagement↗↗↗↗Enrichmentplanting↗↗Reducedimpactlogging↗↗Domestication↗↔↗↙↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗↗Basebroadening↗↗↗↙↗Notes:Countrieswereinvitedtoreporttrends(increasing,stableordecreasing)intheadoptionofselectedmanagementpracticesandapproachesineachproductionsysteminthepasttenyears.If50%ormoreoftheresponsesforagivencombinationofproductionsystemandpracticeorapproachindicatethesametrend(increasing,decreasingorstable)thenthistrendisindicatedintherespectivecellofthetable.Inothercases,mixedtrendsareindicated.Theemptycellscorrespondtocasesinwhichfewerthanfivecountriesprovidedaresponse.Thecolourscaleindicatestheproportionofcountriesreportingthepresenceoftherespectivesystemthatreportanytrendsinthestateoftherespectivepracticesandapproaches(increasing,stableordecreasing).SeeSection1.5fordescriptionsoftheproductionsystemsandSections5.2to5.9foradiscussionofthemanagementpracticesandapproaches.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.196thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Figure5.1PerceivedimpactsonbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureofvariousmanagementpracticesandapproachesNumberofresponsesLandscapemanagement90Ecosystemapproachtoﬁsheries6270Restorationpractices111Diversiﬁcation61Homegardens68Agroforestry36111Polyculture/aquaponics69Organicagriculture9239Lowexternalinputagriculture67Sustainablesoilmanagement91105Managementofmicro-organisms50Conservationagriculture3527Integratedplantnutrientmanagement57Integratedpestmanagement57Pollinationmanagement904Enrichmentplanting10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%ReducedimpactloggingDomesticationBasebroadeningTotal0%NegativeNeutralPositiveNotknownNotreportedNotes:A“response”isthereportofanimpactbyacountryforagivencombinationofpracticeandproductionsystem.Countrieswereinvitedtoindicatetheextentofuseofeachpracticeandapproach,byproductionsystem.Forproductionsystemswhereagivenpracticeorapproachisimplemented,countrieswereinvitedtoindicateitsperceivedeffectsonBFA.Thisfigureshowsthedistributionofimpactsreportedforallcombinationsofpracticesandproductionsystems.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.orcountrylevel.Approachessuchasfarmerfieldgreateropportunitiesforcross-sectorallearningbyschoolsarebeingusedtopromotesharedlearn-promotingcloserlinksandgreatercollaborationingonsomeofthepracticesandapproachesamongtheactorsinvolvedinimplementingthediscussedbelow(seealsoSection8.4).CreatingvariouspracticesandstrategiesdiscussedisanotherthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE197STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCwidespreadpriority.Theimportanceofcompre-•Informationandknowledgegaps,lackofcross-hensivestakeholderinvolvementinplanningsectoralinstitutionalframeworks,lackoffinancialandimplementationactivitiesis,likewise,commonpoliticalcommitment,andalackofskilledpersonnelacrossnearlyalltheapproachesandpractices(andinpublicinstitutionsareamongreportedconstraintsisamongthedefiningfeaturesofecosystem,land-totheadoptionandimplementationoflandscape,scapeandseascapeapproaches).Thesignificanceseascapeandecosystemapproaches.ofadoptingamorecross-sectoralapproachatpolicylevelasameansofpromotinglinkagesatInteractionsbetweenpeopleandthenaturalthemorepracticallevelisalsowidelyrecognized.environmentshapethecharacteristicsofterres-Anotherthemecommontoseveralofthepracticestrialandaquaticproductionsystemsandtheirandapproachesdiscussedistheneedtoaddresssurroundings.Withintheseareas,awiderangeconstraintsrelatedtoland-tenureissues.ofecosystemcomponents,bothbiologicalandphysical,interactwitheachotheracrossarange5.3Ecosystem,landscapeandofscales.Thismeansthatplanningtheuseandseascapeapproachesmanagementofonecomponent–oronerela-tivelysmallareaoflandsuchasasinglefarm–in•Ecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproacheshaveisolationmayleadtonegativeimpactsonotherbeenadoptedinmanycountriesaroundtheworld,componentsortomissedopportunitiestobenefitatvariousscales,toimprovelivelihoods,sustainorfrompositiveinteractions.Effectsofthiskindenhanceecosystemservices,ensurethesupplyofmeanthatmanagementdecisionswillnormallyfoodandotherproducts,andpromoteefficientandaffecttheinterestsofarangeofstakeholders,sustainableuseofresources.includinginpotentiallyconflictingways.•Seventy-fivepercentofreportingcountriesindicateAwarenessoftheimportanceoftakingamoretheadoptionofoneormoretypesofecosystem,holisticapproachtothemanagementofecosys-landscapeorseascapeapproach.Positivetrendsintemsandlandscapeshasbeenincreasing,andhastheadoptionandimplementationoflandscapeandledtothedevelopmentandadoptionofarangeecosystemapproachesarereported.However,theofintegrated,multiscaleapproachesthataimtoextentofuseoftheseapproachesandtheireffectsonallowtheinterestsofmultiplestakeholderstobebiodiversityforfoodandagricultureremainunclear.takenintoconsideration,synergiesidentifiedandtrade-offsnegotiated(CGIAR,2016).•Indicatorsshowthatadoptionandapplicationofsustainableforestmanagementisincreasing.ThissectionbeginsbypresentinganoverviewTheglobalareaunderforestmanagementplansofecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproacheshasincreasedsteadilyinrecentdecades,reachingandthenprovidesamoredetaileddescriptionof2.1billionhain2010.Theforestareacoveredbythespecificapproachesmostfrequentlyreferredinternationalcertificationschemeshasalsoincreased.tointhecountryreportsashavingbeenadoptedinfoodandagriculturalproductionsystems.For•Amongthe127countriesthatreportedontheireachapproach,thereportedstatusandtrendsofprogressintheimplementationoftheCodeofadoptionarepresentedandgapsandprioritiesinConductforResponsibleFisheriesin2018,77percenttermsofadoptionandimplementationdiscussed.indicatedthattheyhadstartedtoimplementtheecosystemapproachtofisheries.5.3.1Overview•AlthoughestimatesofthestateandtrendsofTheecosystemapproachhasbeendefinedinimplementationofagroecologicalpracticesatglobalvariousways,bothintheliteratureandininter-levelarelacking,anincreasingnumberofcountriesnationalagreements.In2000,thePartiestothe(28asofJuly2018)haveintroducedlaws,regulationsConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)officiallyandpoliciesinsupportofagroecology.definedtheecosystemapproachas“astrategyfor198thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.1TheConventiononBiologicalDiversity’sprinciplesandoperationalguidelinesfortheecosystemapproachTheecosystemapproachistheprimaryframeworkfor8.Recognizingthevaryingtemporalscalesandlag-actionundertheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD).effectsthatcharacterizeecosystemprocesses,Atitsfifthmeeting,heldinNairobi,Kenya,in2000,theobjectivesforecosystemmanagementshouldbesetConferenceofthePartiestotheCBDendorsedthefollowingforthelongterm.twelveinterlinkedprinciples,firstidentifiedduringaworkshopheldinLilongwe,Malawi,in1998:9.Managementmustrecognizethatchangeisinevitable.1.Theobjectivesofmanagementofland,waterandlivingresourcesareamatterofsocietalchoices.10.Theecosystemapproachshouldseektheappropriatebalancebetween,andintegrationof,conservation2.Managementshouldbedecentralizedtothelowestanduseofbiologicaldiversity.appropriatelevel.11.Theecosystemapproachshouldconsiderallforms3.Ecosystemmanagersshouldconsidertheeffectsofrelevantinformation,includingscientificand(actualorpotential)oftheiractivitiesonadjacentindigenousandlocalknowledge,innovationsandandotherecosystems.practices.4.Recognizingpotentialgainsfrommanagement,12.Theecosystemapproachshouldinvolveallrelevantthereisusuallyaneedtounderstandtheecosystemsectorsofsocietyandscientificdisciplines.inaneconomiccontext.Anysuchecosystem-managementprogrammeshould:(a)reducethoseThefifthmeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestothemarketdistortionsthatadverselyaffectbiologicalCBDalsoendorsedfollowingfiveoperationalguidelinesfordiversity;(b)alignincentivestopromotebiodiversitytheecosystemapproach:conservationandsustainableuse;and(c)internalizecostsandbenefitsinthegivenecosystemtothe1.Focusonthefunctionalrelationshipsandprocessesextentfeasible.withinecosystems.5.Conservationofecosystemstructureandfunctioning,2.Enhancebenefit-sharing.inordertomaintainecosystemservices,shouldbea3.Useadaptivemanagementpractices.prioritytargetoftheecosystemapproach.4.Carryoutmanagementactionsatthescale6.Ecosystemsmustbemanagedwithinthelimitstoappropriatefortheissuebeingaddressed,withtheirfunctioning.decentralizationtolowestlevel,asappropriate.5.Ensureintersectoralcooperation.7.Theecosystemapproachshouldbeundertakenattheappropriatespatialandtemporalscales.Source:CBD,2000a.theintegratedmanagementofland,waterandtheMalawiPrinciples)andfiveoperationalguide-livingresourcesthatpromotesconservationandlines,astheprimaryframeworkforactionundersustainableuseinanequitableway.”AsthetermtheConvention(seeBox5.1).Bothbeforeandecosystemcanrefertoanyfunctioningunit–itafter2000,anumberofmorespecificecosystemcould,forexample,beagrainofsoil,apond,aapproachestargeting(orrelevantto)particularforest,abiomeortheentirebiosphere–theeco-sectorsoffoodandagriculturewerealsodevel-systemapproachcanbeappliedatvariousscalesoped,forexamplesustainableforestmanagement,(CBD,2000a).In2000,thePartiestotheCBDalsointegratedcoastalmanagementandintegratedformallyadoptedtheapproach,togetherwithwaterresourcesmanagement.Theapplicationoftwelvegoverningprinciples(alsoreferredtoassuchapproacheshasbeenparticularlyeffectiveinthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE199STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCNewpaletteFigure5.2numerousconnotadajotuironendfsro,mbutinthefieldofland-ThetenprinciplesthatcharacterizePreviouspublicationthelandscapeapproachusemanagementtypicallyreferstoanareaofland1©24thatcanbereg2a©rdedasa“8whole”composedofanumberofinte3r©linkedcom9ponents.Forexample,Forman(1995)d4efinesalan1d0scapeasa“heteroge-511Continuallearningneouslandarea6composed1o2faclusterofinteract-andadaptiveStrengthenedmanagementSharedingecosystemst7hatisrepea13tedinsimilarform.”stakeholderinterestinInthecontextof(terrest14rial)foodandagricul-anissuecapacityorproblem15turalproductionsystems,t16helandscapeistakenResilienceMultipletoincludenotonlythefiel1d7©s,pasturesandagro-scales18ParticipatoryandMultifunctionalityforests(shatdheseofmgrasyelGv1es,butals1o9©managedorunman-political/conceptual)user-friendlyagedfallowanG2dwildland20©inand(shaadersuoseudfnordthemmonitoringLandscapeG3tablesofChapter3,approach21©(Brookfield,2G0402;KremenandaccMordiengrtoerenadlaebilnityd)er,222018;Landis,20G157).Genera2l3lyspeaking,landscapeClariﬁcationofNegotiatedMultipleapproachesintendAeddjourtnoedsupportthemaintenancerightsandandstakeholdersanduseofBFAaitmowobrkwoitthhnewtoonebalancediverse,andresponsibilitiestransparent©Fromcovercolorpalettechangelogicoftencompeting,landuseswithinthelandscapeandtomanagethebiodiversityassociatedwitheachoftheseindividuallanduses(ibid.).Itispossibletodistinguishthreebasiccharacter-Source:vanOosten(2015)basedonSayeretal.(2013).isticsoflandscapeapproaches:forestryandfisheries(seeSections5.3.2and5.3.3)•Multipleobjectives:landscapeapproachesandinspecificfieldssuchasintegratedpestman-agement(seeSection5.6.6)(FAO,2007f).AttheprovideaframeworkforallocatingandninthmeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestotheCBD,in2008,itwasnotedthat“globalassess-managinglandinareaswherelandusessuchmentssuggestthattheecosystemapproachisnotbeingappliedsystematicallytoreducetherateasagriculture,forestryandminingcompeteofbiodiversityloss,buttherearemanyexamplesofsuccessfulapplicationattheregional,nationalwithenvironmentalandbiodiversitygoalsandlocalscaleswhichshouldbewidelypromotedandcommunicated.Mostoftheseexamplescan(Sayeretal.,2013).beconsideredaspositiveoutcomesforbothbio-diversityandhumanwell-being”(CBD,2008a).3•Multiplestakeholderengagementanddia-Althoughtheterm“landscapeapproach”hasloguewithinandbeyondthelandscape:man-cometobewidelyused,itremainsdifficulttodefineitpreciselyortodistinguishitclearlyfromagementgoalsneedtobenegotiatedamongtherangeofotherlandscape-scalemanagementmethodologiesandframeworksthathaveemergedthosewithastakeinthelandscape(e.g.undervariousnamesinrecentyears(Reed,DeakinandSunderland,2015;Scherr,Shamesandfarmersandtheircommunities,businesses,Friedman,2013).Theterm“landscape”itselfhascivilsocietyandgovernmentagencies)andbuildontheirexperiences,knowledgeandaspirations(Scherr,ShamesandFriedman,2013).Atnationalandinstitutionallevels,cross-sectoralcollaborationinpolicydevel-opmentisessential.•Adaptivemanagement:landscapesthem-selvesaredynamic,andhencelandscapeapproachesalsoneedtobeflexibleanddynamic(Reed,2014).Figure5.2showsamoredetailedguidingframeworkforthelandscapeapproach,consisting3TheglobalassessmentsreferredtointhequoteareCBDoftencomplementaryandinterlinkedprinciples,(2007a)andCBD(2007b).developedbytheCenterforInternationalForestry200thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Research(CIFOR)andpartnerinstitutions(Sayer91reportingcountriesindicatethatecosystem,etal.,2013).landscapeand/orseascapeapproacheshavebeenadopted,atleasttosomeextent.AlargeTodate,thereisverylittleinformationavail-majorityofthesecountriesindicatethattheyableonwhere,orhoweffectively,landscapeconsidertheseapproachestobeofmajorimpor-approacheshavebeenimplementedinpractice.tancetothedevelopmentofmanagementstrat-CIFORhasbeentryingtoaddressthisknowledgeegiesforBFA.8AfewEuropeancountriesspe-gapthroughasystematicmappingexerciseusingcificallymentionthatecosystemandlandscapeaggregateddatafrompublishedscientificliter-approachesareatthebasisoftheiragriculturalature(Reed,DeakinandSunderland,2015).Aspolicies.Table5.3liststheecosystem,landscapewellasgeographicallymappingwhereandhowandseascapeapproachesmostcommonlymen-suchapproachesarebeingimplementedinthetioned9inthecountryreports.Anumberoffield,thereviewisaimingtodocumentevidencetheseapproacheswereamongthemanagementofpositiveand/ornegativeeffectsoflandscapepracticesthatcountrieswerespecificallyinvitedapproachesinpracticeonsocial,agronomic,envi-toreportuponelsewhereintheirreports.10ronmentaloreconomicoutcomes(ibid.).Thetable,therefore,alsoshowsthenumberofcountriesreportingtheuseoftherespec-Astheword“landscape”impliesaterrestrialtiveapproaches/practicesinthesecontexts.focus,theterm“seascape”or“oceanscape”Sustainableforestmanagement,theecosystemapproachissometimesusedtodescribeasimilarapproachtofisheriesandaquaculture,agro-approachinmarineenvironments.Seascapeecology,landscapeandseascapeapproachesasaapproachesareoftenreferredtointhecontextofgeneralcategoryandintegratedland-useplan-effortstomanagemarineandterrestrialareasinning,arebrieflyintroducedbelow(Sections5.3.2,anintegratedway,forexamplethePacificRidge5.3.3,5.3.4,5.3.5,5.3.6),alongwithinformationtoReefinitiative4ortheSourcetoSeaapproach.5ontheirstatusandtrends.Moredetailedinfor-mationontheremainingapproaches/practicesBasedonthedescriptionsofecosystem6andontheirreportedlevelsofimplementationandlandscape7approachesprovidedinthecanbefoundintherespectivesubsectionsofcountry-reportingguidelines,75percentoftheSections5.5and5.6,andinChapter7.4https://www.pacific-r2r.org5.3.2Sustainableforestmanagement5http://www.fao.org/land-water/water/watergovernance/Introductionsource-to-sea/enSustainabilitywasidentifiedasanimportant6“Anecosystemapproachisgenerallyunderstoodtoencompassprincipleinforestmanagementtheoryasearlyas1713,whenHansCarlvonCarlowitzpublishedthemanagementofhumanactivities,basedonthebesthisbookEconomicsofsilvicultureinGermanyunderstandingoftheecologicalinteractionsandprocesses,(Schmithüsen,2013).Todaysustainableforestsoastoensurethatecosystemsstructureandfunctionsaresustainedforthebenefitofpresentandfuturegenerations.8Countrieswereinvitedtoindicatewhether“majorEcosystemapproachesincludetheConventiononBiologicalimportance”,“someimportance”or“noimportance”isDiversity’sEcosystemApproach,IntegratedLandUsePlanning,assignedtothereportedecosystemapproaches.IntegratedWaterResourceManagement,SustainableForestManagement,CodeofConductforResponsibleFisheries,[and9Thetableshowsapproachesmentionedbyfiveormorethe]Ecosystemapproachtofisheriesmanagement.”countriesinresponsetoaquestionspecificallyseeking7“Alandscapeapproachmeanstakingbothageographicalandinformationontheadoptionofecosystemand/orlandscapesocio-economicapproachtomanagingtheland,waterandapproaches.forestresourcesthatformthefoundation–thenaturalcapital–formeetingourgoalsoffoodsecurityandinclusivegreen10Specifically,integratedpestmanagement,agroforestry,growth.Bytakingintoaccounttheinteractionsbetweenthesesustainablesoilmanagementandorganicagriculture.coreelementsofnaturalcapitalandtheecosystemservicestheyproduce,ratherthanconsideringtheminisolationfromoneanother,wearebetterabletomaximizeproductivity,improvelivelihoods,andreducenegativeenvironmentalimpacts.”(wordingtakenfromWorldBank[2012]).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE201STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable5.3Reportedecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproachesApproachNumberofcountriesNumberofcountriesProductionsystemsreportingreportingtheapproachwherereported3theapproach1asamanagementpractice2Self-recruitingcapturefisheriesNaturallyregeneratedforestsLivestockgrassland-basedsystemsProtectedareasmanagement422–LivestocklandlesssystemsIrrigatedcropsystems(non-rice)RainfedcropsystemsMixedsystemsCulture-basedfisheriesSustainableforestmanagement21–NaturallyregeneratedforestsPlantedforestsSelf-recruitingcapturefisheriesEcosystemapproachtofisheriesandaquaculture1936Culture-basedfisheriesFedaquacultureNon-fedaquacultureIrrigatedcropsystems(non-rice)RainfedcropsystemsLivestockgrassland-basedsystemsIntegratedpestmanagement1445NaturallyregeneratedforestsIrrigatedcropsystems(rice)MixedsystemsFamilyfarmsMixedsystemsAgroforestry1238RainfedcropsystemsPlantedforestsLivestockgrassland-basedsystemsMixedsystemsNaturallyregeneratedforestsLandscapeapproachesandmanagement1039PlantedforestsRainfedcropsystemsIrrigatedcropsystems(non-rice)LivestocklandlesssystemsIntegratedland-andwater-useplanning511––Irrigatedcropsystems(non-rice)RainfedcropsystemsSustainablesoilmanagement739Irrigatedcropsystems(rice)NaturallyregeneratedforestsPlantedforestsEcosystemapproachtoaquaculture7–FedaquacultureNon-fedaquacultureRainfedcropsystemsIrrigatedcrops(non-rice)Organicagriculture647MixedsystemsLivestockgrassland-basedsystemsIrrigatedcropsystems(rice)Otherecosystemapproachestoagriculture6––(integratedcropmanagementandagroecology)Notes:1.Thiscolumnshowsthenumberofcountriesreportingtherespectiveapproachinresponsetoaquestionaboutwhether,andtowhatextent,ecosystemand/orlandscapeapproachesarebeingimplementedintheirproductionsystems.Thequestionwasopenended,i.e.countriescouldmentionanyecosystemapproachtheywished.2.Thiscolumnshowsthenumberofcountriesreportingtheimplementationoftherespectiveapproachesinresponsetoquestionsonthelevelofimplementationofspecificmanagementpractices.3.Thiscolumnshowstheproductionsystemsforwhichtheapproacheswerereported.4.Thekindsofprotectedareasthatwerereportedonbycountriesincludenationalparks,naturereservesandconservationareas,includingmarineandforestprotectedareasandhighnaturevaluefarmlands.ForfurtherinformationseeSection7.5.InmostcasesthisreferstothePacificRidgetoReefapproach(https://www.pacific-r2r.org).Analysisbasedonatotalof91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.202thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5managementisagloballyacceptedconceptthatBox5.2guidesthedevelopmentandimplementationofTheconceptofsustainableforestpoliciesandpracticesthataimtomaintainandmanagementenhancetheeconomic,socialandenvironmentalvaluesofforests.InResolution62/98(2007)(UnitedNations,2007),theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyrecognizedthatforestsInternationalpolicydialogueonforestswasandtreesoutsideforestsprovidemultipleeconomic,initiatedbytheUnitedNationsConferenceonsocialandenvironmentalbenefits,andemphasizedEnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED)in1992.thatsustainableforestmanagementcontributesInadditiontoadoptingtheUnitedNationscon-significantlytosustainabledevelopmentandpovertyventionsonbiodiversity,climatechangeanderadication.Itfurtherrecognizedsustainableforestdesertification,UNCEDalsoreleasedanon-legallymanagementasadynamicandevolvingconceptthatbindingstatementcalled“ForestPrinciples”isintendedtomaintainandenhancetheeconomic,(UNCED,1992)inwhichcountriesaffirmedtheirsocialandenvironmentalvalueofalltypesofforests,commitmenttotheconservation,managementforthebenefitofpresentandfuturegenerations.andsustainabledevelopmentofalltypesofTheresolutionliststhefollowingsevenelementsofforests.AfterUNCED,theIntergovernmentalsustainableforestmanagement:(1)extentofforestPanelonForests(IPF)(1995–1997)andtheresources;(2)forestbiologicaldiversity;(3)foresthealthIntergovernmentalForumonForests(IFF)(1997–andvitality;(4)productivefunctionsofforestresources;2000)facilitatedfollow-updiscussionstothe(5)protectivefunctionsofforestresources;(6)socio-ForestPrinciples.Since2000,theUnitedNationseconomicfunctionsofforests;and(7)legal,policyandForumonForests(UNFF)hascontinuedtheIPF/IFFinstitutionalframework.workandsoughtwaystostrengthenlong-termpoliticalsupportforsustainableforestmanage-levelstosustainablymanagealltypesofforestsment.AsaresultoftheworkofUNFF,theUnitedandtreesoutsideforestsandhaltdeforestationNationsGeneralAssemblyadopted,in2007,theandforestdegradation.ThestrategicplanincludesNon-LegallyBindingInstrumentonAllTypesofsixglobalforestgoalsand26associatedtargetsForests(UnitedNations,2007),whichprovidesatobeachievedby2030.Thesevoluntarygoalsglobaldefinitionforsustainableforestmanage-andtargetscontributetotheimplementationofment(Box5.2).11the2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,theParisAgreementoftheUnitedNationsFollowingtheadoptionofthe2030AgendaFrameworkConventiononClimateChange,forSustainableDevelopmentanditsSustainabletheCBDandtheUnitedNationsConventiontoDevelopmentGoalsin2015,theUnitedCombatDesertification.NationsEconomicandSocialCouncilagreedonInternationalArrangementsonForestsbeyondInparallelwiththeinternationalpolicydialogue2015(UnitedNations,2015b).Italsodecidedtoonforests,atotalofnineregionalandeco-re-changethenameoftheNon-LegallyBindinggionalinitiativesorprocesseswerelaunchedbyInstrumentonAllTypesofForeststotheUnitedcountriesintheperiodafter1992withtheaimNationsForestInstrument,andrequestedUNFFoftranslatingtheconceptofsustainableforesttodevelopastrategicplanfortheperiod2017managementintopractice(Wilkie,Holmgrenandto2030(ibid.).In2017,aspecialsessionofUNFFCastañeda,eds.,2003).Theseregionalandeco-agreedontheUnitedNationsStrategicPlanforregionalprocessesdevelopedcriteriaandindica-Forests2017–2030(UnitedNations,2017c),whichtorsforsustainableforestmanagement.Althoughprovidesaglobalframeworkforactionsatallthevariousprocessescarriedouttheirwork11FurtherinformationontheseprocessescanbefoundviatheUNFFwebsitehttps://www.un.org/esa/forests/index.htmlthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE203STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCindependently,theyhadsimilarobjectives.Theyanddialogue(FAOandNFPF,2006).Inmanyalsosharedinformationandexperiences,andcases,aforestforumorsimilarmultistakeholdersomecountriesparticipatedinmorethanoneplatformisestablishedtoprovideanopportunityprocess.Thispavedthewayforconsensusonforallrelevantstakeholderswithinandoutsideofsustainableforestmanagementanditssevenele-theforestsectortoexpresstheirviewsonforestmentsinthecontextoftheUnitedNationsForumpolicy.ItiswidelyacknowledgedthatNFPsplayanonForests.Additionally,theregionalprocessesimportantroleintheimplementationofsustain-oncriteriaandindicatorsforsustainableforestableforestmanagement(NFPFandFAO,2012).managementwereinstrumentaltotheevolutionofcertificationschemesforwood-basedproductsStatusandtrendstradedininternationalmarkets.ThemajorglobalOverthepasttwodecades,manycountrieshavecertificationschemesforwoodsourcedfromsus-madeconsiderableprogressinimplementingsus-tainablymanagedforestsaretheProgrammefortainableforestmanagementbystrengtheningtheEndorsementofForestCertification(PEFC)12policyandlegalframeworksandbyimprovingtheandtheForestStewardshipCouncil(FSC).13applicationofmanagementpracticesinthefield.Severalindicatorsbasedontheglobalforeststatis-SustainableforestmanagementrequiresactionticsassembledbyFAOshowpositivetrendsforthisatalllevelsfromthefield(i.e.forestmanagementperiod(FAO,2016g).Althoughglobalforestareaunit),whereitinvolvestheimplementationofprac-continuedtodeclinebetween1990and2015,theticesbasedonscienceandknowledgeoflocalcon-rateofannuallossofforestareadecreasedsignif-ditionsandtraditions,tothelevelsofpolicy,legis-icantly(seeSection4.5.5.forfurtherdiscussion).lationandgovernance.Intheforestsector,ithasSeveralcountrieshadsignificantannualnetgainslongbeenrecognizedthatsectoralpoliciesshouldinforestareabetween2010and2015,includingcontributetoachievingthedevelopmentgoalsofChina(1.5millionha),Chile(301000ha),thethewholesocietyandshouldtakeothersectorsintoPhilippines(240000ha)andGabon(200000ha)consideration(e.g.FAO,2003c).Consequently,the(ibid.).Asof2008,135countriesandareas14haddevelopmentandimplementationofforestpolicydevelopedaforestpolicyand131hadestablishedinmanycountrieshavebeenbasedonaholisticanNFP(FAO,2010c).andcross-sectoralapproach(e.g.Husch,1987).Thewidespreadexistenceofpolicy,legalandAforestpolicyistypicallyagovernmentdoc-regulatoryframeworksfacilitatingtheimple-umentthatsetsoutobjectivesfortheforestsec-mentationofsustainableforestmanagementtor’scontributionstosustainabledevelopment.Aisalsoreflectedinthecountryreports.Arangenationalorsubnationalforeststrategydescribesofspecificissuesaddressedbytheseframeworkshowthesegoalsandobjectiveswillbeachieved.arehighlighted,includingthemaintenanceandInmanycountries,alegalframeworkhasbeenrestorationofnaturalforests,timber-harvestingestablishedtosupporttheimplementationofpracticesandtheconservationofforestbiodiver-theforeststrategy.Actionplansaredevelopedsity(e.g.deliberatelyleavingdeadwoodinplace),totranslatetheforestpolicyintoconcreteactivi-aestheticvalues,waterqualityandsoilconditions.ties.Anationalforestprogramme(NFP)orsimilarSomecountriesalsorefertotheimplementationarrangementiscommonlyusedasthemechanismofsustainableforestmanagementwithinthefordevelopingforestpolicyandrelatedstrategiescontextofspecificprojects.Forexample,theandactionplansandforfacilitatingandmonitor-GambiamentionstheExpansionofCommunityingtheirimplementation(FAO,2010b).AnNFPParticipationintheManagementofForestsandinvolvesacontinuousprocessofcommunicationProtectedAreasproject,whichaimedtomanage12https://www.pefc.org14Outofatotalof233countriesandareasassessed.13https://ic.fsc.org/en204thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5forestresourcesintheinterestsofsustainablelive-NationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(FAO,lihoods,includingbyenhancingtheconservation2003d,2005b).Whilethesestepswereimportant,ofbiodiversityinforestandwoodlandecosystems.theywerenotsufficienttoensuretheeffectivemanagementandsustainabledevelopmentofWherefield-leveloperationsareconcerned,fisheries,andbythelate1980sithadbecomeforestmanagementplansarethemaininstru-clearthatanewapproachwasneeded(FAO,mentsforensuringthatforestsaremanaged2005b).InOctober1995,theCodeofConductforsustainably.Increasingly,suchplansintegrateaResponsibleFisheries(FAO,1995a)wasadoptedbywiderangeofmanagementpracticesassociatedtheConferenceofFAOtoprovideaframeworkforwithmultipleobjectives,includingthesupplyofnationalandinternationaleffortstoensurethewoodandnon-woodproductsandvariouscul-sustainableexploitationofaquaticbiodiversity.tural,supportingandregulatingecosystemser-vices.TheglobalareaunderforestmanagementTheearlyyearsofthetwenty-firstcenturysawplanshasincreasedsteadilysince1990,reachingtheemergenceoftheterm“ecosystemapproach2.1billionhain2010(FAO,2016g).Similarly,thetofisheries”(FAO,2003d).AFAOtechnicalconsul-forestareacoveredbythetwoabove-mentionedtationheldin2002agreedthatthepurposeofaninternationalcertificationschemesincreasedecosystemapproachtofisheriesisfrom14millionhain2000to438millionhain2014(ibid.).AsofSeptember2018,PEFCindicatedtoplan,developandmanagefisheriesinathatithadcertified307millionha(PEFC,2018)mannerthataddressesthemultipleneedsandandFSCthatithadcertified200millionha(FSC,desiresofsocieties,withoutjeopardizingthe2018).15Severalcountryreportsemphasizetheoptionsforfuturegenerationstobenefitfromimportanceofforestmanagementplans.Belgium,thefullrangeofgoodsandservicesprovidedforexample,reportsmandatoryimplementationbymarineecosystemsofforestmanagementplans,notingthatparticu-andthatsuchanapproachlarattentionispaid,interalia,tothediversityofstrivestobalancediversesocietalobjectives,plantedforesttreespeciesandthemaintenancebytakingaccountoftheknowledgeandoftreesofbiologicalinterest.Ethiopiareportsuncertaintiesaboutbiotic,abioticandthatitsareaundersustainableforestmanage-humancomponentsofecosystemsandtheirmentisexpandingandthatthemainobjectivesinteractionsandapplyinganintegratedofitsforestmanagementplansincludeincreasingapproachtofisherieswithinecologicallyforestcoveragethroughmassivetreeplanting.meaningfulboundaries(FAO,2003e).Theecosystemapproachtofisheriesinvolvesa5.3.3Ecosystemapproachtofisheriesrangeofinter-relatedguidingprinciplesandcon-andaquacultureceptsthathavebeensummarizedasfollows:Introduction•fisheriesshouldbemanagedtolimitInthemid-1970s,growingconcernsoverthehealththeirimpactontheecosystemtotheoftheoceans,theregulationofhumanactivitiesextentpossible;affectingthem,andtheallocationofresources,rightsandresponsibilitiesintheirusebeganto•ecologicalrelationshipsbetweenshiftglobalapproachestofisheriesmanagementharvested,dependentandassociatedandledtotheintroductionofexclusiveeconomicspeciesshouldbemaintained;zonesandtheadoption,in1982,oftheUnited•managementmeasuresshouldbe15Thesefiguresincludesomedoubleaccounting,assomeforestcompatibleacrosstheentiredistributionownershaveoptedtocertifytheirforestsunderbothschemes.oftheresource(acrossjurisdictionsandmanagementplans);•theprecautionaryapproachshouldbeappliedbecausetheknowledgeonecosystemsisincomplete;andthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE205STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartC•governanceshouldensurebothhuman33countriesusingascoringframeworkbasedonandecosystemwell-beingandequitykeyprinciples,elementsandstepsassociatedwith(ibid.).theimplementationoftheapproach.Onlytwocountrieswerejudgedtohavea“good”perfor-Theecosystemapproachconcepthasalsobeenmanceandfourcountriestohavean“acceptable”appliedtoaquaculture.AccordingtoFAO(2010d),performance.Sixteenwereassigned“failgrades”anecosystemapproachtoaquaculture(ibid.).VanHoof(2015)notesthat,inthecaseoftheEuropeanUnion,althoughanumberofisastrategyfortheintegrationoftheregionalmarinepoliciesrecognizetheneedforanactivitywithinthewiderecosystemsuchecosystemapproach,practicalimplementationhasthatitpromotessustainabledevelopment,runupagainstvariousconstraintsassociatedwithequity,andresilienceofinterlinkedthecomplexitiesoftheinstitutionalandpolicysocial-ecologicalsystems.frameworkandthedifficultyofensuringade-Currenteffortstopromoteanecosystemquatestakeholderinvolvement.Whereimpactsapproachtoaquaculturefocusondevelopingareconcerned,thereisevidencethatimplemen-toolstoimprovedecision-makingprocesses,withtationoftheecosystemapproachtofisheriesovertheaimofminimizingimpactsonnaturaleco-anyextendedareatendstoincreasefishcatchessystems,improvingknowledgeofinteractions(Bundyetal.,2017).betweenaquacultureandthesupplyofecosys-temservicesandstrengtheningcommunicationThirty-sixoutofthe91countryreportsmentionbetweenscientistsanddecision-makers(Brickertheadoptionofanecosystemapproachinatetal.,2016;Klugeretal.,2016;Lithgow,delaleastonecategoryofaquaticproductionsystem.LanzaandSilva,2017).Adoptionisreportedbyahigherproportionofnon-OECDcountries(74percent)thanofOECDStatusandtrendscountries(31percent).WhilemanycountryFAO’s2018reportonprogressintheimplemen-reportsprovidefewdetailsoftheirreportedtationoftheCodeofConductforResponsibleimplementationefforts,somereportadiverseFisheries(FAO,2018k)indicatesthatamongrangeofmeasures.Forexample,BurkinaFaso127reportingcountries,77percentstatedthatmentionstheestablishmentofco-managementtheyhadbeguntoimplementtheecosystemregimesforwaterbodiesofeconomicinterest,approachtofisheries.Amongthese,97percentwithmultistakeholdermanagementcommitteeshadestablishedecological,socio-economicandoperatingspecificallyformulateddevelopmentgovernanceobjectives,95percenthadidentifiedplans.Itdescribesproceduresforthegrantingkeyissuestobeaddressedbymanagementactionsoffishingconcessions,andnotesthebenefitsofand67percenthadestablishedmonitoringmech-havingfavourablelegalandinstitutionalframe-anisms(ibid.).worksinplace(includingconsultativebodiesandgrassrootscommunityorganizations).PracticalAlthoughtheecosystemapproachtofisher-measuresmentionedincludeestablishmentofieshasspreadtoallregionsoftheworld,prac-spawninggrounds(habitatimprovement)andticaladoptioncanbechallenging(Fletcherandtemporaryclosuresoffisheries.AnexamplefromBianchi,2014;Hilborn,2011).Pitcheretal.(2009)Panamaoftheimplementationoftheecosystemevaluatedprogressintheimplementationofapproachtofisheriesatprojectlevelispresentedecosystem-basedmanagement16offisheriesininBox5.3.Actionstakentoensuretheadoptionofanecosystemapproachtofisheriesmanage-16Theauthorsnotetheexistenceofarangeoftermsandmentandacodeofconductonsustainablefish-definitionsinthisfieldandstatethattheyusethetermeriesinSaintLuciaarepresentedinBox5.4.Withecosystem-basedmanagement“todenoteaholisticapproachreferencetoaquaculture,Maltareportsthatantothemanagementoffisheries,butnotthemanagementnorcontrolofpollution,shippinglanes,recreationandothernon-fisheriesissues.”206thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.3Applicationoftheecosystemapproachincapturefisheries–anexamplefromPanamaTheprojectDevelopmentofSustainableEconomicthegenerationofmicrocreditopportunitiesforverypoorAlternativesandConservationStrategiesinMarinecommunitiesandtheformulationoffishingagreementsProtectionareasoftheGulfsofChiriquíandMontijo,withthreeartisanalfishers’groups.MolluscandlobsterimplementedbyFundaciónMarViva,hascontributedharvestershavebeentrainedinmarketingandproducttoimprovingthelivelihoodsofeightcoastalfishingmanagement.ValuechainsinfisheriesandtourismhavecommunitiesinPanamabytraininglocalpeoplebeencreatedthroughstrategicalliancesbetweenthe(300families,comprisingmorethan1634individuals)privatesectorandbeneficiarygroups,whichhaveworkedonbetterfishingpracticesandpromotingalternativetogethertoestablishmoreresponsibleapproachestobusinesses(whalewatchingandruraltourism)thatfishingandtourism.sustainablyusemarineandcoastalresources.Twenty-fivemicrobusinesseshaveimplementedenvironmental-Source:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofPanama.managementplans,whichin2013wonthecounty’sCleanProductionAward.OtherachievementshaveincludedBox5.4EcosystemapproachtofisheriesmanagementinSaintLuciaAnecosystemapproachtofisheriesmanagementand•endorsementoftheManagementPlanforQueenacodeofconductonsustainablefisheriesadoptedinConch;SaintLucialedtowidespreadcomplianceamongfisherswithmeasuresaimedatimprovingthemanagement•promotionofconsultativeprocessesamongfishersanddevelopmentoftheindustry.Thisledtoincreasedandotherstakeholdersineveryaspectoffisheriesbiomassoffisheryspecies,greatermarinebiodiversityplanning,development,management,conservationandenhancementstomarineecosystems.However,andsustainableutilization;achievingtheseresultsrequiredalongseriesofactionsandpoliticalinvestments.Specificactionstakentoensure•expansionofthemarineprotectedareasprogrammeadoptionincluded:asatooltoenhancefisheriesmanagement;•signingtheCaribbeanRegionalFisheriesMechanism•adoptionoftheCaribbeanRegionalFisheries2010Castries(St.Lucia)DeclarationonIllegal,MechanismRegionalManagementPlanforFlyingUnreportedorUnregulatedFishing;FishFishery;and•accessiontothe2009FAOPortStateMeasures•promotionoffisherfolkorganizationsatlocalandAgreementtoPrevent,DeterandEliminateIllegal,nationallevels.UnreportedorUnregulatedFishing(SaintLuciaofficiallyaccededon17June2016);LessonlearnedEngaginginmeaningfulconsultationandbuilding•signingthe2015St.George’sDeclarationonthepartnershipswithfishersandotherstakeholders,includingConservation,ManagementandSustainableUseofdevelopmentagenciesandpartnersatregionalandtheCaribbeanSpinyLobster(Panulirusargus);internationallevels,provedkeytostrengtheningfisheriesmanagementanddevelopment.•endorsementoftheDraftManagementPlanforBlackfinTuna;Source:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofSaintLucia.•endorsementoftheDraftManagementPlanforFishAggregatingDeviceFishery;thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE207STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCecosystemapproachisimplementedinbluefin2011;Wezel,etal.,2009,2015).Definitionshavetunamariculture.ActionsundertakenincluderangedfromthemoreecologicalconceptinitiallytheestablishmentofaquotaontheamountofproposedbyGliessman(1997),inwhichprinci-wildfishthatcanbecapturedforbreedingandplessuchasdiversity,integration,synergiesandasizethresholdbelowwhichindividualscannotnaturalregulationwereusedtocharacterizeagro-berecruited.ecologicalmanagement,tomorerecentvariantsthatstressthesocialandculturalaspectsofagro-Severalcountriesmentionthesignificanceofecologicalfarmingandagroecologicalmovementsnationalorregionalpolicyandlegalframeworks(e.g.Dumontetal.,2016;Timmermann,FélixandsupportingtheimplementationoftheecosystemTittonell,2018).AccordingtotheHighLevelPanelapproach.Forexample,MexiconotesthatitsofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutrition,SectoralProgrammeforAgricultural,FishingandFoodDevelopment(2013–2018)andGeneralLawfromascientificandtechnicalperspective,forSustainableFishingandAquaculture,17whichagroecologyappliesecologicalconceptsguideitsfishingpolicies,weredevelopedbasedandprinciplestofoodandfarmingsystems,onecosystemapproaches.AnumberofEuropeanfocusingontheinteractionsbetweenUnionmembercountriesmentiontheCommonmicroorganisms,plants,animals,humansFisheriesPolicyand/ortheEuropeanMarineandtheenvironment,tofostersustainableStrategyFrameworkDirectiveinthisregard.agriculturedevelopmentinordertoensureSeveralcountriesfromthePacificRegionmentionfoodsecurityandnutritionforall,nowandintheNoumeaStrategy(ANewSongforCoastalthefuture.Today’smoretransformativevisionsFisheries:PathwaystoChange)(SPC,2015),whichofagroecologyintegratetransdisciplinaryhighlightsthecentralroleofcommunity-basedknowledge,farmers’practicesandsocialecosystemapproachestofisheriesmanagementinmovementswhilerecognizingtheirmutualensuringthefuturesustainabilityofcoastalfish-interdependence(HLPE,2016).eriesacrosstheregionandsetsoutapathwayforTenelementsofagroecologyelaboratedonchangeinvolving(interalia)empoweringcoastalthebasisofregionalseminarsonagroecologycommunities,generatingtheinformationneededorganizedbyFAO18andconsultationswithvarioustoguidemanagementandpolicy,strengtheningstakeholdersarelistedinBox5.5.policyandlegalframeworks,enhancingcollabo-Thefocusonthefoodsystemmeansthatagro-rationamongstakeholders,promotingequitableecologyextendsbeyondtheindividualfarmorruralaccesstobenefitsanddecision-making,anddiver-communityandencompassesnotonlyproductionsifyinglivelihoodactivities.orecologicaldimensionsbutalsosocial,economic,geographicalandculturaldimensions(Dumontet5.3.4Agroecologyal.,2016;Duru,FaresandTherond,2014;SevillaGuzmán,2002;Tittonelletal.,2016;Warner,Introduction2005).StructuralandfunctionaldiversificationofAgroecologyhasbeenvariouslydefinedasascien-tificdiscipline,asetoffarmingpractices,asocial18InSeptember2014,FAOhostedtheFirstInternationalmovementorasallthree(Altieri,2002;Dalgaard,SymposiumonAgroecologyforFoodSecurityandNutrition.HutchingsandPorter,2003;Francisetal.,2003;Buildingontheoutcomes,FAOconvenedaseriesofregionalGliessman,1997,2015;Timmermann,FélixandmeetingstobetterunderstandthedifferentcontextsandTittonell,2018;Tomichetal.,2011;Vandermeer,specificlocalneedsofagroecology.From2015to2017,multi-actorregionalseminarswereheldinfiveregions(sub-Saharan17LeyGeneraldePescayAcuaculturaSustentables.NuevaLeyAfrica,LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,AsiaandthePacific,publicadaenelDiarioOficialdelaFederaciónel24dejulioEuropeandCentralAsia,andtheNearEastandNorthAfrica),de2007(available,inSpanish,athttp://www.fao.org/faolex/involving1400participantsfrom170FAOmembercountries.results/details/en/?details=LEX-FAOC072880).InApril2018,FAOhostedtheSecondInternationalSymposiumonAgroecologyforFoodSecurityandNutrition.208thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.5ThetenelementsofagroecologyareinterlinkedandThetenelementsofagroecologyinterdependent(seefigurebelow).Theycanbegroupedbytheircharacteristicsasfollows:Between2015and2017,FAOheldseveralmulti-actorregionalmeetingsonagroecology,whichledtothe•Diversity,synergies,efficiency,resilience,recyclingandelaborationoftenelementsofagroecology.Basedonco-creationandsharingofknowledgearecommonscientificliterature,inparticularAltieri’sfiveprinciplesofcharacteristicsofagroecologicalsystems,foundationalagroecology(Altieri,1995)andGliessman’sfivelevelsofpracticesandinnovationapproaches.agroecologicaltransitions(Gliessman,2015),andalignedwithcivil-societyvaluesonagroecology,thetenelements•Humanandsocialvaluesandcultureandfoodidentifyimportantpropertiesofagroecologicalsystemstraditionsarecontext-specificelements.andapproaches,aswellaskeyconsiderationsinthedevelopmentofanenablingenvironmentforagroecology.•ResponsiblegovernanceandcircularandsolidarityTheyserveasaguideforpolicy-makers,practitionersandeconomyconstituteanenablingenvironment.otherstakeholdersinplanning,managingandevaluatingagroecologicaltransitions.Source:FAO,2018l.DIVERSITYRESPONSIBLERECYCLINGEFFICIENCYSYNERGIESRESILIENCECIRCULARANDGOVERNANCESOLIDARITYECONOMYHUMANANDCO-CREATIONANDCULTUREANDSOCIALVALUESSHARINGKNOWLEDGEFOODTRADITIONSthebiologicalcomponentsofproductionsystemsthatarecultivatedorotherwiseactivelymanagedinspaceandtime(e.g.intercropping,polycultures,(i.e.asopposedtounmanagedecosystemsfromcrop–livestockintegration,agroforestry,multispe-whichproductsareharvested,forexampleoceancieslivestockkeeping)isatthecoreofagroeco-ecosystemsusedforcapturefishing).logicaldesignandmanagement.Thismeansthat,althoughnotypesofproductionsystemsarespe-Agroecologycombinesproducers’knowledge,cificallyexcludedfromthescopeofagroecology,includinglocalandtraditionalknowledge,withpracticalapplicationislargelyconfinedtosystemsformalscientificknowledge.DistinctivefeaturesofthescienceofagroecologyincludeafocusonthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE209STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCecologicalcommunities(ratherthanindividualAsubstantialshareofsmallholderfarmersandspeciespopulations),complexfeedbackmecha-pastoralistsaroundtheworldpractisesomeformnisms,randomnessandhysteresis(non-linearity,ofagroecology,orfollowsomeagroecologicalirreversibilityanddiscontinuity),andemerg-principles.However,itisdifficulttodetermineingpropertiesandinteractionsratherthanbothhowmanyproducersthereareinthesesimpleaggregations(Tittonell,2014).Diversityiscategories(e.g.Lowder,SkoetandSingh,2014)regardedasanasset–asourceofsynergiesandandwhatproportionoftheirfarmsorhold-risk-spreadingandthebasisforecologicalinter-ingsmightreasonablybedescribedasagroeco-actionsthatsustainessentialecosystemservices.logical.AccordingtoLowder,SkoetandSingh(2014),familyfarmsaccountfor90percentoftheStatusandtrends570millionfarmsworldwideandproducemoreIndescribingthestateofmethodsandbroaderthan80percentoftheworld’sfoodinvalueterms.approachesinthemanagementofBFA,manyofMoreover,84percentofallfarmsaresmallerthanthesectionsinthischapterattempttoprovide2ha,althoughtheseaccountforonly12percentanindicationofhowwidelythesemethodsandoftotalagriculturalland(ibid.).Someestimatesapproacheshavebeenadoptedandwhatthe(e.g.Tittonelletal.,2016)havesuggestedthatattrendsareinthisregard.Agroecology,however,leastathirdoffamilyfarmsfollowagroecologicalisnotatechnologyorasinglepractice,butratherprinciplesinfullorinpart,whichwouldmeanthatthecontext-specificapplicationofecologicalandasubstantialproportionofglobalfoodoutputsocialprinciples.Arguably,therefore,theconceptcomesfromagroecologicalproduction.of“adoption”,asusedinagriculturaleconomicstoassessthediffusionofpracticesortechnologiesAlthoughthecountry-reportingguidelinesdid(agriculturalinputs,tillagesystems,credit,etc.),notincludeanyspecificquestiononagroecologymaynotbeusefulindiscussionsofagroecology.perse,asubstantialnumberofcountryreportsMoreover,thereareveryfewregistriesofagro-(approximately20outofthe91)includeexplicitecologicalfarms(orothertypesofagroecologicalreferencestoagroecologicalapproachesinholding),i.e.registriesofthekindthatexist,forthecontextofoneormoreofthevariousBFA-example,inmanycountriesfororganicfarms,andrelatedactivitiesandprovisionsreported.Manythusnohandysetsofstatisticsthatcanbequotedmorerefertoactivitiesthatwhilenotspecificallytogiveanindicationoftrends.Whilethereisadescribedinthesetermsarerelevanttoagro-growingbodyofevidencedemonstratingtheecology.France,forexample,mentionsarangeofholisticbenefitsofagroecologyacrosstheenvi-initiativesspecificallypromotingagroecology.Itronmental,socialandeconomicdimensionsofnotes,forinstance,thatasof2016about300000hasustainability,oneofthechallengesisthatagro-(whichamountstoapproximately1percentoftheecologyisheterogeneousandlocationspecific.country’sagriculturalland)19werebeingmanagedFAOisworkingwithpartnerstocoordinateeffortsinaccordancewithagroecologicalprinciples,byandbuildamoreconsolidatedevidencebaseabout4000farmersbelongingto246EconomicthroughthedevelopmentofaglobalknowledgeandEnvironmentalInterestGroups(Groupementsproductandcommunityofpractice.Oneindicatord’IntérêtÉconomiqueetEnvironnemental).thatmaybemoreamenabletomonitoringistheextenttowhichlegalandpolicyframeworksthatPoliciesandlegalframeworksthatspecificallyspecificallyseektocreateanenablingenviron-aimtopromoteagroecologicalapproachesarementthatpromotesagroecologyhavebeenputinmentionedinseveralreports.Forexample,Brazilplace(seeforexampleFigure5.3),althoughusagereferstoitsNationalPolicyofAgroecologyandoftheterminthiscontextwillinevitablyvaryfromOrganicProduction,which,amongotherobjec-countrytocountry.tives,aimstopromotefoodandnutritional19Basedon2014datarecordedinFAOSTAT.210thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Figure5.3LegalandpolicyframeworksonagroecologyCUBADENMARKREPUBLICOFKOREAMEXICOGERMANYCHINANICARAGUAAUSTRIAGUATEMALALUXEMBOURGCAMBODIAELSALVADORFRANCECOSTARICASWITZERLANDPANAMAITALYCOLOMBIAECUADORCÔTED’IVOIREVENEZUELA,BOLIVARIANREPUBLICOFPERUMAURITIUSBOLIVIA,PLURINATIONALSTATEOFBRAZILPARAGUAYCHILEARGENTINANotes:Countriesthathaveimplementedlaws,regulationsandpoliciesinsupportofagroecology(basedondataavailableinFAOLEX[http://www.fao.org/faolex/en]inApril2018)arehighlightedindarkblue.DetailedinformationandlinkstothedocumentscanbefoundintheAgroecologyLexdatabase,partofFAO’sAgroecologyKnowledgeHub(http://www.fao.org/agroecology/policies-legislations/en).sovereigntyandsecurityandthehumanrighttoare“advocating,promotingandprovokingdebate,adequateandhealthyfood,bymeansofthepro-sharinginformation,andlobbyingaroundissuesvisionoforganicandagroecologicalproducts(seerelatingtothewayforwardforsustainableagricul-Box7.19forfurtherinformationontheNationaltureandlandusepracticesinZimbabwe.”PlanforAgroecologyandOrganicProduction[PLANAPO]andrelatedinstruments).ThereportTheothermainareasofagroecology-relatedfromNicaraguaindicatesthatthecountry’sactivitynotedinthecountryreportsareresearchNationalBiodiversityStrategyincludestwotargetsandeducation,thelattermostlycarriedoutbyspecificallyrelatedtothepromotionofagroeco-universities,althoughthereportfromNigermen-logicalproduction.tionstrainingforfarmersprovidedbythePeasantPlatformofNiger(PlateformePaysanneduNiger).SomereportsmentiontheworkofNGOsthatareSeealsoBox8.15foranexampleofparticipatorypromotingagroecology.Zimbabwe,forexample,workshopsonagroecologicalmanagementandmentionstheParticipatoryEcologicalLandUsebiodiversityconservationinChile.WhereresearchManagement(PELUM)Zimbabwe,20whosemembersisconcerned,ArgentinamentionsthatitsNationalAgriculturalTechnologyInstitute(Instituto20PartofthePELUMAssociation,aregionalnetworkthatwasNacionaldeTecnologíaAgropecuaria)21hasfoundedin1995topromoteparticipatoryecologicalland-usemanagementpracticesforimprovedlivelihoods.21https://inta.gob.arthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE211STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCconductedseveralresearchprojectsrelatedAmongexamplesoftheimplementationoftoagroecologyandin2013establishedanlandscapeorseascapeapproachesatamulti-AgroecologyNetwork,22withtheobjectiveofcountryscale,KiribatireferstotheFrameworkcompilingexistingknowledge,supportingagro-foraPacificOceanscape,24acollaborativeagree-ecologicalresearchinacomprehensivemanner,mentbetween15PacificIslandnationsfortheandlinkingresearchandextensionatnational,integratedmanagementof38.5millionkm2ofregionalandlocallevels.Thecountryreportnotesocean(fourtimesthesizeofcontinentalEurope)thatwithinthisframeworkasystemhasbeensurroundingtheirterritories.Itnotesthatthedevelopedtomonitorsoilqualityandsoilman-agreementcoversoceanhealthandsecurity,agementonagroecologicalfarmsandconductgovernance,sustainableresourcemanagement,long-termtrials.Researchthemesareprioritizedresearchandknowledge,andfacilitationofthebyacoordinationteaminconsultationwiththepartnershipsandcooperationneededtosupportcrop,livestock,aquacultureandforestsectors.theconservationofsuchvastecosystems.ChinamentionsthattheTwelfthFive-yearPlanTheinformationprovidedinthecountryforAgriculturalTechnologyDevelopment,compiledreportsdoesnotallowconclusionstobedrawnbytheMinistryofAgriculture,includesmonitoringastotheextentoftheareacoveredbylandscapeofbiodiversityinagroecologicalsystems.ItfurtherapproachesortheeffectthatsuchapproachesarenotesthatademonstrationprojectfocusedonhavingonBFA.However,mostofthereportingchangingproductionpatternsinecologicallyfragilecountriesindicatethatadoptionandimplementa-zonesinnorthwesternChinapromotesagroecol-tionarebecomingincreasinglywidespread.ogy,alongwithecotourismandrotationalgrazing,toimprovethelivingstandardsoflocalfarmersandAswellasincludingaquestiononlandscapelivestockkeeperswhileconservingbiodiversity.approachesperse,thecountry-reportingguidelinesalsoinvitedcountriestoreporton“landscapeman-5.3.5Landscapeandseascapeagement”,i.e.practicesthatsupportthemainte-approachesandmanagementnanceofbiodiversity-friendlyfarmingsystemsanddiversityoflandscapemosaicswithinandaroundTenreportingcountries,locatedacrossvariousproductionsystems,forexamplethemanagementregions,indicatetheimplementationofland-ofripariancorridors,hedges,fieldmargins,wind-scapeapproaches.23Suchapproachesarereportedbreaks,woodlandpatches,clearingsinforests,tohavebeenadopted,atleasttosomeextent,waterways,pondsorotherbiodiversity-friendlyineachoftheterrestrialproductionsystemcat-featuresoftheproductionenvironment.Theegorieslistedinthecountry-reportingguide-practicesmostcommonlyreportedinthiscontextlines.However,theapproachesdescribedintheincludeagroforestryand(mainlybyEuropeancoun-countryreportsarequitediverse,bothintermstries)theuseofherbivorousanimalstomanageandofthescaleatwhichtheyareappliedandtheirmaintainopenanddiversesemi-naturallandscapes.objectives.Bhutan,GermanyandSwitzerland,forSeveralcountriesmentiontherelevanceofpro-example,reportthatthelandscapeapproachistectedareas(seeChapter7).Somenotethattheytheverybasisofnationalpoliciesfortheconser-haveadoptedenvironmentallyfriendlyfarmingvationandsustainableuseofBFA.Othercountriespractices(sometimesencouragedbyincentivepro-mentionapplyinglandscapeapproachesformoregrammes)forthemaintenanceoflandscapediver-specificpurposes.Forexample,theUnitedStatessity,includingthemaintenanceofhedgerows,grassofAmericamentionsitsuseinpestmanagement.stripsandvegetatedfieldmargins.22https://inta.gob.ar/proyectos/red-de-agroecologia-024http://www.forumsec.org/pages.cfm/strategic-partnerships-23Countrieswerenotspecificallyinvitedtoreportonseascapecoordination/pacific-oceanscape/pacific-oceanscape-framework.htmlapproaches,butnonethelessreportedrelevantinitiatives.212thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Morethan40percentofthecountryreportsBox5.6indicatetheimplementationofpracticesconsid-ThePacificRidgetoReefapproach–eredtofallintothelandscape-managementcat-anexampleofintegratedland-andegory(Table5.1andTable5.3).25Approximatelywater-useplanning50percentofthesecountriesindicatethatthepracticesinquestionareappliedinlivestockThePacificRidgetoReefapproachisaGlobalgrassland-basedproductionsystems.AsimilarEnvironmentFacilityprogrammaticinitiativeinvolvingproportionmentiontheiruseinmixedproduc-multipleUnitedNationsagencies,thePacificCommunitytionsystems.Theiruseinforestandrainfedcropand14PacificSmallIslandDevelopingStates(PacSIDS)systemsisreportedsomewhatlessfrequently.(GEF,2016).TheoverallobjectiveoftheprojectsForallthesecategoriesofproductionsystem,undertakeninPacSIDSunderthisinitiativeistomaintainmostcountriesreportapositivetrendintheandenhanceecosystemgoodsandservicescontributinguseofthelandscape-managementpractices.topovertyreduction,sustainablelivelihoodsandclimateUseisreportedlyincreasingmostmarkedlyinresilience,throughintegratedapproachestoland,water,mixedsystemsandinnaturallyregeneratedandforest,biodiversityandcoastal-resourcemanagementplantedforests(Table5.2).thatspanthewholelandscapefromtheridgesofthehillstothefringingreefsofthecoasts.Theimportanceof5.3.6Integratedland-andwater-useactivelyengagingmultiplestakeholdersintheplanning,planningimplementation,monitoringandevaluationoftheprojectsisbroadlyacknowledgedthroughoutthePacificLikemanyotherintegratedapproaches,inte-Islandregion,wheretheRidgetoReefapproachisgratedland-andwater-useplanningisanevolv-referredtoasthe“communitytocabinet”approach.ingconceptforwhichthereisnogenerallyagreeddefinition.FAO(2018m)describesintegratedland-Note:Forfurtherinformation,seethePacificR2R-RidgetoReefwebsiteuseplanningasthe“allocationoflandtodiffer-athttps://www.pacific-r2r.orgentusesacrossalandscapeinawaythatbalanceseconomic,socialandenvironmentalvalues.”Itlaws,policiesandcustomarynormsthatguidethenotesthattheobjectiveoftheapproachis“tousestowhichlandmaybeallocated(ibid.).identify,inagivenlandscape,thecombinationoflandusesthatisbestabletomeettheneedsofAsfarasthecountryreportsareconcerned,thestakeholderswhilesafeguardingresourcesforthespecificintegratedland-useplanningapproachfuture”andthat“effectiveland-useplanningpro-mostfrequentlymentionedisthePacificRidgetovidesdirectiononthemannerinwhichland-useReefapproach(seeBox5.6).AnumberofPacificactivitiesshouldtakeplaceandencouragessyner-Islandcountriesindicatethatthisapproachisagiesbetweendifferentuses.”Managementofthiskeymeansofpromotingtheconservationandkindcanbecarriedoutatvariousscales,includingsustainableuseofnaturalresourcesatalllevelsthelandscape,subnational,nationalorregional.fromcommunitytoregional.Someexplicitlyhigh-Atthelandscapelevel,itisoftenanintegralpartlighttheimportanceofRidgetoReefprojectsasofalandscapeapproach,which(asdiscussedameansofpromotingcommunityinvolvementabove)willinvolvecomprehensivestakeholderandempowerment.TheprojectsimplementedparticipationaimedatharmonizingdifferentusesunderthePacificRidgetoReefapproachmainlyandminimizingtheriskofconflict.Land-useplan-aimtostrengthennationalandlocalcapacitiestoninggenerallytakesplacewithinaframeworkofeffectivelymanagenationalsystemsofprotectedareasinordertopromotetheconservationofbio-25Severalcountriesnotethatthesepracticesaredifficultdiversity,sustainableuseofnaturalresourcesandtodistinguishfromeachotherandfromothertypesofinterventiontheywereinvitedtoreporton,forexamplerestorationpractices(seeSection5.4).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE213STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCsafeguardingofecosystemservices.Countriesnotedevelopingandadoptingecosystem,landscapethattheapproachneedstobebetterintegratedandseascapeapproaches.Countriesemphasizeintopolicyplanning,andmentionanumberoftheimportanceofenhancingresearchon(i)thepotentialmeansofpromotingitsadoptionandfunctionalrolesofthevariouscomponentsofstrengtheningitsimplementation,includingBFAinkeyecosystemprocessesandinthesupplycapacity-buildingbasedonlessonslearnedfromofecosystemservicesatproductionsystem,eco-implementationtodateandawarenessraisingsystemandlandscapelevelsand(ii)theeffectsamongdecision-makers.Otherintegratedplan-ofadoptingecosystemorlandscapeapproachesningapproachesmentionedincludeintegrated(asopposedtomoreconventionalapproaches)coastalzonemanagement.oncomponentsofBFA.Measuringsuccessinlandscapeorecosystemapproachesalsoremains5.3.7Needsandprioritieschallenging.Somecountriesnotetheneedforbaselinesurveys,indicatorsandmonitoringManycountryreportsincludeinformationonthesystemsthatallowimpactstobeevaluated.Somechallengescountriesfaceintheimplementationmentiontheneedtoestablishnationaldatabasesofecosystemandlandscapeapproaches.TheformappingandmonitoringcomponentsofBFAcountry-reportingguidelinesspecificallyinvitedandtheproductionsystemsinwhichtheyoccur,countriestoreportongapsandconstraintsintheincludingforthepurposesofvaluatingthemandfieldsofinformationandknowledge,resourcesassessinglinkagesandtrade-offsbetweendiffer-andcapacity,andpolicyandinstitutionalframe-entecosystemservices.SeveralEuropeancoun-works,andtoindicatepriorityactionsneededtotriesstatethatexercisesofthiskindarecrucialaddresstheseissues.forthedevelopmentofpaymentforecosystemservicesschemes.InformationandknowledgeSeveralcountriesreportthatbothalackofdataResourcesandcapacityonthecharacteristicsoftheirecosystems(theirAcrossallregions,mostreportingcountriesextent,temporalandspatialvariations,etc.)andindicatethatthefinancialresourcesneededtolimitedunderstandingofecosystemfunctionanddevelopandimplementecosystemapproachesservices,includingspecificallytherolesofBFAinareinsufficientorinsecure.Theabsenceofade-thiscontext,aremajorconstraintstothedevel-quatefundingisreportedtoconstrainarangeopmentandadoptionofecosystemapproaches.ofkeyactivities,includingresearch(seeabove),Somenotethatalackofclarityregardingtheeducationandtraining,andtheimplementationnatureofecosystemandlandscapeapproachesisofexistinglegislation,strategiesandprogrammes.alsoanissue,insomecasessuggestingthattheAlackoftrainedandqualifiedtechnicalandsci-multiplicityofconfusingterminologyinthisfieldentificpersonnel(bothspecialists,suchastax-needstobeharmonized.Severaldevelopingcoun-onomistsandentomologists,andexpertswithtriesindicatethatinformationontheapplicationcross-disciplinaryknowledge)iswidelyregardedofecosystemapproachesandotherinnovativeasaconstraint.SeveralcountriesindicatethatpracticesthatmaybebeneficialtoBFAoftendoesinadequaciesintransportandcommunicationsnotreachproducersoronlydoessoaftersignif-infrastructuresalsohamperimplementation.icantdelays.MostcountriesthathaveadoptedecosystemandlandscapeapproachesmentionAsidefromsteppingupeffortstomobilizethatthereislittleconcreteevidenceastohowfundstobuildtheinstitutionalandtechnicalsuccessfultheseapproachesareinpractice.capacityneeded(includinglong-termfunding–essentialinthiscontext,asaverageprojectlengthProposedactionsinthiscontextincludetheistooshort),reportedprioritiesinthisfieldincludedevelopmentofguidelinesprovidingdefinitionscapturinganddisseminatinglessonslearned,oftermsandelucidatingthepotentialbenefitsof214thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5includingsuccessstories,inthedevelopmentandand,whereneeded,developingintegratedimplementationofecosystem,landscapeandsea-policies,plansorstrategiesthatfacilitatemorescapeapproaches.Manycountriesalsonotetheholisticandmultidisciplinaryapproaches;importanceofintegrating(orstrengtheningthe•promotinginterdisciplinaryconsultationandintegrationof)suchapproachesintoeducationcooperation,includingbetweenagriculturalandtrainingprogrammesatalllevels.andenvironmentalauthorities;and•betterintegratingtheoutcomesofvaluationPolicyandinstitutionalenvironmentexercisesforbiodiversityandecosystemser-Landscapeandecosystemapproachesareinte-vicesintopolicy-making.gratedapproachesthatrequirecross-sectoralthinkingandgovernance.However,relevant5.4Restorationpracticesinstitutionalframeworks(policies,lawsandregu-lations)arereportedstilltobeverycompartmen-•Restorationhasacquiredaprominentplaceonthetalized.Manycountriesindicatethatthelackofaglobalenvironmentalagendasince1990.holistic,multidisciplinaryapproachatpolicylevelisoneofthemajorconstraintstotheadoptionof•Ifwellplanned,restorationpracticescanprovideecosystemapproaches.Manycountriesindicatesimultaneousbenefitsforagriculturalproductivity,thattheyhavearangeofrelevantsectoralpoli-biodiversityconservationandthesupplyofciesinplacebutnotethattheseareoperatedbyecosystemservices.differentagenciesandarenotintegratedintoabroaderinstitutionalframework.Somereportthat•Inrecentyears,theconceptofforestlandscapetheyhavemadesignificanteffortstoaddressthisrestoration,withitsemphasisontherestorationofconstraint,forexamplebystrengtheningcollabora-abalancedsetofecosystemfunctions,hasinspiredtionandconsultationbetweenenvironmentalandambitiouspledgesfromgovernmentsandsubnationalagriculturalauthorities.jurisdictions.Severalcountriesnotethepotentialforconflicts•Manycountriesreportsuccessfulexamplesofintheplanningandimplementationofecosys-restorationpracticesandtheirbenefitsinbothtemapproachesandemphasizetheimportanceterrestrialandmarineenvironments.However,moreofinvolvingdiversestakeholderswithdiverseresearchisneededintothelong-termimpactsofvaluesandperceptionsinplanningprocesses.restoration,andnationalpolicyframeworksthatallowSome,however,notethatsuchprocessescanberestorationpracticestobescaledupneeddifficultandtimeconsumingandmaygiverisetobedeveloped.to“fudged”compromisesratherthaneffectiveplans.Somealsomentionalackofconsultation5.4.1Overviewbetweenpolicy-makersatnationalorregionallevelsandstakeholdersatlocallevel,notingthatTheterm“restorationpractices”canbeappliedthisleadstoadegreeofdisconnectionbetweentoavarietyoftechniquesemployedforarangepoliticalandoperationallevels.Policydevelop-ofdifferentobjectives.Itisdefinedasfollowsinmentandimplementationrelatedtoecosystem,thecountry-reportingguidelines:“restoringfunc-landscapeandseascapeapproachesarefrequentlytionalityandproductivecapacitytoecosystems,reportedtobehamperedbyknowledgegapsand/forests,landscapes,waterways,grasslandsandorbyshortagesoffinancialresourcesandtrainedrangelandsinordertoprovidefood,fuel,andpersonnel(seethesubsectionsabove).fibre,improvelivelihoods,storecarbon,improveadaptivecapacity,conservebiodiversity,preventReportedprioritiesinthisfieldinclude:erosionandimprovewaterprovisioningand•reviewing,andifnecessaryupdating,relevantquality.”Thisfocusonfunctionalityandproduc-tivecapacitycan,however,becontrastedwithpoliciesandlegalinstruments,acrosssectors,notionsofecologicalandecosystemrestorationthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE215STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCthataimto“assisttherecoveryofadegradedInconditionswhereresourcesarelimited,resto-ecosystemtowardsareferencenativeecosystem”rationcanbeimplementedinanumberofsteps,with“specificcomposition,structureandfunc-forexamplerestoringforestcoverfirstandlatertions”(McDonaldetal.,2016).focusingonthewideraspectsofecosystemcom-plexityrequiredforresilienceagainstclimateRecentglobalpolicydiscoursearoundresto-changeandotherpressures(DudleyandMaginnis,rationofterrestrialecosystemshasfocusedon2018).Theeffectsoflarge-scalerestorationmea-theconceptofforestandlandscaperestoration,surestypicallyextendbeyondtheimmediateareadefinedas“thelong-termprocessofregainingtargeted:forexample,atthescaleofawater-ecologicalfunctionalityandenhancinghumanshed,restorationpracticesinupstreamareaswell-beingacrossdeforestedordegradedforestmayprovidepositiveeffectsdownstream,suchlandscapes”(IUCNandWRI,2014).Likeotherland-asreducedsedimentationandsiltationofriverscapeapproaches(seeSection5.3),forestandland-coursesandlowerriskofflooding.scaperestorationseekssimultaneouslytoimprovebothecologicalintegrityandhumanwell-beingRestorationcanplayavitalroleinwetlandand(Holl,2017),balancingdifferentgoalsbycreatingaotheraquaticecosystems(Speedetal.,2016),mosaicofinterdependentlanduses,includingcropalthough(asintheexampleabove)improvingandlivestockproduction,agroforestry,improvedthestateofaquaticecosystemsgenerallyrequiresfallowsystems,ecologicalcorridors,discreteareasactioninconnectedterrestrialecosystems.Intheofforestandwoodland,andriparianplantingscaseoflakes,restorationtypicallyfocusesonthatprotectwatercourses(IUCN,2016b).Itaimstoreducingeutrophication(generallythisrequiresusecomprehensivespatialplanning,undertakenactiononlandtoreducerunofffromagriculture)inconsultationwithlandownersandotherstake-and,inthecaseofrivers,onhabitatimprovement,holders,toallocatelandusesmoreefficientlyandcreationofriparianbuffersandremovalofweirsimprovetheirindividualandoverallsustainability.andotherbarrierstoconnectivity(VerdonschotetForexample,ecologicalintensificationtechniquesal.,2013).Effortsinmarineecosystemstypicallycanincreaseagriculturalproductivityinthosepartsfocusontheremovalofsedimentbarriers,restora-ofthelandscapeidentifiedasbeingthemostsuit-tionofwaterflowandsalinitybalance,directcre-ableforproductionwhileallowingnaturalregen-ationofhabitatfeaturesandreductionofnutri-erationtooccurelsewhere(Latawiecetal.,2015).entconcentrations(ibid.).Keyrestorationmeas-Restorationofmixed-useagriculturallandbetweenuresandtheirobjectivesarelistedinTable5.4.areasofprimaryforestcancreatehabitatcorridorsforwildlife(IUCN,2016b).Itisrelativelyeasyto“restore”fishpopula-tionsbyrestockingwaterbodieswherecapacitytoNumerousrestorationprojectshaveshownthatexpandstocksnaturallyhasbeenlostbecauseofitispossibletorecoverelementsoftheoriginaldestructionofspawninggroundsorlossofecosys-composition,functionandstructureofnaturaltemconnectivity–andthistendstobeapopularecosystemsatspecificsites(Wortley,Heroandoptiongiventhatitcanbedonewithshort-termHowes,2013).Someargue,however,thatthefundingandprovidesresultsthatareimmediatelyhighcostsandlongtimeframesoftenassociatedvisible.Itisfarharderandmoretimeconsumingwithecologicalrestorationeffortsmeanthatsuchtorestorethefunctioningoftheecosystem,asapproachescannotachieverecoveryatthelargethisrequiresre-establishingconnectivityoratleastspatialscalesthatwouldberequiredinordertoremovingsource(s)ofongoingdamagetotheeco-haveasubstantialimpactinglobalterms(Murciasystem.Thelatterisverychallengingwhentheetal.,2015).Landscape-scalerestorationeffortsproblemsarebeingcausedbyrunofforotherformsfocusonrecreatingconditionsthatallownaturalofpollution(seeChapter3forfurtherdiscussionofregenerationtotakeplace,aidedwhereneces-theimpactsofpollution,land-usechangeandothersarybyjudiciousplantingorotherinterventions.driversonaquaticecosystemsandbiodiversity).216thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Table5.4RestorationmeasuresforwetlandsandotheraquaticecosystemsComponentoftheRestorationmeasureObjectivesecosystemAlteringtheentryofwater,sedimentandothermatterintoCatchmentCatchmentmanagementtheriverchannel.RestorationofecologicalflowsChangingthevolume,timing,frequencyanddurationofflows.Storm-watermanagementAlteringtheflowpatternofwaterrunofffromurbanareas(e.g.alteringfloodpeak).Removal/retrofittingandmanagementofdamsandotherbarrierstowaterconnectivityandflow(weirs,Improvingflowsandecologicaloutcomes,includingimprovinggates,culverts,etc.)themovementofsedimentandfish.FlowregimeManagingfloodingtoimproveecosystemservices,butpreventfloodingofkeyinfrastructureorcropland.FloodmanagementImprovingfloodmanagementthroughincreasingthecapacityoftheriversystemandassociatedfloodplaintostoreandReconnectionoffloodplainsandwetlandsreleasefloodwaters.RegulatoryfunctionWater-qualityimprovementAllowingthemovementofbiota,sedimentandothermatterGroundwaterbetweenthechannelandthefloodplain.RiparianmanagementProtectingorimprovingwaterquality,includingchemicalcompositionandparticulateload.Habitat(riparian)Increasingcapacityforbiologicaldegradationand/orassimilationofpollutants.Habitat(aquatic)LandacquisitionHabitatimprovementGroundwaterrecharge.BankstabilizationAlteringtheentryofwater,sedimentandothermatterintoChannelreconfigurationtheriverchannel.Creatingorfosteringhabitatfeatures.BiodiversitySpeciesmanagementAlteringwatertemperaturethroughshading.Facilitatingmigrationalongtherivercorridor.OtherAesthetic/recreation/educationAcquiringriparianlandstocontrollanduseand/orallowrestorationwork.Fosteringorcreatinghabitatfeatures.Reducingerosion/slumpingofbankmaterialintotheriver/coastalwater.Alteringthechannelplanformorthelongitudinalprofile,increasinghydraulicdiversityandhabitatheterogeneityanddecreasingchannelslope.Maintainingorincreasingthenumber/diversityofkeyspecies.Increasingcommunityvalue,e.g.byimprovingappearance,accessorknowledge.Source:AdaptedfromSpeedetal.(2016).Althoughalltypesofecosystemcanpoten-storelesscarbonthanforestedland(Milesandtiallyberestored,restorationinterventionsmayKapos,2008;Veldmanetal.,2017).Thisriskcanbeinpracticefavoursomeattheexpenseofothersaddressedbyanalysisatfinerscalesintheplanning(Veldmanetal.,2015).Focusonasinglefunction–ofrestorationstrategies(Chazdonetal.,2016).forexampleclimatechangemitigation–mayleadtotheconversionofecosystemsthatarevaluableTakingaccountofgeneticdiversityinthedesignforotherreasons.Forinstance,old-growthgrassyandimplementationofrestorationinitiativescanbiomesmaybeatriskofafforestationastheysignificantlyincreasethechanceofsuccessoverthelongterm(Huenneke,1991).TheeffectsofgeneticthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE217STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartChomogeneityinareintroducedpopulationmaynotTherestorationandsustainablemanagementofbeimmediatelyevident,butoveraperiodofyearsecosystemshaveproventobeacost-effective,safethepopulationmayhavelowerratesofgrowth,andimmediatelyavailablemeansofsequesteringsurvivalandreproduction,andmaybelessablecarbonandpreventingtheemissionofgreen-tocopewithperiodsofenvironmentalvariability.housegases(Eppleetal.,2016).ManycountriesForexample,ifallindividualsinapopulationarehavethereforeincludedecosystem-basedsolu-ofagenotypethathaslimiteddroughttolerance,tions,includingecosystemrestoration,intheirasingledroughtmaydestroytheentirepopula-“nationallydeterminedcontributions”tothetion(Falk,KnappandGuerrant,2001).Introducingobjectivesofclimatechangemitigationandadap-hatchery-bredfishcanleadtogeneticintrogres-tationundertheParisAgreement27(Laurans,Ruatsionintowildpopulations(Bekkevold,HansenandandBarthélemy,2016).SustainableDevelopmentNielsen,2006;Naishetal.,2007;Whiteetal.,2018).Goal15.3callsongovernmentsto“strivetoachieveadegradationneutralworld.”Inresponse5.4.2Statusandtrendstotheadoptionofthisgoal,theUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification’sLandManyoftheworld’smanagedandnaturalecosys-DegradationNeutralityTargetSettingProgrammetemsaredegrading.Overthelasttwodecades,hasreceivedcommitmentsfrom114countriestoapproximately20percentoftheEarth’svegetateddate,andisrollingouttechnicalsupporttorefinesurfacehaspersistentlydeclinedinproductivitythesecommitmentsandplantheirimplementation(UNCCD,2017).Accordingtoaglobalassessment(Orretal.,2017).Restorationisalsoakeycompo-ofrestorationpotentialcarriedoutfortheGlobalnentoftheCBD’sStrategicPlanforBiodiversityandPartnershiponForestLandscapeRestoration,theretheAichiTargets.Target5,forexample,callsformaybemorethan2billionhaofdeforestedandtherestorationof15percentofdegradedecosys-degradedforestlandaroundtheworldwheretems(CBD,2010a).Areviewcovering62countriestheremaybeopportunitiesforsometypeofres-inAsia,AfricaandLatinAmericafoundthatmoretoration(WRI,2014).Furtherinformationonthethan50percentofcountriesineachregionhadstatusandtrendsofforestsandotherecosystemsofarestorationtargetintheirNationalBiodiversityimportancetofoodandagriculturecanbefoundStrategyandActionPlanorapreliminarytargetinSection4.5.intheirFifthNationalReporttotheCBD(CBD,2016b).However,inmanycases,targetslackedIncreasingthefunctionalityandproductivityspecificityorquantitativeelements(ibid.).Someofdegradedlandshasbecomeaglobalpriorityexamplesofnationalpolicyandlegislativeinitia-(AronsonandAlexander,2013),andisreflectedtivesrelatedtothecontributionsofagroforestrytoinanumberofglobalpolicycommitments.restorationeffortsaredescribedinBox5.11.TheBonnChallenge,launchedin2011,aimstobring150millionhaofdegradedanddefor-Whilerestorationhasgainedmomentuminestedlandunderrestorationby2020.Theiniti-termsofpolicycommitments,implementingativewasendorsed–anditstargetextendedthesecommitmentsisstillachallenge.Becauseto350millionhaby2030–bythe2014Newofthecomplexityinvolvedindevelopingresto-YorkDeclarationonForests(UnitedNations,rationactivities,andtheamountofdataand2014b).AsofMay2018,47nationalandsub-technicalcapacityrequired,manycountriesarenationaljurisdictions,privateentitiesandnon-stillintheprocessofplanninginterventionsandgovernmentalinitiativeshadmadepledgesunderland-usetransitions(seeFigure5.4).Therehave,theBonnChallenge,amountingtoatotalofover160millionha(seeFigure5.4).2627UNFCCC(2015).Forfurtherinformationonnationallydeterminedcontributions,seehttps://unfccc.int/process/26Up-to-dateinformationonthesecommitmentscanbefoundatthe-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions/http://www.bonnchallenge.org/commitmentsndc-registry218thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Figure5.4CommitmentstotheBonnChallengeNotes:DarkgreenindicatescountriesthathavemadeacommitmenttotheBonnChallengeandhavecompletedorareintheprocessofimplementingaRestorationOpportunitiesAssessment.MidgreenindicatescountriesthathavemadeacommitmenttotheBonnChallenge.LightgreenindicatescountriesthathavecompletedaRestorationOpportunitiesAssessmentatnationalscale.ThemapdoesnotreflectsubnationalpledgestotheBonnChallenge.Source:GlobalPartnershiponForestLandscapeRestoration,2018.nonetheless,beenseveralexamplesofsuccessfulcommitments,anddataareoftenlackingonthelarge-scalerestorationefforts(particularlyresto-impactsofactionsundertakentodate.However,rationofforestcover)thathavebeenshowntotherearesomecasesinwhichtheeffectsofdeliversocial,environmentalandeconomicben-forestandlandscaperestorationonbiodiversityefits.Forexample,forestcoverintheRepublicofandecosystemserviceshavebeenquantified.KoreawassignificantlyincreasedastheresultofForexample,inColombia,partnershipsbetweenanambitiousgovernment-ledforestpolicy(SoolandownersandthegovernmentareseekingtoBae,WonJooandKim,2012).Similarly,forestincreasecattleproductivityperhectaresothatcoverinCostaRicaincreasedbyover500000hagrazingcanbestoppedonsteepslopesandalongbetween1992and2013,thankstoagovern-streamstoallowtherestorationofriparianforestmentalpaymentforecosystemserviceschemeandimprovementstowaterqualityandhabitat(SINAC-MINAE,2014).IntheWestAfricanSahel,connectivity(Calleetal.,2013).Resultsacross200000haofdegradedlandwerereclaimedseveralfarmsshowthatithasbeenpossibletooverthreedecadesthroughtheimprovementreconcilethegoalsofimprovingagriculturalpro-anddiffusionofindigenoussoilandwatercon-ductivity,conservingbiodiversityandpromotingservationpracticesand,inanotherexample,thesupplyofotherecosystemservices:cattlelandproductivityincreasedoveranestimatedproductivityimprovedby44percent,thenumber5millionhathroughfarmer-managednaturalofbirdspeciespresentincreasedby32percentregenerationusinglocalagroforestrypracticesandsoilerosiondeclinedby45percent(Lazos-(Reij,TappanandSmale,2009b).Chavero,2016).Mostcountriesthathavecommittedtoambi-Wetlandrestorationhasbeenontheglobaltiousforestandlandscaperestorationstrategiesenvironmentalagendaformorethanthreearestillintheearlystagesofimplementingtheirdecades(RamsarConvention,1990).AlargethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE219STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.7Stress);30AMBER(AdaptiveManagementofNeedsandchallengesincoral-reefBarriersinEuropeanRivers);31theWISERprojectrestoration(WaterbodiesinEurope:IntegrativeSystemstoassessEcologicalstatusandRecovery);32theRestorationprogrammesgloballyareatvariousMERCESproject(MarineEcosystemsRestorationstagesofmaturity,withthelargestconcentrationinChangingEuropeanSeas);33theReefResilienceofeffortsintheCaribbean,wheremanypartnersNetwork;34theCoralRestorationFoundation;35(variousgovernmentalandnon-governmentalresearchandtheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionandconservationorganizations)areproducingtheAgency’sworkonwetlandsprotectionandresto-equivalentof100000moderate-sizedcoraloutplantsration.36Needsandchallengesinvolvedincoral-peryear.Globally,workisshowingthatrestorationreefrestorationarediscussedinBox5.7.ofreefsispossible,andthespatialscaleofsuccessissteadilyincreasing.However,tomatteratanecosystemInformationprovidedinthecountryreportsonlevel,majorupscalingisneededintermsofresourcesthestatusandtrendsofrestorationpracticesisdedicatedtothetaskandintermsofefficiencyinsummarizedinTable5.1andTable5.2.Restorationproduction.Whilesomebiologicalchallengesremainpracticesaremorefrequentlyreportedforterres-tobeovercome,mostofthechallengestoupscalingtrialthanaquaticsystems,mostcommonlyforareengineeringones,andareverysimilartohurdlesforest(bothnaturallyregeneratedandplanted),thatoverbeenovercomeinotherfields.Workingtoclosegrassland-based,cropandmixedsystems.Amongthegapbetweensuccessatthelocallevelandimpactaquaticsystems,restorationpracticesarerelativelyattheecosystemlevelwillnotbeeasyorquick,frequentlyreportedforself-recruitingcapturebutitisthecurrentgoalandtrajectoryofthecoral-reeffisheries.Inallcases,reportsofincreasingtrendsrestorationcommunity.outnumberreportsofstableornegativetrends.Source:ProvidedbyTomMoore.Countriesprovidingexamplesofrestora-tionpracticesinforestecosystemsincludethenumberofrestorationprojectshavebeenNetherlands,whichmentionsthatashiftinforestundertaken,primarilyinEuropeandtheUnitedmanagementobjectivestowardsmultiplegoalsStatesofAmerica(Speedetal.,2016),andmany–includingrecreationandnatureconservation–organizationshavebeeninvolved.TheRamsarhasledtoagreaterfocusonrestorativepracticesConventionadoptedprinciplesandguidelinesforsuchasincreasingtheamountofdeadwoodinthewetlandrestorationin2002(RamsarConvention,forest,thenumberoflargeandthicktrees,struc-2002),andhaslongbeensupportingrestorationturalandage-classdiversityandthenumberofinitiativesthroughallianceswithotherorganiza-nativetrees.Thesechangesarereportedtohavetions.28Examplesofsignificantprojectsandini-ledtoincreasesinthenumbersofcertainforesttiativesinEuropeandNorthAmericainthepastbirds,bats,invertebratesandmushrooms.Finlanddecadeinclude:REFORM(REstoringriversFORreportsthataforest-biodiversityprogrammeruneffectivecatchmentManagement)29(FribergetcollaborativelybytheMinistryofAgricultureandal.,2016);theMARSproject(ManagingAquaticForestryandtheMinistryofEnvironmentthatusesecosystemsandwaterResourcesundermultipleconservationagreementswithprivatelandownerstoincentivizevoluntaryforestconservationand28ForfurtherinformationonpartnershipagreementsenteredintobytheSecretariatoftheRamsarConvention,seehttps://www.30http://mars-project.eu/index.php/aims.htmlramsar.org/about/formal-partnership-agreements31https://amber.international32http://www.wiser.eu29http://www.reformrivers.eu/about33http://www.merces-project.eu34http://www.reefresilience.org35https://www.coralrestoration.org36https://www.epa.gov/wetlands220thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5restorationactionscoversanestimated50000ha.furthermentionsvariouspoliciesandprogrammesSomecountries(e.g.ElSalvador,FijiandVietNam)thatpromotepracticessuchastherestorationofmentionthesignificanceof(ongoingorplanned)potentialspawningandnurseryareas,construc-restorationactivitiesincoastalforestecosystems,intionoffishways,maintenanceofnaturalbypassparticularmangroves,intermsofreducingcoastalchannels,removalofobstaclestofishmigration,erosionandprovidingprotectionagainstdisastersanduseofnaturalhydrological-engineeringcausedbyextremeweathereventsortsunamis.methods.Similarly,theNetherlandsnotesthatmeasuressuchastheconstructionoffishpas-Withregardtorestorationpracticesaimedatsagesandtherestorationofwaterwaybankstoagriculturalsystems,somecountryreportsfromcreatespawninghabitatshavehadpositiveeffectsAfricanotetheimportanceofassisted-fallowonspeciespopulationsizes.Polandreportsthatsystemsinvolvingtheplantingofshadeandfruithydrographicnetworkrestorationactivitiesaretrees(UnitedRepublicofTanzania)ornitrogen-beingimplementedintheBiebrzaNationalParkfixingleguminousspeciesforrestoringsoilfer-withtheaimofimprovingwaterconditions,tility(Chad).ThereportfromtheUnitedStatesnestinghabitatsandfeedingandrestinggroundsofAmericaprovidesanexampleofaproductionusedbybirdsduringmigrationandwintering.Itsystembeingmanagedtoprovideasubstitutefornotes,however,thatingeneralithaspaidtoonaturalhabitat.ItnotesthatinCaliforniamanymuchattention(inrelativeterms)torestockingfarmersnowallowtheirricefieldstofloodinthemeasuresandtoolittletoimprovingaquatichabi-winterinsteadofburningthemafterthegrowingtatsbyrestoringtheecologicalcontinuityofrivers.season,whichprovides275000acres(approxi-AnumberofEuropeanUnionmembercountriesmately111000ha)ofsurrogatewetlandsandmentiontheWaterFrameworkDirective,40whichopenspacefor230birdspeciesalongthePacificrequiresmembercountriesto“protect,enhanceFlyway,manyofwhichareatriskofextinction.37andrestoreallbodiesofsurfacewater…[and]allItfurthernotesthatthisisespeciallyimportantbodiesofgroundwater.”as95percentofCalifornia’straditionalwetlandshavebeenlost.38ManyspeciesarereportedSeveralcountriesprovideexamplesofresto-tohavebeguntoincreaseinnumbersandtherationactivitiesthathavehadpositiveimpactsnumberofduckstohavedoubled.onlivelihoodsoronthesupplyofsupportingorregulatingecosystemservices.Forexample,CountriesfromallregionsreportrestorationBangladeshmentionsitsWetlandBiodiversitypracticesofonekindoranotherinaquaticeco-RehabilitationProject,whichbetween2009andsystems.Arangeofdifferentobjectivesaremen-2015helpedtoincreasebiodiversityandfishtioned.Supportingwildlife,andinparticularproductionandimprovethelivelihoodsoflocalmigratoryspecies,isemphasizedbyanumberofpeoplebyrestoringwetlandhabitatsandthecountries.Finland,forexample,reportsmeasuresfunctionsoffloodplainecosystems.NepalreferstakentoimprovemigrationpassagesthroughtotheRupaLakeRestorationCooperative,thedamsandtoregulatewaterlevelsinriversandlargestagriculture-sectorcooperativeinthelakestoaccommodatetheneedsofwildspecies.country,whichsuccessfullyrestoredthedegradedItmentionsthatunderitsFishingAct,39exten-LakeRupainthelate1990sby“biomanipulating”siveriverrestorationhasbeencarriedoutacrossitthroughfishstocking.Itnotesthatthelakethecountry,butnotesthattheimpactsofthesehasnowbeenrestoredandcleanedandservesmeasureshaveonlybeenpartiallyevaluated.It37ThereportcitesCline(2005).40Directive2000/60/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandof38ThereportcitesCaliforniaRiceCommission(2015).theCouncilof23October2000establishingaframework39FishingAct(379/2015)(available,inEnglishandforCommunityactioninthefieldofwaterpolicy(availableathttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/Swedish,athttp://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32000L0060).en/?details=LEX-FAOC169562).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE221STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCasasourceoflivelihoodforabout740fami-arenowconditionaluponapercentageofarablelies.RwandadescribestheGishwatiWaterandlandbeingsetasidetoallowtherecoveryofLandManagementProjectandtheLandscapenaturalgrasslandsandotherhabitatsofecolog-ApproachtoForestRestorationandConservationicalinterest,andnotesthatthesearemonitoredProject,whichhavetackledfloodingdisastersbythoughaGIS-basedonlineregister.establishingbufferzonesforlakesandriversandrestoringlakeshoresandriverbanks.Thesemeas-5.4.3Needsandprioritiesuresarereportedtohavealsobenefitedlocalbio-diversity,especiallyfishstocks.Countriesnoteanumberofneedsandprioritiesinthefieldofrestoration.SomeoftheserelatetoWhilemostofthereportedexamplesofaquaticthetypesofecosystemsorspecificobjectivesthatrestorationpracticesrelatetofreshwaterecosys-needtobetargeted.Restorationofforesteco-tems,afewexamplesfrommarineecosystemsaresystemsiswidelyhighlightedasapriority,includ-alsomentioned.Forexample,TonganotesthatitsinginsomecasesrestoringconnectivitybetweennationalRidgetoReefprojects(seeSection5.3.6)forestfragments.Spain,forexample,mentionsincludeonethatseekstoconservetheecosystemtheimportanceofrestoringforestcoverinareasservicessuppliedbytheFanga’utaLagooncatch-thatareimportanttothesupplyofhydrologicalmentonTongatapu(thecountry’smainisland)byanderosion-controlecosystemservices.Mexico(interalia)improvingthestateofcriticalhabitats.mentionstheneedforgeneticimprovementofGrenadanotesthatitsintegratedclimate-smartpriorityforestspecies,takingintoaccountthepre-adaptationstrategyistargetingtherestorationdictedeffectsofclimatechange,andpromotionofmarineecosystems,andspecificallymentionsaoftheiruseintherestorationofdegradedforestprojectthatisrestoringcoralreefs.areas.Countriesalsohighlightarangeoffresh-water,marineandcoastalecosystemsaspriorities,Finally,anumberofcountryreportsdescribeincludingdunes,mangroves,seagrassbeds,coralpolicyframeworksusedtosupportrestorationreefs,coastalsanddunes,lakeshoresandriver-practices.Forexample,Senegalmentionsthatbanks.Theneedtoimproveconnectivitybetweenrestorationofdegradedecosystemstakesplaceecosystemsandtoaccountforthreatsposedbywithintheframeworkofcommunity-basedplansclimatechangeisagainnoted.Somecountriesforlanduseandlanddesignation.Mexicoreportsemphasizetheimportanceofimprovinghabitatthatitsgovernmentsupportsforestrestorationecosystemservices,includingtherestorationofactionsthroughtheprovisionofsubsidies,withfish-spawningsites.eligibilitybeingdeterminedbasedonlevelsofdegradation,theextentofperturbationcausedAnumberofcountriesnotetheneedtoimprovebynaturaldisastersandtheenvironmentalimpor-policyandlegalframeworksinthisfield,includ-tanceofcatchmentareas.Theprogrammeisesti-ingwithrespecttoidentifyingresponsibilitiesformatedtohavebroughtabouttherestorationofrestorationactivities,streamliningproceduresover400000haofforestbetween2013and2014.fortheuseofprotectedspeciesinrestorationFrancementionsthedifficultyofattributingresto-programmesandintroducingorstrengtheningrationpracticestoaparticularproductionsystem,41incentivemeasuresforrestoration.Reflectingthenotingthatmanyrestorationprojectsandpro-widerliteratureonforest-landscaperestorationgrammesinterrestrialproductionsystemsadopta(e.g.Holl,2017),severalcountriesnotetheneedlandscapeapproachthatinvolvesamosaicoflandtostrengthentheinvolvementofstakeholders,uses.Italsohighlightsthefactthat30percentofincludinglocalcommunities,inplanningandagriculturalsubsidiesfromtheEuropeanUnionimplementingrestorationactivities.Researchontheeffectivenessofrestorationactivities,includ-41Countrieswereinvitedtoreportrestorationactivitiesingoverthelongterm,isalsohighlightedasaproductionsystembyproductionsystem.priority.Thisisagainconsistentwiththewider222thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5literature,forexampleWortley,HeroandHowesarechanginginresponsetoeconomictransformations,(2013),whosereviewofecologicalrestorationtechnicaldevelopments,spaceconstraints,projectsunderlinedtheneedforfurtherinvest-production-systemintensification,climatechange,mentinmonitoringtheimpactsofrestoration,diseasesandotherdrivers.especiallywithregardtoquantifyingecosystemservicesandothersocio-economicoutcomes.Thediscussionofecosystemservices,resilience,sustainableintensification,livelihoodsandfood5.5DiversificationinproductionsecurityandnutritionpresentedinChapter2systemsprovidesnumerousillustrationsofthepotentialbenefitsofincreasingormaintainingthediversity•Countriesgenerallyreportupwardtrendsintheofthespecies,varietiesorbreedsraisedinapro-implementationofvariousdiversificationpracticesinductionsystem,includingbycombiningdifferentfoodandagriculture(approachescombiningdifferentgroupsofspeciessuchascrops,livestock,treesvarieties,speciesandgroupsoforganismswithinandaquaticorganisms.Asidefrombeinginvitedtheproductionsystem).toreportonthesignificanceofBFAineachoftheabove-mentionedthematicareas,countries•Integratedcrop–livestocksystemsaremajorwerealsospecificallyinvitedtoreportonthecontributorstoglobalfoodproductionandcanstatusandtrendsofdiversificationpracticesandprovideopportunitiestoreducewasteandtheuseonanyimpacttheyhavehadonBFA.Inaddition,ofexternalinputs.Despitethespreadof“landless”countrieswereinvitedtoreportonanumberoflivestocksystems,low-incomecountrieshaveseenaothermanagementpracticesthatbydefinitiongeneraltrendtowardsgreaterintegrationofcropinvolvediversification,namelyagroforestry,homeandlivestockproductionactivitiesaspopulationgardensanddiversificationpracticesinaqua-densityhasincreased.culture.42Thissectionprovidesanoverviewofthesepracticesandtheinformationreportedby•Homegardensareoftenvitalreservoirsofbiodiversitycountriesoneachofthem.Althoughcountriesforfoodagriculture(BFA),particularlyinthecasewerenotspecificallyinvitedtoreportoninte-ofplants,buttherearenocomprehensiveglobalgratedcrop–livestocksystemsasadistinctcate-statisticsontheirdistribution.Countriesthatreportgory,ashortdiscussionofthistypeofproductionthepresenceofhomegardensgenerallynotesystemisalsoincluded.increasesintheiruse.Accordingtothecountry-reportingguidelines,•Agroforestryisreportedtobeincreasingineverydiversificationis“theintroductionofnewvarie-region:itisestimatedthatmorethan5millionkm2ties,speciesandgroupsoforganisms(e.g.live-ofagriculturalland(23percentofthetotal)haveatstock,crops,trees,fish)intoaproductionsystemleast20percenttreecover.Globalrecognitionoftheormanagedenvironmentwithoutreplacementcontributionsofagroforestryhasincreasedovertheorabandonmentofothergroups,orthemainte-pastdecade,ashasthemainstreamingofagroforestrynanceofalready-existingdiversityinthecaseofintodevelopmentandenvironmentalagendastraditionallydiverseproductionsystems.”Basedandappreciationofitspotentialimpactonruralonthisdefinition,40countryreportsindicatelivelihoods,climate-smartagriculture,biodiversity“diversification”inatleastonecategoryofpro-conservationandlandrestoration.ductionsystem(Table5.1).•WhilethereisnosystematicglobalmonitoringofAcrossalltypesofproductionsystem,diver-diversificationpracticesinaquaculture(integrationsificationismorefrequentlyreportedtobeofdifferentaquaticspeciesand/orintegrationwithincreasingthantobedecreasing.Unsurprisingly,othercomponentsofBFA,suchascrops,livestockortrees),itisclearthattherelative42Specificallypolycultureandaquaponics.contributionsofdifferentkindsofintegratedsystemsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE223STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCdiversificationismostfrequentlyreportedforincludingadditionalcropsintheirrotations.Themixedsystems(32percentofcountriesthatreportNetherlandsnotesthatconsumerdemandforthepresenceofsuchsystems)(Table5.2).IfallorganicproductsisdrivingdiversificationinDutchproductionsystemsareaggregated,thepracticeagriculturalsystems.Polandmentionsthatinfedisreportedby63percentofOECDcountriesandaquaculturediseasethreatshaveledtotheintro-39percentofnon-OECDcountries(Table5.1).ductionofresistantfishspecies(e.g.Salvelinusspp.).ThefloatinggardensofBangladesh,atra-Specificdiversificationpracticesmentionedditionalintercroppingproductionsystem,areincludeintercropping,croprotations,useofmul-describedinBox5.8.tiplecropvarietieswithinagivenspecies,multi-speciesaquaculture,andmultispecieslivestock5.5.1Integratedcrop–livestocksystemsherdsandflocks.Countriesgenerallyprovidefewadditionaldetailsabouttrendsindiversification.IntroductionSomementiondriversofchangethatareinflu-Integratedcrop–livestocksystemsareverywide-encingtrends.Finland,forexample,notesthatspreadglobally,canbefoundinmanytypesofdiversificationisincreasingasaresultofincreas-environment,operateonarangeofscalesandingawarenessamongfarmersofthebenefitsofBox5.8ThefloatinggardensofBangladeshThespecificagroecologicalconditionsofthewetlandsofthelocalcommunities,providingthemwithadiversifiedandsouthcentralcoastaldistrictsofBangladeshhaveledtothenutritiousdietthankstothewiderangeofvegetablesanddevelopmentofaveryparticularproductionsystemknownspicesitproduces.Giventheveryspecificanddifficultasfloatinggardens,orlocallyasdhap.growingconditions,productionyieldsaresatisfactory.Thesysteminvolvesgrowingawiderangeofcrops–Optionsforfurtherimprovingtheproductionsystemvegetablesandspices–onbedsmadeofwaterhyacinthsincludestrengtheningthesocialorganizationandandotheraquaticweedssuchastapapana,dulalilataanddistributionofactivitiesatlocallevel,improvingproductkhudipana,whicharewidelyavailablelocally.Cropseedsmarketing,developmentofscientificallyrecommendedarepreparedseparatelyincontainersusingastructureadaptedcrop-productionpackagesanddevelopmentofadcalledatema,whichismadeoflocallyavailablepeathocagroprocessingactivities.soilandwrappedincoconutcoir.Grownseedlingsaresubsequentlytransplantedintothefloatinggardenbeds.TheSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofBangladesh.Pictureprovidedbymajorvegetablecropsgrowninsummerincludeokra,ribbedAzizZilaniChowdhury.gourd,Indianspinach,brinjal,cucumber,redamaranths,stemamaranthsandwaxgourd.Inwinterthemaincropsareturnip,cabbage,cauliflower,tomatoandredamaranths.Spicesgrownincludeturmericandchili.Mixedintercroppingisthepredominantformofproductioninfloatinggardens.Pestanddiseaseinfestationsareminimal.Asdecomposedwaterhyacinthsareusedasfertilizer,external-inputrequirementsandproductioncostsarelow.Underfloodedconditions,theopenwaterisusedforfishing.Thisproductionsystemistheonlyfoodproductionandlivelihoodoptionfor60to90percentofthecountry’s224thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5involvemanydifferentcombinationsofcroplivestockglobally(consideringcattle,buffaloes,andlivestockspecies.Therearemultiplelinkssheep,goats,chickensandpigsacrossallpro-betweencropandlivestockproduction.Livestockductionsystems)(Mottetetal.,2017).Livestock,areoftenfedoncropresidues,suchasstraworaswellasproducingmilk,meatandoffspring,leaves,andby-productsofcrop-processing,suchprovidedraughtpowerforfarmoperations,trans-asbran,molassesandpulps,thatmightotherwiseportationandpumpingwater.Theirdungandbediscarded.Theseresiduesandby-productsrep-urinecanbeappliedtofieldsasfertilizers.Animalresentaboutone-thirdofthetotalfeedintakeofmanurecanbeusedasasourceofenergyintheFigure5.5Livestockandcropintegration:fromalineartoacircularbioeconomyLINEAR30%ofglobalcerealproductionisusedaslivestockfeedCropsPeopleAnimalsGrassGrainProcessingProductsProductsProcessingFruitResiduesWasteWasteWasteManureCIRCULARTotalnitrogeninlivestockmanureishigherthannitrogenfromsyntheticfertilizersCropsPeopleAnimalsGrassGrainProcessingProductsProductsProcessingFruitBy-productsResiduesBy-productsWasteManureCropresiduesandby-productsaccountfor25%oflivestockfeedintakeSource:FAO,2018o.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE225STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCformofbiogasordungcakesthatcanreplacedrylandsandarecharacterizedbytheintegrationcharcoalandwood.Figure5.5illustrateshowtheofcropproductionwithrangelandgrazing,inrelationshipbetweencropandlivestockproduc-somecasesinvolvingtranshumance,i.e.themove-tioncaneitherbe“linear”,withtheby-productsmentofherds/flocksawayfromthefarmforpartofeachactivitybeingwasted,or“circular”withoftheyear.Thiskindofintegrationcaninvolvethetheby-productsofeachcomponentofthesystemherdsandcroplandsbelongingtoasinglehouse-servingasinputstotheother.Integrationofhold,butcanalsoinvolvearrangementsbetweenthiskindcanoccurwithinanindividualfarmorhouseholds.Forexample,transhumantFulanibetweenseparatefarms.Aswellasprovidingbio-pastoralistsinWestAfricaarrangetograzetheirphysicalbenefits,crop–livestockintegrationcananimalsonthestubbleleftinfieldsafterfarmersalsoprovideabufferagainsteconomicrisksasso-haveharvestedtheircrops,theanimalsbenefitingciatedwiththefailureinonecomponentofthefromthefeedandthefertilityofthecroplandben-systemcaused,forexample,byclimaticshocksorefitingfromthedroppingsleftbytheanimals.pestordiseaseoutbreaks(seealsoSection2.3).IntegrationoftreeswithlivestockproductionHistorically,crop–livestockintegrationhasbeen(aformofagroforestry,seealsoSection5.5.3)isstronglydrivenbypopulationgrowthandtheneedwidespreadglobally.Systemsinwhichperennialtogeneratemorefoodfromthesameamountoftreesorshrubsaregrowntogetherwithherba-landandhencetointensificationthroughplough-ceouscropsandintegratedwithlivestockproduc-ingwithdraughtanimalsandtheuseofanimaltionarereferredtoasagrosilvopastoralsystems.manureasfertilizer(Boserup,1965;MazoyerandThesesystemsareparticularlycommoninpartsofRoudart,2006;McIntire,BourzatandPingali,1992).Africa,whereuncertainweatherconditionsmeanthatcropproductionisrisky.MultipurposetreesAlthoughtheenvironmentalimpactsofmixed(e.g.LeucaenaandGliricidia)growninhedgessystemsvarygreatly,integrationcreatesopportu-betweencropplotsenhancesoilfertility,improvenitiestoreduceenvironmentalproblems(includ-cropyields,providefeedforanimalsandserveingimpactsonbiodiversity)associatedwithwasteasasourceoffuelwood(DevendraandIbrahim,disposalorthesupplyanduseofexternalinputs.2004).Integrationoftreesandshrubsintopas-Appropriatelyusedlivestockmanurecanbenefitturesgrazedbyanimals(silvopastoralism)isverysoilbiodiversity(FAO,2018f).Ifafarmcontainsacommoninthetropics,particularlyinsmall-scalecombinationofcropfieldsandpastures,thiswillsystems.Intensivesilvopastoralsystemsinwhichaddsomediversitytolocalhabitatsandmayhelpfoddershrubsplantedathighdensitiesarecom-supportamorediverserangeofpollinators,bio-binedwithimprovedpasturesarealsocommon,logicalcontrolagentsandothercomponentsofespeciallyinLatinAmerica(Charáetal.,2018).associatedbiodiversity.Wheredomesticatedbio-Grazinglivestockcanalsobeintegratedwithdiversityisconcerned,whilethecroporlivestockvariouskindsoftreecrops,forexamplecoconutcomponentsofmixedfarmsarenotnecessarilytreesinthetropicsorfruittreesinEurope(see,fordiverseintermsoftheirspeciesandwithin-speciesexample,Box5.11).composition,overallsuchsystemscanbeassumedtocreateavarietyof“niches”thatdonotexistStatusandtrendsinspecializedcroporlivestocksystemsandhenceSourcesofinformationonthestatusofcrop–topromotethemaintenanceofarelativelylivestockintegrationarescatteredandusuallydiverserangeofgeneticresources.Forexample,anotconsolidatedatregionalorgloballevelmixedfarmmayrequireanimalsthatcanprovide(Herreroetal.,2007).Nationalagriculturaldraughtpowerandthriveondietsthatareheavystatisticsservicescollectdataoncropandlive-incropresidues.stockinagriculturalholdings,butthesedataareoftenincomplete,especiallyindevelopingAgropastoralsystemsareaspecificformofcrop–livestockintegration.Theyarefoundmainlyin226thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5countries.Inaddition,theyincludelittlespecificofintegratedcrop–livestocksystemsintheareasdataabouttheintegrationbetweencropsandassessed.Whatisclear,however,isthatlivestocklivestock(forexample,ontheuseofcropresi-keepingiswidespreadamongtheruralpopulationduesormanure).Thesedatagapsareamajorinmanydevelopingcountries,manyofwhomwillconstrainttotheunderstandingandassessmentalsobecropproducers.Forexample,ananalysisofofintegratedproductionsystems.Someinitia-datafromhouseholdsurveysin14(mainlydevel-tivesare,however,attemptingtoaddresstheseoping)countriesshowedthataround60percentweaknesses.Forexample,theFAO/WorldBankofruralhouseholdskeptatleastonespeciesofprojectImprovingDataforBetterPoliciesunder-livestock(FAO,2009a).Similarly,Arslanetal.tooksurveysandorganizedworkshopsinsub-(2018)showedthatinZambiaatleast60percentSaharanAfricatocollect,validateanddissem-ofruralhouseholdsownlivestock.inatedataonlivestockandintegratedmixedsystems,withthegoaloffacilitatingpublicModellingcanalsoprovideinsights.Forandprivateinvestmentsinsuchsystems(Pica-example,theFAOGlobalLivestockEnvironmentalCiamarraetal.,2010).ThePastoralist-DrivenAssessmentModel(GLEAM)45providesinforma-DataManagementSystemprojectimplementedtiononlivestockproductionsystems,includingbyFAO’sPastoralistKnowledgeHub43iscol-mixedcrop–livestocksystems,and(interalia)thelectinginformationonthecomplementaritiesnumbersofanimalsraisedwithinthem,thepro-ofcropandlivestockproductioninhouseholdductionlevelsandfeedintakesoftheseanimals,economiesinArgentina,ChadandMongolia.andthecontributionsofthesystemstotheTheLivestockDataforDecisions(LD4D)44initia-supplyoflivestockproductsandtogreenhouse-tivebringstogether“datasuppliers”and“datagasemissions.ResultsfromGLEAM(FAO,2018n)users”toensuredatasupplymeetsdatademand.showthatabout60percentofruminantsintheworldareheldinintegratedcrop–livestockIndevelopedcountries,officialstatisticsonsystems.Thissharevariesfromaround25percentthestatusofintegratedcrop–livestockfarminginregionssuchasCentralAsiaandCentralAfrica,aremorecommon,forexampleintheEuropeanwherelivestockaremostlykeptinextensive,Union,wheredataonintegratedsystemsarespecializedgrazingsystems,toover66percentinavailablethroughtheagri-environmentalindi-regionssuchasWestAfrica,SouthernEuropeandcatorsonspecialization.About30percentoftheCaribbean,whereintegratedcrop–livestockfarmsintheEuropeanUnioncanbeclassifiedassystemsarepredominant.Crop–ruminantinte-mixed,afigurerangingfrom3percentinIrelandgratedsystemsproduceabouttwo-thirdsofall(wheremostfarmsarespecializedinlivestock)tomeatandmilkfromruminantsatgloballevel62percentinLithuania(Eurostat,2016).Mixed(expressedinproteinequivalent).Wheremono-farmsinEuropeoccupyabout20percentofthegastricsareconcerned,resultsfromGLEAMshowagriculturalarea(ibid.),implyingthattheyare,onthatbackyardpigs,whichareusuallyinintegratedaverage,smallerthanotherfarms.systems,accountforabout45percentofpigsand27percentofpig-meatproductionglobally.Whennationalstatisticsarenotavailable,Backyardchickensaccountfor18percentofallthelimitedhouseholdsurveyscanprovidesomeworld’schickens,about14percentofglobalegginsightintothestatusofintegratedcrop–livestockproductionandabout4percentofglobalchicken-systemsand,whenrepeatedovertime,ontheirmeatproduction.trends.However,livestockisinadequatelyrep-resentedinmostsurveys,andavailabledataareOverall,integratedcrop–livestocksystemsrarelysufficienttoprovideasystematicpicturemakealargercontributiontolivestockpro-ductionthananyothersystem(Gerberetal.,43http://www.fao.org/pastoralist-knowledge-hub/en44https://ld4d.org45http://www.fao.org/gleam/enthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE227STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartC2013).In2000,integratedproductionsystemsincreaseslightlyby2030,withmostoftheincreasegeneratedcloseto50percentoftheworld’soccurringinsub-SaharanAfrica(Herreroetal.,cereals:41percentofmaize;86percentof2012).However,thiswillbefaroutweighedbyrice;64percentofsorghum;and67percentoftheincreaseinthehumanpopulationassociatedmillet(Herreroetal.,2012).Thesesystemsalsowiththesesystems(ibid.).Thesehighpopulationproducedthebulkoflivestockproductsinthedensitieswillplacesignificantpressureonnaturaldevelopingworld(75percentofthemilkandresourcesandecosystemservices,includingon60percentofthemeat)andemployedmillionsofwatersuppliesandbiodiversity.peopleonfarms,informalandinformalmarkets,atprocessingplantsandatotherstagesoftheNeedsandprioritiesvaluechain(FAO,2010e).Mostoftheworld’sLivestock(andparticularlyruminants)willcon-430millionpoorlivestockkeepersarefoundintinuetoplaykeyrolesinprovidingdraughtpowermixedsystems(Robinsonetal.,2011).ThemostandmanureinthemixedproductionsystemsofeconomicallyimportantlivestocksystemsinAsia,developingcountriesfortheforeseeablefuture.LatinAmericaandNorthAfricaaremixedsystemsIfproductivityistoincreasedespitethelimited(ThorntonandHerrero,2001).availabilityoflandandotherresources,thereisarealneedforresearchintohowcomplementa-Withregardtotrends,thepastfourdecadesritiesbetweencropandlivestockproductioncanhaveseentheexpansionofspecializedlivestockbeenhanced(ThorntonandHerrero,2001,2015).productionsystemsinhigh-incomecountriesThiswillrequiregreateremphasisonmultidisci-andthosewithemergingeconomies,mainlyforplinaryapproaches,bothinresearchandinprojectmonogastricsbutalsotosomeextentforcattleimplementation.Therewillbeaneedtoimprove(FAO,2009a).Thishasbeenaccompaniedbyaassessmentoftheperformanceofcrop–livestockhomogenizationofcropproductionsystems,systemsrelativetothatofspecializedsystems,notwithgreateruseofsyntheticfertilizersattheonlyintermsofthesupplyoffoodandnon-foodexpenseoflivestockmanure.Theconsequencesproducts,butalsointermsofthesupplyofarangeofthishaveincludeddecreasesinsoilorganicofotherecosystemservices.Attentionalsoneedsmatterandhighdischargeofnutrientsintothetobepaidtosocio-economicdimensionssuchenvironmentinareaswherelargenumbersofasemployment,incomegenerationandgenderanimalsareraisedinintensiveunits,withneg-equity.Asnotedabove,detailedinformationativeimpactsinturnonaquatic,soilandotherontrendsintheextenttowhichcrop–livestockbiodiversity(seealsoChapter3).Time-seriesdataintegrationispractisedisoftenlacking.Thereisforsuchchangesarerare.However,datafromthereforeaneedtoimprovedatacollectionandtheabove-mentionedEurostatdatabaseonagri-toprovideconcreteguidancetogovernmentsandenvironmentalindicatorsindicatethatthenumberresearchersonhowtomonitorandassesstheevo-ofmixedcrop–livestockfarmsintheEuropeanlutionofmixedsystems.Uniondeclinedby45percentbetween2005and2013,andthattheareaundermixedcrop–livestock5.5.2Homegardenssystemsdecreasedby26percentoverthesameperiod(Eurostat,2016).IntroductionThecountry-reportingguidelinesdefinedahomeLow-incomecountrieshave,incontrast,seenagardenasfollows:“anintegratedsystemwhichgeneraltrendtowardsgreaterintegrationofcropcomprisesdifferentcomponentsinasmallareaandlivestockproductionactivitiesaspopulationaroundthehomestead,includingstaplecrops,densityhasincreasedandtheavailabilityoflandvegetables,fruits,medicinalplants,livestockandhasdeclined(Robinsonetal.,2011;ThorntonandfishbothforhomeconsumptionoruseandforHerrero,2001).Thelandareaoccupiedbymixedsystemsindevelopingcountriesisprojectedto228thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5income.[It]mayincludethefamilyhouse,aliving/Whileitiswellrecognizedintheliterature(e.g.playingarea,akitchengarden,amixedgarden,Landon-Lane,2011)thathomegardensarepartafishpond,stores,ananimalhouse[orotherofthedailylifeofmostcommunities–ruralandelements].”46Inmanypartsoftheworld,hometosomeextenturban–worldwide,therearenogardenstypicallyincludetreesandareconsideredcomprehensiveglobalstatisticsonthedistributionatypeofagroforestrypractice(seeSection5.5.3).andstatusofsuchsystems.KumarandNair(2006)Whilesuchgardensaregenerallynotamongreportsomeattemptstocompilestatisticsonhouseholds’mainsourcesofincomeorstaplehomegardensatnationalorsubnationallevelsinfood,47theyoftenserveasessentialsupplemen-someSouthandSoutheastAsiancountries,citing,tarysourcesoffoodandincomeandcontributeforexample,figuresreportedbyKumar(2006)totheoveralldiversityandsecurityoflivelihoodsof5.13millionhaoflandunderhomegardens(Galhena,FreedandMaredia,2013;Landon-Lane,inIndonesia,1.05millionhainSriLankaand2011).Theserolescanbeespeciallysignificant1.44millionhainKerala,India.Somestudieshaveamongdisadvantagedsectionsofthepopulation,lookedatthewaysinwhichdriversofchangewhosedietsoftenconsistlargelyofalimitedselec-areaffectingtheextentandcharacteristicsoftionofstaplefoods.Productsfromhomegardenshomegardens.Forexample,Mohrietal.(2013),candramaticallyimprovethequalityofsuchdietsagainreferringtopartsofSouthandSoutheastbyincreasingtheavailabilityandaccessibilityofAsia,notethatarangeoffactorsincludingsocio-micronutrient-richorprotein-richfoodssuchaseconomicdriversarepromotingashiftfromleafygreenvegetables,fishandeggs(Buchmann,subsistencetocommercialproductioninhome2009;Galhena,FreedandMaredia,2013;Landon-gardens,withmorelandareabeingdedicatedtoLane,2011).suchsystems,butalsoanincreasingfocusonthecultivationofcashcrops.Speciesdiversityinhomegardensisoftenveryhigh(Nair,2006).TheyareoftenalsorichStatusandtrendsinintraspecificdiversity.Forexample,Thaman,Analysisofthecountryreportsshowsthat31coun-ElevitchandKennedy(2006)documentedthepres-triesindicatethepresenceofhomegardeningenceof21differentcoconutcultivars,28bread-(Table5.1).Thepracticeisreportedmainlyinthefruitcultivarsand37bananacultivarsinhomecontextofirrigatedandrainfedcropsystems,gardensinYap,FederatedStatesofMicronesia.butalsoformixed,forestandlivestock-basedHomegardenscanthereforebemajorreservoirssystems.Onlyafewcountriesprovideinformationofdomesticatedbiodiversity,particularlyincoun-onwhethertheuseofthepracticeisincreasing,trieswherecommercialagriculturalsystemsmakedecreasingorstable.However,totheextentthatlittleuseoflandraces(Galluzzi,Eyzaguirreandinformationisavailable,itindicatesthattheuseNegri,2009).AsdiscussedinSection2.2,homeofhomegardensisincreasingacrossmostsystemsgardensinsomeareasserveasimportanthabitats(Table5.2).Trendsappeartobeeitherstableorforpotentiallythreatenedwildspecies.Theycanincreasingacrossmostregions,withnoinstancesalsocontributeanumberofotherenvironmentalofdownwardtrendsreportedfromAfrica,Asiaorbenefits(e.g.carbonsequestration),particularlythePacificandonlyafewfromEurope,theNearwhentheyreplacemorewastefullandusessuchEastandLatinAmericaandCaribbean.aslawnsinurbanareasandaremanagedusingsustainablepractices,forexampleusinggreywaterSignificanceintermsofbiodiversityforirrigation(Clevelandetal.,2017).andlivelihoodsThecountryreportsindicatethathomegardens46DefinitionbasedonFAO(1995b).areimportantreservoirsofbiodiversity,particu-47Therearesomeexceptions.Forexample,manyhouseholdsinlarlyplantbiodiversity.SomereportsfromAsiathePacificIslandsgrowtheirmainstaplerootcropsinhomegardens(Galhena,FreedandMaredia,2013).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE229STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.9PromotionofhomegardensforhealthydietsinSolomonIslandsThepeopleofSolomonIslandshavealongtraditionofLivestockandtheMinistryofHealthofSolomonIslandsmaintaininghomegardensassourcesoffoodandnutritionhave,overtheyears,promotedtheroleofthesesystemssecurityandincomediversification.While,likethepeopleasameansofincreasingpeople’saccesstofreshproduceofotherPacificIslandnations,SolomonIslandershaveandcounteringtherisingoccurrenceofchronicdiseases.increasinglycometorelyonimportedfoods,subsistenceMeasureshaveincludedtheprovisionoftrainingonthehomegardensarestillthemainsourceofmanystapleandcultivationofcropandtreespeciesthatareeasilyadaptablevegetablefoodsformostofthepopulation.Theimportancetourbanconditionsandrequirelittlemaintenance,includingofhomegardensisnotconfinedtoruralareas–thereisaChinesecabbage(Brassicarapa),pakchoi(Brassicarapawell-establishedtraditionoftendingurbanhomegardenssubsp.chinensis),peppers(Capsicumspp.),papaya(Carica(supsupgardens,astheyareknownlocally),wherefoodpapaya),guava(Psidiumguajava)andstarfruit(Averrhoacropsaregrowninassociationwithfruittrees.carambola).RecognizingthevalueofhomegardenstothehealthSources:CountryreportofSolomonIslandsandFAOetal.,2016.ofthelocalpopulation,theMinistryofAgricultureandDABBCADWetlandcropsgrowninoldtyres.A:Cyrtospermamerkusii(giantswamptaro)Mixedcropsinbackyardgarden.A:Ipomoeabatatas(sweetpotato),B:andB:Ipomoeaaquatica(aleafyvegetable).©HelenTsatsia.Cucurbitaspecies(pumpkin),C:Caricapapaya(papaya)andD:Abelmoschusmanihot(aibika,bele,slipperycabbage).©HelenTsatsia.(theLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,NepalgardenstothemaintenanceofBFAaregenerallyandVietNam)describehowhomegardensinthedifficulttoassessonaccountoftheirdiversechar-regiontraditionallyincludefishponds,aswellasacteristicsand/oralackofcomprehensiveinfor-fruitandfuelwoodtreespecies.Somecountriesmationontheirsizeanddistribution.reportquantitativedataillustratingthehighlevelsofdiversitythatcanbefoundinhomeCountriesreportarangeofspecificwaysingardens.Forexample,Ecuadormentionstheexist-whichhomegardenscontributetothesustainableenceofhomegardensinwhich127forest,crop,useandconservationofBFA.Forexample,PapualivestockandaquaticspecieshavebeenrecordedNewGuineamentionsthatfarmersbringcropwildin0.45ha.Perumentionsgardenscontainingrelativesintohomegardensforcultivation,notingupto90speciesusedforfoodormedicinalpur-inparticularthat“tulip”(Gnetumgnemon),aleafyposes.However,theprecisecontributionsofhomedelicacyusedinmanytraditionaldishes,iswidelygrowninhomegardens.AmongEuropeancountries,230thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5EstoniareportsthatitsCropResearchInstitutesecurityandnutrition.Arangeofdifferentiniti-reliesinpartonhomegardensasasourceofseedsativesaimedatsupportingandextendingtheseforitsgenebank.TheNetherlandsnotesthatwhilerolesarereported(seeBox5.9andBox5.10formosttraditionalplantvarietiesarenotgrowninexamples).Anumberofcountriesnotethesignif-commercialsystems,manysurviveinhomegardens.icantroleofwomeninthemanagementofhomegardens,andhenceascustodiansoftheBFAasso-Somecountriesmentioncircumstancesinwhichciatedwiththem.Countriesacrossseveralregionshome-gardeningpracticescanthreatenbiodiver-(e.g.China,theGambia,PanamaandSlovenia)sity.Forexample,Omannotesthatcultivationofnotethatitisusuallywomenwhoareawareofexoticspecies,suchasleucaena(Leucaenaleuco-theedibleandmedicinalpropertiesofplantsandcephala),inhomegardensisincreasinglythreat-whotendhomegardens,includingsavingseedseninglocalbiodiversity.Francementionstheneedforthefollowingseason.Thisroleisalsowelltoconsidertheimpactsthatagrochemicalsusedindocumentedintheliterature(e.g.Nair,2006).homegardenshaveonbiodiversity,andreferstoanationallaw,intendedtoenterintoforcein2017,48ThreatsanddriversofchangethatlimitstheuseofsuchproductstoprofessionalManycountriesprovideinformationonthreatsproducersandisexpectedtohaveapositiveimpacttohomegardensandhencepotentiallytotheonbiodiversityassociatedwithhomegardens.biodiversityfoundinthesesystems.CountriesSimilarly,Switzerlandnotesthatinrecognitionoffromseveralregionsmentionthreatsassociatedthepotentiallyharmfuleffectsofpesticidesonthewiththespreadofinvasivealienspecies.Forenvironmentandhumanhealth,includingwhenexample,theCookIslandsreportsthatchang-usedinallotmentgardens,itsFederalOfficeforingdietarypreferences,particularlyamongthetheEnvironmenthasissuedguidanceandrecom-youngergeneration,haveledtoincreasesinwildmendationsonthehandlingofplant-protectionpigandfowlpopulationsandthatthishasledtoproductsbynon-professionalusers.Polandreportsmorefrequentoccurrencesofseriousdamagetothreatstobiodiversityassociatedwiththeexpan-homegardens.BothNepalandArgentinareportsionofsingle-familyhousingareasandtherelatedthatincreasingpopulationsofgiantAfricanuncontrolleduseofgroundwaterforirrigationofsnails(Lissachatinafulica)presentaserioushomegardens,whichhasledtodecreasesinlocalthreattohomegardensinbothurbanandruralgroundwaterlevelsandwaterflowsintorivers.areas.EstoniamentionsthattheColoradopotatoConversely,thesamereportnotesthatkitchenbeetle(Leptinotarsadecemlineata)hascausedgardensnearpastureareashaveapositiveimpactseveredamageinsmall-scaleproductionsystems,onlocalbiodiversity,includinginsectpollinatorsincludinghomegardens.Climatechangeisalsoandotherinvertebrates.notedasathreat,particularlybysomePacificIslandcountries,wherehomegardensareoftenCountriesthatprovideinformationonhomelocatedinlow-lyingcoastalareas.gardensgenerallyseemtoregardthemasimpor-tantcontributorstolivelihoodsandtofoodChangesinfarmingsystems,includingshiftstowardsintensivepracticesandamoremarket-48UnderLaw2012-100(LOIn°2014-110du6févrierfocusedorientation–alongwithsomebroader2014visantàmieuxencadrerl'utilisationdesproduitssocio-economicdrivers–arealsomentioned.phytosanitairessurleterritoirenational–available,inCountriesreportarangeofdifferentchallengesFrench,athttps://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.inthisregard.Forexample,Perumentionsthat,do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000028571536&dateTexte=20160927)whilefamilyhomegardenshavetraditionallyuseofpesticidesinplacesopenoraccessibletothepublicplayedakeyroleinthepreservationofindige-hasbeenbannedsince1January2017.Abaninprivateareasnousvarietiesandspecies(e.g.thetreetomatocameintoforceon1January2019.Thebandoesnotapplyto[Solanumbetaceum]),suchplantsareincreasinglyauthorizedbiocontrolproducts,productsthatcanbeutilizedinorganicagricultureandproductsclassifiedas“low-risk”undertherelevantEuropeanUnionlegislation.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE231STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.10Projectsandinitiativestargetinghomegardens–examplesfromaroundtheworldArgentinareferencecentrefororganicproductionpracticesandbuildThenationwidePROHUERTAprogrammehasledthecapacityonhomeandschoolgardening.developmentofhomegardensinArgentina.Theprogrammewaslaunchedin1990andnowextendstoover90percentNauruofthecountry’smunicipalities.Theprogramme’sgoalsInNauru,theHorticultureandLivestockBreedingProjectaretoincreaseaccesstofreshandnutritiousfoods,aspromotedbytheTaiwanTechnicalMissionandthewellastoincreaseincomes,particularlyamongthemostDepartmentofCommerce,IndustriesandEnvironmentdisadvantagedsectionsofthepopulation.Theprogrammefocusesonsupportinghorticulturalandlivestockproductionhascreatedsome560000homegardensand12000schoolinhomegardensasameansofimprovingfoodandnutritionandcommunitygardens,andhasbenefited2.8millionsecurity.Theprojecthaspromotedsustainablemanagementpeople.TheprogrammehasalsoincludedSouth–Southpractices,forexampletheuseofcompostingtoimprovesoilcooperationeffortsinvolvingexchangeofinformationandfertility.Localfarmersareencouragedtocultivatenativetreeexperienceswithothercountries,includingAngola,Ghana,speciesforuseinreafforestationprogrammes.TheprojecthasHaitiandMozambique.Inaddition,aninterdisciplinarysuccessfullysetupvegetablegardenswith50farmersandgroupofexpertsfromtheUniversityofBuenosAireshasthreeschoolsandsuppliedvegetablesfor800schoolchildrenbeensetuptowork,interalia,onpromotingagroecologicalthroughtheNauruSchoolFeedingProgram.Ithasalsoraisedhomegardenstoimprovecommunitylivelihoodsandawarenessandbuiltcapacityonvegetablegrowingandestablishingcommunitynurseriestogrownativeplantscookingandoncompostingpractices.(includingthoseusedasfoods)andimprovesoilhealth.NepalFinlandASwiss-fundedprojectimplementedbyLocalInitiativesFinlandhasestablishedacatalogueofhorticulturalspeciesusedforBiodiversity,ResearchandDevelopment(LI-BIRD),inhomegardensandlaunchedanonlineportalforrecordingincollaborationwithnationalauthorities,ispromotingtraditionalandheritagecultivars,viawhichuserscanreportandtheconservationandsustainableuseofagrobiodiversityprovideinformation(includingcultural/historicalinformation)throughhomegardens.Theprojectaimstoincreasefamilies’onpotentiallyvaluableplantsandpossiblelandraces.foodsecurity,dietarydiversityandincomesbypromotingdiversificationinhomegardens,includingbycombiningLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicthecultivationofvegetables,fruitsandmushroomswithIntheLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,smallgardenshavetherearingoflivestock,fishandhoneybees.Asaresultofbeensuccessfullyestablishedinschoolsforuseineducationtheproject,overtwo-thirdsofthe7700targethouseholdsandawarenessraising.TheresultingincreaseininteresthavebothdiversifiedtheirdietsbyincreasingconsumptioninagrobiodiversitymanagementledtheDepartmentofoffreshgardenproduceandreducedtheirexpenditureonEducationofXiengKhouangProvincetodevelopacurriculumvegetablesby75percent.foragrobiodiversityeducation,whichwaslaterapprovedbythenationalministryforusethroughoutthecountry.SriLankaInSriLanka,theDepartmentofAgricultureencouragestheMexicocultivationoforganicvegetablesinhomegardensusingTheNGOVisiónMujerfocusesonpromotingtrainingfortraditionalvarietiesthatdonotrequirechemicalfertilizerswomen,includingonthepreservationandcultivationorpesticides.Activitieshaveincludedthedistributionofofplantsthathaveedibleormedicinaluses.ThefirsttheTrueSriLankaTasteseedpackconsistingoftraditionalexperimentalcommunitygardenwasestablishedatthevegetablevarieties.FisheriesResearchCentreonIslaMujerestoserveasa(Cont.)232thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.10(Cont.)Projectsandinitiativestargetinghomegardens–examplesfromaroundtheworldTongaZimbabweTheTongaHealthPromotionFoundation(TongaHealth)In2001,theMunicipalityofBulawayo,togetherwithWorldpromoteshomegardensasameansofincreasingtheVision,establishedurbanallotmentgardenstosupportconsumptionofarangeoflocalfruitandvegetables.ForvulnerablegroupssuchaspeoplelivingwithHIV/AIDS,example,villageswishingtoaccessresourcessuchastheelderly,widowsandorphans.Themainaimsweretoseedlingsandfencingareprovidedwithgrantsviatheaddressacutefoodshortagesandnutritionalimbalances,CommunityGardeningProgramme.TheaimofthisinitiativeraiseawarenessonHIV/AIDs,improvewell-beingandbuildistoincreasetheconsumptionofhealthyfoodsamongpeople’scapacities.Asof2008,morethan1500peoplehadTonganfamilies.Toensuresustainability,eachhouseholdalreadybenefitedfromthegardens.isencouragedtoplanteightlocalvegetablesandfruitsintheirresidentialgardenforeasyaccessthroughouttheyear.Sources:CountryreportsofArgentina,Finland,Mexico,Nauru,Nepal,SriOver1800householdshaveparticipatedintheCommunityLanka,Tonga(withadditionalinformationfromthewebsiteoftheTongaGardeningProgrammesince2009.Tonga’s2015CensusHealthPromotionFoundation–https://www.tongahealth.org/about_us)recordedatotalof2888homegardensinthecountry.andZimbabwe,andtheLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicAgrobiodiversityProgrammeandActionPlanII(2015–2025).MoreinformationonPROHUERTAcanbefound(inSpanish)athttp://prohuerta.inta.gov.ar.beingreplacedbymoreprofitablecrops.Asforadequatedisseminationofthedatacollected.wellasleadingtogeneticerosion,thistrendisSomecountriesmentionprioritiesrelatedtocapac-reportedalsotobecontributingtothelossoftra-itydevelopment.Forexample,Panamaidentifiesditionalknowledge.Nauru,incontrast,reportstheneedtostrengthenthecapacityofextensionrenewedinterestinhomegardensbutalackofservicestosupporthomegardening.Afewprior-relevantlocalknowledgeandtechnicalskills.itiesrelatedtotheuseofspecificcomponentsofPanamamentionsthat,amongotherfactors,theBFAwithinhomegardensarealsonoted.TheLaoincreasingavailabilityofready-to-eatproductsPeople’sDemocraticRepublicmentionsthepoten-isreducingtheuseoffoodfromhomegardens.tialofdiversifyinglivestockandfishproductioninChinareportsthatruralfamiliesareincreasinglyhomegardens,butnotesthatindigenouspoultrybeingdrawntowardseconomicallymoreattrac-arepoorlyunderstoodandneedtobestudiedsys-tiveoff-farmwork,whichleavesthemlittletimetematically.Belarusmentionstheimportanceoftotendtotheirhomegardens,andnotesthatthisdevelopingrecommendationsonthecultivationisnegativelyaffectingBFA.ofwildplantspeciesusedforfood,includinginhomegardens.NeedsandprioritiesThemaingapidentifiedinthecountryreportsin5.5.3Agroforestryrelationtohomegardeningisalackofinforma-tiononthestatusandtrendsofhomegardensIntroductionandonthecontributionstheymaketotheconser-Thecountry-reportingguidelinesdefineagrofor-vationofBFAandtotheresilienceofproductionestryas“acollectivenameforland-usesystemsinthefaceofchallengesassociatedwith(interwherewoodyperennials…areintegratedinthealia)climatechangeandsocio-economictrends.farmingsystem.”Inpractice,however,useoftheReportedprioritiesinthisregardincludethepro-termvariesfromcountrytocountry,reflectingvisionoffundingforthoroughassessmentsoflocal,nationalandregionalcontexts.Moreover,home-gardeningpracticesandtheirimpactsandsincethewordrosetoprominenceinthelatethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE233STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartC1970s(Bene,BeallandCôte,1977),itsusagehasshrubs,althoughspecies-richsystemsmaybedomi-evolvedconsiderably.VanNoordwijk,Coeandnatedbyafewspecies(Bayalaetal.,2011b;Kessler,Sinclair(2016)describethreesuccessivepara-1992;Kindtetal.,2008).Shrubsinparklandsmaybedigms:thefirstfocusedonplot-levelinteractionscoppicedthroughouttherainy(cropping)season.oftreeswithcropsorlivestock;thesecondbasedFarmersactivelymanageandprotecttrees,includ-onalandscape-levelunderstandingofagrofor-ingbyprotectingnaturallyregeneratingtreesfromestryasalandusewithexplicit(positive)impactslivestockandduringtillageoperations(Brandtet(Leakey,1996);andthethirdencompassingtheal.,2018;Hanan,2018;ReijandGarrity,2016).Treecombinationandinterfaceofallagricultureanddensityiskeptlowsothatcanopycoverisnotcon-forestryissueswithoutreferencetotheinstitu-tinuous.Thesepracticescontributetoagriculturaltionalbarriersthathavetraditionallyseparatedproductivityandhelptoconserveplantandanimalthem.VanNoordwijk,CoeandSinclair(2016)biodiversitybyofferingdiverseabove-groundandproposeanewdefinitionofagroforestrythatbelow-groundhabitatniches.recognizesallthreeparadigmsandcanbepar-aphrasedas“landusethatcombinesaspectsInthehumidtropicsofWestandCentralAfrica,ofagricultureandforestry,includingtheagri-prevalentagroforestrypracticesincludethefol-culturaluseoftrees.”Moreover,usageofthelowing:homegardens;perennialtreecrop-basedtermbyfarmersanddevelopmentpractition-systems(cocoa,coffee,oilpalm,rubber);slash-and-ersisoftenmorespecificthanusageinscien-burnagriculturewherehigh-valuespeciesprovid-tificcircles.Generalizationsaboutthestateofingtimberandnon-timberforestproductsareagroforestryarethusdifficulttomake,evenatretained;improvedfallows(e.g.withredcalliandracountrylevel.Thefollowingparagraphsprovide[Calliandracalothyrsus],leucaena[Leucaenaleuco-illustrativeexamplesofthetypesofagroforestrycephala],gliricidia[Gliricidiasepium],ice-creampractisedinvariousregionsoftheworld.bean[Ingaedulis],mangium(Acaciamangium)andAcaciaauriculiformis,pigeonpea[CajanusInEastandSouthernAfrica,agroforestrysystemscajan],Vogel’stephrosia[Tephrosiavogelii],sesba-includecereal-basedsystemsthatfeatureindig-nia[Sesbaniasesban]);boundaryplanting(mostlyenousandintroducedtreespeciesvaluedforinhillyareas);andsmallwoodlotswithEucalyptustimber(Grevillearobusta,eucalypts[Eucalyptusspp.,redstinkwood(Prunusafricana)andgrevilleaandCorymbiaspp.]),fruits(e.g.mango[Mangifera(Grevillearobusta)(Atanganaetal.,2014).indica]andavocado[Perseaamericana]),charcoal(acacias[Acaciaspp.]),fodder(Calliandraspp.)Mosquera-Losadaetal.(2012)identifiedsixandsoil-fertilityenhancement(e.g.winterthornmaincategoriesofEuropeanagroforestry:silvo-[Faidherbiaalbida]).Systemsincludemanyindige-arablepractices;silvopasture;forestfarmingnousandexotictreespeciesthatareplantedorpro-(“forestedareasusedforproduction…ofnaturaltectedinavarietyofnichestosupplyvariouseco-standingspecialitycropsformedicinal,ornamentalsystemservices(Beinetal.,1996;Kindtetal.,2017).orculinarypurposes”);riparianbuffers;improvedAlthoughmanyindigenoustreespeciesalsofeaturefallow;andmultipurposetrees.Theynotedthatinprioritylists,farmersareincreasinglyreplacingmanypracticesthathaddeclinedduringthethemwithexotics(Kehlenbecketal.,2011).periodofagriculturalintensificationthatfol-lowedtheindustrialrevolutionarenowrevivingTraditional“parkland”systems,i.e.mixedcrop–asaconsequenceofpolicychanges.However,astree–shrub–livestockassemblagesderivedfromdocumentedbydenHerderetal.(2015),thedom-savannahecosystems(Maranz,2009),arethemaininantpracticesintermsoflandareacontinuetosourcesoffood,incomeandenvironmentalservicesbethosetraditionalpracticesthatwererelativelyacrosstheSahelianzoneofWestAfrica(Bayalaetunaffectedbyagriculturalintensification,foral.,2011a).Theirspeciesrichnessrangesfrommono-exampletheoak-basedsystemsknownasdehesaspecificitytomorethan100speciesoftreesand(Spain)andmontados(Portugal)and(particularly)234thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5reindeer-husbandrysystemsinScandinavia.TheAustralia,theterm“agroforestry”isusedbroadly,reindeer-husbandrysystemsarepractisedmorebutwithsomeemphasisontimberproductionandwidely(41.4millionha)thanallotherEuropeanagroforestryas“farmforestry”(e.g.Reid,2017).systemscombined.ProminentagroforestrysystemsinSouthAsiaAgroforestrypracticeinLatinAmericaisthou-include:poplar-basedcommercialagroforestrysandsofyearsold(MillerandNair,2006).Dominant(especiallyinIndia);fruitorchards;homegardens;currenttypesofagroforestryincludethefollow-cardamomandaldermixtures(Bhutan,Indiaanding:cacaoandcoffeesystems(Somarribaetal.,Nepal);treeandshrubfodderproduction;silvo-2014);silvopasture(Montagnini,Ibrahimandpastoralsystems;coastalshelterbelts(IndiaandSriMurgueitio,2013);treefallows(improvedorLanka);shiftingcultivation(“chena”inSriLanka);otherwise)inswiddenagriculture(Cotta,2017;treesinterspersedonfarmland;taungya(India,Smithetal.,1999);homegardens(PadochanddeSriLanka);andteaandcoffeeagroforestry.InJong,1991);andnativetreesandshrubsinfieldIndia,treesoutsideforests,ofwhichtreesgrownboundariesandalongcontourlinesinmoun-onfarmsareasubset,accountfor65percentoftainareas(Mathez-Stiefel,2016).Useofbothtimberproductionandalmosthalfoffuelwoodnaturalregeneration–particularlytimberandproduction(GovernmentofIndia,2017).shadespecies–andplantedtreesiscommon.TheacronymSAF(anabbreviationofthePortugueseSoutheastAsianfarmersusearichvarietyofandSpanishwordsfor“agroforestrysystem”)hasagroforestrypractices.Theseinclude:high-diversitywidecurrency,andusuallyreferstomultistoreyhomegardens;improvedfallow(e.g.withnatural-systemsofvaryingcomplexity.InBrazil,market-izedleucaena[Leucaenaspp.]inthePhilippines);orientedsystemsmayconsistofintercroppingcommodity-basedagroforestrysystems(inthreeormore,mostlyperennial,plantedcrops,forIndonesiathesesmallholdermixedsystemsexamplecacao(Theobromacacao),açai(Euterpeproduce96percentofthenationalcoffeeyield,oleracea),blackpepper(Pipernigrum),cupuaçu92percentofthecacao,80percentoftherubber,(Theobromagrandiflorum)orsometimberspecies39percentoftheoilpalmand26percentoftheoroilseeds(BolfeandBatistella,2011),ormuchtea–DGEC,2012);agroforestssuchasthedamarmorecomplexhigh-biodiversitysystemsinwhichagroforestsand“junglerubber”ofSumatraandnaturalregenerationismanaged,forexampleKalimantan,taungyaandtumpangsariinteakorcabruca49systems(Sambuichietal.,2012)andpineplantationsinIndonesiaandThailand;treessuccessionalagroforests(Cezaretal.,2015).plantedatwidespacinginopen-fieldagriculture(e.g.forest–riceterracesystemsinthesouthernAgroforestrypracticeandconceptsinOceaniaandnorthernPhilippines);SALT(slopingagricul-varywidely.Agroforestryhastraditionallybeenturallandtechnologies),forexamplehedgerowanimportantfarmingsystemforPacificIslandersplanting,alleycroppingandNVS(naturalvege-(Thaman,ElevitchandKennedy,2006).Onthetativestrips)onslopinglandinIndonesia,thesmaller,land-scarcePacificislands,treefruitsPhilippinesandVietNam;andboundaryplantingandnutsareimportantcomponentsinintensivearoundfarmsandfields(e.g.offoddertreesinfarmingsystems(Evans,1999).InruralcommunitiesIndonesiaandthePhilippines).InIndonesia,agro-inPapuaNewGuinea,nativeandexotictreespeciesforestryhasbecomeoneoftheland-basedstrat-suchascasuarina(Casuarinaoligodon),betel-egiesforthenationalclimatechangeadaptationnutpalm(Arecacatechu)andgliricidia(Gliricidiaandmitigation,andsocial-forestry,programmes.sepium)provideimportantagroecologicalservicesandproductsforsaleorhomeconsumption(PageStatusandtrendsetal.,2016;BourkeandHarwood,eds.,2009).InEstimatesoftheglobalextentofagroforestryhavedifferedbyordersofmagnitude.Reasonsfor49Cocoatreesgrownunderathinnednatural-forestcanopy.thisincludethemanydifferentwaysofusingtreesthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE235STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCinagriculture,the“invisibility”ofagroforestryinsomecasestheregionalvaluesmaskimportantofficialstatisticsanddifferingunderstandingsofintraregionalvariation.whatconstitutesagroforestry(seeabove).WhatisclearisthatwheretreegrowthisnotlimitedGlobalrecognitionofthecontributionsofbyenvironmentalfactors–usuallytemperatureagroforestryhasincreasedoverthepastdecade,orprecipitation(RunyanandD’Odorico,2016)–ashavethemainstreamingofagroforestryintotreesareubiquitousinagriculturallandscapes,developmentandenvironmentalagendasandthemostobviousexceptionsbeingsomeagro-appreciationofitspotentialimpactonrurallive-industriallandscapes.lihoods,climate-smartagriculture,biodiversityconservationandlandrestoration.ThishigherUnderalandscape-leveldefinitionofagro-profilealsoreflectswideracceptanceandadop-forestry,globaldatasetsassembledforothertionofagroecologicalpracticesinagriculture.purposescanbeusedtoestimatetheextentofInindividualcountriesandregions,themoveagroforestry.Forexample,Zomeretal.(2014),towardsmainstreamingisrelated–asbothcauseusing1km2resolutiongriddeddatalayersofandeffect–topolicyandlegalchanges.Examplestreecoverandlanduse,definedagroforestryfromseveralregionsareprovidedinBox5.11.Aasoccurringinpixelsthatareclassifiedas“agri-numberofthecountryreportsmentionpoliciesculturalland”andhaveacertainleveloftreeandprogrammessupportingagroforestry,includ-cover.Theyestimatedthegloballandareaunderingthrougheducationandextension,researchagroforestry(basedonthree-yearaveragesforandtheprovisionofpaymentsforecosystemser-2008to2010)tobe3.1millionkm2iftakentovices.France’sAgroforestryDevelopmentPlanisincludeagriculturallandwith≥30percenttreedescribedinBox5.12.cover,and9.6millionkm2iftakentoincludeagriculturallandwith≥10percenttreecover.50IncreasinglevelsofawarenessandsupportcanThesearevastareas,roughlyequivalent,respec-beexpectedtoleadtoincreasesinthelandareatively,totheareasofIndiaandChina.Table5.5underagroforestry.Globally,thereseemsalreadyshowsregionalestimatesoftheareaunderagro-tohavebeenaslightincrease(Table5.5),althoughforestry,usinganintermediate(≥20percenttreeunravellingthecausesofparticularregionaltrendscover)criterion.Inabsolutearea,SouthAmericawouldrequiremoredetailedanalysis.IncreasesinandSoutheastAsiaareeasilythemostsignificanttreecoverarenotnecessarilytheresultofpolicy“agroforestryregions”,togetherconstitutingmeasuresorotherhigh-levelsupport,i.e.theymayabout45percentoftheglobaltotal.Inpropor-reflectwidermacroeconomicandsocietalfactorstionalterms,agroforestryisfarmorepreponder-(e.g.Redoetal.,2012).antinCentralAmericaandSoutheastAsiathaninanyotherregion.ItshouldbenotedthatinCountries’responsesonthestateofandtrendsintheadoptionofagroforestrypracticesare50TwoaspectsofthemethodologyusedinthisanalysisshouldbesummarizedinTable5.1andTable5.2.Acrossallnoted.First,pixelscorrespondingto1km2areawereusedassystems,reportsofincreasingtrendsoutnumberthebasisfortreecoverclassification.Agivenpercentagetreereportsofdecreasingtrends,inmostcasesbyacoverinagivenpixelmayindicatevariousthings.Forexample,substantialmargin.Manycountryreportsmention30percenttreecovermightmean70percenttreelessandthatagroforestryisatraditionalelementoflocal30percentforestedoranintimatemixtureoftreesandcropsinproductionsystems,inmanycasesnotingitswhichtreecrownsoverlay30percentofthearea(oranythingimportancetofoodsecurity,tothesupplyofeco-inbetween).Althoughallpixelsarelocatedonlandclassifiedsystemservicessuchassoilprotectionandcarbonas“agricultural”,itispossiblethatsomepixelsthatconsistofsequestrationandtotheresilienceoffarmstocontrastingtreelessareasandclosedcanopyforestareasmaybothbiophysical(e.g.climatic)andeconomicnotconstituteagroforestryascommonlyunderstood.Second,shocksandtrends.Countriesgenerallydonottheestimateswillhaveexcludedsomeareasunderagroforestry,providedetailedinformationaboutthecausesofbecausetheseoccuronlandclassifiedasnon-agriculturalthetrendsreported.Anumber,however,mention(Zomeretal.,2014).236thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Table5.5Landareaunderagroforestry(2008–2010)andtrends(2000–2010),byregionRegionAreaProportionoftotalIncrease(millionkm2)agriculturalland(%)(2000–2010)(%)CentralAmerica0.279.08.2EastAsia0.422.13.4Europe0.520.41.6NorthAfricaandWesternAsia0.15.50.3NorthAmerica0.626.32.2NorthernandCentralAsia0.29.71.2Oceania0.223.83.4SouthAmerica1.231.83.5SouthAsia0.17.80.9SoutheastAsia1.062.92.0Sub-SaharanAfrica0.615.00.0World5.123.11.8Notes:Figuresrefertoagriculturallandwith≥20percenttreecover.Landareaestimatesarebasedonthree-yearaveragesfor2008to2010.Source:Zomeretal.,2014.policiesthatprovidesupporttothedevelopmentandnotnecessarilyundesirable,itbecomesaofagroforestryviameasuressuchasknowledgeproblemwhenlimitedconceptsofagroforestrytransferandtheprovisionofsubsidies.–forexample,agroforestryasonlymultistoreysystems–leadtolimitedunderstandingofitsrel-Needsandprioritiesevancetoissuessuchaspoverty,climatechangeAttheturnofthemillennium,regionalstudiesadaptationandmitigationandlanddegradation.inSoutheastAsiaidentifiedthefollowingprior-Thisunderscorestheimportanceofnotonlyclari-ityareasforsupporttoagroforestry:germplasmfyingagroforestrydefinitions,butalsoofsharingqualityandavailability;marketingandmarketexperiencesofdifferenttypesofagroforestryandaccess;supportivepolicies;treeandsystem(par-howtheycansuccessfullycontributetoaddressingticularlytimberandfruit)management;andtrain-problemsandopportunities.ingandinformationdissemination(GunasenaandRoshetko,2000;RoshetkoandEvans,1999).APolicyglobalreviewbyLeakeyetal.(2012)foundthat,Agroforestryoftencontinuestooccupya“nowhilesignificantprogresshadbeenmade,manyman’sland”betweenforestryandagriculture,ofthosetopicsremainedinneedofattention.andbenefitsneitherfromspecificsupportiveThefollowingsubsectionspresentgapsandneedspoliciesnorfromaninstitutionalhome.Inmanyunderfivebroad,partiallyoverlapping,headings:cases,farmersarestillnotallowedtoharvestconcepts;policy;developmentapproaches;ger-trees,oreventreeproducts,ontheirland.Evenmplasm;andresearch.wheresuchactivitiesareallowedundercurrentlaw,thecomplexityorcostoffulfillingrequire-Conceptsofagroforestrymentsmaybebeyondthecapacitiesofresource-Althoughdiversityofconceptsandpracticesacrosspoorfarmers(Foundjem-Titaetal.,2013;Searsregionsandcountriesispracticallyinevitableetal.,2018).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE237STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.11Policyandlegislativeframeworkspromotingagroforestry–examplesfromaroundtheworldEastandSouthernAfrica2017.5ThismeasureaimstoformalizehithertoillegalPolicychangeshavebeenkeytowiderinclusionoftreesoccupationofstateforestland,basedonthescaling-upofonfarmsinEastandSouthernAfrica.Forexample,Kenya’ssustainablemanagement(includingagroforestry)onaboutAgriculture(FarmForestry)Rulesof20091–aresponseto1.2millionhaoflandinthecountry’sAmazonregion.deforestation,increaseddemandforagriculturallandandInBrazil,theForestLawof20126establishedtheprinciplefarmers’desiretoplanttrees–requireatleast10percenttreethatagroforestryservesbothsocialandenvironmentalcoveronallfarms.Thecountry’sgovernmenthasallocatedfunctionsinprotectedareas,allowingfarmerstorestorefundstoassistfarmerstomeetthisrequirement(JamnadassPermanentPreservationAreas(riparianzones,springs,etal.,2013).KenyaandotherEastAfricancountrieshavehillsidesandridgetops)andconservationset-asidespledgedmillionsofhectarestotheBonnChallenge2and(knownasLegalReserves),whicharerequiredonallruralAFR1003restorationinitiatives(e.g.15millionhainEthiopia,lands,throughagroforestry(forwhichalegaldefinitionis5.1millionhainKenyaand2millionhainRwanda).provided).Inthesecases,farmersmayincludeshort-cycleAgroforestryplaysaprominentroleinthesepledgescrops,legumesandsomeexoticspeciesprovidedtheyare(e.g.MinistryofNaturalResources–Rwanda,2014).intercroppedwithnativetreesandmaintainbasicecologicalfunctions(Miccolisetal.,2016).WestandCentralAfricaAnalysissuggeststhatbothrainfallpatternsandSoutheastAsialand-managementpracticesareresponsiblefortheManycountriesinSoutheastAsiahavemainstreamed“re-greening”oftheSahel(Ouedraogoetal.,2014).Intheagroforestryintoagriculture,watershedmanagementcaseofNiger,widespreadadoptionoffarmer-managedandsocial-forestryprogrammes.Forexample,thenaturalregeneration(FMNR)(Reij,TappanandSmale,GovernmentofthePhilippineshasbeenimplementing2009a)ledthegovernmenttorelaxprovisionsintheForestanupland-agroforestryprogrammesince2000.VietNamLaw,allowingfarmerstherighttoharvesttreesnurturedorisrevisingitsForestryLaw,introducingprovisionsthatplantedontheirownland.Thispolicychangeisthoughttoallowagroforestrytobepractisedinallocatedforestlands,havecontributedtothespreadofFMNRtoover5millionhawhichwillpavethewayforagroforestrytobecome(Garrityetal.,2010).Thetrendtowardsincreasingtreecoveranofficialforestland-usetype.Attheregionallevel,islikelytocontinue,asaresultofmultipleinternationalthe2016–2025VisionandStrategicPlanoftheFood,initiativestoupscaleon-farmnaturalregenerationandAgricultureandForestrySectorofASEAN(Associationoftreeplanting,particularlythoserelatedtoforestlandscapeSoutheastAsianNations)hasaspecificactionprogrammerestoration(Minasnyetal.,2017;ReijandGarrity,2016).aimedatagroforestryexpansion(StrategicThrust4,ActionProgramme5).In2017,theASEANWorkingGrouponLatinAmericaSocialForestryagreedtothepreparationofASEAN-levelInPeru,theForestandWildlifeLawof20114recognizesguidelinesonagroforestrydevelopmentforMemberStatesandprovidesanofficialdefinitionofagroforestry,and(Finlayson,2017).createdtheAgroforestryConcessionsmechanism(RobiglioandReyes,2016),forwhichguidelineswereissuedin(Cont.)1Agriculture(FarmForestry)Rules(availableathttp://www.fao.org/faolex/5ResoluciónNº081-2017-SERFOR–Lineamientosparaelotorgamientoderesults/details/en/?details=LEX-FAOC101360).contratosdecesiónenusoparasistemasagroforestales.ElPeruano,31demarzode2017(available,inSpanish,athttp://www.fao.org/faolex/results/2http://www.bonnchallenge.org/content/challengedetails/en/c/LEX-FAOC171777/).3http://www.afr100.org4LeyNº29763-LeyForestalydeFaunaSilvestre.ElPeruano,22dejuliode6LeideProteçãodaVegetaçãoNativan.12.727,de17deOutubrode2012(available,inPortuguese,athttp://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2011(available,inSpanish,athttp://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/2014/2012/lei/l12727.htm).LEX-FAOC104648/).238thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.11(Cont.)Policyandlegislativeframeworkspromotingagroforestry–examplesfromaroundtheworldSouthAsiabeennotable,particularlytherelaxationoftree-fellingIn2014,IndiapromulgateditsNationalAgroforestryandtransitregulations,deregulationofsawmillopeningPolicy,backedwithacapitaloutlayofUSD450millionandinclusionofagroforestryinmanycentralgovernmentforfouryears(2016/17to2019/20)(Chavanetal.,2015).agriculturalschemes.Twentyof29stateshaveexcludedatThepolicyhasbeenaneffectiveinstrumentforpromotingleast20treespeciesfromfellingandtransitregulations.agroforestry,hascreatedaninstitutional“home”forPriortoapprovalandimplementationoftheagroforestryagroforestry(theMinistryofAgriculture)andconstitutespolicy,fellingandtransportofthemajorityoftreespeciesanegotiationplatformforagroforestryinthecountrywereprohibitedthroughregulatorylawsthatdiscouraged(Singhetal.,2016).Itseffectonsustainableutilizationoffarmersfromgrowingtreesonfarms.India’svaststockoftreesonfarms(1.5millionm3)hasBox5.12France’sAgroforestryDevelopmentPlan2015–2020In2015,theFrenchMinistryofAgriculturelaunched•increasingtheeconomicvaluationofagroforestrytheAgroecologicalProject,apolicyaimedatrenderingproductioninasustainableway;andproductionsystemsmoreeffectivewithrespecttotheireconomic,environmentalandsocialdimensions.1•promotinganddisseminatingagroforestrySustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityarekeyinternationally.elementsofagroecology.OneelementofthispolicyinitiativeistheAgroforestryDevelopmentPlan,2whichTheaxescomprise23actionsthatarecoordinatedbyconsistsoffiveaxes:theMinistryofAgricultureandimplementedwithadozenpartners,includingtheNationalInstituteforAgricultural•gainingbetterunderstandingofthediversityofResearch(INRA),theMinistryoftheEnvironment,theagroforestrysystemsandtheirfunctioning;associationsinvolvedintheterritories,andthenetworkofChambersofAgriculture.•improvingthelegalframeworkandstrengtheningfinancialsupport;TheobjectiveoftheAgroforestryDevelopmentPlanistodevelopexistingagroforestrysystemssuchashedgerows•developingextension,trainingandpromotion(about1millionhainFrance,butdecreasing),treeofagroforestry;intercropping(about5000ha),fruit-treesilvopastureandsilvopastoralism.1http://agriculture.gouv.fr/le-projet-agro-ecologique-pour-la-france2http://agriculture.gouv.fr/un-plan-national-de-developpement-pour-Source:ProvidedbyPatriciaLarbouret,ChristophePinardandPierreVelge.lagroforesterieApproachestoagroforestrydevelopmentFirst,ruraladvisoryservices,wheretheyexist,Agroforestryinnovationsoftenencounterprob-oftenstruggletoaddresssomeformsofagrofor-lemsinscalingup(Coe,SinclairandBarrios,2014;estry,whichcanbeknowledgeintensive,contextShiferaw,OkelloandReddy,2009).Adiversespecificandprovidebenefitsinthelongtermrangeoffactorsmayberesponsible.Forexample,ratherthantheshortterm.RuralresourcecentresPorro(2009)lists46causesoffailureinadoption(Degrandeetal.,2015)–traininganddemonstra-ofagroforestrysystemsintheAmazon.Threespe-tionhubsthataremanagedbygrassrootsorgan-cificareasstandout.izationsandmayoperateoutsidetheformalthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE239STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCextensionmodel–areonepromisingapproach.Wilson,2014;KoffaandRoshetko,1999;Roshetko,TheexchangeofknowledgeandexperiencesMulawarmanandDianarto,2008;Waltersetal.,betweenfarmersshouldalsobefacilitatedand2005).Expansionofrestorationinitiativesimpliessupported(Martini,RoshetkoandParamita,2017).significantlyhigherdemandforgermplasm(Broadhurstetal.,2016).Forexample,ifhalfofSecond,specialattentionneedstobepaidtheareacurrentlypledgedtotheBonnChallengetogenderdifferencesinaccesstoagroforestry(140millionha)(seeSection5.4)weretoberesourcesandpotentialtobenefitfromthem.subjecttorelativelylow-densityplantingaverag-Menandwomenoftenplaydifferentrolesinpro-ing100treesperhaoveraperiodoftenyears,theductionandalongvaluechains,whichmeansthatdemandforseedwouldbearound1.4billonseedstheyhavedifferentknowledgeaboutspeciesandperyear.51Thequantitiesofseedsandtheinstitu-managementpractices,anddifferentperceptionstionalframeworksrequiredwouldbebeyondtheofthevalueofthepotentialbenefitsofagrofor-currentcapacitiesofmost,ifnotall,developingestrypractices(Colferetal.,2016;Kiptot,Franzelcountries(e.g.Atkinsonetal.,2017).andDegrande,2014;Mulyoutamietal.,2015).Insomecases,themarketmayrespondadequatelyThird,supporttoagroforestryoftentendstotoincreaseddemand.However,profit-seekingneglectmarketing,businesspracticesandfinan-nurseryproducerswilltendtoconcentrateonthecialincentivessuchascredit(BlareandDonovan,mostprofitablespecies,meaningthatgermplasm-2016).Thiscanapplytoagroforestrycommoditiessupplysystemsbasedpurelyonthemarketare(e.g.theprincipalbeveragecrops)(Donovan,BlareunlikelytoofferthediversitythattreeplantersandPoole,2017),tocompanioncropsgrowninseek(CorneliusandMiccolis,2018).Lillesøetal.agroforestrysystems(e.g.Searsetal.,2018)and(2018)havearguedforlegislationthatfavourstofarmer-producedtimber(Holding-Anyongepublic–privatepartnerships,withsmall-scaleentre-andRoshetko,2003;Perdana,Roshetkoandpreneursbecomingthemajorproducersanddis-Kurniawan,2012).Whenmarketsareconsidered,tributorsofqualitytree-plantingmaterials.Lowthefocushasoftenbeenonexportmarketsratherincomemaypreventresource-poorfarmersfromthanonestablishingmorestablelocalandregionalpurchasingplantingstock(Harrison,Gregoriodemand(BlareandDonovan,2016).Amoreinte-andHerbohn,2008;MurrayandBannister,2004;gratedvisionisneeded,inwhichpromotionofOsemeobo,1987),anddistributionoffreeorsubsi-agroforestryincludeseffortstoidentifymarketsfordizedseedlingsisanoptioninsuchcases.Althoughthemixofcropandtreespeciescultivated.thereisariskofunderminingprivatenurseries(GraudalandLillesø,2007),developmentagenciesTheseandmanyotherfactorsarepartofathatdistributefreeorlow-costplantingmaterialgeneralfailuretoadequatelyconsiderlocalcanavoidthisproblemiftheythemselvespurchasecontexts(Coe,SinclairandBarrios,2014).Thefromprivatenurseries(CorneliusandMiccolis,latterauthorsproposean“options-by-context”,2018).Inthisway,theycanstrengthenemergingco-learningapproachinwhichdifferentagrofor-germplasm-supplysystemsbyactingasintermedi-estryinterventions(potentiallyincludinginnova-ariesbetweennurseriesandfarmersthataretootioninpolicy,advisoryservices,institutionsandpoorortoodistanttopurchasefromthem.valuechains,aswellasinproductionsystems)areconsideredinrelationtolocalsocial,economic,Researchbiophysicalandpoliticalcontexts.EnumeratingthefullrangeofresearchneedsinagroforestryresearchisbeyondthescopeofthisGermplasmTheavailabilityofgermplasmhaslongbeen517millionhaperyear,100seedlingsperha,2seedsperconsideredaconstrainttothescaling-upoftree-seedlingproduced.plantingbysmallholders(CavenessandKurtz,1993;Franzeletal.,2001;Kakuru,Doreenand240thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5overview.Itisimportant,however,tostressthatinvolvecombiningaquaculturewithothercompo-theagroforestryresearchagendamustreflectthenents(integratedaquacultureandthespecializedfullscopeofagroforestry,i.e.fromlandscape-levelcaseofaquaponics)andthethirdcoverstheuseeffects(e.g.relationshipsbetweentreesandwaterofmultipleaquaticspecies(polyculture)inthesupply,oroptimumconfigurationsforbiodiver-contextofaquacultureitself.Thefinalsubsectionsityobjectives)toplot-level,andincludingsocial-discussestrendsintheuseofdiversificationprac-scienceresearchaswellasthehithertomoredom-ticesinaquacultureandpresentsfindingsfrominantbiophysicalresearch.thecountryreportsonthelevelsof(andtrendsin)theuseofpolycultureandaquaponicspractices.Integrationofresearchintodevelopmentisessentialtothescalingupofagroforestry.AsIntegratedaquaculturenotedabove,potentialagroforestryinterventionsMuchofmodernaquacultureoperatesinrelativeneedtobeadaptedtospecificlocalcontexts.Thisisolationfromothertypesoffoodandagriculturalmayrequireformalplannedcomparisonsnestedproductionandwithlittleattentiontoitsimpactswithindevelopmentactivities(Coeetal.,2017).on,orinteractionswith,surroundingecosystemsandbiodiversity(seeChapter3forfurtherdiscus-5.5.4DiversificationpracticessionoftheimpactsonBFA).Traditionalaquaculture,inaquacultureincontrast,isnotanisolatedoperationbutratheranintegralcomponentoflocalfarmingsystems,Introductionandismanagedinaccordancewithfarmers’overallRecentdecadeshaveseenageneralupwardstrategiesfortheuseoftheirlabourcapacity,landtrendintheshareofaquacultureproductioninandotherresources(DabbadieandMikolasek,totalfishproductionacrossallcontinents(FAO,2015).Suchsystemsareoftenreferredtoas“inte-2018a).Aquacultureaccountedfor47percentgratedaquaculture”(Edwards,LittleandDemaine,oftotalworldfishproductionin2016,upfrom2002;FAO,IIRRandWorldFishCenter,2001;Nhan42percentin2012and31percentin2004(FAO,etal.,2007;vanderZijppetal.,eds.,2007).2016k,2018a).Giventhatproductionfromcapturefisheriesisfairlystable(FAO,2018a),itisA2001reviewofintegratedagriculture–likelythataquaculturewillbethemainsourceofaquaculture(FAO,IIRRandWorldFishCenter,futuregrowthinthefisheriessector.2001)identifiedawiderangeofsystemswithinthiscategory:Aquacultureisverydiverseintermsoftherangeofspecies,environmentsandproductionsystems•grass–fishandembankment–fishsystems–fishutilized.52Italsoincludesarangeofdiversifica-pondsintegratedwithvegetablecropsandtionpractices.Thecountry-reportingguidelinesgrass.Grass,plantwastesandvegetablecut-invitedcountriestoprovideinformationbothontingsarefedtograsscarp(Ctenopharyngodon“diversity-basedpractices”inaquaculture,includ-idella)orotherherbivorousfishspecies;ingspecificallyonpolycultureandaquaponics,andon“mixedsystems”,includingintegrated•seasonalpondsandditches–componentsaquaculture,i.e.systemsinwhichaquacultureisofotherfarmingsystemsthatbecomeinun-integratedwithcroporlivestockproduction.Thedatedforaperiodoftheyear,allowingfishfirstthreesubsectionsbelowpresentanoverviewstockingandculture;ofsuchpractices.Thefirsttwocoversystemsthat•livestock–fishintegrationsystemsfeaturing52FAOestimatesthatabout598aquaticspeciesarecurrentlychickens,ducksorpigs–typicallyinvolvingfarmedaroundtheworld,includingseaweeds,molluscs,theplacementofalivestockpenorcageovercrustaceans,fishandothergroups(FAO,2018a).Thisnumberornexttoafishpondsothatwastefeedandisincreasingveryfast,astherewereonly472aquaticspeciesmanuredropintothepond,directlyfeedingreportedlyfarmedin2006(ibid.).thefishorfertilizingthewatertoincreaseprimaryproductivity;thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE241STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartC•rice–fishsystems–integrationoffishandthatitistestingtheapplicationofrice–fishotheraquaticspeciesintoricepaddies.Thisfarmingatthreepilotsitestoexplorethesystem’stypicallyrequiresspecificwater-managementpotentialforuseonalargerscale.practicestoprovidesufficientwaterfortheaquaticspecies,whichmaybewildspeciesAroundtheworld,integratedaquaculturethatenterthesystemoftheirownaccordorremainsthemaingatewayintosustainablefishpro-species(fishorshrimps)thataredeliberatelyduction(orsustainableintensificationoffishpro-introduced;andduction)forsmall-ormedium-scalefarmerswholackaccesstoinputssuchasgood-qualityfeeds.•afewexamplesinvolvingshrimp(incoastalItisseenasanefficientwayofrecyclingnutrientsareas)andprawn(infreshwaterareas)–andorganicmatter(Ahmed,WardandSaint,2014;integrationmayinvolverotationalcropping,Billard,1986;Edwards,1980;MoriartyandPullin,i.e.alternationwithriceproduction.Inmoreeds.,1987)andcanprovideeconomicbenefitsatabrackishwater,shrimpmaybeintegratedlevelsimilarto(andfrequentlymuchhigherthan)withfish,seaweedsormolluscs.Themorethoseobtainablefromalternativeagriculturaltraditionalsystemsaretidaltrappondsthatorotherruralactivities(Berg,2002;Nhanetal.,capturewildaquaticspecies,whichmayor2007;SimonandBenhamou,2009).Despitethesemaynotbefed.benefits,thedevelopmentofintegratedaqua-culturefacesanumberofchallenges.ThemostIntegratedsystemshavebeenadvocatedasasignificantareprobablycommercial,culturalandmeansofincreasingland-andwater-useefficiencylegal,asmanyconsumersaroundtheworldregardandnutrientrecycling(Nhanetal.,2006).However,theuseofmanuresandsimilarorganicmatterasstudieshaveshownthatintegratedsystemsareproblematic.Theuseofsuchwastesinanimalcomplextomanage,asmaximizingbenefitstoproductionisforbiddenbylawinsomecountries.farmerswhileminimizingnegativeenvironmentalRegulatoryissuesofthiskind,alongwiththeimpactsnotonlyrequiresgoodmanagementofthecomplexityinvolvedinthemanagementofinte-pondsubsystemitself,butalsoeffectiveintegra-gratedsystemsandtheincreasingavailabilityandtionofthesubsystemwithotherfarmingactivitiesaffordabilityoffish-farmingfeedsinAsiainrecent(DabbadieandMikolasek,2015).decades,mayberesponsibleforthesharpdeclineinintegratedaquacultureobservedinthisregionRice–fishfarmingisprobablyoneoftheoldestandelsewhere(Edwards,2015).integratedfish–cropsystems,anddevelopedthroughakindofco-evolutionbetweenagri-Anotherchallengetothedevelopmentofinte-cultureandaquaculture.OncefoundmostlyingratedaquacultureisthefactthatsuchsystemsAsia,ithasnowspreadtootherregionsofthehaveupperyieldlimitsassociatedwithinternalworld(HalwartandGupta,2004).Insomecoun-effectssuchasdecreasingoxygenlevels,causedtries,suchasMadagascar,itisthedominantfish-bytheadditionoforganicmattertothewater,productionsystemandplaysamajorroleindiver-andthepossibleaccumulationoftoxiccom-sifyingdietsandimprovingnutrition,particularlypounds(ammonia,nitrite,etc.).Whileintegratedinremoteruralareas.Thesystemhassometimesaquacultureisaneconomicallyviableactivityinbeenintroducedinresponsetoexternaldrivers.manyregionsoftheworld,itisnotexpectedtoForexample,inSenegal,aftertwodecadesofbeabletomeetpredictedfuturelevelsofdemanddroughthadledtoexpansionofmangroveareasforfish.However,thecurrentglobalimbalanceandaresultingsalinizationofsurfaceandgroundintheproductionanduseoforganicwasteandwater,lowlandricefarmersbuiltfishpondsalongmanuresmaycreateopportunitiesforintegratedtheforeshoretoprotecttheirfieldsagainsttheaquaculturetoreinventitselfthroughthedevel-inflowofsaltwaterandbegantoproducefishopmentoftechnologiessuchasinsectorplankton(Diallo,1998;citedbyHalwartandGupta,2004).production(Edwards,2015).Amongthecountryreports,BurkinaFasomentions242thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Figure5.6AnexampleofanaquaponicsystemThebiologicalcomponentsintheaquaponicprocess:ﬁsh,plantsandbacteriaH2OFishproducingwaste(includingammonia)+BacteriaconvertingNutrientsH2OammoniatonitrateAirpumpPlantsutilizingnitrateAirFishtankWaterﬂowH2OSource:Somervilleetal.,2014.OxygenforplantsandﬁshAquaponicsforexampleinurbanareas(aquaponicssystemsAquaponicsisthesymbioticintegrationofcanbesetupinlocationssuchasbackyards,roof-aquaculture(fishfarming)andhydroponicstopsandbalconies),inaridzonesandonlow-lying(thecultivationofplantsinwaterwithoutsoil)islands(ibid.).withinaclosedrecirculatingsystem(FAO,2016k)(Figure5.6).GiventhatitcombinescropandRecirculatingaquaculturesystemsandhydro-aquaticproduction,aquaponicscanberegardedponicshavebothbecomewidespreadbecauseasaspecializedkindofmixedproductionsystem.of(amongotherbenefits)thehighyieldsandFromtheaquaticperspective,itcanbeconsid-high-qualityproductstheysupply,theirefficienteredaspecializedkindofintegratedmultitrophicuseoflandandwaterandtheireasymanagementaquaculture(IMTA)(seebelow).(includingintermsofpollutioncontrol)(Somervilleetal.,2014).However,combiningthesetwosystemsAquaponicsisregardedasapotentialwayof(i.e.aquaponics)canbecomplicatedandexpensive,obtaininghigheryieldswithlesslabour,lessland,andrequiresreliableaccesstoelectricity,fishseedlessfertilizer,lesspesticideandmuchlesswaterandplantseed(ibid.).Anotherfactorthatneedstousage,andofovercomingsomeofthechallengesbeconsideredbeforeinvestinginlargecommercialconfrontingtraditionalagricultureinthefaceofaquaponicssystemsisaccesstomarketswherecon-freshwatershortages,climatechange,soildegra-sumersarewillingtopaypremiumpricesforlocallydationandtheneedtoreducethenutrientpollu-produced,pesticide-freevegetables(FAO,2016k).tionofwaterbodies(FAO,2016k).ItworkswellinThemainbenefitsandchallengesofaquaponicsplaceswherethesoilispoorandwaterisscarce,aresummarizedinTable5.6.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE243STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable5.6MajorbenefitsandchallengesofaquaponicfoodproductionBenefitsChallenges•Sustainableandintensivefoodproduction•Highinitialstart-upcostscomparedwithsoilvegetableproduction•Twoproducts(fishandvegetables)producedfromonenitrogensourceorhydroponics(fishfood)•Knowledgeoffish,bacteriaandplantproductionneeded•Extremelywaterefficient•Doesnotrequiresoil•Fishandplantrequirementsdonotalwaysmatchperfectly•Doesnotusefertilizersorchemicalpesticides•Highyieldsandhigh-qualityproducts•Notrecommendedinplaceswhereculturedfishandplantscannot•Organic-likemanagementandproductionmeettheiroptimaltemperatureranges•Highlevelsofbiosecurityandlowrisksfromexternalcontaminants•Highcontrolofproductionleadingtolowerlosses•Reducedmanagementchoicescomparedwithstand-alone•Canbeusedonnon-arablelandsuchasdeserts,degradedsoiloraquacultureorhydroponicsystems(nopesticidesfortheplants,noantibioticsforthefish)salty,sandyislands•Createslittlewaste•Mistakesoraccidentscancausecollapseofthesystem•Dailytasks,harvestingandplantingarelabour-saving•Provideseconomicalproductionofeitherfamilyfoodorcashcrops•Dailymanagementmandatory•Constructionmaterialsandinformationbasearewidelyavailable•EnergydemandingSource:AdaptedfromSomervilleetal.(2014).•Requiresreliableaccesstoelectricity,fishseedandplantseed•AquaponicsalonewillnotprovideacompletedietPolycultureinthecontextofaquacultureproductionefficiencytoencompassotherobjec-Inthecontextofaquaculture,thetermpolyculturetivessuchasimprovingwaterquality.Systemsthatreferstotheproductionofmorethanoneaquaticspecificallytargetproductionatdifferenttrophicspeciesinthesamepondorsystem.Themotivatinglevelsarebecomingmorewidespread.Thefirstprinciplebehindthisapproachisthatraisingacom-subsectionbelowdiscussespolycultureinitstradi-binationofspecieswithcomplementaryfeedingtionalsenseinthecontextoffishponds.Thenexthabitsandnichesinthesamesystemmeansthatsubsectionprovidesabriefoverviewofmarinefoodandwaterresourcescanbeutilizedmoreeffi-polyculturesystemsandthenextexpandsonthecientlyandproductionperunitareamaximized.conceptofIMTA.However,althoughthefeedingnichesofsomeofthespeciesusedinpolyculturearereasonablyFish-pondpolyculturewellknown,predictingsynergiesandantagonismsFish-pondpolycultureinvolvesarangeofdiffer-betweenspeciesremainsdifficult.Thebalanceentpractices.Forexample,Rahman,VargaandbetweencomplementarityandcompetitionamongChowdhuryeds.(1992)distinguishthreemaintypestheculturedspeciesisthereforeakeyissueinpoly-(extensive,semi-intensiveandintensivesystems),culture(AzimandLittle,2006).basedonlevelsofmanagement(i.e.fishstockingdensityandcombination,nutritionalinputs,etc.).Polycultureoriginallyreferredtothepracticeofraisingmultiplefishspeciesinapond-culture•Extensivepolycultureinvolvesnoadditionsystem.However,theconcepthasexpandedtoofnutritionalinputs(i.e.manureorfeed)toincludetheraisingofmultipleaquaticspeciesthesystem.Thepolyculturedanimalsdependbelongingtoarangeoftaxainarangeofdiffer-solelyonthefoodthatisnaturallyavailableentcontexts.Apolycultureunitinthissensemayintheenvironment.Suchsystemsprovideinvolveseveraldiversecomponents,forexamplealowerfishproductionyieldsthanintensivefishcage,aseaweedbedandshellfishlines.Goalssystems,buttheyalsorequiremuchlesshaveshiftedfromasimplefocusonmaximizingeffortandarelesscostly.244thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5•Semi-intensivepracticesinvolvetheaddi-culturesectorfocusesmainlyonfreshwaterfish,intionofmanuretopromotegrowthofphy-particularthecommoncarp(Cyprinuscarpio)andtoplankton,butdonotinvolveaddingfeedtherainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss).Thesupplements,oronlyinverylimitedamounts.formerisoftenbredinsemi-intensivepolycultureSuchsystems,therefore,requireadditionalsystemsandfedonnon-processedgrain.Intheseexpenditure,butalsoprovidehigheroutputsystems,themostimportantspeciesraisedwiththanextensivesystems.theEuropeancarpistheChinesecarp(Procyprismera),followedbythecruciancarp(Carassius•Intensivesystemsprovidethehighestlevelscarassius),tenchandsturgeons.Sturgeonsareofoutput,butarealsothemostexpensivethemostimportantgroupofspeciesraisedwithtooperate.Theyinvolvetheuseofhigh-trout.Hungarymentionstheuseofsevenmajorqualitypelletfeedthatcoversallthenutri-fishspeciesinpolyculture,withcarpbeingthetionalrequirementsofthecultivatedanimals.mostfrequentlyused.Theyalsoinvolvetheuseofwateraera-tionandrecirculationtechniquestoensureFish-pondpolyculturepracticesprovidenumer-waterqualityremainshigh.Becauseoftheseousbenefits.Thepresenceofmultiplespeciesfeedingandmanagementmethods,intensivewithdifferentfeedinghabitspromoteseffec-systemsareabletomaintainhigherstockingtiveuseoffoodresources.Forexample,partiallydensitiesthantheothertypesofsystem.digestedexcretafromthemacrovegetation-feedinggrasscarpcanbeeatenbythebottom-AnotherwayofclassifyingpolyculturesystemsdwellingcoprofagousEuropeancarp(Rahman,isonthebasisofspatialorganization.InthisVargaandChowdhury,eds.,1992).Multiplerespect,thethreemaintypesaredirect,cage-cum-predatorspeciescanreducetheprevalenceofpondandsequential.trophicdeadlocks53(LazardandDabbadie,2002).Polyculturecanalsoenhancetheavailabilityof•Directpolycultureinvolveshousingtwoornaturalfoodswithinthesystem.Forexample,morespeciesinthesamepondoraquacul-thefeedingactionsoffishsuchasthecommontureunit,withoutpartitioning.Thismeanscarpandthebottom-dwellingmrigal(Cirrhinusthattheremaybedirectcontactbetweenthemrigala)resuspendnutrientsinthewaterandspecies,soextraaerationisoftenrequiredaeratesediments,thuspromotingnutrientcycling(dependingonstockingdensities)toensure(Rahman,VargaandChowdhury,eds.,1992).thereissufficientoxygeninthesystem.Polyculturecanalsocontributetoimproving•Cage-cum-pondpolyculturealsoinvolveswaterqualityandthecontrolofundesirablehousingmorethanonespeciesinthesameorganisms.Forexample,stockingphytoplankto-pond.However,atleastonespeciesiskeptphagoussilverandvariegatedcarphelpstokeepwithinacageornet-likeenclosuretosepa-harmfulalgalblooms(averycommonphenom-rateitfromtheother(s).enoninmosttropicalmanure-fedponds)undercontrol.Variouspredatorsoftilapiafryareused•Sequentialpolycultureisanintegratedaqua-tocontrolpondoverpopulationinsemi-intensiveculturesysteminwhichwaterflowsthroughpolyculturesystems(BogneSadeuetal.,2013;aseriesofunits,eachhousingaseparateDabbadie,1996;Kaewpaitoon,1992;ElNagar,species.Thissystemrequiresmorespace2007).Anotherbenefitofpolyculturecanbeandgreaterenergyinput,andthereforehasanincreaseinthenutritionalqualityofthefishhighercosts.However,itcanbeveryusefulharvest(Box5.13).insituationswherethereareantagonisticrelationshipsorcompetitionbetweenthe53Atrophicdeadlockisacomponentofthefoodwebthatisnotculturedspecies.consumedbyanyother.Wherethecountryreportsareconcerned,detaileddescriptionsofpolyculturepracticescomelargelyfromEurope.Polandstatesthatitsaqua-thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE245STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.13Fishpolycultureforimprovednutrition–anexamplefromBangladeshStudiesinruralBangladeshhaveshownthatsmallfishBangladeshiwomanshowingmola(Amblypharyngodonmola)culturedmakeup50percentto80percentofthetotalfishintakeinherbackyardpond.©WorldFish.ofthelocalpopulationinthepeakfish-productionseason.Althoughtheyareconsumedinsmallquantities,theSuccessfultrialswiththepolycultureofsmallandlargefrequencyofsmall-fishintakeishigh.Asmanyspeciesarefishspecieshavealsobeenconductedinricefieldsandeatenwhole–completewithhead,visceraandbones–theywetlands.Theapproach,therefore,hasthepotentialtobeareparticularlyrichinbioavailablecalcium,andsomearewidelyimplemented.However,tofullyrealizeitspotentialalsorichinvitaminA,ironandzinc.Inareaswheresuitabletoimprovenutrition,furtherdataareneededonnutrientfishresourcesareavailableandfishisconsumedonabioavailability,onintrahouseholdseasonalconsumptionregularbasis,thereisscopeforagriculturalpoliciesandandoncleaning,processingandcookingmethodsforsmallprogrammestopromotetheproductionofmicronutrient-richfishspecies.smallfishandtherebyincreasepeople’sfishconsumptionandimprovetheirnutritionandhealth.Sources:FAO,2016kandThilsted,2012.TheresultsofmanystudiesandfieldtrialsconductedinBangladeshwithcarpsandsmallfishspeciesinpondpolyculturehaveshownthatthepresenceofthesmall,native,vitaminA-richmolacarplet(Amblypharyngodonmola)greatlyimprovesthenutritionalqualityofthetotalfishharvest,withoutaffectingthegrowthofthecarps.Molabreedinthepond,andthefrequentharvestingofsmallquantitiesfavourshomeconsumption.Productionofonly10kgofmola/pond/yearintheestimated4millionsmallseasonalpondsinBangladeshcouldmeettheannualrecommendedfishintakeof6millionchildren.Challengesinvolvedinfish-pondpolycultureareraisedinapond/tank/cage,thoseinvolvingincludetheneedtostriketherightbalancesequentialintegration(inwhichaflowofwastesbetweencomplementarityandcompetitionisdirectedbetweencultureunitscontainingdif-amongthefishspeciesused(LazardandDabbadie,ferentspecies),andthoseinvolvingtemporalinte-2002).Stockingdensityhastobecarefullycon-gration(inwhichspeciesarehousedsequentiallytrolled.Ifitistoohigh,fishyieldsdecrease,aswithinthesameholdingsite,withthespeciesthereislessnaturallyavailablefoodperindividualhousedlaterinthesequencebenefitingfromanimal.Anothercomplicatingfactoristheneedthewastesgeneratedbythosehousedearlier).tosortthedifferentfishspeciesatharvesttime,Sequentialpracticesincludesystemsthatinvolvewhichinvolvesextraworkandnegativelyaffectstheuseofmangrovesasbiofilters.Theselatterthebenefit−costratioofthesystem(ibid.).systemscanbeviewedasakindofintegratedaquacultureinthesensediscussedabove(i.e.toMarinesystemsinvolve“cross-sectoral”integrationofaquacultureSeveraltypesofmarineaquacultureinvolvetheandforestry).Althoughintegratedapproachesintegrateduseofmultiplespecies(Troell,2009).(whethercross-sectoralorwithinaquaculture)Suchsystemsincludethoseinwhichseveralspeciesgenerallyappeartobelesswidelyappliedin246thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5marinethaninfreshwaterenvironments,theneedStatusandtrendstomitigatetheproblemofexcessnutrient/organicThereappearstobenosystematicglobalmonitor-mattergenerationinintensiveaquaculturehasingofthestatusandtrendsintheapplicationofhelpedtodriveinterestintheconceptofIMTA.diversificationpracticesinaquaculture.However,itisclearthattherelativecontributionsoftheIntegratedmultitrophicaquaculturevarioustypesofsystemsdescribedinthissectionAsthenameimplies,thedistinguishingfeatureofarechanginginresponsetoeconomictransfor-IMTAistheexplicitincorporationofspeciesfrommations,technicaldevelopments,constraintsondifferenttrophiclevels(ChopinandRobinson,space,systemintensification,climatechange,2004).Barrington,ChopinandRobinson(2009)diseasesandotherdrivers(Chopinetal.,2001;describeIMTAasanapproachthatcombinestheEdwards,2015;Powelletal.,2018;Somervilleetcultivationoffedaquaculturespecies(e.g.finfish/al.,2014;Wangetal.,2015):shrimp)withthatofspecies(e.g.shellfish/herbivo-rousfish)thatfilterorganicmatter(e.g.uneaten•Extensiveintegratedaquacultureisdeclin-feedandfaeces)fromthewaterandspecies(e.g.ing,mainlyduetopressuresonlandandseaweed)thatextractdissolvedinorganicnutri-waterresources.Thereisatendencytowardsents(e.g.nitrogenandphosphorus).monoculturesystemswithhigher-intensityproduction.IMTAisbasedonthepremisethatcombiningaquaticproductionatdifferenttrophiclevelscan•Somepolyculturesystemsmaybelosingallowaquaculturetohaveaminimalimpactonground,asthehighvalueofcertainspeciestheenvironmentwhileimprovingtheprofitabilityandthespecializationofoperationstendtoofraisingmultiplespecies.Althoughithasbeenfavourtheraisingofsingleratherthanmul-demonstratedthat,inmanycases,IMTAprovidestiplespecies.economicbenefits,itmaynotalwaysprovidesignificantbenefittofishfarmersintermsof•Water-quality,environmentandhealthissuesdirectlyincreasingtheirprofits(Troell,2009).Thisaredrivingeffortstoexploreinnovativemaynotmatter,however,ifIMTAprovidestheapproachestointegrationthathelptolimitfarmerswithotherbenefits,suchasimprovingwaterexchangeandreduceeffluentimpactstheirabilitytomeetenvironmentalstandards.Thisinsomefreshwaterandbrackishwatersystems.latterbenefitmayprovedecisivefromthecom-mercialpointofview,asitmayincreasemarket•Healthanddiseaseissuesareforcingsomeaccess.Possiblechallengestotheexpansionofintensivesystemstomixspecies.IMTAsystemsincludeissuesrelatedtothesocialacceptanceofthetechnologyinsomepartsofthe•Increasinginterestintheuseofmarinespaceworldandthoserelatedtomanagingintegrationforaquacultureandtheenvironmentalcon-attheleveloftheproductionarearatherthanatstraintstothisareprovidingincentivesfortheleveloftheindividualoperator.Theecolog-integratedmariculture.icalfunctioningofIMTAalsoneedstobebetterunderstood.Muchprogresshasbeenmadein•Urbanizationandinterestinsmallholderrecentyearsintermsofimprovingunderstandingvegetableandfishculturearehelpingtoofnutrientrecycling,mitigationofbenthicimpactdrivetheemergenceofaquaponics.andvariousotherbenefitsprovidedbyIMTA(e.g.controlofdiseasesorsealice).However,Countries’responsesonthestatusandtrendsthereisaneedforfurtherresearchtosupporttheoftheadoptionofpolycultureandaquaponicsindevelopmentofefficientsite-specificguidelinesdifferentproductionsystemsaresummarizedinforsustainableoperations.Table5.1andTable5.2.Nearlyhalfofthe25coun-triesthatreporttheadoptionofpolycultureand/oraquaponicsindicatethatthesepracticesareusedinfedaquaculturesystems.One-thirdoftheseindicatetheuseofthesepracticesinmixedproductionsystems.Whilethenumberofcountriesreportingthesepracticesislow,increasingtrendsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE247STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCaremorecommonlyreportedthandecreasingbeendevelopedforuseinhigh-input,standard-trendsacrossalltheproductionsystemswhereizedproductionsystems,andmaynotprovidethetheyarereportedtobepresent.bestreturnsundertheapproachesdescribedinthissectionandelsewhereinthischapter.5.5.5NeedsandprioritiesTherearesignificantmarketissuesinvolvedDespitethediversityofthevariouspracticesindiversification,anddemandaspectsareasdescribedinthesubsectionsabove,somecommonimportantassupplyones.Appropriatepoliciesneedsandprioritiescanbeidentified.Obtainingcanplayanimportantrole.Thecountryreportsmore-completeknowledgeofwherediversifica-provideanumberofexamplesofwhereandhowtionislikelytobringthegreatestbenefitswiththesecanhelp.Improvedpartnershipsbetweenrespecttoproduction,sustainabilityandthedeliv-theprivateandpublicsectorsarealsodesirable.eryofecosystemservicesisakeyconcern.GivenOtherimportantelementsintheimplementa-thatdiversificationpracticesoftencutacrosstionofeffectivediversificationstrategiesincludetheboundariesoftraditionaldisciplines,cross-supportfromnationalagriculturalextensionsectoralcollaborationisessentialinthisregard.systems,clearidentificationofbenefitsforpro-Thefurtherdevelopmentandwiderapplica-ducersandawillingnesstobuildproducercapac-tionofthe“options-by-context”approach(seeityandknowledge.AlsoimportantistheneedtoSection5.5.3)orofsimilarapproachesthatrelatemonitortheeffectivenessofdiversificationpro-generaldiversificationconceptstospecificben-jectsandprogrammesfromvariousperspectives,efitsinparticularsituationsmaybehelpfulinincludingoveralleffectivenessintermsofpro-identifyingdesirablediversificationpathways.ductivity,livelihoods,sustainabilityandeffectsThisneedstotakeaccountofthewaysinwhichonthestatusofBFA.diversificationfitsintothewiderproductionland-scapeandtoreflectnotonlythecharacteristicsof5.6Managementpracticesandtheproductionsystemandrelevantmarkets,butproductionapproachesalsostakeholderconcernsandinterests.Thefullinvolvementofallstakeholdersandthedevelop-•Countriesreportthatmanagementpracticesandmentofgovernancesystemsthatcantakeaccountproductionapproachespromotingtheconservationofdifferencesinobjectivesandinterestsisanandsustainableuseofbiodiversityforfoodandimportantaspectofeffectivediversification.agriculture(BFA)areincreasinglybeingused.Amajorconstraintidentifiedformanytypes•OrganicagriculturecontinuestoexpandwithofdiversificationinitiativeisalackofavailabilitysupportfromgovernmentsandNGOs.Certifiedofthematerialsneeded,whethercropvarieties,organicagriculturenow(2018)covers58millionhaanimalbreedsorpopulationsofaquaticorforestworldwide,morethan1percentofglobalagriculturalspecies.Thesupplyofplantingmaterialsisiden-land.Monitoringnon-certifiedorganicagricultureistifiedasparticularlyimportantforagroforestrydifficultandthisreducestheaccuracyoftrenddata.species,butismentionedbycountriesinarangeofdifferentcontexts.Thereisaneedfornewand•Awidevarietyofmanagementpracticesareimaginativesupplysystems–supportedbyrele-increasinglybeingusedtopreserveandenhancesoilvantnationalinstitutions–thatsatisfyproducers’biodiversity,althoughglobaldataonimplementationrequirementsforappropriate,high-qualitymate-areunevenandlimited.Countriesgenerallyidentifyrialattherighttime.Thiswillrequirenotonlytheneedtoexpandmonitoringofbeneficialsoilimproveddeliveryofdiverseandwell-adaptedspeciesandimprovethedevelopmentandapplicationmaterialstowheretheyareneeded–amajorchal-ofsustainablesoilmanagementpractices.lengeinitself–butalsoconservinganddevelopingthem.Manywidelyusedvarietiesandbreedshave•Conservationagriculture(anapproachbasedonminimizingsoildisturbance,maintainingsoilcover248thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5andcropdiversification)isalreadypractisedonThelistofpracticesandapproachesdiscussed180millionha,over12percentofglobalarableland,shouldnotbeconsideredexhaustive.Moreover,asandhasbeenincreasingatarateof10millionha/yearnotedintheintroductiontothischapter,althoughforthelastdecade.eachpracticeorapproachispresentedseparately,•Althoughcountriesappeartoindicateanincreaseintherearemanylinkagesandoverlapsbetweentheuptakeofintegratedplantnutrientmanagement,them.Manyarebasedonsimilarunderlyingprinci-dataaretoolimitedtoallowfirmstatementsaboutples.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthemainobjectivetrends.Betterindicatorsareneededtosupportglobalinthissectionistoreviewthestatusandtrendsofmonitoringefforts.implementationofeachpracticeorapproachrather•Awarenessofthebenefitsofintegratedpestthantodrawdefinitiveconclusionsregardingtheirmanagementamongconsumers,farmers,governmentsimpactsonBFA.Eachsubsectionintroducestheandinternationalagenciesisincreasinganditsuseisrespectivepracticeorapproach,reviewsliteratureincreasinginmostproductionsystems.(whereavailable)onitsstatusandtrendsanddis-•Pollinationmanagementiswidespreadandcountriescussestherespectivecountry-reportresponses.reportthatitisincreasinglybeingimplemented.Promotingpollinatorscanbedonethroughavariety5.6.1Organicagricultureofmanagementchoicesatfarmandecosystemlevels,mainlybyincreasinghabitatdiversity,reducingOrganicagricultureisdescribedinthecountry-theuseofpotentiallyharmfulproductsandavoidingreportingguidelinesas“aproductionmanage-soildisturbance.mentsystemwhichpromotesandenhancesagro-•ManyBFA-focusedpracticesarerelativelycomplexecosystemhealth,includingbiodiversity,biologicalandrequireagoodunderstandingofthelocalcycles,andsoilbiologicalactivity.Itemphasizestheecosystem.Theycanbeknowledgeintensive,useofmanagementpracticesinpreferencetothecontextspecificandprovidebenefitsonlyintheuseofoff-farminputs,takingintoaccountthatrelativelylongterm.Capacitydevelopmentandregionalconditionsrequirelocallyadaptedsystems.technicalandpolicysupportareneededinorderThisisaccomplishedbyusing,wherepossible,toovercomethesechallengesandpromotewideragronomic,biologicalandmechanicalmethods,asimplementation.opposedtousingsyntheticmaterials,tofulfilanyspecificfunctionwithinthesystem.”55WhilesomeThissectiondiscussesvariousmanagementprac-productionsystemsmanagedinthiswayarecerti-ticesandproductionapproachesthatmayfavourfiedasorganicbyofficialbodies,others–especiallytheconservationandsustainableuseofBFA.innon-OECDcountries–arenot.ManyfarmsthatThepracticesandapproachesinquestionwerepractisedefactoorganicagriculturearenotcerti-presentedinthecountry-reportingguidelinesfied.Organicstandardscanbeappliedtoanytypeas“practicesthatareconsideredtofavourtheofproductionsystem,includingcrop,livestock,maintenanceanduseofBFA.”54Countrieswereaquaculture,beekeeping,forestandmixedsystems.invitedtoreportontheextentofimplementationMajorcommoditiesproducedunderorganicstand-ofeachpracticeorapproach,ontrendsinthelevelardsincludebananas,cocoa,coffee,cotton,forestofimplementationovertheprecedingtenyearsproducts,palmoil,soybeans,canesugarandteaandontheimpactsthepracticeorapproachhas(WillerandLernoud,2018),althoughmostcommod-onBFA(seeTable5.1,Table5.2andFigure5.1foritiesarenowavailableincertifiedorganicform.56summariesofresponses).Characteristicsoforganicagricultureincludemaximizeduseofnaturalalternativestosynthetic54Someofthepracticesandapproachesincludedinthe55ThisdefinitionisadaptedfromFAOandWHO(1999).guidelinesinthiscontextarediscussedaboveinthesectionson56StatisticsonorganicproductioncanbefoundontheFiBLecosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproaches(Section5.3)andondiversificationinproductionsystems(Section5.5).Statisticswebsite:http://statistics.fibl.org/world.htmlthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE249STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCinputs(pesticides,fertilizers,veterinaryprod-establishingpermanentstripsoffloweringplantsucts,etc.),afocusonsoilhealth(useofcompost,atthemarginsofcropfieldsattractspollinatorsminimaltillage,covercrops,greenmanure,etc.),(seeSection5.6.7)andarthropodbiologicalpestdiversificationofspecies,breedsorvarieties(poly-controlagents(seeSection5.6.6)byprovidingculture,rotations,companioncrops,animal–plantthemwithshelterandalternativefoodsourcesintegration,etc.),maintenanceorestablishment(Landis,WrattenandGurr,2000).ofsemi-naturalhabitats(grassstrips,flowerstrips,hedges,etc.),livestockmanagementthatpriv-AccordingtotheResearchInstituteofOrganicilegesanimalwelfare(cage-freemanagement,Agriculture,57.8millionhaofagriculturallandaccesstoopenfields,etc.),sustainablepasture(1.2percentoftheglobaltotal),includingatleastmanagementanduseoflocalfeedsources15millionhaofcroplandandalmost38millionha(IFOAM,2017).Theproductionofirradiatedofgrassland,57andinvolving2.7millionproduc-productsandgeneticallymodifiedorganisms,ers,58wereunderorganicproductionorunderandtheiruseinanimalfeed,isnotallowed(ibid.).conversiontoorganicproductionin2016.Becauseoftheenvironmentalbenefitsitprovides,Worldwide,theareaoforganicagriculturallandorganicagricultureisconsideredtobean(agri)hasincreasedfive-foldsince1999(WillerandenvironmentalindicatorbyinstitutionssuchastheLernoud,2018).CertifiedorganicproductsremainOECD,FAO,theEuropeanEnvironmentalAgencyasmallpercentageofthetotalvolumeofaquacul-andEurostat(EEA,2016;Eurostat,2011,2018;tureproduction.Asof2016,thereportedglobalFAO,2018p;OECD,2013).Certificationstandardstotalwasabout415000tonnes(anincreaseoffororganicaquacultureremaincontroversial,8percentontheprecedingyear),althoughthewithdebatecontinuingonissuessuchasrecircu-figuresexcludeanumberofcountrieswithmajorlationorcontainmentsystems,feedsources,useaquacultureindustries(ibid.).Organicbeekeep-ofhormones,breedingtechniquesandconversioningisreportedin63countriesandaccountsforperiods(WillerandLernoud,2018).2.1millionbeehives59(2.3percentoftheworld’sbeehivesbasedonFAOSTATdatafor2016)(ibid.).ProductionsystemsmanagedunderorganicTable5.7presentsanumberofindicatorsofthestandardsaretightlylinkedtothesurroundingstatusoforganicagricultureglobally.ecosystems(exceptforthoseinhigh-containmentgreenhouses).Inorganiccropproduction,forThedifficultyinvolvedinmonitoringnon-officialexample,managementinvolvesharnessingeco-organicproductionsystemsisanimportantfactorsystemservicessuchasbiologicalpestcontrol,contributingtogapsininformationonthestatuspollination,nutrientcyclingandwaterretentionandtrendsoforganicagriculture.Manysmall-asdirectorindirectsubstitutesforoff-farminputsholderfarms(e.g.low-inputortraditionalsystems)suchassyntheticpesticidesandfertilizers(MEA,mayproduceaccordingtoorganicstandardsbut2005b).Ecosystemservicesaredeliveredbyassoci-notberecognizedassuchbyofficialbodies,foratedbiodiversitycommunitiesandseveralstudiesexamplebecauseofalackofregulatoryframe-haveshownincreasesintheabundanceanddiver-works,difficultiesregulatorybodiesmayhaveinsityofsuchcommunitiesinorganicproductionreachingandassessingsites,orfarmers’inabilitytosystems(Bengtsson,AhnströmandWeibull,2005;paycertificationfeesortoaccesstheinternationalCostanzoandBàrberi,2013;GastonandSpicer,2004).Thecategoriesofassociatedbiodiversity57Theremainingareaisaccountedforby“otheragriculturalthatbenefitmostfromorganicmanagementinland”(e.g.hedges)andagriculturallandforwhichnodetailsoftermsofabundanceanddiversityarebirds,pred-useareavailable.atoryandparasitoidinsects,spiders,pollinators,soil-dwellingorganismsandfieldflora(FiBL,58Thefiguresareconsideredtobeunderestimates,assome2016;ReganoldandWachter,2016).Forexample,countriesreportnumbersofcompanies,projectsorgrowergroupsthatmayinvolveanumberofindividualproducers.5946percentofthesearereportedinLatinAmericaand42percentinEurope.250thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Table5.7IndicatorsofthestatusoforganicagricultureworldwideIndicatorWorldTopregionsCountrieswithorganicproductionsystems178Organicagriculturalland57.8millionhaOceania:27.3millionhaEurope:13.5millionhaLatinAmerica:7.1millionhaOrganicshareoftotalagriculturalland1.2%Oceania:6.5%Europe:2.7%Numberofproducers2.7millionAsia:1080000Africa:729000LatinAmerica:459000Numberofcountrieswithorganicregulations(2015)87Europe:39TheAmericasandtheCaribbean:21SizeoforganicmarketUSD89.7billionNorthAmerica:USD46.3billionEurope:USD35billionNotes:Dataasof2016.Thenumberofproducersmaybeanunderestimateassomecountriesthatcontributeddatareportednumbersofcompanies,projectsorgrowergroupsthatmayinvolveanumberofindividualproducers.Source:WillerandLernoud,2018.organicmarket.Participatoryguaranteeschemesreportorganicaquaculture.Forallproduction-andinternalcontrolsystemsarealternativecerti-systemcategoriesbutone,upwardtrendsintheficationframeworksrecognizedbysomegovern-extentoforganicproductionaremorecommonlyments(e.g.IndiaandBrazil)forinternalmarketsreportedthandownwardtrends.(Gould,2007).SuchframeworksallowgroupsofsmallholderstoassertthattheirproductionfollowsThegenerallypositivetrendsinthelevelsoforganicstandards(orotherrulessuchasfairtrade)adoptionoforganicagriculturearereflectedininaself-organizedway,enablingthemtoaccessthefactthatmanycountryreportsrefertopoliciespremiummarketsandtoberecognizedbyofficialaimedatpromotingtheexpansionoforganicagri-bodiesatrelativelylowcosts(ibid.).culture.Forexample,Bhutannotesitsobjectiveofbecoming100percentorganicby2020.CostaThecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcoun-RicamentionsthatitsNationalDevelopmentPlantriestoprovideinformationontheextentofuse2014–2018projectsa20percentincreaseintheoforganicagricultureindifferentproductionsareaoforganicfarmland.Jordanreportsthatsystems.60ReponsesaresummarizedinTable5.1expansionoforganicagricultureistargetedinitsandTable5.2.Forty-sevenoutof91countriesNationalProgrammeforOrganicFarming(2009)(84percentofreportingOECDmembersandandthatithasestablishedasectionintheMinistry43percentofreportingnon-OECDmembers)indi-ofAgriculturededicatedtoorganicproduction.catethatorganicmanagementispractisedinatAnumberofcountriesmentionlong-standingleastoneproduction-systemcategory.Thesystemsschemessupportingandmonitoringorganicagri-whereorganicagricultureismostfrequentlyculture,forexampletheFederalProgrammeforreportedarerainfedcropsystems,irrigated(non-OrganicFarmingandOtherFormsofSustainablerice)cropsystemsandmixedsystems.OrganicAgricultureinGermanyandtheNationalOrganicproductionislessfrequentlyreportedinlivestockProgramintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.andforestsystems,andfewerthanfivecountries5.6.2Lowexternalinputagriculture60Thequestionnairedidnotdrawadistinctionbetweencertifiedanduncertifiedorganicproduction.Theterm“lowexternalinputagriculture”(LEIA)wascoinedtorefertoasetofagronomicpracticesthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE251STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCthatinvolvereduceduseofinputs(seeds,agro-YengohandSvensson,2008).Herbicide,insec-chemicals,irrigationwater,fuel,etc.)fromoutsideticideandfungicideuseislimitedoravoidedsotheproductionsystem.61Thecountry-reportingastoincreasethepotentialforbiologicalcontrolguidelinesdefinedLEIAas“productionactivitiesbynaturalenemies(Geigeretal.,2010).Practicesthatusesyntheticfertilizersorpesticidesbelowsuchascroprotation,intercroppingandtheuseratescommonlyrecommendedforindustrialofcovercropsdisruptthelifecyclesanddispersaltillageagriculture.Itdoesnotmeaneliminationofpests,diseasesandweeds(LiebmanandDavis,ofthesematerials.Yieldsaremaintainedthrough2000).Cropsandcropresidueswithallelopathicgreateremphasisonagronomicpractices,inte-effectscanalsobeusedtocombatweeds(ibid.).gratedpestmanagement,andutilizationofCropdiversificationalsopromotesimprovementson-farmresources(especiallylabour)andman-tosoilstructure,efficientnutrientcyclingandagement.”LEIAinthissensereferstostrategiesnitrogenfixation(iflegumesareincluded)(Davisthataimtoreducetheneedforexternalinputsetal.,2012;Duruetal.,2015;Power,2010).Theratherthantothemereabsenceoftheiruse,foruseofthesevarioustechniquesmeansthatfarmsexamplebecauseproducersareunabletoaffordmanagedunderLEIAarelikelytoharbourhigheroraccessthem.Thepresenceof“default”LEIAoflevelsofassociatedbiodiversitythanconventionalthelatterkindisnotedinanumberofcountryfarms(Geigeretal.,2010).LEIAapproachesmayreportsfromAfrica.Thereisamajordifferencebemorelabourintensiveandprovidelessoutputbetweensystemsthatjustminenaturalresourcesthanhighexternalinputalternatives(Graves,becauseinputsareunavailable,resultinginlowMatthewsandWaldie,2004).However,intermsproductivityanddecliningproduction,andthoseofprofitabilityloweroutputmaybecompensatedthatinvolvestrategiesthatreducelossesfromforbylowerexpenditureoninputsandhigherthesystemandallowlowuseofexternalinputspricesforproducts(Poux,2008).withoutsacrificingproductionorsustainabil-ity(seeforexampleBox5.17).ThevariousLEIATheuptakeofLEIAsystems(i.e.thedeliberatemovementsactiveindevelopingcountriesaimadoptionofstrategiessuchasthosementionedtodevelopstrategiesthatcanhelpachievefoodaboveratherthanthedefaultabsenceofexter-securitywhilemaintainingalowecologicalfoot-nalinputsbecauseoflackofavailability)oftenprint(Graves,MatthewsandWaldie,2004)andrequiresaredesignoftheagroecosystemandarewellsuitedforimplementationbyresource-investmentinitemssuchasextrasoilamend-poorfarmers(Tripp,2006;VaessenandDeGroot,ments,additionalcropsfordiversification,extra2003).IndevelopedcountriesthetermLEIAcanlabour(humanoranimal)andtraining(MoserbeappliedtovariousstrategiesthatdepartfromandBarret,2003;Tripp,2005,2006;Yengohand“conventional”highexternalinputpractices.Svensson,2008).Theneedfortheseextrainvest-mentsexplains,atleastpartly,whytheadop-KeyLEIAmethodsincludetheuseofgreentionofproposedLEIAstrategieshasnotalwaysandanimalmanuresandcropdiversificationinbeensuccessfulindevelopingcountries(Graves,timeandspace(Graves,MatthewsandWaldie,MatthewsandWaldie,2004;MoserandBarret,2004;LiebmanandDavis,2000;Parretal.,1990;2003).Forexample,aLEIAschemethatwasshowntobecapableofincreasingriceyieldsin61Lowexternalinputagriculturehasbeengivenanumberofsmallholders’fieldsinMadagascarfrom2tonnes/differentnames,forexample“lowexternalinputtechnologyhato4–6tonnes/haprovedtobeunattractiveto(LEIT)”(Tripp,2005,2006),“lowinputfarmingsystems”farmers,asitrequiredadditionallabour(atatime(Parretal.,1990),“low-external-input(LEI)farmingsystems”ofyearwhendemandwasalreadyhigh)andtrain-(LiebmanandDavis,2000),“lowexternalinputagricultureing(MoserandBarret,2003).technologies”(MoserandBarret,2003),“lowexternalinputstrategies”(YengohandSvensson,2008)and“lowexternalCountryresponsesontrendsintheuseofinputsustainableagriculture(LEISA)”(Mendoza,2002).LEIAaresummarizedinTable5.1andTable5.2.252thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Ofthe91reportingcountries,33indicatethatment.InterventionscaninvolveboththedirectLEIAispractisedinoneormoreoftheirproduc-manipulationofthebiologicalcommunity(e.g.tionsystemcategories.LEIAismostfrequentlyintroductionofbeneficialorganisms)andindirectreported(asaproportionofthetotalnumberinterventionsthatalterormaintaintheenviron-ofcountriesreportingtherespectivesystem)formentinwaysthatfavourthepresenceofbenefi-cropandmixedsystems.Whereinformationiscialspeciesorbiodiversityingeneral.TheimpactsprovidedontheextenttowhichLEIAispractised,ofvariousmanagementpracticesonsoilbiodiver-figuresvarygreatlyacrosscountriesandproduc-sityarereviewedbyBeedetal.(2017),Brionestionsystems.However,thetrendsinadoptionareandSchmidt(2017),Cocketal.(2012),D’Hoseetgenerallyincreasingormixed.al.(2018),FAOandITPS(2015),Lehmannetal.(2011),Orgiazzietal.,eds.(2016)andTsiafouli5.6.3Managementpracticesetal.(2015).Keymeansofbenefitingsoilbio-topreserveandenhancesoildiversityincludereducingtheuseofsyntheticbiodiversityfertilizers,pesticidesandherbicides,maintainingorincreasingsoilorganicmatter,andminimizingTheRevisedWorldSoilCharterdefinessustainablesoilerosionanddisturbance.No-tillageagricul-soilmanagementasfollows:ture,agroforestryanddiversifiedcroppingprac-tices,forexample,helptoprovidestablehabitatsSoilmanagementissustainableiftheforsoilorganisms(Clapperton,ChanandLarney,supporting,provisioning,regulating,2007;Prabhuetal.,2015).andculturalservicesprovidedbysoilaremaintainedorenhancedwithoutsignificantlyImplementationofseveralofthemanagementimpairingthesoilfunctionsthatenablethosepracticesandapproachesmentionedinotherservices.Thebalancebetweenthesupportingsectionsofthischapterthatcancontributetoandprovisioningservicesforplantproductionthesustainablemanagementofsoilbiodiversityandtheregulatingservicesthesoilprovidesisreportedtobeincreasingglobally,includingforwaterqualityandavailabilityandforagroecologicalapproaches(Section5.3.4),agro-atmosphericgreenhousegascompositionisaforestry(Section5.5.3),conservationagricultureparticularconcern(FAO,2015e).(Section5.6.4),integratedpestmanagementThedefinitioncanencompassawidevarietyof(Section5.6.6),integratedplantnutrientmanage-specificmanagementpracticesandbroaderpro-ment(Section5.6.5),LEIA(Section5.6.2),push–ductionstrategiesorapproaches.Workingonthepullstrategies(Box5.18)andorganicagriculturebasisofthisdefinition,theVoluntaryGuidelines(Section5.6.1).However,whiletheextentofforSustainableSoilManagement(Box5.14)implementationoforganicagricultureandagro-includeanumberofrecommendationsonhowforestryisrelativelywelldocumented,dataontheto“preserveandenhancesoilbiodiversity.”Thisimplementationofmanysustainablesoilman-sectionpresentsashortoverviewofthestatusofagementpracticesatglobalorregionalscalesareadoptionofpracticesandapproachesthatpre-limited.Projectdatacanprovidesnapshotsoftheserveandenhancesoilbiodiversityinthecontextextentofadoptionofparticularpracticesinpar-offoodandagriculture.Manyofthepracticesandticularlocations.Forexample,theAllianceforaapproachesmentionedarediscussedingreaterGreenRevolutioninAfricaSoilHealthProgrammedetailinothersectionsinthischapter.ledtotheadoptionofintegratedsoilfertilityThepresenceofarangeofspeciesandorgan-managementpracticesby1.8millionsmallholderismscapableofsupportingcriticalsoilprocessesfarmers(FAOandITPS,2015).isessentialtosoilhealthandproductivity,par-ticularlyinthefaceofchangingenvironmen-Countrieswereinvitedtoreportonthepro-talconditions.Maintainingsoilbiodiversityisportionoflandonwhichsustainablesoilman-thusavitalaspectofsustainablesoilmanage-agementisimplementedandontrendsintheusethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE253STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.14TheVoluntaryGuidelinesforSustainableSoilManagementTheVoluntaryGuidelinesfor•SoilorganicmatterlevelssupportingsoilbiodiversitySustainableSoilManagementshouldbemaintainedorenhancedthroughthe(FAO,2017l)aimtoprovideprovisionofsufficientvegetativecover(e.g.generallyaccepted,practicallycovercrops,multiplecrops),optimalnutrientprovenandscientificallyadditions,additionofdiverseorganicamendments,basedprinciplesthatpromoteminimizingsoildisturbance,avoidingsalinization,sustainablesoilmanagement,andmaintainingorrestoringvegetationsuchaswhetherforfarming,hedgerowsandshelterbelts;pastoralism,forestryormoregeneralnatural-resources•Theauthorizationanduseofpesticidesinagriculturalmanagement.Theguidelinesweredevelopedtoserveasasystemsshouldbebasedontherecommendationsreferenceforawidevarietyofstakeholders,rangingfromincludedintheInternationalCodeofConductgovernmentofficialsandpolicy-makerstofarmers.TheyonPesticideManagementandrelevantnationalwereadoptedbytheFourthMeetingoftheGlobalSoilregulations.IntegratedororganicpestmanagementPartnershipPlenaryAssembly(May2016),approvedbytheshouldbeencouraged;Twenty-fifthSessionoftheFAOCommitteeonAgriculture(September2016)andendorsedbythe155thSession•Theuseofnitrogenfixingleguminousspecies,oftheFAOCouncil(December2016).microbialinoculants,mycorrhizas(spores,hyphae,Becausesoilsprovideoneofthelargestreservoirsofandrootfragments),earthwormsandotherbeneficialbiodiversityonEarth,andsoilorganismsplaykeyrolesinmicro-,meso-andmacro-soilorganisms(e.g.beetlethedeliveryofmanyecosystemservices,Section3.7ofthebanks)shouldbeencouragedwhereappropriate,withVoluntaryGuidelinesisdedicatedtoaddressingtheissueattentiontolimitingtheriskofinvasiveprocessesbyofpreservingandenhancingsoilbiodiversity.Althoughlittlepromotingtheuseoflocalbiodiversityandavoidingiscurrentlyknownaboutthepreciserelationshipstheriskofdisturbanceinsoilservices;betweenthediversityofsoilbiologicalcommunitiesandthemaintenanceofcoresoilfunctions,newbiochemical•Restoringplantbiodiversityinecosystems,therebytechniquesandtoolsforDNAanalysissuggestsignificantfavouringsoilbiodiversity;progressinthisareaispossible.TherecommendationsprovidedintheVoluntary•In-fieldcroprotation,inter-cropping,andpreservationGuidelinesonhowtopreserveandenhancesoilbiodiversityoffieldmargins,hedgesandbiodiversityrefugesarepresentedbelow:shouldbeencouraged;and“3.7Preserveandenhancesoilbiodiversity•Soilsprovideoneofthelargestreservoirsof•Anylandusechangeinareaswithhighbiodiversitybiodiversityonearth,andsoilorganismsplaykeyshouldbesubjecttolanduseplanningandinlinewithrolesinthedeliveryofmanyecosystemservices.LittletheUNCBD,UNCCDandotherrelevantinternationalisknownaboutthedegreeofbiodiversityrequiredinstrumentsandwithnationallaw.”tomaintaincoresoilfunctions,butnewtoolsforbiochemicaltechniquesandDNAanalysissuggestNotes:UNCBD=UnitedNationsConventiononBiologicalDiversity;significantprogressinthisareaispossible;UNCCD=UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification•Monitoringprogramsforsoilbiodiversity,includingbiologicalindicators(e.g.communityecotoxicology)andin-situearlywarningsignals,shouldbeundertaken;254thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5ofsuchpractices.62Ofthe91reportingcountries,aninitiativethatincludedtheestablishmentof39reportedtheadoptionofsustainablesoilman-anorganic-wastecollectionsystemtoproduceagementpractices.Responsesaresummarizedincompostforuseasorganicfertilizer.BurkinaFaso’sTable5.1andTable5.2.Sustainablesoilmanage-OperationManurePitsisdescribedinBox5.15.mentpracticesarereportedforallland-basedproduction-systemcategories.Ineachcase,Countrieswerealsoinvitedtoreportontheincreasesinimplementationareindicatedmore“managementofmicro-organisms”.63Twelvecoun-frequentlythandecreases.Dependingonthetriesreporttheuseofsuchmethodsincroppro-countryandproductionsystem,thereportedductionsystems(irrigatedandrainfed)andmixedpercentageareacurrentlyundersustainablesoilproductionsystems,andtencountriesreporttheirmanagementpracticesrangesfromlessthanuseinplantedandnaturallyregeneratedforests.0.002percentto100percent.Allthesecountriesreportthattheuseoftheprac-ticeisincreasingintheseproductionsystems.Awiderangeofspecificsoil-managementprac-ticesarereported.Forexample,countriesreportAnumberofcountriesmentionmonitoringbeneficialeffectsonBFAfromtheimplementa-programmesthatassesssoilconditionsandthustionoforganicagriculture,agroforestry,reducedhelptopreventtheoveruseoffertilizer.Fortillage,integratedsoilfertilitymanagement,example,SwitzerlanddescribestheSwissSoilcovercropping,cropdiversification,croprota-MonitoringNetwork,along-termmonitoringtion,cropassociationsandfallows.Afewreportprogrammeforsoilsundervariousmanagementthatshiftingcultivationhasanegativeeffectonconditionsthatdetectschangesinsoilpropertiesforestbiodiversity.Chad,however,mentionsthatandthushelpspromotelong-termsoilfertilityiffallowperiodsaresufficientlylong,thepracticeandallowstheeffectivenessofsoil-protectionoffersopportunitiestocounteractdeforestationmeasurestobeevaluated.Malaysianotesthatandforestdegradation.Manycountriesreportitmonitorssoilerosionandhaselaboratedanmanagementpracticesaimedatminimizingsoilerosion-riskmapofPeninsularMalaysia.Theerosion.Forexample,PeruandCameroonbothNetherlands’soilbiologicalmonitoringpro-mentionthebenefitsofterracingandfarminggrammeisdescribedinBox4.6.alongthecontoursofslopes.TheUnitedStatesofAmericareportstheuseofwindbreaks,shelter-Severalcountriesreportpoliciesandpro-beltsandhedgerowstominimizetheeffectsofgrammesaimedatsupportingsustainableerosionbythewind.Severalcountriesreportthesoil-managementpractices.Forexample,bothuseofvariousorganic-matterinputstoimproveGuineaandSenegalreportthatland-useandsoilconditions,includingcompost,vermicompost,land-allocationplansdevelopedincollaborationbiocharandmulch.Forexample,Niuementionswithvariousstakeholdersprovideframeworksfortheimplementationofactionsaimedatrestoring62Countrieswereprovidedwiththefollowingdescriptionanddegradedsoils.AnumberofcountriesreportexamplesofsustainablesoilmanagementpracticesbasedonthatsustainablesoilmanagementisaddressedSwift(1999):“Managementofsoilbiodiversitytoenhanceintheirstrategicplansforagriculture.Afewagriculturalproductionbybothdirectandindirectmeans,reportpaymentschemespromotingthesustaina-includingalterationoftheabundanceoractivityofspecificbleuseofsoilresources.Forexample,theUnitedgroupsoforganismsthroughinoculationand/ordirectKingdommentionsthatfarmersbenefitingfrommanipulationofsoilbiota.IndirectinterventionsmayincludetheEuropeanUnion’sbasicpaymentschemehavemanipulationofthefactorsthatcontrolbioticactivity(habitattofulfilcertainsoil-protectionstandards,suchasstructure,microclimate,nutrientsandenergyresources)ratherthantheorganismsthemselvessuchasthemaintenanceof63Definedinthecountry-reportingguidelinesasthe“intentionalsoilcoverwithorganicmulchincludingcropresidues,greenincorporation,managementormaintenanceof…micro-manure/covercropsincludinglegumes,andcomposttoorganismsintoaproductionsysteme.g.,inoculationofplantsincreasesoilorganicmatter,irrigationandliming,aswellasandseedswitharbuscularmycorrhizalfungi,theadditionofcroppingsystemdesignandmanagement.”probioticsinaquacultureandlivestock,etc.”thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE255STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.15BurkinaFaso’sOperationManurePitsIn2001,theGovernmentofBurkinaFasolaunchedanationalfoundtobewellsuitedtofarmslocatedinareasofhighprogrammeknownasOperationManurePits(Opérationevaporationandlowwateravailability.GuidedfieldvisitsFosseFumière)toincreasetheproductionofcompostwereheldatagriculturalextensioncentres.Farmerswereusingfarmyardmanureandcropresidues.Theaimoftheencouragedtocompostcropresiduesfromcereal,bananaprogrammeistoenhanceorrestoresoilfertilitybyincreasingandcottonproductionclosetothefields,thuslimitingtheapplicationofcomposttofieldsandhencetoimprovetransportanddependenceonlivestock.Additionally,farmersyields.Inthefirstphaseoftheprogramme,thegovernmentweresuppliedwithacompoststarter(asubstancedesignedhelpedsmallholdersacquiretoolstoconstructmanurepitstospeedupthecompostingprocess,usuallyintheform(witharecommendedareaof3m2andadepthof1.20m),asofdryorganicmattercontainingamixtureofdormantwellastoolsfortheproductionandtransportofcompost.soilmicro-organismsthatbecomeactiveuponwatering)toincreasethepaceofdecomposition,andphosphateDuringthegrowingseasonof2006/2007,itwas(anutrientthatisscarceinmanyofthecountry’sarableobservedthattheproductionoforganicmatterdidnotmeetsoils)toincreasethequalityofthecompost.Astudyinexpectationsintermsofqualityandquantity.Oneofthe2011foundthattheapplicationofcompostfollowingthereasonswasthatlivestockdensityperfarmwastoolowtoimplementationoftheprogrammeledtosignificantyieldproducesufficientmanuretosupplythefieldswithenoughincreasesingraincrops(Zongo,2011).fertilizer.Inordertocounteractthedifficultiesencountered,thefocusoftheprogrammeshiftedfrombuildingpitstoSource:AdaptedfrominformationandreportsprovidedbyWidegnomaJeanenhancingthequalityandquantityofcompost.TrainingdeDieuNitiema.wasprovidedonaerobiccompostinginheaps,whichwasminimizingsoilerosionandmaintainingappropriatenoorminimalsoildisturbancethroughdirectlevelsoforganicmatter.Polandmentionsitsruralseedingintountilledsoils,maintenanceofperma-developmentprogramme,whichincludesagri-nentsoilmulchcoverthroughcropresiduesandenvironmentalpaymentstofarmersforappropri-covercrops,andcropdiversificationthroughrota-atesoilmanagement(seeSection8.7).tions,associationsandsequences.”ImplementingeachoftheseprinciplescontributestothesupplyAwareness-raisingprojectsintendedtoincreaseofarangeofecosystemservices(Table5.8),par-theadoptionofsustainablesoilmanagementticularlyifimplementedtogethersoastocreatepracticesarereportedbyanumberofcountries.synergisticeffects.Forexample,Fijimentionsasoil-healthpro-grammethattaughtfarmersaboutalternativeImplementationofconservationagriculturenutrientsources,theuseofthelegumemucuna,isbasedonlocallydevelopedsetsofpractices–croprotationandalleycropping,andtrainedinvolvingintegratedmanagementofcrops,soil,theminsoilsampling,interpretingsoil-testresultsnutrients,water,pests,labourandenergy–thatandproducingcompost.aimtoenhanceandsustainanoptimumenviron-mentforefficientandresilientproduction(FAO,5.6.4Conservationagriculture2011c;Kassametal.,2009,2013).Soil,landscapeandcropping-systemhealthareprimaryconcerns.Conservationagricultureisdescribedintheguide-Successrequiresathoroughunderstandingoflinesforthepreparationofcountryreportsasalocalsoilandlandscapeecology,andactivecoop-systemthat“aimstoachievesustainableandprofit-erationamongstakeholders,includingresearch-ableagricultureandimprovelivelihoodsoffarmersers,advisers,serviceprovidersandfarmers,tothroughtheapplicationofthree…principles:256thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5formulatethemostappropriatesetofproduction2001,FAOhassupportedsevenWorldCongressesactivitiesforthegivenlocation.64onConservationAgriculture.Itiswidelyreportedthatconservationagricul-Severesoilerosionandlanddegradationlinkedtureincreasesthediversityandabundanceofsoiltosoil-disturbingpractices,suchastillageandlackofandabove-groundbiota(e.g.Kassametal.,2009;maintenanceofsoilcover–alongwiththeincreas-LangellottoandDenno,2004;Sixetal.,2002,ingcostsandpoorclimate-changeadaptabilityof2004).Forexample,reducedtillagecanincreaseconventionaltillageagriculture–haveledtothetheabundanceoffungi(Thiele-Bruhnetal.,2012),widespreadintroductionofconservationagricul-whichcanincreasenitrogenretentionintheagro-tureworldwideoverthelastthreedecades.Figuresecosystem(deVriesandBardgett,2012).ItisalsopresentedbyKassam,FriedrichandDerpsch(2018)generallyconsideredthatadoptingconservationfor2015/2016indicatetheuseofconservationagri-agricultureprovidesfinancialbenefitstofarmers:cultureonanestimated180millionhaofcroplandprofitmarginscanbeequalorhigherthanincon-globally(12.5percentofglobalarableland),upventionalagriculture,asyieldscanbemaintainedfrom2.8millionhain1973/74and106millionhaatsimilarorhigherlevelswhiletheuseofagro-in2008/2009,althoughnotallthislandisneces-chemicalsandlabourandtractorhoursisreducedsarilybeingmanagedfullyinlinewithallthreeof(Dumanskietal.,2006;FAO,2013h,2016l;Kassamtheprinciplesofconservationagriculture.65Southetal.,2009,2013,2015).However,benefitsofthisAmericaistheregionwhereconservationagri-kindwillonlybeachievedifthethreeprinciplescultureismostwidelypractised(70millionhaorofconservationagricultureareappliedsimulta-63percentoftheregion’scropland),followedneously(Jat,SahrawatandKassam,2014;Kassam,byAustraliaandNewZealand(23millionhaorSaidiandFriedrich,eds.,2017).Therearealsocon-45percentoftheregion’scropland)andNorthcernsthattheadoptionofconservationagricultureAmerica(63millionhaor28percentoftheregion’sbysmallholderscanbeconstrainedbyhighlabourcropland)(ibid.).Expansionintheseregionsoverrequirementsforhandweedingintheabsenceofthelastseveraldecadeshasbeenfacilitated,interherbicidesorbycompetitionfortheuseofcropalia,bytheavailabilityofno-tillplanters,effectiveresiduesaslivestockfeedratherthanasmulchherbicidesand,insomecases,herbicide-resistant(Gilleretal.,2015).Complementarypracticesmayneedtobeintroducedtomakeconservationagri-65Thefollowingcriteriaareusedtodefineconservationculturesystemsmorefunctionalforsmallholdersagriculture(CA)forthepurposeofdatacollection:(Thierfelderetal.,2018).“(1)Continuousnoorminimummechanicalsoildisturbance:Referstopermanentlowsoildisturbanceno-tillage,andInrecentyears,internationalresearchanddevel-includesno-tilldirectseedingandno-tillweeding.Theopmentorganizations,includingFAO,theWorlddisturbedareaforcropestablishmentmustbelessthan15BanktheInternationalFundforAgriculturalcmwideorlessthan25%ofthecroppedarea(whicheverDevelopmentandCGIAR,aswellasanumberofislower).Thereshouldbenoperiodictillagethatdisturbsabilateralandmultilateraldonoragencies,havegreaterareathantheaforementionedlimits.Inspecialcases,beensupportingtheadoptionofconservationagri-lowsoildisturbancestriporbandseedingisallowedifthecultureasacorecomponentofclimate-smartagri-disturbedsurfaceareaislessthanthesetlimits.(2)Permanentculture(Box5.16).Itisalsoanimportantelementsoilmulchcoverwithbiomass:SoilmulchcoverisachievedoftheSaveandGrowapproach(Box5.17).Sincewithbiomassfromcropresidues,stubblesandcovercrops.Threecategoriesaredistinguished:30–60%,>60–90%and64Someactivitiesassociatedwithconservationagriculture(e.g.>90%groundcover,measuredimmediatelyafterthedirectmulchingandcultivationofcovercrops)canbeconsideredseedingoperation.Areawithlessthan30%coverisnot“sustainablesoilmanagementpractices”andarediscussedinconsideredasCA.(3)Cropdiversificationthroughrotations/Section5.6.3.Theymayalsocontributetootherapproachessequences/association:Shouldideallyconcernatleastthreesuchasagroecology(seeSection5.3.4)andorganicagriculturedifferentcrops.Repetitivewheat,maizeorricecroppingisnot(seeSection5.6.1).anexclusionfactorforthepurposeofthisdatacollection,butrotations/sequences/associationsarenotedwherepractised”(Kassam,FriedrichandDerpsch,2018).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE257STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.16Conservationagricultureforclimate-smartagricultureTheimplementationofconservationagricultureleadstoretentioncapacity,andreducesrunoffanddirectevaporationsignificantimprovementsinsoilbiological,physicalandfromthesoil,thusimprovingtheefficiencyofwateruseandchemicalproperties,resultinginimprovedsoilstructurethequalityofwaterresources.Conservationagricultureisandaggregatestability.Soilmulchcoverwithcropresiduesthereforeincreasinglybeingrecognizedasclimatesmart.increasessoilorganicmatterandcarbonsequestration,whichcontributestoclimatechangemitigation.ConservationSource:ProvidedbyAmirKassam.agriculturealsoaugmentswater-infiltrationandwater-Notes:Forfurtherinformation,seeFAO,2017c;González-Sánchezetal.,2017;Kassametal.,2013;Kassam,FriedrichandDerpsch,2017.geneticallymodifiedcrops(Gilleretal.,2015).forexample,reportsanincreaseinthediversitySeveralregionswithlowerlevelsofadoptionsawandabundanceofbothvertebratesandinverte-majorexpansionsinpercentagetermsoverthebrates(especiallydetritivoressuchasmillipedes,periodbetween2008/2009and2015/216,includingwoodliceandearthworms),althoughitnotesthatAsia(430percentincrease),WestAsiaandNortheffectsvarydependingonlocalconditionsandAfrica(259percent),Africa(211percent)andland-usehistory.Europe(notincludingtheRussianFederationandUkraine)(127percent),althoughtotalsstillremainAnumberofcountriesprovideinformationonlow–about1percentofcroplandinAfrica,fornationalpoliciesthathavefostered–orwillfosterexample(Kassam,FriedrichandDerpsch,2018).In–theapplicationofconservationagriculture.additiontoarablecropland,conservationagricul-Forexample,Nepalreportsthattheadoptiontureisbeingimplementedonsignificantareasofofconservationagricultureisbeingpromotedlandunderperennialcrops(e.g.orchards,planta-viafarmerfieldschools(seeBox8.13forfurthertionsandagroforestrysystems)(ibid.).informationonfarmerfieldschoolsinNepal).Spainmentionsthatrelevantsoil-conservationTheinformationprovidedinthecountryreportsmeasureshavebeenreceivingsupportsinceontheextentofimplementationofconservationthefirstsetofagri-environmentalregulatoryagriculturegenerallyreflectstheglobalpatternsofmeasureswasintroducedbetween1994and1999usedescribedabove.Ofthe91reportingcountries,underEuropeanUnionlegislation.Itfurther36reporttheimplementationofconservationagri-notesthatnationallegislativemeasuresandculture.Itisreportedtobeappliedinallterrestrialvariousprogrammesimplementedbyitsproductionsystems,mostfrequentlyinrainfedMinistryofAgriculture,Fisheries,Foodandthecropsystems,irrigatednon-ricecropsystemsandEnvironmenthaveincreasedsupportforcropmixedsystems(Table5.1andTable5.2).Asindi-rotation,soilcoveranddirectseeding.FinlandcatedinTable5.2,inallsystemswheredataonmentionssupportforreducedsoildisturbancetrendsareprovided,morecountriesreportthattheundertheEuropeanAgriculturalFundforRuraluseofconservationagricultureisincreasingthanDevelopment.TheUnitedStatesofAmericareportthatitisremainingstableordecreasing.reportsthatitsEnvironmentalQualityIncentivesProgrammeprovidesfinancialandtechnicalMostofthecountriesthatprovideinformationassistancetofarmerswhowishtoimplementonconservationagricultureindicatethattheprac-farm-tailoredconservationagriculturesystemsticehasapositiveeffectonBFAintermsofbothandpractices.Withregardtofutureprioritiesintaxonomicdiversityandpopulationabundance.thisfield,PanamanotestheneedtoimprovetheThisisperceivedtobethecaseinallproductionextensionservicesoftheMinistryofAgriculturalsystemswherethepracticeisapplied.Argentina,258thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Table5.8EnvironmentalandotherbenefitsofimplementingthethreeprinciplesofconservationagricultureConservationagricultureprincipleBenefitsNoorminimalsoilSoilmulchCropdisturbancecoverdiversificationIncreaseandmaintenanceofnitrogenlevelsinrootzoneIncreaseofcation-exchangecapacityofrootzone•••IncreaseofrateofbiomassproductionMaintenanceofnaturallayeringofsoilhorizonsbyactionsofsoilbiota•••MaintenanceofsupplyofsoilorganicmatterassubstrateforsoilbiotaMaximizationofraininfiltration;minimizationofrunoff•••MinimizationoftemperaturefluctuationsatthesoilsurfaceMinimizationofcompactionbyintenserainfall,passageoffeetand••machineryMinimizationofoxidationofsoilorganicmatterandCO2loss•MinimizationofsoillossinrunofforwindMinimizationofweeds••ImprovementofpollinationservicesRebuildingofdamagedsoilconditionsanddynamics•RecyclingofnutrientsReductionofevaporativelossofmoisturefromsoilsurface•ReductionofevaporativelossofmoisturefromuppersoillayersReductionoffuel-energyinput•ReductionoflabourinputReductionofpestsanddiseases••Simulationof“forestfloor”conditionsIncreaseinspeedofsoilporosityrecuperationbysoilbiota••Source:AdaptedfromKassametal.(2013).•••••••••••••••••••Developmentandfarmerfieldschoolstopromote2018q).Itistypicallyacombinationofpracticestheadoptionofconservationagriculture,alongandmayincludetheuseoffarmyardmanures,withothersustainableagriculturalpractices.organicandmineralfertilizers,soilamendments,cropresiduesandfarmwastes,agroforestry,5.6.5Integratedplantnutrientconservationtillage,greenmanures,covermanagementcrops,legumes,intercropping,croprotations,fallows,irrigationanddrainage,plusavarietyThetermintegratedplantnutrientmanagementofotheragronomic,vegetation-management(IPNM)referstosoil,nutrient,water,cropandandstructuralmeasuresdesignedtoconservevegetationmanagementpracticesundertakenbothwaterandsoil.IPNMisakeycomponentwiththeaimofimprovingandsustainingsoilofsustainableandsystemsapproachestoagri-fertilityandlandproductivityandreducingculture,suchasagroecology(Section5.3.4)andenvironmentaldegradation,oftentailoredtoaclimate-smartagriculture.particularcroppingandfarmingsystem(FAO,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE259STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.17affectsoilbiodiversitythroughtheprovisionofTheSaveandGrowapproachsuitablehabitats(Schlüter,WellerandVogel,2011).FAO’smodelofecosystem-basedagriculture,SaveandSomeIPNMpractices,suchasreturningcropresi-Grow,addressestheneedtointensifyproductionanddues,animalwastesandotherorganicmaterialstoachievehigheryieldssustainablybydrawingonnature’stheland,providesoilfaunawithsourcesoffood.contributionstocropgrowth,suchassoilorganicmatterOthers,suchaspromotinggreaterrelianceonbio-formation,nitrogenfixation,water-flowregulation,logicallyfixedandrecyclednutrients,judicioususepollinationandbiologicalcontrolofpestsanddiseases.Itofmineralfertilizers,intercropping,conservationoffersatoolkitofadoptableandadaptablepracticesthattillageandcarefulmanagementoffodderandcanhelpsmallholderfarmersachievehigherproductivity,pastureplants,contributetosoilbiodiversityviaprofitabilityandresource-useefficiency.effectsonsoilarchitecture,soilchemistryandnutri-entcycles(Barrios,2007;FAO,2011c;Mbuthiaetal.,Themodelencouragestheuseofconservation2015).Inadditiontopromotingbiodiversitywithinagriculture,whichboostsyieldswhilerestoringthesoil,IPNMcanalsohelptoensurewaterqualitysoilhealth.SaveandGrowsystemsusediverse,byreducingnutrientleachingintorivers,lakesandcomplementarygroupsofcropstoachievehighercoastalwaters(Quemadaetal.,2013;Sharpleyetproductivityandstrengthenfoodandnutritionsecurity.al.,2013)andthustoprotectaquaticbiodiversityPestsarecontrolledbyprotectingtheirnaturalenemiesandfisheries(Meals,DressingandDavenport,2010;ratherthanbysprayingcropsindiscriminatelywithWoodwardetal.,2012).Finally,IPNMcanalsohelppesticides.Judicioususeofmineralfertilizerispromotedtoreducenutrientlossestotheatmosphere,inpar-inordertopreservewaterquality,andprecisionirrigationticularnitrousoxideandammoniaemissionsfromisusedtodelivertheappropriateamountofwater.fertilizerapplicationandmethanefromstoredorganicfertilizers,suchasmanure(GallowayetTheSaveandGrowapproachoftencombinesal.,2008;Snyderetal.,2009),therebycontributingtraditionalknowledgewithmoderntechnologiesthataretoclimatechangemitigation(Bellardetal.,2012).adaptedtotheneedsofsmall-scaleproducers.PracticesFurtherinformationontheuseofmicrobialbiofer-promotedincludelegumerotations,rice–fishsystemsandtilizers,includingresearchprioritiesinthisfield,can“push–pull”’systems(seeBox5.18).TheSaveandGrowbefoundinSection5.7.2modelisconsistentwiththeprinciplesofclimate-smartagriculture,asitbuildsresiliencetoclimatechangeandForty-twooutof91reportingcountriesindi-reducesgreenhouse-gasemissions(seeBox5.16).catethatIPNMispractised(Table5.1).Acrossallproductionsystemcategories,increasingtrendsSources:FAO,2011candFAO,2016l.intheuseofIPNMpracticesaremorefrequentlyreportedthandecreasingtrends(Table5.2).AAsoutlinedinSection2.2andSection4.3.6,soilnumberofcountriesnotethatitisdifficulttobiodiversityhasastronginfluenceonthesoil’sphys-reportonthestatusandtrendsofIPNMpractices,icalandchemicalproperties.Themicro-organismsinteraliabecauseofalackofavailabledataand(e.g.bacteria,fungi,protozoaandnematodes),thefactthatdifferentpracticesareimplementedmesofauna(e.g.mitesandspringtails)andmacro-indifferentproductionsystems.Thecountryfauna(e.g.earthwormsandtermites)thatcon-reportsprovidelittledetailedqualitativeinforma-stitutethelivingpartofsoilareessentialtothetionontheeffectsofIPNMonbiodiversity.biogeochemicalprocessesthatmaintainnutrientcyclesandflowsinsoilsandprovidenutrientsto5.6.6Integratedpestmanagementplants(FAO,2017m).Atthesametime,thephysicalandchemicalcomponentsofthesoilalsostronglyFAOusesthefollowingbroaddefinitionofIntegratedPestManagement(IPM):IPMisthecarefulconsiderationofallavailablepestcontroltechniquesandsubsequent260thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5integrationofappropriatemeasuresisms.”Practicesofthiskindaremoreknowledgethatdiscouragethedevelopmentofpestintensivethanthecalendar-basedapplicationofpopulationsandkeeppesticidesandotherpesticidesandthereforefarmersneedtounder-interventionstolevelsthatareeconomicallystandtheecologyoftheirproductionsystemsjustifiedandreduceorminimizeriskstoandtoregularlymonitortheenvironment.Theyhumanhealthandtheenvironment.IPMneedtoknowhowtomaintainhealthysoilsandemphasizesthegrowthofahealthycrophealthypopulationsofbiologicalcontrolagentswiththeleastpossibledisruptiontoagro-(BCAs)(organismsthatareharmfultopests−seeecosystemsandencouragesnaturalpestSection4.3.5forfurtherdetails).controlmechanisms(FAOandWHO,2014c).TheguidelinesforthepreparationofcountryAlmostallproductionsystemsbenefitfromreportsnotethatrelevantpest-management“naturalbiologicalcontrol”,i.e.fromtheactionsmethodsinclude:“croprotation;inter-cropping;ofBCAsnaturallypresentinthelocalenviron-seedbedsanitation,[appropriate]sowingdatesment(Cocketal.,2009,2011).Thesecontribu-anddensities,under-sowing,conservationtillage,tionscanbeenhancedthroughthepracticeofpruninganddirectsowing;…useofpestresistant/“conservationbiologicalcontrol”(modificationtolerantcultivars,push–pullstrategiesandstand-oftheagroecosystemand/oritsimmediatesur-ard/certifiedseedandplantingmaterial;balancedroundingssoastoincreasetheimpactoflocalsoilfertilityandwatermanagement,makingBCAs−Orr,2009).Otherformsofbiologicaloptimumuseoforganicmatter;…[preventioncontrolincludeaugmentative(masscultureandofthespread]ofharmfulorganismsbyfieldsan-periodicreleaseofspecificBCAspecies)andclas-itationandhygienemeasures;[and]protectionsicalbiologicalcontrol(permanentintroductionandenhancementofimportantbeneficialorgan-ofaBCAintoanareawhereitdoesnotnaturallyoccur)(seeTable5.9)(Orr,2009;Waage,2007).Table5.9ExamplesofintegratedpestmanagementmeasuresIntegratedpestMeasureExamplesandnotesSourcemanagementAugmentationReleaseofTrichogrammaparasitoidwaspstocontrolKnutson,1998practicesClassicallepidopteranpestsBiologicalcontrolConservationZimmermann,MoranandHoffmann,PermanentvegetationinIntroductionofCactoblastiscactorum(cactusmoth)to2000CulturalcontrolfieldmarginscontrolOpuntiacactiSengonca,KranzandBlaeser,2002CroprotationPhysicalcontrolResistantcropvarietiesMaintenanceorestablishmentofvegetationnearKremenandMiles,2012Chemicalcontrol"Push–pull"systemsfieldstoattractnaturalenemiestothefieldSoilsterilizationBarriersGrowingmultiplecropsinrotationtodisruptthelifeZehnderetal.,2007PesticidescyclesofpestsTeetes,1994UseoflocallyadaptedvarietiesIntegratingCenchruspurpureus(Napiergrass)andICIPE,2015DesmodiumintothefieldtocontrolmaizeandsorghumstemborersStapletonandDeVay,1986SolarizationBriassoulis,MistriotisandEleftherakis,2007UseofnetsagainstbirdsAlston,2011IfthepestsurpassestheeconomicthresholdthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE261STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCCulturalcontrol(modifyingtheenvironmentcides.Forexample,thestableflyStomoxyscal-toreduceitssuitabilityforpests)andphysicalcitrans,whichcausesskinlesionsandstressincontrol(useofphysicalbarrierstokeeppestsmammalianlivestockandmaytransmitpath-away)arealsoimportantcomponentsofIPMogens,canbecontrolledusingtheparasitoidstrategies.AnIPMapproachcanincludechemicalwaspSpalangiaendius(FAOandIAEA,2016).controlmeasures,forexamplehighlylocalizedSomefungalspeciesshowpromiseasmeans“spot”applicationsandtheuseofinsecticidesofcontrollingparasiticnematodesinsmallthatarerelativelyenvironmentallybenign.Bothruminants(FAO,2018r).ThesalmonlousepestandBCApopulationshavetobeconstantly(Lepeophtheirussalmonis)canbecontrolledbymonitoredsothatlevelsofyielddamagecanbefallowinggrowingsitestodisruptitslifecycle,predictedanddecisionstakenastowhetherpes-farmingresistantvarieties,suchasthecohoticidesneedtobeapplied.salmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch),insteadoftheAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)orusingwrassesIPMprioritizespreventionoverinterven-(smallfishthatpredateonthelice)(Ottesention.Thisrequiresagoodunderstandingoftheetal.,2011;SalmonHealthConsortiumandlocalbiodiversityandthetrophicrelationshipsPMRA,2003).Inturn,theuseoffishtocontrolwithinthelocalecosystem(seealsoSections2.2croppestsiswidespreadinAsianrice–fishand4.3.5).IPMoftenleadstolarge-scalereduc-systems.Grasscarp(Ctenopharyngodonidella),tionsinchemicalpesticideuse,whichovertimecommoncarp(Cyprinuscarpio)andNiletilapiacanleadtogreaterspeciesdiversityintheagro-(Oreochromisniloticus)areactivelyintroducedecosystem,includingamongherbivorespecies.intoricefields,wheretheyfeedonplanthoppersHowever,anyimpacttheadditionalherbivoreandleafhoppers(HalwartandGupta,2004).Inspeciesmayhaveisgenerallyoutweighedbythetraditionalricecultivation,water-managementdeclineofthedominantpestspecies(Cocketal.,regimespromoteaquaticspeciessuchasfishand2011;Heongetal.,2007;Islametal.,2012).amphibiansthatpredateonricepests.Culturalcontrolmethodsincludeso-calledIPMstrategiestocontrolweedsandplantdis-push–pullsystems(originallydevelopedinEasteases(bacterial,viral,fungalandnematode-related)Africatocontrolsorghumandmaizestem-involvecrop,soiland,insomecases,waterman-borers),whichinvolvetheuseofarepellentagement.Forexample,mulchinganduseofallelop-plant(e.g.Desmodiumspp.)inthefieldandathiccovercropshamperweedgrowthinsoil-basedanattractantplant(e.g.Napiergrass[Cenchrussystems.Applicationofcertainorganicamendmentspurpureus])atthefieldedges(ICIPE,2015)hasbeenshowntohelpreducesoil-bornediseases(Box5.18).Otheroptionsincludeintercrop-byincreasingtheconcentrationsofammoniaping,useofcovercropsandtheestablishmentand/ornitrousacidandpossiblybyincreasingtheofpermanentwild-flowerstrips.Complexveg-overallabundanceofsoilmicro-organisms(BaileyetationcoverandthepresenceofalternativeandLazarovits,2003;Lazarovits,2001).Themech-foodsources(e.g.nectarandpollen)attractanismsinvolvedarediverse,complexandnotfullynaturalenemiesandmaymakeiteasierforunderstood(NobleandCoventry,2005).Inrice−fishthemtosurvivethewinter(Langellottoandsystems,aquaticweedsandalgaecanberegulatedDenno,2004).Examplesoftherolesofdiffer-bythefishandbyappropriatewater-managemententcomponentsofassociatedbiodiversityinpractices(HalwartandGupta,2004).RabbitfishIPMinvariousproductionsystemsareshownin(Siganusspp.)andscats(Scatophagusspp.)canbeTable5.10.AdditionalinformationonpestandintroducedintomarinefishcagestoreducefoulingdiseaseregulationisprovidedinSection4.3.5.byepiphyticalgae.LivestockandaquaticanimalscanalsobePolicymeasuressupportingIPMhavebeenprotectedusingIPMtactics,mainlybyusingintroducedinvariouspartsoftheworld.Measuresbiologicalcontroltoreplacetheuseofpesti-262thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.18Thepush–pullapproachPush–pullisacultivationandpest-controlpracticeinsudanense)grownatthefieldmargins.Theseplantsattractwhichpest-repelling(“push”)andpest-attracting(“pull”)thestemborersandtheirnaturalenemiesthroughthereleasecompanioncropsaregrowntoreducepestdamageincrops.ofsemiochemicals.NapiergrasssecretesastickysapthatThestrategy,alsoknownasstimulo-deterrentdiversion,trapsstemborerswhentheyperforatetheplant.wasdocumentedinthelate1980s.However,theresearchthatresultedinthecurrentsystemstartedin1994throughModeofactionofthepush-pullsystemcollaborationbetweentheKenya-basedInternationalCentreBy2014,thepush–pulltechniquehadbeenadoptedbyofInsectPhysiologyandEcology(ICIPE)andRothamstednearly97000farmersinEthiopia,Kenya,UgandaandtheResearchintheUnitedKingdom.ThepracticewasdevelopedUnitedRepublicofTanzania.Thedesmodium–Napiergrasstoreducemaizeyieldlossescausedbylepidopterancombinationhasdoubledmaizeyieldsbyreducingstemborerstemborers(BusseolafuscaandChilopartellus)inAfrica,andstrigadamagewhileincreasingsoilfertility.Inaddition,whichusuallyreach20to40percent.farmersobtaineconomicbenefitsbysellingNapiergrassasThe“push”componentisdesmodium(Desmodiumfodder,ifitisnotusedfortheirownlivestock,andbyreducinguncinatum),ashortlegumegrownbetweenmaizerows,expenditureonpesticides,herbicidesandfertilizers.Thewhichrepelstheadultstemborerbyreleasingvolatilepush–pullsystemcanbeusedwithavarietyofothercropschemicals(semiochemicals).Althoughmolassesgrassincludingsorghum,milletanduplandrice.Thelargeinitial(Melinisminutiflora)canalsobeused,desmodiumisinvestmentsrequiredtostartthesystemandinsomecasesapreferredbecauseitalsosupressestheparasiticweedStrigalackofinfrastructure(e.g.storageunitsforyieldsurplus)arehermonthicaandincreasessoilfertilitythroughnitrogenthemajorconstraintstoitswideradoption.fixation.The“pull”componentofthesystemconsistsofNapiergrass(Cenchruspurpureus)orSudangrass(SorghumSource:AdaptedfromICIPE(2015).‘Pull’‘Push’VolatilechemicalsfromVolatilechemicalsfromborderplantsattractDesmodiumintercropstemborerstolayeggsrepelstemborersMaizeMaizeDesmodiumDesmodiumMaizeNapiergrassNapiergrassChemicalssecretedbydesmodiumDesmodiumrootsﬁxatmosphericrootscontrolstrigaandnitrogeninthesoil;shootandrootdepletestrigaseedbankinthesoilbiomassincreasessoilorganicmatterSource:ICIPE,2015.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE263STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable5.10ExamplesoftherolesofassociatedbiodiversityinintegratedpestmanagementIntegratedpestComponentControlagentsPestscontrolledSpeciesprotectedSourcemanagementofassociatedbiodiversityHalwartandGupta,practice2004;HockingandBabbitt,2014AquaticspeciesFish,amphibiansRice-fieldpestsOryzasativaRoyandMigeon,2010(Asianrice)Gurretal.,2011ArthropodsLadybirdbeetlesAphids(AphidoideaCitrusspp.,applesand(Coccinellidae,superfamily)severalannualcropsZhangetal.,2013BiologicalcontrolBacteriaColeoptera)BirdsCnaphalocrocisOryzasativaUnwin,2011Parasitoidwaspsmedinalis(Asianrice)Fish(several(riceleaffolder)Ottesenetal.,2011HymenopteraSolanumlycopersicumFungifamilies)Helicopervaspp.(tomato)WraightandRamos,2002NematodesBacillusthuringiensisLepidopteranlarvaeForestvegetation(Btformulations)Eckardetal.,2014Culturalcontrol:PlantsLepeophtheirusSalmosalarHannonandBeers,“push–pull”systemFicedulahypoleucasalmonis(Atlanticsalmon)2007(Europeanpied(salmonlouse)ICIPE,2015flycatcher)LeptinotarsaSolanumtuberosumdecemlineata(potato)Labridae(wrasses)(Coloradopotatobeetle)Zeamays(maize)BeauveriabassianaAgriotessputatorCastaneaspp.(whitemuscardine(commonclickbeetle)(chestnut)fungus)Prionoxystusrobiniae(carpentermoth)Sorghumspp.MetarhiziumanisopliaeChilopartellus(spottedstalkborer)SteinernemacarpocapsaeCenchruspurpureus(Napiergrass)andDesmodiumspp.Note:Usuallyappliedasbiopesticides.ofthiskindcanleadtoeconomicbenefitsandrequiresitsMemberStatestoreducepesticidehelptoreducecountries’dependenceonpes-applicationandimplementtheprinciplesofIPMticideimports.Forexample,duringthe1980s(seeexampleinBox5.19).IndonesiaadoptedanIPMpolicyandintroducedstrongregulationofpesticideuse,leadingtoaOnestrikingweaknessisthevirtualabsencedeclineoftwo-thirdsinthecountry’spesticideofadequatehumanhealthandenvironmen-imports(BottrellandSchoenly,2012;Islamettalriskassessmentstudiesforpesticideuseinal.,2012).Underlegislationintroducedin2009developingcountries.Withoutsuchstudies,(Directive2009/128/EC),66theEuropeanUnionnationalandregionallegislationeffortsareworkingessentiallyinthedark.Perhapstheonly66Directive2009/128/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoffieldstudytohavetouchedonthisatamul-theCouncilof21October2009establishingaframeworkfortiscalelevelwithadvancedtechnicalmethodsCommunityactiontoachievethesustainableuseofpesticides(Jepsonetal.,2014)showedahighlevelof(availableathttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/pesticide-relatedecologicalandhealthrisksalongALL/?uri=CELEX:02009L0128-20091125).twomajorriversinWestAfrica.Thereisnoreason264thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.19IntegratedpestmanagementinhorticulturalproductioninAlmería,SpainTheProvinceofAlmeríainsoutheasternSpainhasExoticinvasivespeciesandpestsarestrictlymonitoredonetheworld’slargesthorticulturalareas(approximately(Law42/2007;RoyalDecree630/2013),whiletherelease36000ha).Globally,itisalsothelocationwhereofexoticBCAsrequiresauthorizationandanassessmentofintegratedpestmanagement(IPM)ismostwidelytheirenvironmentalandbiodiversityimpacts(Law43/2002;applied.In2013,pestswereregulatedusingbiologicalRoyalDecree951/2014).Theuseofnon-exoticBCAsisalsocontrolon27000ha(75percentofthetotalarea).In2016,regulatedunderthelatterlaw.TheuseofBCAsmustcomply10000haofpeppers(nearly100percentofthetotal),withgoodagriculturalpracticesassetoutintheEuropean9500haoftomatoes(morethan80percent),3500haUnion’sDirective2009/128/EC,whichpromotesIPM.ofcucumbersandsubstantialareasofzucchini,eggplant,Additionally,theEuropeanUnionenforcesecotoxicologicalmelonandgreenbeans,amongothercrops,weremanagedassaysbeforeregistrationofnewphytosanitaryproductsunderbiologicalcontrolpractices.IPMisalsoimportant(Regulation[EC]No.1107/2009),andpreventionandinthecitrusandgrapesectors.Examplesofthebiologicalmanagementmeasuresforinvasivealienspecies(Regulationcontrolagents(BCAs)usedarepresentedinthetablebelow.[EU]No.1143/2014).SpanishauthoritieshavebeenactivelypromotingIPMprogrammestoreducetheuseofphytosanitaryproductsthroughnationalandinternationallegalframeworks.ExamplesofbiologicalcontrolagentsusedinAlmeria,Spain,forhorticulturalproductionCropPestBiologicalcontrolagentChestnuttreesDryocosmuskuriphilus(gallwasp,exoticfromChina)Torymussinensis(aparasitoidwasp,exoticfromChina)CitrustreesAonidiellaaurantii(redscale)Aphytismelinus(aparasitoidwasp)Cucumber,pepperAphidsAphidiuscolemani(aparasitoidwasp)CucurbitsBemisiatabaci(whitefly)Amblyseiusswirskii(apredatorymite)Tetranychusurticae(redspidermite)Phytoseiuluspersimilis(apredatorymite)Anaphesinexpectatus(aparasitoidwasp,underresearch)EucalyptusGonipterusscutellatus(eucalyptusweevil,exoticfromAnaphesnitens(aparasitoidwasp,exoticfromAustralia)Australia)Anaphestasmaniae(aparasitoidwasp,underresearch)Oriuslaevigatus(apredatorybug)PepperFrankliniellaoccidentalis(westernflowerthrips)Amblyseiuscucumeris(apredatorymite)Frankliniellaoccidentalis(westernflowerthrips)Amblyseiusswirskii(apredatorymite)Anagyruspseudococci(aparasitoidwasp)Planococcuscitri(citrusmealybug)Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri(apredatorybeetle)Amblyseiusandersoni(apredatorymite)TablegrapeNeoseiuluscalifornicus(apredatorymite)Amblyseiusswirskii(apredatorymite)Tetranychusurticae(redspidermite)Nesidiocoristenuis(apredatorybug)TomatoBemisiatabaci(whitefly),Tutaabsoluta(tomatoleafminer)Source:InformationprovidedbyGonzaloEiriz.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE265STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCtosupposethatsimilarlyhighlevelsofriskdonotAmongLatinAmericancountries,Argentinaexistinmost,ifnotall,developingcountries.andBrazilreporttheapplicationofIPMinavarietyofproductionsystems,particularlyinOutof91reportingcountries,45indicatethatcropandmixedsystems.However,ArgentinaIPMispractisedinatleastoneproduction-systemindicatesthatprogressintheimplementationcategory(Table5.1andTable5.2).Anothersixcoun-ofIPM,whichstartedinthe1980s,hasbeentriesmentionthatitispractisedintheirterritoriesmixedowingtoalackofadequateagriculturalwithoutspecifyingtheproductionsystem.IPMisextensionprogrammesinsomeregions.Severalreportedin79percentofreportingOECDmembercountryreportsfromtheregionmentionpoliciescountriesandin42percentofreportingnon-OECDthat,directlyorindirectly,facilitatetheadoptionmembercountries.TheproductionsystemsforofIPM.Forexample,PanamanotesthatitaimswhichIPMismostfrequentlyreportedarecroptostimulateIPMpracticesthroughitsExecutivesystems(rainfedandnon-riceirrigated)andmixedDecreeNo.121of2015,68whichpromotessystems(Table5.2).Afewcountries,predominantlyorganicproductionandtheuseofbiologicalpest-inEurope,reportIPMinaquaculturesystems.controlmeasures.MexicoreportsthatitsNationalForestryCommissionmonitorsabout50000haofInalmosteveryproduction-systemcategorypest-affectedsystemseveryyearandrecommendsforwhichtrendsarereported,increasesinthetheadoptionofIPM.ArgentinamentionsthatituseofIPMareindicatedmorefrequentlythanhasestablishedIPMpartnerships(Consorciosdedecreases(Table5.2).Thesefindingsreflectlong-ManejoIntegradodePlagas)atregionallevelterm(albeitslow)upwardtrendsintheuseofthethroughtheNationalAgriculturalTechnologytechnologyglobally(FAOetal.,2016).CountriesInstitute’sNationalProgrammeonCropProtectiongenerallydonotprovidedetailsofthelevelsof(ProgramaNacionaldeProtecciónVegetal).Theseadoptionwithinparticularproduction-systempartnershipsbringstakeholderstogethertofindcategories.TheNetherlands,however,notesthat,commongroundonIPMapproaches.InAfrica,asof2010,60percentofgrowersofarablecrops,BurkinaFasoidentifiesalackofappropriateagri-fruitcropsandvegetablesandbetween65percentculturaladviceandalackofawarenessoftheand70percentoftreenurseriesandflower-bulbadverseeffectsofthemisuseofpesticidesoneco-farmsusedIPM.Wherecountrieselaborateonthesystemservicesasmajorfactorslimitingthewidercausesofthetrendsreported,itismainlytonoteadoptionofIPM.policyorlegalmeasuresputinplacetopromoteIPMorpolicy-levelorinstitutionalconstraintsGlobally,althoughawarenessofthebene-toadoption.AmongEuropeancountriesforfitsofIPMamongconsumers,farmers,govern-example,Denmarknotesthatithasimplementedmentsandinternationalagenciesisincreasinganationalactionplanforthe2013to2020periodandtheuseofIPMpracticesisbecomingmoretomaketheadoptionofIPMcompulsoryincrop-widespread,insecticideuseisstillatahighlevel.basedsystems.MaltareportsaruraldevelopmentReasonsforthisincludeaggressivemarketing,programme(Agri-Environment-ClimateMeasures)theabsenceofpublic-sectoradvisoryorexten-for2014to2020thatpromotesIPMinvineyardssionservices,insufficientlegalregulationandtheandorchards.AmongAsiancountries,BhutanmentionsthatthePesticidesActofBhutan,2000,6768DecretoEjecutivoN°121(Demartes08deseptiembredewhichenablestightcentralizedregulationofthe2015)ApruebaelNuevoReglamentoParalaProducción,import,saleanduseofpesticides,alsopromotesTransformaciónyComercializacióndeProductosAgropecuariostheuseofIPM.OrgánicosdePanamáyDerogaelDecretoEjecutivoNo.146de11deagostode2004,QueReglamentala67Available(inEnglish)athttp://faolex.fao.org/cgi-bin/Ley8del24deenerode2002(availableinSpanishatfaolex.exe?rec_id=028426&database=faolex&search_https://www.gacetaoficial.gob.pa/pdfTemp/27876_A/type=link&table=result&lang=eng&format_name=@ERALLGacetaNo_27876a_20150925.pdf).266thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5knowledge-intensivenatureofIPM(Islametal.,mellifera)andtheeasternhoneybee(Apis2012;Waage,2007).Pesticidesmayseemattrac-cerana)(IPBES,2016b).Managedhoneybeestivetogrowersbecauseoftheirlowcostsandarekeptinhuman-made,portablecontainers,simplicityofuse(Islametal.,2012).IPMsystemsknownashives,thatcanbeeasilymanagedandrequiretrainingandmonitoring(bytrainedtransported(Crane,1983).Migratorybeekeepingfarmersorextensionworkers)andthiscanbeallowsbeekeeperstotargetdemandforpollina-costly(Waage,2007).Frequentreleaseofnaturaltionservicesand/ortomaximizehoneyproduc-enemiesinplaceswithhighpestpressurescantion(IPBES,2016b).However,itcanaffectlocalalsobeprohibitivelyexpensive(Cocketal.,2009).beepopulationsasitfacilitatesthespreadofbeeTheeffectivenessofIPMstrategiescanalsobediseasesandpestsandcancausepathogenspillo-limitedbythefactthattheyareoftenbasedonverintonativebeepopulations(Fürstetal.,2014;singlecontrolmeasuresratherthananecosystemGoulson,2003;Moritz,HartelandNeumann,approach(FAOandCBD,2016).Needsandpriori-2005;Smithetal.,2014).tiesrelatedtofacilitatingtheuseofbiopesticides(andtoresearchprioritiesinthisfield)aredis-Rentingmanagedhoney-beecoloniestocussedinSection5.7.2.increasepollinationservicesforintensiveproduc-tionoffruit,vegetable,oilseedandnutcropsis5.6.7Pollinationmanagementacommonpracticeinmanycountries(DelaplaneandMayer,2000;Isaacsetal.,2016).IntheUnitedGrowingdemandforfruit,nutandvegetableStatesofAmerica,forexample,1.5millionorcropsmeansthatthedependenceofagriculturemorecoloniesaremovedacrossthecountrytoonpollinationisincreasing(Aizenetal.,2008,Californiaeachyeartopollinatealmondtreesin2009).Effortsarebeingmadetoimproveunder-FebruaryandMarch(SumnerandBoriss,2006).standingoftherelativebenefitsofdifferentHowever,insomepartsoftheworld,croppro-pollination-managementstrategiesinvolvingducersandfarmersdonotalwayshavetheskillsbothwildandmanagedpollinators(Pottsetal.,needed,oraccesstotheresourcesneeded,to2010)andtoidentifybestpracticesandtoolsthatensureadequatepollinationservicesthroughthecanbeusedbyfarmersandothers(Isaacsetal.,additionofmanagedhoney-beecolonies(Isaacs2016).Thissectionpresentsashortoverviewofetal.,2016).themaingroupsofmanagedpollinators(varioustypesofbees),thepracticesandapproachesTheadvantagesofmanagedhoney-beecolo-thatcanbeusedtomaintainandsupportthem,niesincludetheabilitytocontrolandincreasetheandthestatusofadoptionofthesepracticesabundanceofforagingbeesinaspecificareaatandapproaches.Manyofthepracticesandthetimeofcropbloom,evenifhoneybeesmayapproachesmentionedarediscussedingreaternotbethemostefficientpollinatorsofmanydetailinothersectionsinthischapter.crops(ibid.).Recentyearshave,however,seengrowinginterestinwildpollinatorsaspotentialBeesmanagedforpollinationcomplementstomanagedbeesinthesupplyofVarioustypesofbees(mainlyhoneybees,andpollinationservicesincropproduction(Garibaldisomespeciesofbumblebees,solitaryandstinglessetal.,2013,2016;Winfreeetal.,2018).Bothwildbees)aremanagedtoprovidepollinationservicespollinatorsandothermanagedbeespecies,suchincropproduction(andinsomecasesforotherasbumblebees(Bombusspp.)andsolitarybeespurposessuchassupplyinghoney).(e.g.Osmiaspp.),havebeenfoundtobeequallyormoreefficientpollinatorsforsomecropsandHoney-beemanagementcouldcomplement,orinsomecasesevenreplace,Thetwomajorhoney-beespeciesmanagedhoney-beepollination(BandaandPaxton,1991;aroundtheworldarethewesternhoneybee(ApisFreitasandPaxton,1998;JamesandPitts-Singer,2008;VicensandBosch,2000).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE267STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBumble-beemanagementhoney-beepopulations(BrownandPaxton,2009;Inthepastfewdecades,bumblebees(thegenusVanEngelsdorpandMeixner,2010;Jafféetal.,Bombus)haveincreasinglybeentradedcommer-2010)andthusensureadequatelevelsofpollina-ciallyforuseaspollinators(VelthuisandvanDoorn,tionintargetcrops(AizenandHarder,2009).For2006).FiveBombusspeciesarecurrentlyusedforsomeplantsandcrops,stinglessbeeshavebeencroppollination(B.terrestris[buff-tailedbumblefoundtobemoreeffectivepollinatorsthanhoneybee],B.lucorum[white-tailedbumblebee],B.bees(Slaaetal.,2006).ignitus,B.occidentalis[westernbumblebee]andB.impatiens[commoneasternbumblebee]),theStinglessbeekeeping(meliponiculture)remainsmajoronesbeingtheEuropeanspeciesB.terrestrisunderdevelopedcomparedtoapiculture.However,andtheNorthAmericanB.impatiens(ibid.).whilemanagingstinglessbeesforcroppollinationremainsrelativelyuncommon,effortsarebeingThemassiveintroductionofcolonies,bothmadeinseveralcountriestopromotethepractice.withinandoutsidethenaturalrangeoftheInBrazil,forexample,Meliponafasciculatahasrespectivespecies,isoneofthemainthreatstobeenfoundtobeanefficientpollinatorofeggplantnativebees,particularlybumblebees(Cameron(Nunes-Silvaetal.,2013)andM.quadrifasciataetal.,2011).Theseintroductionscanleadto(i)anthidioidestoincreaseseedandfruitproductioncompetitionforresources(includingforageandinapplesinthepresenceofhoney-beehives(Viananestingsites),(ii)reproductiveinterferencedueetal.,2014).InMexico,ithasbeenfoundthatthetointerspecificmatingbetweenintroducedandstinglessbeeNannotrigonaperilampoidescouldnativespecies(Kanbeetal.,2008),(iii)greateractasanalternativetohoneybeesandbumblethreatfromparasites(Meeusetal.,2011)and(iv)beesinthepollinationofgreenhousetomatoestransmissionofdiseasesandpathogens(Collaet(Cauichetal.,2004;González-Acereto,Quezada-al.,2006).IthasbeenrelativelywelldocumentedEuánandMedina-Medina,2006).InAustralia,thatthespreadofpathogensanddiseasesasso-meliponiculturehasacquiredafootholdincropciatedwithbumble-beemanagementcanoccur(mainlymacadamia)production,mainlyusingatlargescalesaswellaslocally(Goka,OkabeandTrigonacarbonaria,T.hockingsiandAustroplebeiaYoneda,2006).Forexample,“chronicpathogenaustralis(Cortopassi-Laurinoetal.,2006;Heardspillover”fromcommercialbumble-beecoloniesandDollin,2000;Heard,1999).Developmentsinhascauseddeclinesinsomewildbumble-beepop-MalaysiaaredescribedinBox5.20.ulationsinNorthAmerica(e.g.Szabóetal.,2012).Solitary-beemanagementStingless-beemanagementTheireaseofhandlingandtheirabilitytoadapttoInmostareaswheretheyoccur,stinglessbeesnewenvironments(inthefieldoringreenhouses)(tribeMeliponini)weretraditionallyasourceofmeanthatsolitarybeeshaveconsiderablepoten-honey,propolis69andwax(Cortopassi-Laurinotialasprovidersofadditionalorcomplementaryetal.,2006;HeardandDollin,2000;Kwapongpollinationservices(BoschandKemp,2000;etal.,2010;Nates-Parra,2001,2004).Recently,WilkaniecandRadajewska,1997).Severalsoli-however,therehasbeenincreasinginterestintary-beespeciesarebeingusedtoprovidepolli-theirpotentialroleasmanagedpollinatorsincropnationservices,themostwidelyreportedbeingproduction(Gianninietal.,2015;Slaaetal.,2006),thealfalfaleafcutterbee(Megachilerotundata).astheycouldcompensateforlocaldeclinesinGreenhouseexperimentshaveshownthatthisspeciesisfarsuperiortohoneybeesasapollinator69Propolisisamixtureofbeeswax,plantresinscollectedbybeesofalfalfa(Medicagosativa)(persinglefloralvisit)fromplants(particularlyfromflowersandleafbuds)andbee(Cane,2008).Itisestimatedthatalfalfaleafcuttersaliva(Krell,1996).Beesuseitasasealantwithinthehive.ItisbeeshavetripledseedyieldsinNorthAmericaharvestedforusein(interalia)theproductionofcosmeticsandandcontributetoover50percentofalfalfa-seedalternativemedicines(ibid.).268thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5Box5.20ManagementofstinglessbeesinMalaysiaStinglessbeesareimportantpollinatorsofforestspeciesWithpropermaintenance,astingless-beecolonycanlastinMalaysia(Momoseetal.,1998).Thevalueofpollinationmanyyears.Inaconduciveenvironment,aparentcolonycanservicesprovidedbythecountry’sstinglessbeeshasbeenbesplitintotwocoloniesonceayear.AnothermethodistoestimatedtoamounttoUSD19millionperyear(Mohdetusepheromonebait(usingdissolvedstingless-beepropolis)al.,2010).Accordingtothelatestinventories,thereareduringtheswarmingseasontoattractbeestomaketheir35stingless-beespeciesinPeninsularMalaysia(Mohdnestsindesignatedplaces.However,thismethodisnotveryFahimeeetal.,2016)and45inEastMalaysia(unpublishedeffectiveatpresent.Onaverage,farmerscanharvestdata).Heterotrigonaitama,Geniotrigonathoracica,0.5kgofhoneypermonthfromamaturestingless-beeTetragonillaatripesandTetrigonapeninsularishavebeencolony.Thepriceofstingless-beehoneyontheretailmarketidentifiedaspollinatorspeciesformanyimportantcropsinisthreetimeshigherthanhoney-beehoney.ApartfromMalaysia(Mohdetal.,2010).honey,manycosmeceuticalandnutraceuticalproductsmadeusingpropolisandbeebreadfromstinglessbeescanBeesraisedincaptivitytoprovidepollinationservicesgenerateextraincomeforfarmers.needtobewelladaptedtosecondaryforestandagriculturalecosystems,i.e.tousingthefoodsourcesandnestingFutureprioritiesincludedevelopingthemassrearingofmaterialfoundintheseecosystems.Theecosystems,inturn,stingless-beequeensthroughinvitrotechniques.Furtherresearchneedtobemanagedsoastoensurethattheysupportandisrequiredonanumberoffactorsinfluencingthesuccessofsustainstingless-beecoloniesandallowthemtoflourish,thistechnique,includingtheformulationofthequeens’dietexpandandmultiply.andthebehaviourofdronesinmatingvirginqueens.In2012,theMalaysianAgriculturalResearchandSource:ProvidedbyRoslizaJajuliandMohdFahimeeBinJaapar.DevelopmentInstitutelaunchedaninitiativetopromotethePicturesprovidedbyRoslizaJajuli.keepingofHeterotrigonaitamaandGeniotrigonathoracica,asthesetwospeciesarecommonlyfoundinagriculturalareasandHeterotrigonaitama.pollinatemanycrops,includingmango,starfruitandcantaloupe(MohdFahimee,2012;MohdFahimeeetal.,2016).Stinglessbeekeeping(meliponiculture)isanattractiveoptionformanyfarmers,notonlybecauseofthepollinationservicesthebeesprovide,butalsobecauseofthehighdemandforstingless-beehoney,knownforitshighantioxidantcontent.Tocontrolthequalityofstingless-beehoney,aMalaysianstandardforthespecificationoftheproductwaspublishedin2017(DepartmentofStandardsMalaysia,2017).Stingless-beeminifarm/garden.Thecolony.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE269STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCproductioninpartsoftheregion(Pitts-Singerpopulatedcontinent(Garibaldietal.,2013)foundandCane,2011).Theynestinlargenumbersinthatwildpollinatorsweretwiceaseffectiveasabove-groundholesthattheylineandplugwithhoneybeesinproducingseedsandfruitincropspartsofleaves(ibid.).Thesenestingholescanbeincludingoilseedrape,coffee,onions,almonds,human-made,whichalongwiththefactthatthetomatoesandstrawberries.bees’emergencecoincideswithalfalfablooms,makesthisspecieshighlysuitableformanage-Diversitymentaspollinatorsinalfalfaproduction(ibid.).EnsuringhighdiversityandabundanceofwildpollinatorspecieswillincreasetheprobabilityofManymasonbees(Osmiaspp.)havealsobeencomplementarityorsynergyinpollinationser-managedforcommercial-crop(orchard/fruit-viceswithinagivenarea(whetherusedforagri-tree)pollination.Osmiacornifrons(thehornfacedcultureornatural/semi-natural)(Blüthgenandbee)hasbeenusedwidelyinJapantopollinateKlein,2011;Garibaldietal.,2013),evenintheapple(BoschandVicens,2000)andsweetpepperpresenceofabundantmanagedbees(Garibaldi(KristjanssonandRasmussen,1991),amongotheretal.,2011).Relativelyhighdiversityandabun-crops.O.lignaria(theblueorchardbee)hasdanceofinsectvisitorstoaplantensures(i)beenusedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaandthatvisitsoccurwithgreaterfrequencyandatCanadatopollinateapple(Torchio,1984),com-agreaterrangeoftimes(duringtheday)andmercialsweetcherry(Bosch,KempandTrostle,(ii)greaterdiversityofbodysizes(i.e.forstigma2006)andalmond(Bosch,KempandPeterson,contactandpollendelivery).2000).O.cornutahasbeenusedinEurope(BoschandKemp,2002)forpear(Pyruscommunis)pol-Therearevariouswaysofpromotinghighlination(Maccagninietal.,2003).Thesecavity-diversityandabundanceinpollinatorassem-nestingbeesreadilysetuphomeinartificialblageswithinandaroundproductionsystemsnests,whichcaneasilybeplacedinstrategicposi-(seeexamplesbelow).InregionssuchasEuropetionswithinfields.wherefarmsthemselvesdonotsupporthighlevelsofpollinatordiversity,maintainingorcreat-Theonlyground-nestingbeeintensivelyinggrasslandsorothersemi-naturalhabitatsnearmanagedforpollinationservices,mainlyforalfalfa,farms(within3km)isgenerallyessential(Carréisthealkalibee(Nomiamelanderi)(Cane,2002,etal.,2009;Carvalheiroetal.,2011;Kleinetal.,2008).Thisspeciesnestsinlargeaggregationsin2012;ÖckingerandSmith,2007;Rickettsetal.,certainsoiltypes(Johansen,MayerandEves,1978)2008b;Rollinetal.,2013).thatcanbecreatedartificially(Stephen,1960).ManagementpracticespromotingtheNestingresourcesabundanceofwildbeesinandaroundResearchindicatesthattheabundanceandcom-productionsystemspositionofbeecommunitiesonfarmsmaybeWildbees,whichmakeuptheoverwhelmingsensitivetotheavailabilityofnestingresourcesmajorityoftheover20000describedbeespecies(Forrestetal.,2015;Pottsetal.,2005).Most(Michener,2007),contributesignificantlytopol-wildbeesnestintheground,inplantstemsorlinationservicesworldwide.Theirimportancetoinpre-existingcavitiesofvariouskinds(Winfree,pollinationvariesfromcroptocropandaccord-2010;HudewenzandKlein,2013).Ensuringthataingtotheproductionsystem,withcontributionsrangeofnestingsites,eithernaturalorartificial,rangingfromverylittletoprovidingmostoftheareavailablewillencouragewildbeestomovepollinationservices(IsaacsandKirk,2010;Rogers,intoanareaandremainthere.Forexample,inTarpyandBurrack,2014;Winfreeetal.,2008).Athecaseofground-nestingbees,barepatchesofwide-rangingmeta-analysisofthedataonmoresoilandminimaltillingactivitywillencouragethan40cropsgrownin600fieldsacrosseverynesting.Hedgerowscansupplynestingresources270thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5formanypollinators,forexampleintheformofcreatecompetitionforpollinators(Free,1993)drybranches,stems,logs,orexposedsoilbanksandtosustainpollinatorpopulationswhentheorotherpatchesofbareground(IPBES,2016b;focal-cropflowersarenotavailable(BlüthgenWillmer,2011).Generally,increasingthehetero-andKlein,2011;Mandeliketal.,2012).Aswellgeneityofanylandscapeincreasesthepotentialasprovidingnestingsitesandnestingmaterialforpollinatorrichness(BlüthgenandKlein,2011;(seeabove),hedgerowsandflowerstripsalsoKennedyetal.,2013;KremenandMiles,2012;providefoodresourcesforpollinatorcommu-Shackelfordetal.,2013).nities(Garibaldietal.,2014;Isaacsetal.,2009;Pywelletal.,2005).ForagingresourcesHighlydiverseplantcommunitiescanprovideFarm-managementpracticesidealforagingresourcesforpollinators.EnhancingThereareseveralwaysinwhichfarmmanage-plantdiversitybyintercroppingand/orleavingmentcanbeadjustedtoreduceadverseeffectsweedyherbaceousgroundcovercanincreaseonpollinators,forexamplebyreducingpesticide,theavailabilityofnectarandpollenresourcesforincludingherbicide,usetoreducedirectimpactswildbeeswithinagriculturallandscapes(Altierionpollinatorsandimpactsonthefloraonwhichetal.,2015b).Normally,forbothstrategies,thepollinatorsdepend(e.g.viaintegratedpestman-non-cropforageplantsshouldfloweroutsidetheagement–seeSection5.6.6),introducingno-tillfloweringperiodofthefocalcrop,soasnottoororganicagricultureordiversifyingthesysteminBox5.21EnhancingpollinatorpresenceincassavafieldsinGhanaFormanyyears,Ghanaianfarmershavebeenapplyingaseggplant,tomatoandpepper–noneofwhicharehighlymanagementpracticesthatenhancecropproductionbyattractivetopollinators–benefitfromvisitsbypollinatorspromotingthepresenceofpollinatorsintheirfields.Toinitiallyattractedtothecassavaflowersatthefieldborders.markfieldboundariesbetweenneighbouringfarms,someAsidefromthebenefitsprovidebycassavaflowers,cassavavegetablegrowerslinetheirfieldmarginswithoneortwostemsarepithyandserveasnestsformanycarpenterbeesrowsofcassavaplants.Thepracticehasbothsocio-economicandotherwood-boringbeesandwasps.Moreover,cassavaandecologicalvalue.Socio-economically,thefarmersgainplantsprovidethedelicatestemsofvegetablecropswithfrombeingabletoharvestsomecassavafromtheboundarysomeprotectionagainstwindstorms.areasinadditiontothevegetablesinthefields.ThismultiplecroppingcontributestofoodsecurityandmitigatestheOtheron-farmpracticesinGhanathatare“pollinatorpotentialriskofcropfailure.However,thereisafurtherfriendly”includeleavingbusheswithinthefarmingareathatbenefitofhavingacassavabordercroparoundavegetableserveasrefugiaforpollinatorsandasforageresourceswhenfield.Cassavaflowersproduceprofuseamountsofnectar,cropfieldsarenotinbloom.Thehighdiversityofplantsinwhichattractsbeesandotherspecies(Nassar,2003).Inmanysmallholderfarms–whetherbushes,cropbordersGhana,themostcommonlyattractedbeespeciesincludeorweedyareas–mayprovidebenefitsbothbyproducingApismelliferaandahostofstinglessbeesthatforageforflowersearly,andthusattractingpollinatorsintothefieldsbothnectarandpollen.Becauseoftheattractivenessofbeforethecropflowersbloom,andbyproducingflowerscassavaplantstopollinators,vegetablecropsgrowingafterthecrophasbeenharvested,andthushelpingtoretainwithinafieldboundedbycassavastandagreaterchanceandsupportpollinatorsuntilthenextcroppingseason.ofbeingvisitedbypollinators.Althoughthephenomenonisstillunderinvestigation,itislikelythatvegetablecropssuchSource:AdaptedfromIsaacsetal.(2016).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE271STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCwaysthatfavourpollinatorhabitat(seeexamplesglobalconservationefforts.In2018,thePlanofabove)(IPBES,2016b;TuellandIsaacs,2010).Action2018–2030oftheInternationalPollinatorGround-nestingbeespeciesnormallyplacetheirInitiativewasadoptedatthefourteenthmeetingbroodcellsinthetop30cmofthesoil(RoulstonoftheConferenceofthePartiestotheCBD.andGoodell,2011;Williamsetal.,2010),whichRegionalinitiativeshavebeenestablishedinmeansthattheymaybenefitfromno-tillsystemsAfrica,70Oceania,71Europe72andNorthAmerica.73orconscioustilling(appropriatetimingandNationalinitiativesinotherregionsincludethedepth).OrganicfarmingpracticescanprovideBrazilianPollinatorsInitiative74andtheColombianmultiplebenefitsforpollinatorsatlocalandland-PollinatorsInitiative.75PromotePollinators,thescapescales(IPBES,2016b).Althoughtheserela-CoalitionoftheWillingonPollinators,76wastionshipshavenotbeenresearchedextensively,establishedin2016andtoday(late2018)hassomestudieshavefoundgreaterbee,hoverfly23membercountries.andbutterflydiversityinareaswhereorganicproductionispractisedthaninareaswhereitThirty-oneoutofthe91countryreportsindi-isnot(Gabrieletal.,2013;Holzschuh,Steffan-catethatpollination-managementpracticesareDewenterandTscharntke,2008;Kennedyetal.,beingimplemented.Theproportionishigher2013;KremenandMiles,2012;NichollsandAltieri,amongOECDcountries(63percent)thanamong2013;Rundlöf,BengtssonandSmith,2008).non-OECDcountries(26percent)(Table5.1).TheForexample,Holzschuh,Steffan-Dewenterandreportsindicatethatsuchpracticesaremostcom-Tscharntke(2008)examinedbeespeciesrichnessmonlyusedincropproductionsystems,includ-andabundanceinfallowstripsadjacenttoorganicingrainfedandirrigatedsystems,andinmixedandconventionalwheatfieldsandfoundthatansystems.Forexample,Norwaynotesthathoney-increaseinorganiccroppinginthesurroundingbeerentalisimportanttotheproductionofrape-landscapefrom5percentto20percentenhancedseed,cherries,apples,pears,plums,raspberries,beespeciesrichnessby50percent.Sucheffectsstrawberriesandblackcurrants,particularlyinareprobablycausedbytheabsenceorlimiteduseareaswherethedensityofferalhoney-beecolo-ofchemicalinputsandthepresenceofadditionalniesislow.Somewhatlowerfiguresarereportednon-cropfloralresources(Holzschuh,Steffan-forlivestockgrassland-basedsystemsandforDewenterandTscharntke,2010;Kennedyetal.,naturallyregeneratedandplantedforests.Most2013;Rundlöf,BengtssonandSmith,2008).countriesdonotindicatetheextenttowhichpollination-enhancingpracticesarebeingapplied.StatusandtrendsHowever,upwardtrendsinadoptionarereportedAsdiscussedinothersectionsofthischapter,manyacrossproduction-systemcategories(Table5.2).managementpracticesthatcanbeconsideredfavourabletopollinators,includingintegrated5.6.8Forest-managementpracticespestmanagement,organicagriculture,conser-vationagricultureandagroforestry,aswellasMorethan60000treespeciesarecurrentlylandscape-managementandrestorationinitia-knowntoscience,over90percentofwhicharetives,arereportedtobebecomingmorewide-foundinthetropicalandsubtropicalbiomesspread.Increasingawarenessoftheimportanceof(Beechetal.,2017).Tropicalforestsmaintainpollinatorsandtheneedtoaddresstheirdeclinehasledtoarangeofdevelopmentsatnational70http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1490e/a1490e00.htmandregionallevels,undertheumbrellaofthe71http://www.oceanicpollinators.orgInternationalInitiativeontheConservationand72http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/SustainableUseofPollinators,aimedataddress-ingthedeclineofpollinatorsandcontributingtopollinators/index_en.htm73http://pollinator.org/nappc74http://www.webbee.org.br/bpi/ibp_english.htm75http://www.uneditorial.com/pageflip/acceso-abierto/pdf/abejas-polinizadoras-ebook-40217.pdf76https://promotepollinators.org/272thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5highlevelsofbiomass,butbecauseoftheirlongbeforetheinventionofRILinthe1990s.highspeciesdiversity,theytypicallyprovideMoreover,althoughRILandtropicalforestsweremuchlowervolumesofmerchantablewoodperamajorfocusofattentioninthe1990s,therewerehectarethantemperateorborealforests,whichalsobroadereffortstomaketimber-harvestingaredominatedbyfewertreespecies.Thismeanspracticesmoresustainableinallforestbiomesthatselectiveloggingisacommonharvesting(e.g.DykstraandHeinrich,1996).methodintropicalforests,typicallytargetingfewerthantenindividualsoftimberspeciesperRILneedstobepartofasilviculturalsystemhectareandprovidingratherlowvolumesofwithinwhichspecificmeasuresaimedatachiev-wood(<30m3perha)(FAO,1993).ingspecificobjectivesareprescribedandsched-uledinamanagementplan.ThemanagementBytheearly1990s,itwaswidelyrecognizedthatplanshouldalsosetoutthemethodtobeusedtothemechanizationoftimberharvestingrepre-regeneratetheforest,artificiallyornaturally,aftersentedamajorchallengetotheimplementationofwoodharvesting.Intropicalforestsinparticular,sustainableforestmanagement(seeSection5.3.2),especiallyinthetropics(e.g.Dykstra,2002).AfterBox5.22the1950s,mechanizedloggingtechnologiesMeasuresorstepstypicallyincludedinusingheavymachineryhadbeenintroducedreduced-impactloggingrapidlyfromtemperateandborealregionsintothetropics,andthescaleandintensityoflogging•Preharvestplanningofroads,skidtrailsandoperationshadincreasedconsiderablyrelativetolandingstoprovideaccesstotreesthatwillbethoseofoperationsthatreliedlargelyonhumanharvestedandtominimizedamagetoremainingandanimalpower(ibid.).Asaconsequence,treesandenvironmentalimpacts.loggingoperationsinthetropicsspreadacrosslargeareas,andthehighdensityofskidtrailsand•Preharvestvine/climber-cuttinginareaswhereroadsneededtoextractscatteredtimberspeciesvinesbridgetreecrowns.heavilyaffectednon-commercialspeciesanddegradedforestecosystemsingeneral.Inparal-•Theuseofappropriatefellingandbuckinglelwithpost-1992effortstoadvancesustainabletechniques,includingdirectionalfelling,cuttingforestmanagement,variousconceptsandprac-stumpslowtothegroundtoavoidwaste,andticeswereproposedformakingloggingopera-optimalcrosscuttingoftreestemsintologsinationsmoreenvironmentallyfriendly.“Reduced-waythatmaximizestherecoveryofusefulwood.impactlogging”(RIL)emergedasthemostwidelyusedtermreferringtosuchpractices.•Constructionofroads,landingsandskidtrailsfollowingengineeringandenvironmental-designRILhasbeendescribedasasetofloggingguidelines.practicesimplementedtoreducetheresidualdamage,biodiversitylossandcarbon-dioxide•Winchingoflogstoplannedskidtrailsandensuringemissionsassociatedwithconventionalloggingthatskiddingmachinesremainonthetrailsatallpractices(Edwardsetal.,2012).Thereareseveraltimes.otherdefinitionsofRIL,buttheyallemphasizetheimportanceofwell-planned,carefullyimple-•Wherefeasible,utilizingyardingsystemsthatmentedandcloselysupervisedloggingopera-protectsoilsandresidualvegetationbysuspendingtions,carriedoutbytrainedpersonnel,thatmin-logsabovetheground.imizeimpactsonforeststandsandsoils(Dykstra,2002)(seeBox5.22foralistofpracticestypically•Conductingapost-harvestassessmenttoprovideinvolvedinRIL).Manyofthesemeasureswerefeedbacktotheforestmanagerandloggingcrewscommonpracticesintemperateandborealforestsandtoevaluatethedegreetowhichreducedimpactloggingguidelinesweresuccessfullyapplied.Source:Dykstra,2002(basedonSistetal.,1998).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE273STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCsilviculturalmeasuresimplementedafterselectiveforestrypolicy.Mostcountriesindicatethattheloggingofteninclude(FAO,1998):areaunderthepracticeisincreasingorstable(Table5.2).Reduced-impactloggingismostcom-•enrichmentplantingusingnursery-raisedmonlyreportedtobepractisedinnaturallyregen-seedlingsorso-calledwildings(wildseed-eratedforests(22countries),followedbyplantedlings)transplantedfromanotherforest;forests(14countries).Afewcountriesprovidemore-detailedinformationonhowthepractice•weedingandclearingofforestundergrowthisimplemented.Forexample,Cameroonreportstoreducecompetitionwithplantedornatu-thatskiddingtrailsareconstructedsoastoreducerallyestablishedseedlings;andthedestructionofvegetation.Norwayreportsthatmeasuresincludeleavingstripsofforestclose•liberationcuttingindensestandsoftreesoftoponds,lakes,miresandrivers,leavingsinglebothcommercialandnon-commercialspecies.selectedtrees,snagsandlogsonclearcuts,andleavingsmallset-asideareas.Italsonotesthat“Enrichmentplanting”isatermusedtotherearerestrictionsontheuseofspecifictreedescribe“theplantingofdesiredtreespeciesinspeciesandthatthereareareaswherethereisamodifiednaturalforestorsecondaryforestoronlyselectivecuttingoftrees.woodlandwiththeobjectiveofcreatingahighforestdominatedbydesirable(i.e.localand/orCountrieswerealsoinvitedtoreportonthehigh-value)species”(ITTO,2002).Thispracticeisproportionofproductionareaunderenrichmentimplementedinforestsmanagedtosupplybothplanting,78andchangesinthisproportionoverwoodandnon-woodproducts,aswellasintra-theprecedingtenyears.Thirty-onecountriesditionalagroforestrysystemsandindegradedreportthispractice,11ofwhichalsospecifytheforestsunderrestorationefforts.Areaswhereproportionofforestareaonwhichitispractisedselectiveloggingandenrichmentplantinghave(Table5.1).Responsesrangefrom0.01percenttobeenpractisedtoincreasetheabundanceof100percent.Themajorityofcountriesreportthatusefulspeciesforfood,medicineandtimbertheareawhereenrichmentplantingispractisedcanbereferredtoas“enrichedforests”(Peters,isincreasing(Table5.2).TheproductionsystemsNepstadandSchwartzman,1992).whereenrichmentplantingismostcommonlyreportedtobepractisedarenaturallyregen-Reportedadoptionofreduced-impactloggingeratedforestsandplantedforests(reportedandenrichmentplantingby16countriesinbothcases).AfewcountriesCountrieswereinvitedtoreportonthepropor-providemore-detailedinformationonhowtionofproductionareaunderRIL77andchangesenrichmentplantingispractised.Finlandnotesinthisproportionovertheprecedingtenyears.thatforestsundercontinuous-coverforestry,Twenty-sixcountryreportsindicatethattheprac-whichiscurrentlypractisedonlyon50000hec-ticeisimplemented(Table5.1).Elevenofthesetares,canbeconsideredenrichedforests.Norwayalsoprovidethepercentageofthetotalproduc-reportsthatforestsareenrichedbymaintainingationareaonwhichthepracticeisapplied.Severalproportionofatleast10percentofbroadleavedEuropeancountriesindicatethat100percentofspeciesinconiferousstands.CostaRicanotestheirforestareaisunderreduced-impactlogging,thatsince1979ithashadareforestationpolicysomespecifyingthatthepracticeispartoftheirthatincludestraditionalmedicinalandedible77Reduced-impactloggingisdescribedinthecountry-reporting78Enrichedforestsaredescribedinthecountry-reportingguidelinesguidelinesas“aseriesofpracticestoimproveloggingas“selectiveloggingandenrichmentplantingtoincreasethepracticessuchasvineremoval,directionalfelling,limitingabundanceofusefulspeciesforfood,medicineandtimber,skidtrails,loggingroadsandstumpinggrounds,restrictionsoftenafeatureoftraditionalmanagementpractices,”(basedononthesizeandnumberoftreesfelled,andpostfellingPeters,NepstadandSchwartzman,1992).removalofwaterwayblockages,toreducetheresidualdamage,biodiversitylossandexcessCO2emissionsassociatedwithconventionalloggingpractices”(basedonEdwardsetal.2012).274thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5speciessuchasice-creambean(Ingaedulis),approachcurrentlyplayingarole.However,inearpod(Enterolobiumcyclocarpum)andcopper-manycontextssuchschemesarenotyetsuffi-wood(Burserasimaruba).cientlyrobust,flexibleordiverse.5.6.9Needsandpriorities5.7Theuseofmicro-organismsinfoodprocessingandWhilethevariousmanagementpracticesdescribedagro-industrialprocessesaboveareextremelydiverse,andeachhasitsownspecificsetofissuestobeaddressed,somegeneral•Micro-organismsprovideawidevarietyofecosystemneedsandprioritiescanbeidentified.Most,ifnotservicesandareputtoawiderangeofusesintheall,ofthemanagementpracticesdiscussedarefoodandagriculturesector.Importantusesincludeknowledgeintensiveandoftencontextspecific.theproductionofbiofertilizersandbiopesticides,Implementingthemeffectivelyoftenrequirescompostingofagriculturalby-products,conversionacombinationoftraditionalandnewknowl-oflignocellulosicbiomassintoindustrialproductsedge.Thefarmerfieldschoolapproachhasbeen(includingbiofuels),environmentalbioremediationwidelyapplied,andcreatesaframeworkinwhichandtheproductionandpreservationofmanykindsoffarmerknowledgeandexperiencecanbesharedfoodsanddrinks.anddeveloped.Italsoallowstraditionalandalternativepracticestobetestedandcombinedin•Whilecountriesnotethepotentialofbiofertilizersbeneficialways.andbiopesticidestoreducetheneedforconventionalagrochemicalsandreportongoingresearchactivitiesAdoptingbiodiversity-friendlypracticesofteninthisfield,theyalsoindicatethattheuseofsuchinvolvessomecosttotheproducerintermsof,forproductsisnotyetverywidespread.example,labour,equipmentortimespentacquir-ingknowledge.Moreneedstobedonetosupport•Somecountriesmentionthesignificanceofmicro-theprocessoftransition,includingbydevelopingorganismsineffortstoadaptfoodandagriculturalthecapacityofagriculturalextensionservices.productiontotheeffectsofclimatechangeandotherStrongsocialinstitutionsarealsoimportant.Theenvironmentalstressors,notingthatstrengtheningimplementationofmanyrelevantpracticeshastheseroleswillrequirebetteridentification,inventoryasignificantsocialorcommunitydimension,forandcharacterizationofrelevantmicrobialresources.exampleinthecaseofterracebuilding,estab-lishingwindbreaksorreducingthelikelihoodof•Manycountriesemphasizetheimportanceoffood-diseaseepidemics.Supportingcooperationandprocessingmicro-organisms.Prioritiesnotedincludestrengtheningsocialinstitutionswithinproducerstrengtheningresearchintotraditionalfermentationcommunitiesareoftenasimportantasthedissem-processesandestablishingorimprovingthesupplyofinationofspecificmanagementpractices.starterculturestosmall-scaleproducers.Anumberofcountriesidentifypoliciesand•Policyandinstitutionalprioritiesrelatedtotheuseofregulationsasplayingakeyroleinpromotingmicro-organismsinfoodandagricultureinclude:theadoptionofdesirablemanagementpractices.––improvingframeworksforqualitycontrolofTheseincludeboththosethatsupportspecificmicrobialproductsandforevaluatingpotentialpositiveactionsandthosethatplaceconstraintsriskstohumanhealthortheenvironment;onunsustainablepractices,forexamplethose––improvingregistrationpoliciesformicrobialthatrestrictinappropriateuseofpesticidesandproducts;otherinputs.Thus,governmentscanplayan––improvingeducationandawarenessraising,importantpartinimprovingmanagementprac-includingviaextensionprogrammesandticesandinprovidingadequaterewardsforthedemonstrationsinfarmers’fields;andadoptionofpracticesthatsupportthemain-––improvingrelevantpartnershipsbetweenthepublictenanceofBFA.Certificationschemesareoneandprivatesectors.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE275STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCMicro-organismsarevitaltomanyoftheman-2016).Inadditiontotheirrolesinfermenta-agementpracticesdiscussedelsewhereinthistion,micro-organismsareusedtoproducemanychapter,andtotheprovisionofawidevarietycompoundsusedinfoodprocessing,includingofecosystemservices(seeSections2.2and4.3).enzymes,flavourings,fragrancesandbacteriocinsTheyarealsousedinarangeofagro-industrial(substancesproducedbybacteriathatkillorprocessesandenvironmental-managementtech-inhibitthegrowthofotherbacteria).Microbialniques.Themostprominentoftheseusesareinfoodcultureswhosemetabolicactivityhelpstheformulationofbiofertilizersandbiopesti-toinhibitorcontrolthegrowthofundesirablecides,compostingofagro-industrialby-products,micro-organisms(e.g.pathogenicortoxogenicconversionoflignocellulosic79biomassintoindus-bacteria)arereferredtoas“protectivecultures”.trialproducts(includingbiofuels),environmentalTheseculturesplayaroleinfermentation,butbioremediationandanimalnutrition.Inaddition,canalsobeusedtoimprovethesafetyofnon-micro-organismsarevitaltothepreparationoffermentedfoods,includingmeats,fruits,vegeta-manytypesoffoodanddrink,atindustrial,arti-blesandseafood.sanalordomesticscales.Thissectionpresentsanoverviewofthesevarioususes,consideringfirstInsomecountries,fermentedfoodsaremajorusesinfoodprocessingandthenusesinagro-componentsoflocaldiets,oftenfortifyingandindustrialprocesses.Furtherinformationontheaddingvarietytootherwiseblandstarchydiets.rolesofmicro-organismsinmanagementatpro-Forexample,gundruk,afermentedanddriedveg-duction-systemlevel(e.g.theirsignificanceinetableproduct,isveryimportanttofoodsecurityintegratedpestmanagementandsustainableinmanyNepalicommunities,especiallyinremotesoilmanagement)canbefoundintherespectiveareasandparticularlyduringtheoff-seasonwhensubsectionsabove.thedietconsistsprimarilyofstarchytubersandmaize,whichtendtobelowinminerals.InAfrica,5.7.1Micro-organismsfermentedcassavaproducts,suchasgariandfufu,infoodprocessingaremajorfoodsformanypeople.TheemergenceofalternativessuchasrefrigerationhasreducedOverviewoftherolesofmicro-organismsthesignificanceoffermentationasapreservationinfoodprocessingtechniqueinpartsoftheworld.WherethisistheMicrobialfermentationhasplayedanimportantcase,themainroleoffermentationoftenliesinroleinfoodprocessingformillennia.Itcontrib-theproductionofavarietyofproductswithspe-utesnotonlytofoodpreservationandsafety,cificflavours,aromasandtextures.Italsoremainsbutalsotothenutritionalvalueandsensoryarelativelyefficient,low-energyandcheapmeansqualitiesoffoodsandtothediversityofpeople’sofpreservationanditslackofrelianceontheusediets.80Theremaybemorethan5000differentofchemicaladditivesappealstosomeconsum-typesoffermentedfoodsanddrinksconsumediners(BattcockandAzam-Ali,1998;Guizaniandtheworld(Campbell-Platt,1987;Tamang,2010).Mothershaw,2007).Classicexamplesincludecheese,quorn,beer,wine,vinegar,soysauce,yoghurtandbreads.TheRecentdecadeshaveseenincreasinginterestmaingroupsofmicro-organismsinvolvedarebac-infoodscontainingso-calledprobiotics,whichteria,yeastsandfilamentousfungi,alsoknownhavebeendefinedas“livemicroorganismswhichasmoulds(Tamang,WatanabeandHolzapfel,whenadministeredinadequateamountsconferahealthbenefitonthehost”(FAOandWHO,2002).79Structuralmaterialfoundinthecellwallsofplants.Probioticmicro-organismsaremainlyusedindairy80ThisoverviewdrawsontheCGRFABackgroundStudyPaperproductssuchascheese,yoghurt,icecreamandotherdairydesserts.TheyhavetobeabletosurvivepreparedbyAlexandrakietal.(2013).passagethroughtheupperpartsofthedigestivetract(i.e.toresistgastricjuicesandexposureto276thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5bile)andtoproliferateinandcolonizetheintes-as“backslopping”,shortenstheinitialphaseoftine.Themostcommonlyusedstrainsarelacticthefermentationprocessandreducestheriskofacidbacteria(Lactobacillusspp.,Enterococcusspp.fermentationfailure.However,asdemandfortra-andBifidobacteriumspp.)(Ouwehand,Salminenditionalfermentedproductsgrowsandmanufac-andIsolauri,2002;Saadetal.,2013).However,turinghastobescaledup,ittendstobenecessaryotherbacteria,andevenyeasts,havebeendevel-tointroducetheuseofstartercultures(isolatedopedaspotentialprobiotics(Ouwehand,Salminenculturesthatcanbeproducedonalargescale).andIsolauri,2002).Micro-organismsandtheirThisoftenreducestheuniquenessoftheoriginalmetaboliteshavealsobeenusedintheproductionproductandleadstothelossofthecharacteristicsofnutraceuticals,orfunctionalfoods,i.e.foods,thatoriginallymadeitpopular.orpartsoffoods,thatprovidemedicalorhealthbenefits,includingthepreventionandtreatmentAlthoughthecountry-reportingguidelinesdidofdisease(e.g.Wangetal.,2016).notincludeanyquestionsspecificallyrelatedtotheuseofmicro-organismsinfoodprocessing,aFood-processingmicro-organismsareusedundernumberofcountryreportsmentionthesignifi-awidevarietyofdifferentcircumstances,rangingcanceofthisrole.ThereportfromEthiopia,forfromsmall-scaleproductionusinglong-establishedexample,notesthatmicro-organismsplaypivotaltraditionaltechniquestolarge-scaleindustrialrolesinthepreparationoftraditionalfoods,suchapplications.Large-scaleenterprisesinindustrial-asinjera,kocho,bullaandcheese,andlocaldrinksizedcountriesareabletoaccessestablishedculturesuchastella,tej,borde,chekaandareke,thatcollections(eitherinternallywithinthecompanyaresourcesoflivelihoodandincomeformillionsorfrompubliccollections)inwhichpreciselychar-ofruralandurbanEthiopians.81Itfurthernotesacterizedanddefinedmicrobialstrainsaremain-thatwiththegrowthofdairyandotherfoodandtained.Theygenerallyhavesufficientresourcesatdrinkagro-industriesthecontributionofmicrobialtheirdisposaltosupportresearchanddevelopmentgeneticresourcestothenationaleconomyissettoandtoacquirethetechnologiestheyneed.Incon-increaseenormously.VietNamnotesthat(likethetrast,foodprocessinginthe“informal”sectoriscountry’sothermicrobialgeneticresources)micro-drivenbytheavailabilityofrawmaterialsandcul-organismsusedintheproductionoftraditionalfer-turaltraditions,withgradualdevelopmentoftech-mentedfoods,suchassourfermentedmeatrolls,nologiesovertime.Modern,large-scaleproductionsoysauce,picklesandHuesourfermentedshrimp,dependsalmostentirelyontheuseofdefinedarewelladaptedtotropicalclimatesandthatstarterstrains,whichhavereplacedtheundefinedstrainsisolatedfromsuchproductscanproducestrainmixturestraditionallyusedinfoodprocess-aromaticsubstances,proteinsandenzymesthating.Thishasdramaticallyimprovedcultureperfor-impartuniqueflavour.Malimentionstraditionalmanceandproductqualityandconsistency.Italsofermentedproductssuchassoumbala82andlocalmeansthatarelativelysmallnumberofstrainsarebeersandcheeses,andnotesthepotentialuseofintensivelyusedandrelieduponbythefoodandgeneticallymodifiedmicro-organismstoaddvaluebeverageindustries.81Injeraisasourfermentedbreadmadefromtef,sorghumThemajorityofsmall-scalefermentationsinorothergrains;kochoandbullaareproducedfromthedevelopingcountriesarestillspontaneouspro-Abyssinianbanana(Enseteventricosum);tellaandbordearecesses:arangeofmicro-organismspresentatthedrinksbrewedfromgrains;chekaisbrewedfromgrainsandstartoftheprocesscompete–andthosethatarevegetables;tejisahoneywine;arekeisadistilledbeveragebestadaptedtothefoodsubstrateandthecon-(Bacha,MehariandAshenafi,1998;BattcockandAzam-Ali,ditionsinwhichtheyaremaintainedeventually1998;BerzaandWolde,2014;Haardetal.,1999;Worku,cometodominate.Inmanycases,materialfromaWoldegiorgisandGemeda,2016).previoussuccessfulbatchisusedtofacilitatetheinitiationofanewprocess.Thispractice,known82SoumbalaisacondimenttraditionallyproducedfromtheseedsoftheAfricanlocustbeantree(Parkiabiglobosa)(Lamien,SidibeandBayala,1996).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE277STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCtosuchproducts.Spainreferstoagrowinginter-•thedevelopmentofsingle-straininocula-estintheuseofmicro-organismsinthedesignoftionshastendedtoresultinalackofatten-new“functionalfoods”forsectionsofthepopula-tiontothepotentialofmixedculturesandtionthathavespecialnutritionalrequirements,fortheircontributionstotheattributesoftradi-examplefortheelderlyandthosesufferingfromtionalproducts.coeliacdisease,notingthepotentialbenefitsbothofprobioticsandofusingmicro-organismstosyn-Withregardtoinstitutional,policyandlegalthesizevitaminsortoincreasethebio-availabilitymatters,itnotesthat:ofmineralsinfoodproducts.•localproducersoffermentedproductsarePrioritiesinthemanagementoffood-oftenignoredormarginalizedbygovern-processingmicro-organismsmentagenciesandfinancialinstitutions;andAsdiscussedelsewhereinthischapter,countries’prioritiesintermsofenhancingtheuseanddevel-•legalframeworksrelatedtointellectualopmentofBFAtendtoincludeimprovingthestatepropertyrights,foodsafetyandclaimsaboutofknowledgeofrelevantcomponentsofbiodiver-thehealth-promotingpropertiesofparticu-sityandhowtheycanbeused,disseminatingthislarproductsneedtobestrengthened.knowledge,improvingstakeholdercooperationatbothnationalandinternationallevelsand,whereThefollowingparagraphssummarizethemainrelevant,strengtheningpolicyandlegalframe-prioritiesidentified.works.Thecountryreportsincludefewprioritiesspecificallyrelatedtotheuseoffood-processingResearchanddevelopmentmicro-organisms.83TheprioritieslistedbelowareThereisaneedtofacilitateandencouragein-depththereforelargelybasedonexpertopinion,inpar-studyoftraditionalfood-fermentationprocessesticularonabackgroundstudypaperpreparedfor–improvingthecharacterizationofmicrobialtheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandpopulations,identifyingstrainsandspeciesthatAgriculturein2013(Alexandrakietal.,2013).playkeyrolesinconferringqualityattributestoproductsandselectingappropriatestrainsforuseThelatterpaperidentifiesanumberofchal-inthedevelopmentofstartercultures.So-calledlengestothesustainablemanagementoffood-“omics”approachescanprovideimportantprocessingmicro-organisms.Withregardtodriversinsights.Anotherpriorityistouseknowledgeofofchange,itnotesthat:thepreservationmechanismsassociatedwithfoodfermentationtofurtherthedevelopmentand•traditionalfood-processingpracticesandapplicationof“natural”processingmethodsthatindigenousknowledgeareindeclineworld-canserveasalternativestochemicalandthermalwide;preservation.Studiesarealsoneededonthefunc-tionalpropertiesoftraditionalfermentedfoods•agriculturalpracticesarechangingandurban-toidentifypossiblehealth-promoting(probiotic)izationisaffectingdietarypreferences;andeffects.“Functionalgenomics”canbeavaluabletoolinthisregard.Furtherresearchontheeffi-•productavailabilityisbeinginfluencedbycacyofnutraceuticalsbasedonmicrobesisalsotheeffectsofclimatechangeonproductionrequired.Methodsforpreservingtheseproductsandpost-harveststorage.alsoneedfurtherstudy.Inviewofclimatechange,thereisaneedtodevelopmathematicalmodelsWithregardtothecurrentstateofuseandthatcanpredictthebehaviourofmicrobialcom-development,thepapernotesthat:munitiesunderchangingconditions.•therearefoodsafetyconcernsaboutsomeStarterculturesforsmall-scaleproducerstraditionalfoods;andIntroducingstarterculturesforsmall-scalefoodfer-mentationsisanotherpriorityarea.Thepotential83Thecountry-reportingguidelinesdidnotinvitecountriestolistprioritiesinthisfield.278thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5benefitsofthisapproachintermsofimproving•facilitatingunbureaucratic,low-costaccessproductqualityandsafetyhavelongbeenrec-tomicrobialstrainssuitableforuseinsmall-ognized.Useofstarterculturesacceleratesmet-scaleoperationsfromculturecollections;abolicactivitiesandmeansthatfermentationcanbebettercontrolled.Progresshas,however,been•enablingcommunicationandexchangelimited.Infrastructureandtechnicalfacilitiesneedbetweenlocalandcentralgovernmentsandtobeimproved.Forexample,inmanyregions,small-scaleproducers;basiclaboratoryequipmentandbiobankfacilitiesforpreservingandstoringmicrobialculturesare•providingguidanceandsupporttogovern-oftenlacking.Industrialbioreactordesignneedsmentsontheapplicationoffood-processingtobeimproved,asdoesdiagnosticequipmentforbiotechnologiesandontheirroleandimpor-monitoringstarter-cultureperformance.tanceinfoodsafetyandfoodsecurity;Promotingsmall-scalestarter-cultureprocessing•providingtechnicaladviceandfacilitatinginruralareasislikelytorequiretheuseof“low-accesstoscienceparksandotherinfrastruc-tech”proceduresandtheprovisionofsupportture;andforlocalnetworkingbetweentheprovidersofstarterculturesandsmall-scaleprocessors.Key•supportingthedisseminationofscientifictasksincludethedevelopmentandimplementa-andtechnicalinformationgeneratedbycol-tionofsimplebuteffectivemethodsforpreserv-laborativeresearchprojects.ingandmaintainingtraditionalstartercultureswithoutrefrigerationandthefurtherdevelop-Manyofthesetaskshaveinternationaldimen-mentandstandardizationoftraditionalmethodssionsandhencetheworkofcountry-levelstake-soastoincreasetheirabilitytowithstandclimaticholderbodiesneedstobecoordinatedatregionalfluctuations.andgloballevels.Thereisaneed,forexample,todevelopacomprehensiveglobaldatabaseinwhichCoordinationandinformationexchangeinformationonthenutritionalandhealth-relatedAlthoughadegreeofprogresshasbeenmadepropertiesoffermentedfoodscanbecollectedinestablishingmechanismsforcoordinationandorganized.andinformation-exchangeamongstakeholders,furtherworkisneededatbothnationalandinter-Muchstillneedstobedonetoimprovecoopera-national(regionalandglobal)levels.Forexample,tionwithintheresearchcommunity.Forexample,effortstoimprovethequalityandsafetyoffoodstrainscitedinthescientificliteratureshould,producedviatraditional“low-tech”processeswheneverpossible,besecuredforfutureuse.wouldbenefitfromthecreationofmultistake-ProjectconsortiasuchastheEuropeanConsortiumholderforaatlocalandnationallevels.SuchofMicrobialResourceCentres(EMbaRC)84andbodieswouldneedtoaddressawiderangeoforganizationssuchasMicrobialResourceResearchtasks,includingthefollowing:Infrastructure(MIRRI)85andtheGlobalBiologicalResourceCentreNetwork(GBRCN)86havetried•promotingtheexchangeofgeneral,scien-toaddresstheseissues,andseveraljournalshavetificandtechnicalinformation;revisitedtheirpoliciestotryandensurethebio-logicalmaterialonwhichpublishedinformation•facilitatingaccesstospecializedtechnicalisbasedisavailableforthefuture.Policiesareinformationonfood-processingbiotechnol-alsoinplacetoensurethatvoucherspecimensogy,includingbypromotingknowledgetrans-underpinningmicrobialtaxonomyarepreservedferbetweenthepublicandprivatesectors;andmadeavailableforthelongterm.However,theaccessibilityofkeystrainsstillneedstobe•organizingtrainingandeducationalactivities;improved(Stackebrandtetal.,2014).Collections•givingguidancetosmall-scaleprocessorsand84http://www.embarc.eu/addressingtheirconcerns;85http://www.mirri.org/home.html86http://www.gbrcn.org/thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE279STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCalsoneedtoworktogethertomakethebestuseProductionofabiofertilizerinvolvestheidenti-ofnewtechnologies.Commonpoliciesareneededficationofmicro-organismsthatcanperformthetoaddressregulatoryissuessuchasthecontrolofdesiredfunctionsinthetargetedagroecologicalaccesstodangerousorganismsandaccessandconditions.Thesethenhavetobemultipliedandbenefit-sharingundertheNagoyaProtocol.packedincarriermaterialsthatallowthemtobestoredanddistributedeffectively.TrainingandeducationTrainingandeducationforsmall-scaleproduc-Advantagesofbiofertilizersovertheirsyntheticers,bothonpracticaltechniquesandonproductcounterpartsincludetheircapacitytoprovideamarketing,areanotherpriority.Trainersneedwiderangeofnutrients,particularlymicronutri-tobetrainedtoaddressthespecificneedsandents,theircontributiontoincreasingsoilorganicconcernsofthisgroup.Inadditiontoprovidingmattercontent,theirrelativelylowcostandthetrainingperse,trainerscanpotentiallyalsoservefactthattheydonotcontainharmfulmateri-asavitallinkbetweentheformalandinformalalssuchasheavymetals(oronlyinnegligiblesectors,contributetotheworkofnationalandamounts).Disadvantagesinclude(i)muchlowerinternationalstakeholderbodiesandsupportnutrientdensity,(ii)theneedfordifferentmachin-effortstopromotetraditionalfermentedfoods.eryfromthatusedtoapplymineralfertilizers,(iii)difficultieswithsupplyincertainareas,5.7.2Micro-organisms(iv)theneedforspecialcareintheirlong-terminagro-industrialprocessesstorage(astheyneedtobekeptalive),(v)finiteexpirydates,(vi)ineffectivenessifthesoilistooOverviewofagro-industrialuses87hotordry,(vii)potentiallossofeffectivenessifthecarriermediumiscontaminatedbyotherBiofertilizersmicro-organismsorifthewrongstrainisused,Abiofertilizerisasubstancethatcontainsliving(viii)theneedforthesoiltocontainsufficientnutri-unicellularmicro-organismsthat,whenappliedtoentsforthebiofertilizerorganismstothriveandseeds,plantsurfacesorsoil,colonizetherhizos-work,(ix)limitedeffectivenessinexcessivelyacidicphere88ortheinterioroftheplantandpromoteoralkalinesoilsorifthesoilcontainsanexcessgrowthbyincreasingthesupplyoravailabilityofoftheirnaturalmicrobiologicalcompetitorsandprimarynutrientstothehost.Micro-organisms(x)constraintstoavailabilitycausedbyshortagesusedinbiofertilizerscomefromarangeofdif-ofparticularstrainsofmicro-organismsorshort-ferenttaxa,rangingfrombacteriatoyeastsandagesofgrowthmedium.filamentousfungi.Theyperformavarietyofdifferentfunctions,includingnitrogenfixation,BiopesticidesproductionofphytohormonesandplantgrowthMicrobialbiopesticidesareusedtocontrolaregulators,solubilizationofphosphorusandothervarietyofpestsanddiseasesinfoodandagricul-elements,productionofsiderophores(substancesturalsystems.Theirusecanhelpreducesomeofthatfacilitatetheuptakeofironfromthesoil)andtheproblemscausedbyconventionalpesticides,theformationofmycorrhizae(symbioticassocia-suchasthelossofbeneficialorganisms(pollina-tionsbetweenfungiandplantsthat,interalia,tors,etc.),damagetowildlifehabitatsandadversefacilitatetheuptakeofnutrientsbytheplants).effectsonhumanhealth(seeSection5.6.6).However,therearesomedrawbacks,including87ThisoverviewdrawsontheCGRFABackgroundStudyPapertheirsusceptibilitytoenvironmentalstress,thepreparedbyChatzipavlidisetal.(2013).factthattheyneedtobekeptaliveandtheirslowkillrates(Chandleretal.,2011).88TheregionofthesoilsurroundingplantrootsthatisinfluencedbysecretionsfromtherootsandinhabitedbydistinctiveBiopesticidesbasedonbacteriaareusedtocommunitiesofmicro-organisms.controlplantdiseases,nematodes,insectsand280thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5weeds.Thebacteriummostwidelyusedisthetocontrolthecodlingmoth(Cydiapomonella),insectpathogenicspeciesBacillusthuringiensisapestofappleandotherfruittrees.Mostappli-(Bt).DuringsporeformationBtproducesBtcationsoccurinconventionalorchards,whereitsδ-endotoxin,ahighlyspecificendotoxinthatusecanhelpminimizetheriskofresistancetobindstoanddestroysthecellularliningofthechemicalinsecticides.InBrazil,thenucleopoly-insect’sdigestivetract,causingtheinsecttostophedrovirusisusedtocontrolthesoybeancaterpil-feedinganddie.Theδ-endotoxincrystalsaremasslarAnticarsiagemmatalis.producedinfermentationtanksandsuppliedintheformofasprayableproduct.BtsprayskillNon-pathogenicyeastshavealsobeendevel-caterpillars,flyandmosquitolarvae,andbeetles.opedintobiopesticides.Forexample,apesticideTheyareusedonfruitandvegetablecropsandbasedonCandidaoleophilastrainOisusedtoonbroadacrecropssuchasmaize,soybeanandcontrolpost-harvestfruitrots.Theyeastactsasancotton.Someotherbiopesticidesarebasedontheantagonisttofungalpathogenssuchasgreymouldcapacityofcertainstrainsofbacteriatoprevent(Botrytiscinerea)andbluemould(Penicilliumplantdiseasesbyoutcompetingplantpathogensexpansum)thatcausepost-harvestdecay.intherhizosphere,producinganti-fungalcom-poundsorpromotingplantgrowth.PreparationsCompostingofagro-industrialby-productsbasedonbacteriawiththesecapacitiesareusedLargequantitiesofagro-industrialby-productsagainstarangeofplantpathogens,includingaregeneratedworldwide,includingstraw,stalks,damping-offandsoftrots.leaves,husks,shells,peel,lint,seeds/stones,fruitpulp,sugar-canebagasse,sweet-sorghummilling,Fungalbiopesticidescanbeusedtocontrolplantspentcoffeegroundsandbrewers’spentgrains.diseasescausedbyfungi,bacteriaornematodes,asMuchofthismaterialismadeupofcellulose,wellasagainstsomeinsectpestsandweeds.Theyhemicelluloseandlignin.Mostiseitherusedasoperateviacompetitiveexclusion,mycoparasitism89animalfeedorburned.However,severalgroupsandtheproductionofmetabolitesthatadverselyoffungiareabletodecomposethesesubstancesaffectthetargetorganisms.Themostcommonandconvertthemintocompostthatcanbeusedcommercialfungalbiopesticidesusedinthenursery,asasoilamendment.Variousagro-industrialby-ornamental,vegetable,field-cropandforestryproductscanalsobeusedassubstratesformedic-industriesareTrichodermaspp.,Beauveriabassianainalorediblemushroomproduction.andMetarhiziumanisopliae.Trichodermaisabletocolonizeplantrootsandout-competepatho-Productionofmicrobialmetabolitesgenicfungiforfoodandspace.Undercertainenvi-Aswellasproducingcompost,micro-organismsronmentalconditionsitcanattackandparasitizeculturedonagro-industrialby-productscanplantpathogens.Itcanalsostimulatetheplantsupplyanumberofotherusefulproductsinclud-host’sdefencesandaffectrootgrowth.Beauveriaingorganicacids,chemicaladditives,pigments,bassianahasprovedeffectiveincontrollingcropenzymes,foodadditives,antibiotics,biofuels,sol-pestssuchasaphids,thripsandpesticide-resistantventsandbioplastics.strainsofwhitefly.TheentomopathogenicfungusMetarhiziumanisopliaeisusedagainstthedesertOrganicacids.Micro-organismsarewidelyusedlocust(Schistocercagregaria).toproduceorganicacidsusedinthefoodandbeverageindustriesandintheproductionofcos-Baculovirusesareafamilyofnaturallyoccur-metics,pharmaceuticals,leatherandtextiles,biode-ringvirusesthatinfectonlyinsectsandsomegradableplasticsandcoatings,cleaningproducts,relatedarthropods.Avirusofthiskindiswidelyherbicidesandpesticides.Citricacid,forexample,usedinEuropeandtheUnitedStatesofAmericathemostimportantbio-industrialorganicacid,isproducedcommerciallymainlyviasubmerged89Parasitismoffungibyotherfungi.fermentationusingthefungusAspergillusniger.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE281STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFermentationusingthisfunguscultivatedonaSurfactants.Thesesubstancesareusedtorangeofagro-industrialby-productsincludingdecreasesurfaceandinterfacialtensioninacorncob,sugar-canebagasse,coffeehusks,kiwi-varietyofindustrialprocesses.Surfactantsusedfruitpeels,wheatbran,ricebran,pineapplewaste,inindustryarealmostallderivedchemicallyfrommixedfruitwaste,sugar-beetmolasses,sawdustpetroleum.However,theycanalsobeproducedwithricehulls,cassavawaste,applepomaceandbymicro-organisms.Microbiallyderivedsur-potato-starchresiduehasbeenintensivelystudied.factantshaveseveraladvantages,includinglowMicrobial-strainselectionisveryimportantinthetoxicityandgoodbiodegradability.However,productionoforganicacids.Themicro-organismsalthoughinterestintheiruseisincreasing,theyusedmusthavestablecharacteristics,beabletoarenoteconomicallycompetitivewithsynthet-growrapidlyandvigorously,benon-pathogenicicallyproducedalternatives.Agro-industrialandproducehighyieldsofthedesiredproduct.by-productswithahighcarbohydrateorlipidcontentcanbeusedassubstratesforbiosur-Aromaandflavourcompounds.Microbialbio-factantproduction.Potentialoptionsincludesynthesisorbioconversionsystemsareemergingaspeathydrolysate,effluentfromolive-oilmills,promisingsubstitutesforsyntheticmethodsofpro-lacticwhey,soybean-curdresidue,potato-processducingaromacompoundsforuseintheproductioneffluentandmolasses.offood,drinks,perfumesandessentialoils.BothfungiandbacteriacanbeusedtoproducearomaMicrobialpigments.Thereisgrowinginterestcompoundsviafermentation(Dastager,2009).inmicrobiallyderivedsubstitutesforsyntheticfoodcolouringagents,someofwhichhavebeenEnzymes.Fungiandbacteriagrownonagro-bannedonaccountoftheirpotentialcarcino-industrialby-productsinlarge-scalefermentersaregenicityandteratogenicity.90Currently,thecostofanimportantsourceofenzymesusedinavarietynaturalpigmentsishigherthanthatofsyntheticofindustries,includingthefood-biotechnology,colours,butthishurdlecouldbeovercomebyanimal-feed,pharmaceutical,textileandpapermassproduction.Thefastgrowthratesofmicro-industries.Risingdemandforeconomicalproduc-organismsshouldhelptogivemicrobialpigmentstionmethods,newfunctionalities,improvedsafetyacompetitiveadvantageoverpigmentsextractedandreducedenvironmentalimpactisdrivingatrendfromplantoranimalsources.Riboflavin(vitamintowardsthereplacementoftraditionalchemicalB2)(ayellowpigmentpermittedinmostcoun-processeswithenzyme-basedprocesses.MicrobialtriesandproducedbyEremotheciumashbyiianddiversityisimportantinenablingtheproductionofaAshbyagossypi)andpigmentsfromMonascusrangeofenzymessuitableforvariousdifferentuses.purpureusandM.ruberarealreadyincommer-cialuse.Carotenoids(yellowpigments)arepro-Fructooligosaccharides.Variousstrainsofspeciesducedbyseveraltypesofmicro-organisms,butbelongingtothefungalgeneraAspergillus,onlymicroalgaehavesofarbeenusedforcom-AureobasidiumandPenicilliumcanbegrownmercialproduction.Spirulinaspp.producephyc-onagro-industrialby-productssuchascorncobs,obiliproteins,suchasphycocyanin(bluepigment),coffeesilverskinandcorkoaktoproducefructool-usedinfoodandcosmetics.igosaccharides(substancesusedassweetenersandas“prebiotic”substratesforbeneficialmicrobiotaProtein-enrichedfeed.Awiderangeofmicro-inthegut).organismscanbeusedtoproduceprotein-enrichedlivestockfeedfromagro-industrialby-productsBioactivecompounds.Micro-organismsgrown(Ugwuanyi,McNeilandHarvey,2009).Potentialonavarietyofagriculturalby-products,includingsubstratesincludecassavawaste,coffeepulp,wheatstraw,ricehulls,spentcerealgrains,variouswheatbranandstraw,maizestover(straw),millet,brans(e.g.wheatandrice)andcorncobs,canbeusedinthecommercialproductionofbioactive90Theabilitytodisturbthedevelopmentoftheembryoorfoetus.compounds(non-nutrientsubstancesusedasingredientsinthefoodandcosmeticsindustries).282thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5sugar-beetpulp,citruswaste,mustardstraw,agavesoilsorwater.Themainadvantageofbio-bagasse,perennialgrass,applepomaceandpulp,remediationisitslowcostcomparedtothermalgrapewaste,pineapplewaste,cactus-pearwaste,andphysico-chemicalremediation.Italsooftenricepolishings,ricebranandstraw,viticultureoffersapermanentsolution,i.e.providescom-waste,maizestraw,sugar-canebagasse,sawdust,pletetransformation(i.e.mineralization)ofthemangowaste,palm-kernelcake,andcabbageandpollutantratherthantransferringitfromoneChinese-cabbagewastes.phasetoanother.Single-cellprotein.Sinceancienttimes,peopleBioremediationcanbeconductedinseveralinAfricaandMexicohavebeenharvestingtheways:insituviamethodssuchasbio-augmentationcyanobacteriumspirulinafromwaterbodies,(theadditionofexternallysourcedmicro-organismsdryingitandusingitasfood.Severalothercapableofdegradingthetargetedcontaminant),speciesofcyanobacteriacanalsobeusedinthisbiospargingandbioventing(methodsinvolvingway.Single-cellproteincanalsobeproducedbytheinjectionofairand,ifnecessary,nutrientsarangeofdifferentfungalspeciesgrownontoincreasethebiologicalactivityofindigenousvariousagro-industrialby-products.micro-organismsthatcandegradethetargetedcontaminant);exsituviamethodssuchas(i)land-Biologicallyactivepolysaccharides.Manystrainsfarming(aprocessinwhichcontaminatedsoilorofbacteria,yeastsandfilamentousfungiareusedothermaterialistransportedtoadesignatedsite,commerciallytoproduceextracellularpolysaccha-incorporatedintouncontaminatedsoilandperi-rides.Forexample,pullulan(asubstanceusedinodicallytilledtoaeratethemixtureandpromotethemanufactureoffoodsandotherproducts)thedegradationofcontaminants),(ii)biopilesisproducedfromagro-industrialby-productsby(structuresinwhichcontaminatedsoilsaremixedtheyeast-likefungusAureobasidiumpullulanswithsoilamendmentsandenclosed)and(iii)bio-(Israilidesetal.,1999).Medicinalmushrooms,reactors(containersinwhichcontaminatedmate-suchasGanodermaspp.,aregrownbysolid-staterialandbioremediatingmicro-organismscanbefermentationusingagriculturalby-productsasamaintainedundercontrolledconditions).sourceofpolysaccharides.EnsilingBioplastics.Micro-organismscanbeusedinTheuseoflactic-acidbacteriatoimprovethetheproductionofseveraltypesofbioplastic.ForqualityofsilageiscommoninEuropeandNorthexample,aceticacidproducedthroughthemicro-America.Thepracticecan,interalia,promotebialfermentationofsugarfeedstocks(e.g.beets)fasterfermentationandreducethepresenceofandbyconvertingstarchinmaizeandpotatoes,yeastsandundesirablefilamentousfungi,andcanbepolymerizedtoproducepolylacticacid,athusincreasethetimethatthesilageremainspolymerthatisusedtoproduceplastic.Bioplasticsstableuponexposuretoair(Muck,Filyaandcanalsobemadefromcompoundscalledpoly-Contreras-Govea,2007;Tabaccoetal.,2011).hydroxyalkanoates,whichareaccumulatedbybacteriainthepresenceofexcesscarbonsources.Agro-industrialusesofmicro-organismsasdescribedinthecountryreportsBiofuels.Micro-organismsareusedtoproduceAmongtheagro-industrialusesdiscussedabove,bothliquidandgaseousbiofuels.Bioethanol,forthemostfrequentlymentionedinthecountryexample,canbeproducedbysimplefermenta-reportsarethosedeployeddirectlyinandaroundtionprocessesusingfeedstockssuchassugar-caneproductionsystems.Generally,thereportsdostalks,sugar-beettubersandsweetsorghum,withnotincludemuchinformationonmanufacturingyeastsasbiocatalysts.processesinvolvingmicro-organisms.Thisproba-blyreflectsthecontentofthecountry-reportingBioremediationBioremediationistheuseofmicro-organismmetab-olismtoremovepollutantsfrom,forexample,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE283STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCguidelines,whichfocusedlargelyontherolesofwillrequirebetterinventoryandcharacterizationBFAatproduction-systemlevel.ofmicro-organisms.ManycountryreportsnotethecontributionsSomecountriesnotethattheuseofbiopesti-thatnaturallyoccurringmicro-organismsmaketocidesandbiofertilizersisnotyetverywidespread,themaintenanceofsoilfertility,tothecontrolofbutreportongoingresearchactivitiesinthisfield.pestsandpathogensortotraditionalmanagementSome,however,mentiontheneedtoaddresscon-activitiessuchascomposting.Manyalsomentionstraintstoresearch,suchasinsufficientfundinggrowinginterestintheuseofmicro-organismsandshortagesoftrainedspecialists.Anotherinbiofertilizersandbiopesticidesorotherwiseconcernmentionedisthepotentialforharmfultopromoteplantgrowth.ThereportfromIndia,effectsifmicrobialinputsareutilizedinappro-forexample,statesthat“thislargelyunexploredpriately.Forexample,Ecuadormentionsthatinreservoirofresourceshasbeguntobeharnessedmanycasestheactiveingredientsofmicrobialforinnovativeapplications.”Morespecifically,preparationsareimportedwithoutthenecessaryitmentionstheuseofbiofertilizerscontainingmechanismshavingbeenputplacetoevaluatenitrogen-fixingbacteria,phosphorus-,potassium-thempriortodistributionandcommercialization.andzinc-solubilizingbacteria,sulphur-oxidizingItnotesthatthishasprobablyledtotheintroduc-bacteriaandarbuscularmycorrhizalfungi.91Italsotionofstrainsthathavehaddamagingimpactsonnotesthatmanyformulationsbasedonfungiornativesoilbiodiversity.Thesamecountryreportbacteriahavebeendevelopedforuseinthecontrolnotestheneedtostrengthenregulatoryframe-offungalpathogensandinsectpests.Similarly,worksinordertobetterguaranteethequalityArgentinamentionsthattheinoculationofmaize,ofcommercialproducts(i.e.toensurethatthetomato,sunflowerandwheatplantswithnativeproductcontainsthetypesandconcentrationsofmycorrhizasproducespositiveeffectsintermsofmicro-organismsclaimedonthelabelandthatthegrowthandnutrientuptakeandthatfungifromorganismsareinaviablestate).thegenusTrichodermaareusedtocontrolpatho-gensandsolubilizephosphorus.ActionsreportedInadditiontotheuseofbiofertilizersandbio-byCostaRicaincludetheestablishmentofbene-pesticides,anumberofcountriesmentiontheficialmicro-organisms(mycorrhizalfungi)atsitesuseofmicro-organismsinwastetreatmentandthathavebeensubjecttomonoculture.Examplesbioremediationofsoilandwater.However,fewofreportedresearchactivitiesrelatedtotheuseofdetailsareprovided.Somecountriesalsomentionmicro-organismsinagricultureandagro-industriestheuseofmicro-organismsasbio-indicatorsincanbefoundinSection6.3.2.environmentalmonitoring.Asnotedabove,thecountryreportsdonotfocusheavilyontheuseSeveralcountriesrefertothepotentialofofmicro-organismsinmanufacturingindustries.Abiofertilizersandbiopesticidestoreducethefewmentionrolesintheproductionofbiofuels.needtouseconventionalagrochemicalsthatmayForexample,Sudannotesthatseveralyeaststrainsbeenvironmentallyunfriendly,harmfultohumanareusedtoproduceethanolfrommolassesandhealth,expensiveordemandingintermsofPanamamentionstheproductionofbiogasusingenergy.Somementionthesignificanceofmicro-biodigestors.Afewothercountriesmentionusesbialgeneticresourcesineffortstoadaptagricul-inothersectors,suchaspharmaceuticals.turetotheeffectsofclimatechangeorotherenvi-ronmentalstressors,oftenemphasizingthepointNeedsandprioritiesthatdevelopingeffectiveadaptationstrategiesThecountryreportsprovidelittleinformationonprioritiesforactionintermsoffurtherdevelop-91Arbuscularmycorrhizalfungiformsymbioticrelationshipswithingthetechnologiesdiscussedinthissubsection.plantsbypenetratingrootsandformingstructuresreferredtoWhereprioritiesareindicated,theyrelatemainlyasarbusculesandvesicles.toimprovingknowledgeofmicro-organisms284thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5andtheirpotentialforuseinagro-industriesorbacteriophages(virusesthatinfectbacteria),newtostrengtheningregulatoryframeworks(seeormodifiedactivitiesandregulationofenzymeexamplesabove).92More-detailedprioritiesaresynthesis.Newandimprovedcarriermaterialsforpresentedinthebackgroundstudypaperpre-bacterialinoculaarealsorequired.ThepotentialparedfortheCommissiononGeneticResourcesuseofbacterialbiofilmsascarriersisasignificantforFoodandAgriculturein2013(Chatzipavlidisemergingareaofresearch.Promotingtheuseofetal.,2013).Thematerialpresentedhereisbasedbiofertilizerswillrequireevaluationoftheeco-ontheprioritieshighlightedinthispaper.Generalnomicsofusingtheminspecificcircumstances,policyandinstitutionalprioritiesidentifiedtakingintoaccountcostsintermsoflabour,equip-includeimprovingframeworksforqualitycontrolmentandotherinputsandbenefitsintermsofofmicrobialproductsandforevaluatingpoten-impactsonproduction.Ensuringqualitycontrolintialriskstohumanhealthortotheenvironment,biofertilizerproductionisanotherpriority.Criticalimprovingregistrationpoliciesformicrobialprod-benchmarksneedtobeidentifiedatallstagesofucts,improvingeducationandawarenessraising,theproductionprocess.includingviaextensionprogrammesanddemon-strationsinfarmers’fields,andimprovingrele-Institutionalframeworksalsoneedtobevantpartnershipsbetweenthepublicandprivateimproved.Collaborationbetweenresearchinsti-sectors.Thefollowingparagraphsdiscusspriori-tutesandthebiotechnologyindustryneedstotiesrelatedtospecificproductsandprocesses.bestrengthened,interaliainordertoallowforindustrial-scaletestingofinocula.NationalandBiofertilizersinternationalguidelinesforinoculumproductionExpandingtheuseofbiofertilizersrequiresmoreandtradeneedtobeestablishedtoprotectendresearchintotheinteractionsbetweenplantsandusersandensureproductsafety.Effectiveuserhizospheremicro-organisms.Therhizosphereisofbiofertilizersrequiresahighlevelofknowl-ahighlydynamicsysteminwhichavastnumberedgeonthepartoffarmers.Improvingeduca-ofmicro-organismsinteractsimultaneously.Ationandtrainingisthereforealsoimportant.betterunderstandingoftheecologicalfactorsAdviceofferedtofarmersneedstobeappropri-thatcontroltheperformanceofnitrogen-fixationatetolocalcircumstancesandkeptuptodatesystemsincropfieldsisessential.Prioritiesforwithongoingtechnologicaldevelopments.Linksresearchanddevelopmentincludestrainselec-betweenresearchersandfarmersneedtobetion–strainsneedtobeabletoestablishthem-improved.Localandtraditionalknowledgecanselveseffectivelyinthetargetedsoils,performpotentiallyplayaroleinenablingtheeffectivewellandbepersistentinthefield,tolerateenvi-useofbiofertilizersinlocalconditions.ronmentalstressors(ultravioletradiation,heat,desiccation,etc.),survivewellinstorageandhaveBiopesticideslittleharmfulimpactontheenvironment.FieldIncreasingrecognitionoftheneedforsafertrialsneedtobeorganizedtotestmultiplestrainandmore-environmentallyfriendlypest-controlinoculations.Potentialobjectivesforgenetic-methodsshouldcreateopportunitiestoexpandimprovementactivitiesincludehigheryield,fastertheuseofbiopesticides.However,researchgrowth,improvedfermentationproperties,betteranddevelopmentarecostly,andbiopesticidestoleranceofprocessconditions,lessformationareoftennotabletocompeteonthemarketofundesirableby-products,betterresistancetowithsyntheticalternatives.Continuedinvest-mentinresearchneedstobeensured.Priorities92Micro-organism-relatedprioritiesinfieldssuchasintegratedincludetheestablishmentandstrengtheningofpestmanagementandsustainablesoilmanagementarepartnershipsamongandbetweenpublic-anddiscussedintherespectivesections.private-sectororganizations,theestablishmentofappropriatelegalframeworksinfieldssuchthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE285STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCasintellectualpropertyrightsandsafetyregula-signalsemittedbyplantsasameansofrecruit-tionsforthereleaseofnewproducts,andeffortsingmicrobialnaturalenemiesas“bodyguards”toeducateandraiseawarenessamongpotentialagainstpestattackandusingnovelchemicalstousersandsuppliersofbiopesticides.Achievingimpairtheimmunesystemsofcroppeststomakebetteruptakeofbiopesticidesmaybeeasierthemmoresusceptibletomicrobialbiopesticides.insegmentsofthemarketwhereconventionalManymicrobialbiologicalcontrolagentsproducepesticideshaverelativelypoorefficacy(e.g.insecondarymetabolitesthathavepropertiesrele-thecontrolofslugs).Thechallengesinvolvedinvanttothecontrolofplantdiseases.Thesemetab-introducingtheuseofbiopesticidesvaryfromolitesshouldbestudiedinordertoassesstheirproductionsystemtoproductionsystem.Thepotentialforuseinproductdevelopmentandtoenvironmentalconstraintsinhorticulturesystemsidentifyanypotentialharmfuleffectsontheenvi-aretypicallyfewerthaninarable-cropsystemsronmentoronhumanhealth.Anotherpotentialandthelikelihoodofsuccessisthereforegreater.optionisthedevelopmentofa“total-system”Biocontrol-basedintegratedpestmanagementapproachtopestmanagement,inwhichthefarmhasbeenadoptedwidelyinthelabour-intensiveenvironmentbecomesresistanttothebuildupofandtechnicallycomplexgreenhouse-cropindustrypests,andtherapeutictreatmentsareusedasaandbygrowersthathaveahighlevelofknowl-secondlineofdefence(Kaewchai,Soytongandedgeandareusedtotechnologicalinnovation.Hyde,2009;Malusa,Sas-PasztandCiesielska,2012;Nakkeeran,FernandoandSiddiqui,2005).PrioritiesforresearchincludeensuringthattheeffectivenessachievedinthelaboratorycanbeTheuseoffungiasbiocontrolagentsisrelativelyreproducedinfieldconditions.Ultravioletlight,underdeveloped.Thereisstillawidegapbetweenforexample,isamajorcauseofrapidlossofactiv-laboratoryresearchanduseinthefield.Futureityinbiopesticidesafterapplicationtoleafsur-researcheffortsneedtofocusondevelopingfungalfacesinthefield.Inabilitytowithstandrainfallproductsthathavesignificanteffectsinthefieldordryconditionscanalsobeaproblem.Anotherandarestableinstorage.Specificareasrequiringchallengeisposedbythefactthattheactivityresearchincludethechoiceoffungalstrains,cheapspectraofbiopesticidestendtobeverynarrowandreliablemethodsforlarge-scaleproduction,incomparisontothoseofsyntheticagrochemi-potentialdetrimentaleffectsontheenvironmentcals.Hostrangecanbeaddressedbyusingcon-andhumanhealth,andthepotentialforcombin-jugalmatingtoproducestrainsthatcombinetheingtheuseofdifferenttypesofbeneficialfungi.hostrangesoftheirparentstrains.InadditiontoBettercommunicationbetweenresearchersandimprovingeffectivenessinthefield,thereisalsoaindustryisneededintheearlystagesofproductneedtoimprovetheshelf-lifeofbiopesticidessodevelopment(Kaewchai,SoytongandHyde,2009;thattheycaneasilybedistributedviatheconven-Malusa,Sas-PasztandCiesielska,2012;Nakkeeran,tionaldistributionchainsusedforotherproducts.FernandoandSiddiqui,2005).ImprovingknowledgeofthegenomesofpestsBiofuelsandtheirmicrobialnaturalenemieswillprovideRisingdemandforbiofuelswillmeanthattherenewinsightsintotheirecologicalinteractionsisaneedtotakegreateradvantageoflow-costandopennewpossibilitiesforstrainimprove-biomass(lignocellulosicmaterial)fromagriculturement.Otherpotentialtargetsforresearchincludeandforestryasfeedstock.Thiswillrequiresignif-inoculationofplantswithendophyticstrains93oficantimprovementsintechnology.Withregardentomopathogenicfungi94topreventinfestationtobioethanolproductionfromlignocellulosics,byinsectherbivores,exploitingthevolatilealarmspecificchallengesincludetheneedtodevelopcost-effectivepre-treatmentstrategiesforvarious93Strainsthatliveinsideplants.lignocellulosicmaterials(e.g.increasingthe94Fungithatcausediseaseininsects.286thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5digestibilityoftheseby-products),reducethearesurveyedformicro-organismsthatcanbecostsofproducingcellulaseenzymes,ensurethetestedformetaboliteproductionofinteresttoavailabilityofrobustrecombinantmicrobes(fila-agro-industry(PatersonandLima,eds.,2017).mentousfungi,yeastsandbacteria)thatprovidehighethanolyieldsfromthesugarsproducedfrom5.8Rumenmicrobialdiversitylignocellulosicsubstances,anddevelopproductsandmarketsfornon-reactiveligninby-products•Low-qualityplantmaterialisconvertedintherumen(e.g.potentialuseinpaintsandadhesives).Intoenergyandnutrientsfortheruminantanimal.thecaseofbiodiesel,whichisgenerallyproducedRumenmicrobeshaveamajorinfluenceonfeedfromvegetableoils,residualoilpresentinoildigestionandthereleaseofgreenhousegasesintothecake(aby-productofoilextraction)hasgreatenvironment.potential.Wherebiogasisconcerned,onebarriertomorewidespreadproductionisthefactthat•Thediversityofrumenmicrobesisvast,butprogresspeopleinruralareasareoftenunabletoaffordisbeingmadeinunderstandingtheirfunctions.Bettertheinitialinvestmentneededtosetupabiogasknowledgeofthesemicrobesisthekeytousingplant.Thus,thedevelopmentofbiogastechnol-sciencetoinfluencerumen-microbialfunctioninogydependsonpoliticalwill.Governmentsandordertoenhanceanimalproductivitywhilereducingadministrativeauthoritiescanpromoteexpansionenvironmentalimpacts.byprovidingaccesstotechnologyandfinancialresourcesandbyestablishingasupportivelegal•Thereareopportunitiestodeveloppracticalandframework.Governmentscanalsoplayasupport-effectivemicrobialon-farmtechnologiesorpracticesiveroleinbiogasresearchandinthedissemina-thatharnessthepotentialofrumenmicrobestotionofinformation.Afurthergeneralprioritysupportsustainablelivestockdevelopmentthatisacquiringmoreinformationontotalcarboncontributestofoodsecuritywhilereducingitsbalanceofbiofuelproduction,i.e.onwhenitwillenvironmentalfootprint.resultinanetgainandwhenanetlossofcarbon.5.8.1RolesanddriversCompostingThemainpriorityinthisfieldispromotionandThemicro-organisms(bacteria,archaea,fungi,disseminationofinformationtofarmersontheprotozoaandviruses)thatliveinthefore-stomachbenefitsofvermicomposting(i.e.composting(reticulorumenorrumen)ofruminantanimalsusingworms).haveamajorinfluenceonfeeddigestionandthereleaseofend-productsintotheenvironmentMicrobialmetabolites(Figure5.7).RuminantsareunabletoproducetheResearchintomicro-organisms,theirgenomicsenzymesrequiredtousethelignocellulosecom-andtheircommunitieshasgreatpotentialtoallowponentofplantmaterialasanenergysource.Thisthedevelopmentofnovelproductsandprocessesmetabolicroleisinsteadfulfilledbytherichandforuseinagro-industries.Geneticsequencinganddensesetofanaerobicmicrobesthatinhabitthe“meta”approaches(i.e.analysisofgenomes,tran-rumen.Ruminantsandtheirmicrobialcommunitiesscriptomes,95proteins,etc.fromwholecommunitieshaveevolvedtothriveonarangeofplantspeciesofmicro-organisms)areopeningyetmoreoppor-andthishasenabledthemtooccupymanydiffer-tunities.Theremaybeaneedforincreasedinvest-enthabitats,spanningawiderangeofclimates.mentin“bioprospecting”,inwhichecosystemsBacteria,fungiandprotozoaallcontribute95ThesetofmessengerRNAmoleculesinacellorapopulationtothemicrobialdegradationoflignocelluloseofcells.andotherplantpolymers.Fermentationofthereleasedsolublesugarsproducesshort-chainfattyacids(acetate,propionateandbutyrate)thatareabsorbedacrosstherumenepitheliumandusedthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE287STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFigure5.7RumenmicrobialfermentationBacteriaProtozoaFungiViruses109–1011104–106102–104107–1095%CH495%MethaneCH4MethaneFeedMethaneCH4CHO2-CO2MethanogensAcetateCH3XH2105–108PropionateionButyrateMicrobialFermentatNotes:Microbialnumbersarelistedpermlorgramofruminalcontents.Abbreviations:CO2=carbondioxide;H2=hydrogen,CHO2-=formate;CH3X=methoxycompoundsormethylamines;CH4=methane.Source:ImagecourtesyoftheNewZealandAgriculturalGreenhouseGasResearchCentre(www.nzagrc.org.nz).bytheruminantasasourceofenergy.Microbialofcounteractingselectiveforces.Hostspecieshavecellspassfromtherumenintothelowerdiges-evolvedrumenconditionsthatfavourthegrowthtivetractwheretheybecomethemainsourceofandretentionofacommunityofmicrobes(micro-proteinandaminoacidsfortheanimal.Otherbiome)withthebestcombinationofmetabolicfermentationend-products,includinghydrogen,pathwaystomediatethebreakdownofingestedcarbondioxide,formateandmethyl-containingplantmaterial,providethegreatestyieldofmicro-compounds,areimportantsubstratesforthebialcells,carryoutthemaximumbiochemicalworkrumen’smethane-formingarchaea(methano-anddeliveramixoffermentationendproductsgens).Virusesinfecttheothermicrobialgroupsinforthenutritionofthehost(Hungate,1966).Thistherumen,probablyinfluencingtheirpopulationhasledtotheco-evolutionofasetofmicrobesbalancesandhencethestructureoftherumen(the“coremicrobiome”)commontoallruminantcommunity.Thecharacteristicsofthesevariousspeciesacrossdifferentgeographicallocationsgroupsofrumenmicrobesarediscussedingreaterandclimaticconditions(Hendersonetal.,2015;detailbelow.Leyetal.,2008).RunningcountertothisistheheterogeneouscompositionofthefeedsingestedAwiderangeofdifferentmicrobesinhabitthebyruminantsindifferentproductionsystemsrumen.Thisdiversityisthenetresultofamyriad288thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5acrosstheworld,whichselectsformicrobialtypesrumenfunctionischangedbyeliminatingparticu-adaptedtousingplantcomponentscharacteristiclartypesofmethanogen.oflocalruminantdiets.Thisresultsindiet-drivenchangesintherelativeabundanceofthespeciesTargetedinhibitionofmethanogenactivityinthecoremicrobiome,plustheproliferationofintherumenrequirestheidentificationoffea-less-abundantspeciesthatcanusespecificfeedturesthatareuniquetomethanogensandarecomponents(Hendersonetal.,2015).amenabletoinhibitionorinterference.Suchfea-turescanbediscoveredexperimentally,butthisSomemicrobesarespecialistsinattackingcanbeahit-or-missprocess.Generatinggenomecertainplantcomponents(e.g.cellulosedegrada-sequencesofrepresentativerumenmethanogenstionbythebacterialRuminococcusspp.),whileisamoredirectwayofidentifyingusefultargetsothersaregeneraliststhatuseawiderangeofforvaccineandinhibitorapproaches(Leahyetal.,substrates(e.g.thebacterialButyrivibriospp.).2010).KnowledgeofthefunctionandstructureofMoreover,themicro-environmentsprovidedthetargetgeneproduct(i.e.theproteinencodedbythephysicalstructureoftherumenandthebythegene)canalsohelpnarrowthesearchforingestedplantmaterial,trophicinteractionsinhibitorycompoundsthatmightinterferewithbetweenmicrobialgroupsandchangesovertimeitsfunctioninthemethanogen.Thisapproachiscausedbyfeedingeventsortheagingofthebeingusedinseveralmethane-mitigationpro-animalpresentawiderangeofsituationsandgrammesaroundtheworld.Specifictargetingofnichesforcolonizationbydifferentmicrobes.microbesthatproducethesubstratesnecessaryforRecentevidencealsoindicatesthatgeneticvari-methanogenesisrequiresamuchbetterunder-ationbetweenanimalsfeedingonthesamedietstandingofrumen-microbialfunctionthaniscur-givesrisetodifferentmicrobiometypes(calledrentlyavailable.ProjectssuchastheHungate1000ruminotypes)andthattheseinturnleadtosig-(seeBox5.23)areprovidingnewknowledgeinnificantdifferencesinrumenmetabolism(e.g.Shithisfield.Anyattemptstoreducemethaneemis-etal.,2014).sionsviaamicrobiologicalrouteneedtoconsiderwaysofavoidingadverseeffectsontheroleofthe5.8.2Methaneemissionsrumenmicrobiomeinanimalnutrition.Ruminantlivestockcontributesignificantlyto5.8.3Stateofknowledgecurrentglobalanthropogenicgreenhouse-gasemissionsthroughtheproductionofmethaneBacteriabytheirrumenmethanogencommunities.OneTheGlobalRumenCensus(GRC)project(seeoftheconsequencesofmicrobialdiversityintheBox5.23)allowedanassessmentofrumenbac-rumenisthatmethaneisnotformedonlybyoneterialdiversitytobemadeacrossanimalspecies,typeofmethanogen,butratherbyavarietyofcontinentsanddiets,althoughanysurveyofthismethanogensusingdifferentmetabolicpathwayskindisinevitablyincomplete(Hendersonetal.,andproducingmethanefromdifferentprecursors2015).Thisstudy,inconjunctionwithmanylocal(Figure5.7).surveysofrumenbacteria(synthesizedbyCreeveyetal.,2014),revealedthatcorebacterialgroupsInterventionsaimedatreducingmethaneemis-arefoundinallrumens.Thelargestpartofthesionscandirectlytargetrumenmethanogensorbacteriaintherumen,some90percent,belongtargetmicrobesthatproducethesubstratesneces-to30groups,withafurther94bacterialgroupssaryformethanogenesis.Technologiessuchasvac-makingupanother9.5percent.Thesegroupsarecinesandinhibitorscanbeusedtodirectlyaffectnominallyclassifiedatthebacterialgenuslevel,specificmethanogenspecies.However,thereisabutinmanycasestheirtaxonomyisincomplete.needtounderstandwhethernon-targetedmeth-Atleast10ofthe30dominantgroupscorrespondanogenswillexpandtooccupythevacantnicheifonlysomespeciesareeliminated,andalsohowthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE289STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.23physiologyoftheisolateswillallowmore-rapidGlobalresearcheffortsinrumenmicrobiologyassessmentoftherolesandpotentialfunctionsofthesebacteria.TheremainingthreeoftheMajorglobalresearcheffortsinrumenmicrobiologytenmostabundantgroupsarecurrentlynotrep-haveincludedtheGlobalRumenCensus(GRC)andresentedbyanyknownculturedisolates,andsotheHungate1000.TheGRC(Hendersonetal.,2015)theirphysiologiesandrolesarenotunderstood.isthemostextensiveexplorationofrumenmicrobialcommunitiestodate,representing742samplesfromMoreeffortneedstobemadetocultureamore32animalspeciesfrom35countries,andsupportedbyrepresentativesetofisolates,especiallyforthe140scientistsfrom73researchinstitutionsworldwide.majortaxaofrumenbacteria.AnotherapproachAkeyfindingoftheGRCwasthatsimilarbacteriaistoassemblegenomesfromtotalDNAextractedandarchaeadominatedinnearlyallsamples,andthatfromrumensamples.Forexample,reconstructeddietisakeydriverofmicrobial-communitystructure.genomesoftheBS11grouphaveprovidedinsightsBuildingontheresultsoftheGRC,theHungate1000intotheirpossiblerolesaspreviouslyunrecog-project(Seshadrietal.,2018)usedtheculturenizedcellulose-degradingbacteria(Soldenetal.,resourcesofmultiplerumenmicrobiologylaboratories2017).Thegenomicapproachallowsprogresstoaroundtheworld(57researchers,from14researchbemadeintheabsenceofculturesthatcanbeorganizationsinninecountries)todevelopareferencestudiedinthelaboratory.setof501rumen-microbialgenomesequencesandcultures.TheHungate1000hascapturedalmostallArchaeaculturedrumenbacterialandarchaealspeciesthathaveThearchaeaindigenoustotherumenallappearbeentaxonomicallycharacterizedandseveralasyettobemethanogens,formingmethanefromuncharacterizedstrainsbelongingtonovelspeciesandsimplesubstancesproducedbyothermicrobesgenera.Itrepresentsthesinglelargestefforttoprovidea(Figure5.7).TheGRCshowedthatrumenmeth-cataloguedandcuratedcultureandgenomeresourceforanogensarethesameacrosstheglobe(Hendersonrumenmicrobes.Bothprojectshavebeencollaborationsetal.,2015).ThemostabundantgenusisamongmembersoftheRumenMicrobialGenomicsMethanobrevibacter,fromwhichmultiplestrainsNetwork(www.rmgnetwork.org).havebeenisolatedandsomegenomessequenced(Seedorf,KittelmannandJanssen,2015).ThemaintofamiliesorordersthatmaycontainmultipleasspeciesofMethanobrevibacterintherumenfallyetundifferentiatedandunnamedgenera.Thisintotwoclades,M.ruminantiumanditsrelativeslackofcomprehensiveclassificationneedstobe(alsocalledtheSOclade)andM.gottschalkiiandaddressed,startingwiththemajorgroups.itsrelatives(theSGMTclade).Somehostdietscan,however,resultinmembersofathirdclade,M.Thetenmostabundantgroupscomprisehalfwolniianditsrelatives,becomingthedominantofallrumenbacteria.Threeofthesetenhaveagroup(Hendersonetal.,2015).Exactlyhowmanyvalidgenusname(Prevotella,Fibrobacterandspeciesthereareineachcladeisnotknown.ItisButyrivibrio),andsomeunderstandingoftheiralsonotknownhowmultiplespecieswithappar-metabolismhasbeengainedfromdecadesofentlythesamephysiologyco-exist–buttheymaylaboratorystudy.Someisolatesareavailableforoccupytemporallyorspatiallyseparatedniches.anotherfourofthetenmostabundantgroups,Bothofthesequestionsrequirefurtherinvestiga-whichhasallowedgenomesequencestobegen-tion(St-Pierreetal.,2015).TherearealsoothereratedthroughtheHungate1000Project(seeBoxtaxaofmethanogensintherumen,someof5.23).AnalysisofthegenomesinconjunctionwhichhavephysiologiesthataredifferentfromwithconfirmatorylaboratoryinvestigationsoftheMethanobrevibacter(e.g.Langetal.,2015;Lietal.,2016).Notalloftheseothermethanogengroupsarewelldefinedtaxonomically.Someare290thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5notrepresentedbyisolatesandgenomes,andcryopreservationofciliateprotozoaarechalleng-sotheirfunctionsintherumenarenotknowning,thereisconsiderablediscrepancybetweenthe(Seedorf,KittelmannandJanssen,2015).numberofspeciesthathavebeenobservedmicro-scopicallyandthenumberforwhichanaccom-FungipanyingDNAreferencesequenceisknown.Thus,Anaerobicfungi(phylumNeocallimastigomycota)mostknowledgeofrumenciliatediversityandaccountforupto20percentofthemicrobialcommunitystructureisderivedfrommicroscopicbiomassintherumen.Todate,ninegeneraofobservations(WilliamsandColeman,1992).anaerobicfungihavebeendescribed,mostofwhichhavebeendetectedinruminants(EdwardsLikethoseofanaerobicfungi,rumenciliateetal.,2017).Furthernovelcladesareknowntocommunitiesarehighlyvariable.Despitesomeexistbasedonculture-independentmolecularlimitations,next-generationsequencingisbecom-surveys,butsofarlackcultivatedrepresentatives.ingausefultoolforstudyingthemacrosslargeAnaerobicfungalcommunitiesaremorevariablenumbersofanimals(IshaqandWright,2014;thanbacterial,archaealandciliate-protozoalcom-Kittelmannetal.,2015).Thisapproachallowsmunities,suggestingthatdifferentgeneraoccupydominantmembersoftheciliatecommunitytosimilarecologicalnichesandreplaceeachotherbeidentifiedandcommunitiestobeclassifiedeveninthesamehostspecies.Sofar,however,littleintothedistincttypesfirstdescribedbyEadieisknownaboutthefullmetabolicrepertoiresof(1962).Furtherstudiesareneededtoprovideindividualspeciesandgenera.Becauseofthehighmore-detailedinsightsintotheecologyandfunc-levelofvariation,studiesanalysingalargenumbertionofindividualgeneraandspecies(isolation,ofanimalsareneededinordertodetectcorrela-cultivation,[meta]genomics)andintothedynam-tionsofanaerobicfungaltaxawithhostphysiol-icswithinthedistinctcommunitytypes([meta]ogy.Evidenceisaccumulatingthatanaerobicfungitranscriptomics).thatco-existintherumenperformnichepartition-ing,forexampleinresponsetocarbonsourceandVirusestypeofhost(Edwardsetal.,2017).However,theThevirusesoftherumenareahighlyheterogene-specificnichesofeachspeciesremaintobeunder-ousgroup,andhigh-throughputmethodsbasedstood.Currently,researcheffortsarefocusedononuniversalmarkerstoassessviralcommunityimprovingcryopreservationmethods,establishingstructuresdonotexist.Moreover,asenvironmen-acentralizedculturecollection,scopingpossibilitiestalvirusescannotbepropagatedinthelaboratory,touseanaerobicfungiasdirect-fedmicrobialstosequencingthegeneticmaterialfromtheviralincreasedigestibilityandfeedefficiencyandusingparticlefraction(thevirome)isthemosteffectivegenomics(forexamplethe1000FungalGenomeswaytoexploreviraldiversityandfunction.Fewproject),96proteomicsandtranscriptomicstorevealrumen-viromestudieshavebeenundertakentothephysiologiesofindividualspecies.date(e.g.BergMilleretal.,2012),butinforma-tionfromthosethathaveisconsistentwithphys-ProtozoaicalobservationsthatthetailedbacteriophagesCiliateprotozoaofthesubclassTrichostomatiacan(orderCaudovirales)arethemostprevalenttypes.accountforupto50percentofthetotalmicrobialSequencedatafromrumenviromessuggestthatbiomassintherumen.Currently,atleast15genus-theirgeneticdiversityismuchgreaterthanthelevelcladesofrumen-inhabitingciliateshavebeenobservedmorphologicaldiversityseenviaelectrondescribedusingmolecularmethods(Kittelmannetmicroscopyofrumencontents(Rossetal.,2013).al.,2015).However,asisolation,cultivationandViralgeneticmaterialisfrequentlyobservedinrumenbacterialandarchaealgenomesequences,96http://1000.fungalgenomes.org/homewhichprovidesinformationonviralfunctionandhostspecificity.BetterunderstandingofthethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE291STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCcontributionsofvirusestorumenmicrobialecosys-sequencing-baseddatasetsandintegratethistemfunctionwillrequiremoredetailedcharacter-informationwiththatonmatterandenergyflowizationofrumenviromesandviralgenes.intherumen.Thiswillallowbetterunderstand-ingofspecificmetabolicpathwaysandgenesthat5.8.4Needsandprioritiesmayrepresenttargetsforrumenmodification.Althoughthediversityofrumenmicrobesisvast,Fundamentalgapsinknowledgeofrumenconsiderableprogresshasbeenmadeintermsofmicrobialdiversitystillremaintobeaddressed.Aunderstandingthefunctionsofmicrobialgroupsmorecompleteunderstandingofthisdiversityandforwhichculturedrepresentativesexist,primar-itsfunction,bothinvitroandinsitu,willgreatlyilythroughgenome-sequenceinformationandinfacilitatethedevelopmentofeffectivetechnolo-vitrocharacterization.However,therearehighlygiesorpracticesthatsupportsustainablelivestockabundantgroupsforwhichculturesarestillnotdevelopmentthatcontributestofoodsecurityavailable.Targetedeffortstocultivatesuchgroupswhilereducingitsenvironmentalfootprint.andcharacterizethemgenomicallyandphysio-logicallyareneededtofillthelargestknowledge5.9Geneticimprovementgaps.Thescopeofthisendeavourwouldrequireconcertedglobalefforts,similartothosedescribed•Publicand/orprivatebreedingprogrammesexistininBox5.23.mostcountries,inparticularformajorcommercialcropandlivestockspeciesandbreeds,aquaculturedspeciesAnunderstandingofamicrobe’sfunctionsandfarmedtrees.Whilequantityofproductoutputwithinitsnaturalecologicalcontext(i.e.therumenremainsaprimarytargetforgenetic-improvementmicrobialcommunity)isneededinordertounder-efforts,thereisoftenanincreasingfocusonawiderstanditscontributiontorumenfunctionaldynam-rangeoftraits,includingthoserelatedtoresistancetoicsandhencetohostnutritionandmethanepro-pests,diseasesandabioticstresses,nutrientdensityduction.Manyrumen-microbiomestudieshaveandotheraspectsofproductquality.highlightedanapparentoverlapinfunctionalpotential,particularlybetweencloselyrelated•Morethanathirdofcountryreportsnotethevaluemicrobes.Betterunderstandingofecological-ofdomesticationandbasebroadeninginaddressingnichepartitioningamongmicrobialgroupsisthreatstoproductioncausedbyreduceddiversityinneededinordertohelpelucidatehowspeciesdomesticatedplantandanimalpopulations.Reportedwithsimilarphysiologiesareabletoco-exist,andtrendssuggestaslightoverallincreaseinsuchfurtherresolvedifferencesobservedbetweentheactivities,butcountriesnoteconstraintsassociatedactivitiesofpureand/orco-culturesofmicrobialwithalackofresourcesandcapacity.groupsinvitroandthoseexhibitedinsitu.•Withtheexceptionofhoneybeesandsilkworms,Significantnewlighthasbeenshedonmicro-genetic-improvementactivitiesforinsectsarebialactivitiesinsituthroughdeepmetagenomicgenerallyuncommon.Themostimportanttraitsbredandmetatranscriptomicsequencingwithmetab-forinthewesternhoneybee(Apismellifera)arehigholiteanalyses(Shietal.,2014).Globaleffortstohoneyproduction,docility,reducedswarmingand,furthercollectsuchdatafromawiderrangeofincreasingly,diseasetolerance.productionanimalsanddietshavebeeninitiated(e.g.JointGenomeInstitute,2017),97butthereis•Assistedevolutionofclimateresilienceincoralshasenormousscopetoextendthesetoamoreexten-emergedasaresearchtopicinrecentyearsandeffortssiverangeofruminantsandproductionsystemsinthisfieldarelikelytointensifyaspressuresonworldwide.Considerableopportunitiesalsoexistcoralsincrease.tofurtherexploreexistinghigh-throughputThissectiondiscussesthestateofbreeding97https://jgi.doe.gov/gene-function-rumen-microbes(genetic-improvement)activitiesforBFA.Thefirst292thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5subsectionprovidesanoverviewofdomestication100yearsago,butsincethenhasexpandedandbasebroadening–twomanagementpracticesveryrapidly:Duarte,MarbàandHolmer(2007)thatcountrieswerespecificallyinvitedtoreportonreportedthat430aquaticspecies(97percentofintheircountryreports.Theremainingsubsectionsthoseincultureatthetime)hadbeendomesti-addressgeneticimprovementactivitiesforpar-catedsincethestartofthetwentiethcenturyandticularcomponentsofBFA,beginningwithcrop,106withintheprecedingdecade.Manyaquaticlivestock,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesandspeciesremaininastateofpartialdomestication,thenconsideringvariouscategoriesofassociatedwithproductionstilldependentontheavailabilitybiodiversityforwhichgenetic-improvementactivi-ofwildresources(TeletcheaandFontaine,2014).tiesarebeingimplemented.Newcropandanimalspeciesarebeingdomes-5.9.1Domesticationandticatedbypublic-sectorprogrammes(seebelow),basebroadeningbytheprivatesectorandbyruralcommunitiesandfarmers(e.g.inhomegardens)(Abizaid,Domesticationisdescribedinthecountry-CoomesandPerrault-Archambault,2016;Galluzzi,reportingguidelinesas“thedevelopmentofnewEyzaguirreandNegri,2010;Jamnadassetal.,2010).crop,aquatic,forestandanimalspeciesthroughThereiscontinuingprogressinthedomesticationdeliberatebreedingprogrammesorthecontin-ofnewoilcrops,bioenergyspecies,fruits,vegeta-uedselectionandimprovementofexistingspeciesbles,deerandawiderangeoffishspeciesaroundfromtheirwildprogenitors.”Basebroadeningistheworld(e.g.MontesandMelchinger,2016;describedas“increasingtheamountofgeneticSedbrook,PhippenandMarks,2014;TeletcheaanddiversityusedtoproducenewvarietiesorbreedsFontaine,2014).Workonthedomesticationofbeeusedinagriculturalproduction”(seeIPGRIandspeciesisalsoongoing(seeSection5.9.4).FAO[2001]forafullerdiscussion).Thus,whiledomesticationincreasesdiversitythroughtheBasebroadeningseekstoaddresstheincreas-introductionofnewspecies,basebroadeninginglylowlevelofgeneticdiversityofmanyincreasesdiversitywithinthevarieties,breedsmodernvarieties,breedsandpopulationsofandpopulationsthatarealreadybeingusedincrop,livestockandplantation-forestspecies.Thisproductionsystems.narrowgeneticbasecanleadtovulnerability98andhasbeenresponsibleforsignificantproduc-Domesticationofcropandanimalspeciestionlossesinrecenttimes,forexampleinthecasebeganover12000yearsago(FAO,2015a;Fuller,ofmaizeintheUnitedStatesofAmericainthe2007;Vigne,2011).Theextenttowhichspecies1970s(NRC,1972)andtarointheSouthPacificusedincropandlivestockproductionpossessinthe1990s(Hunter,PouonoandSemisi,1998b).thevariousattributesof“domestication”variesBasebroadeningmayberequiredwhentherehas(seee.g.MillerandGross,2011;Zeder,2012).Inbeenamarkedfoundereffect99inthedomestica-thecaseofcrops,domesticationisprobablybesttionofacrop,orsubsequentgeneticbottlenecks,consideredasamoreorlesscontinuousprocessforexampleasaresultofbreedingprogrammesthatinmanycasesisstillongoing,boththroughwithanarrowgeneticbase.Basebroadeningmayformalcrossingprogrammes(asinthegenerationbeneededifratesofprogressinbreedingpro-ofnewbread-wheatmaterialsfromtheirwildpro-grammesarelow,ifthereareproductionfailuresgenitors–Dreisigackeretal.,2008)orthroughasaresultofvulnerabilityoriffarmersidentifymoreinformalprocessessuchasthe“domestica-tion”ofwildandferaltypesofyaminWestAfrica98Populationsofacropspeciesaresaidtobegenetically(Scarcellietal.,2006).Manyanimalspeciescanvulnerableiftheylackthediversitynecessarytoadapttoaalsobeconsideredtobepartiallydomesticatedbioticchallengeortoanabioticstress.(FAO,2000,2015a).Inthecaseoffish,domesti-cationwaslimitedtoafewspeciesuntilabout99Theterm“foundereffect”referstothereducedgeneticdiversitythatresultswhenapopulationisdescendedfromasmallnumberofcolonizingancestors.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE293STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCtheneedforawiderrangeofoptionsthanthosementioned.Therisksassociatedwithnarrowingprovidedbycurrentlyavailablevarieties(seeIPGRIthegeneticbaseasaresultofdomesticationareandFAO[2001]foramorecomprehensivediscus-notedinanumberofthereports,particularly,butsion).Theimportanceofbasebroadeningincropsnotexclusively,inrelationtofishspecies.SomeisreflectedinitsinclusionintheGlobalPlanofcountriesthatdonotthemselvesreportspecificActionforPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodanddomesticationactivitiesnonethelessrecognizeitsAgriculture(FAO,2011b;seealsoMba,Guimaraesimportanceinincreasingdiversitywithinproduc-andGhosh,2012).tionsystemsandidentifyitasanactivitythatisconstrainedbylackofresourcesandcapacityandOver50percentofthecountryreportsrefertoisinneedofgreatersupport.basebroadeningordomesticationactivities,andabout40percentmentionboth.WhileasmallOver30countryreportsmentionbasebroad-numberofcountriesreportonlybasebroadening,ening,referringvariouslytoactivitiesinvolvingalargernumber(13)reportonlydomestication.animal,forestandcropspecies(Table5.1).TheTheinformationprovidedusuallyincludesdescrip-mostcommonlyreportedtrendisalowleveloftionsofspecificactivities(seeexamplesbelow)increaseinbase-broadeningactivities(Table5.2).100andinsomecasesestimatesoftheareasinvolved,However,veryfewcountriesprovidedetailsofthewhichrangefromafewhectarestomanyhun-crop,animal,fishorforestspeciesinvolvedorthedreds.Activitiesaremostcommonlymentionedintypeofactivitiesundertaken.Wheredetailsarecropandmixedsystems,althoughallcategoriesofprovided,countriesmostcommonlynotethevalueproductionsystemarereferredtoatleastonce.ofmaintainingtraditionalbreedsorcropvarietiesorofintroducingnewvarieties,breedsorforestThetargetsofdomesticationmostcommonlyprovenances,i.e.abroaderviewofbasebroad-mentionedinthecountryreportsarewildeningthanthatusedinthecountry-reportingfoodspecies,medicinalplants,treeandshrubguidelines.Afewcountriesspecificallymentionspeciesusedinagroforestryandaquaticspecies.theuseofcropwildrelativesaspartoftheirbase-AgroforestryspeciesmentionedincludedGnetumbroadeningprogrammes.Somementionthe(aplantgrownforitsedibleleavesandformedic-institutionsinvolvedinbase-broadeningactivi-inalpurposes),Senegalsaba(Sabasenegalensis)ties,whichincludebothuniversitiesandnational(aplantusedforfoodandtocombatsoildeg-researchcentres.Norwayreportsthatin2011aradation)andSterculiasetigera(afoodsourcepublic/privatepartnershipforprebreedingwaswithmedicinalandotherproperties).SupportestablishedattheregionallevelbytheNordicfromCGIARcentresisnotedinthecaseofbothCouncilofMinisterstoincreasegeneticdiver-forestryandagroforestryspecies.Medicinalsityandthusenhancethedevelopmentofnewplantspeciesmentionedincludeflagroot(Acoruscropvarieties.Itnotesthatthepartnershipaimscalamus),spinyasparagus(Asparagusracemosus),toaddressthelong-termneedsoftheagricul-emblicmyrobalan(Phyllanthusemblica),bellerictureandhorticultureindustries,specificallywithmyrobalan(Terminaliabellirica)andchebu-regardtoadaptationtoclimatechange,envi-licmyrobalan(T.chebula).Otherplantspeciesronmentaltargetsandchangingconsumerandmentionedincludestevia(Steviarebaudiana)(amarketdemands.Anumberofcountryreportsnaturalsweetenerwithanti-inflammatoryprop-clearlyrecognizebasebroadeningasdesirableerties).Afewcountriesalsoreportdomesticationandnecessary,butalsothatitisaprocessthatactivitiesforanimalspecies,includingdeer,wildrequiresresourcesonalong-termbasisandtimepigs,canerats,quailsandfrogs.Asmallnumbernotetheimportanceofmaintainingtraditional100Countrieswereinvitedtoindicatewhetherthe“productionknowledgeoncropsoranimalsaspartofanyareaorquantity”hadbeenstronglyincreasing,increasing,domestication-relatedactivities.Inthecaseofstable,decreasingorstronglydecreasingovertheprecedingfishspecies,mullet,carpandrainbowtroutaretenyears.Themostfrequentresponsewas“increasing”.294thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5toachievethedesiredresults.Inthisrespect,thepersonnelandtechnicalfacilities.Severalcountryabove-mentionedregionalpublic/privatepartner-reportsalsoexpressedconcernaboutthelackofshipmaybeausefulmodel.fullyeffectivelinkagesbetweenbasicresearchers,breeders,curators,seedproducersandfarmers.5.9.2Plant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesforAnimalgeneticresourcesforfoodfoodandagricultureandagricultureBreedingprogrammesforanimalgeneticPlantgeneticresourcesforfoodresourcesforfoodandagriculture(AnGR)areandagricultureimplementedinarangeofdifferentcircumstancesPublicand/orprivateplant-breedingprogrammesaroundtheworld.Thestakeholdersinvolved,theofsomekindexistinmostcountries.TheSecondorganizationalset-upandthesophisticationofReportontheStateoftheWorld’sPlantGeneticthetechniquesappliedvarygreatly(FAO,2015a).103ResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2010a)101indicatedthatthenumberofprogrammes,par-Breedingprogrammesforhigh-inputproduc-ticularlyprivate-sectorprogrammes,hadincreasedtionsystemsgenerallyinvolvewell-developedovertheprecedingtenyears.Biotechnologicalsystemsforperformanceandpedigreerecord-techniqueshadevolvedconsiderablyandthereingandtheuseofadvancedmethodsofgeneticwasanincreaseintheiruseinplantbreed-evaluationtoestimatethebreedingvalueofingworldwide,althoughmanybreedingpro-individualanimalsorfamilies.Breedingpro-grammes,especiallyindevelopingcountries,grammesinthedairysectorhavebeenrevo-lackedthecapacitytoapplythem.Ingeneral,lutionizedinrecentyearsbydevelopmentsininvestmentinbreedingprogrammesmirroredthegenomics.Withsomevariationfromregiontoeconomicimportanceofthecropspecies.Thus,regionandfromspeciestospecies,themainmajorcropswerereceivingthebulkofbreedingoperatorsofprogrammesinhigh-inputsystemsinvestments,althoughseveralcountryreports102tendtobebreeders’associations,cooperativeshighlightedtheimportanceofgivingattentionorprivatecompanies.Themostadvancedbreed-tounderutilizedcrops.Thereappearedtohaveingprogrammes,particularlyinthepoultry,pigbeenanincreaseintheuseofwildspeciesincropand,toalesserdegree,dairysectors,tendtoimprovement,dueinparttotheincreasedavail-targetonlyalimitednumberofbreeds,gener-abilityofmethodsfortransferringusefultraitsallyoriginatingfromthetemperateregionsoffromthemtodomesticatedcrops.Theprincipaltheworld.Selectioncriteriaoftenencompassantraitstargetedbyplantbreederscontinuedtobeincreasinglywiderangeoftraits,includingthosethoserelatedtoyieldofprimaryproductperunitrelatedtoproductquantityandquality,repro-area.However,increasingattentionwasbeingductionandhealth.Cross-breedingstrategiesofpaidtotoleranceandresistancetopests,diseasesvariouskindsarewidelyused.andabioticstresses.Therewasalsoreportedtobeanincreaseinfarmerparticipationinplant-Breedingprogrammesforthelow-inputsystemsbreedingactivitiesinallregionsoftheworld.ofthedevelopingworldtendeithertobecentral-izedpublic-sectorprogrammesorcommunity-levelBreedingprogrammesinmostregionsremainedinitiativesofsomekind,oftensupportedbyoutsideconstrainedbyshortagesinfunding,trainedagencies.Establishingandsustainingbreedingpro-grammesforsuchsystemshasgenerallyprovedto101Unlessotherwiseindicated,thematerialpresentedinthisbechallenging.Formanybreedsindevelopingsubsectionisbasedonthissource.103ThematerialpresentedinthissubsectionisbasedonThe102ThereferencestocountryreportsinthissubsectionrefertothoseSecondReportontheStateoftheWorldsAnimalGeneticsubmittedforTheSecondReportontheStateoftheWorld’sResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2015a).PlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2010a).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE295STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCcountries,breedingprogrammesareeithernon-andonimprovingarelativelysmallnumberoftraitsexistentorinarudimentarystate.Nonethelessthatmaximizeeconomicgains(includinggrowththereappeartobeupwardtrendsinthenumberrate,volume,stemform,processingandproductofbreedsindevelopingcountriescoveredbysomequality).However,inrecentdecadesgovernmentoftheelementsor“buildingblocks”ofbreedingagenciesandtheprivatesectorhavesubjectedaprogrammes,forexampleanimalidentificationwiderrangeoftreespeciestodomesticationandandperformancerecording.formalbreedingprogrammestargetingthepro-ductionofavarietyofgoodsincludingtimber,Useofexoticbreedstoreplaceorcrosswithpulp,fuelwood,fruits,nuts,oils,traditionalmed-locallyadaptedbreedsisapopularstrategy.icines,dyes,resinsandthatch,aswellasvariousHowever,cross-breedingprogrammesneedtoservicefunctions.Inaddition,tree-breedingbewell-plannedsoastoensurethatcross-bredeffortshaveincreasinglyfocusedonadaptability-animalsaresuitedtotheproductionenvironmentsrelatedtraits,suchasthoseconveyingresist-inwhichtheyaretoberaisedandthatlocallyancetodrought,fire,pestsanddiseases.TheseadaptedAnGRarenotlost.Thereisgrowingrec-breedingprogrammesareprimarilyinitiatedbyognitionofthevalueofthelocallyadaptedbreedspublicagencies.Themaindriversofchangehaveofdevelopingcountries,forexampleinaddress-includedtheincreasingscaleandunpredictabilityingchallengesassociatedwithclimatechange.ofenvironmentalchange,andnewdemandsforHowever,therearemanyconstraintstothedevel-treesforfoodandnutritionalsecurity,environ-opmentofeffectivebreedingprogrammesformentalrestorationandcarbonsequestration.thesebreeds.Inadditiontothelimitedavailabil-ityoffinancialresourcesandshortfallsinhumanIncreasinglysophisticatedapproachesandtech-andtechnicalcapacity,organizationalframeworksnologiesarebeingappliedtotreebreedingtothatenableeffectiveparticipationoflivestockgeneratefasterratesofgain.Hybridbreeding,keepersintheplanningandoperationofbreed-involvinginterspecifichybridsandwideprove-ingprogrammesareoftenlacking.Systemsandnancecrosses,isusedinmanycountriestoproduceinfrastructurefordistributionofsuperiorgenetictreeswithsuperiorproductivecapabilities(andmaterialarealsogenerallylacking,providinglittlealsotointroducegenesfordiseaseresistance).Newincentiveforentrepreneurstoenterthebusinessmoleculartoolsofferopportunitiesformarker-ofdevelopingandmarketingbreedingstock.assistedselectiontoshortenthelongcyclesofbreeding,testingandselection,andevenforesti-ForestgeneticresourcesmatingquantitativegeneticparametersdirectlyTreeshavebeenthesubjectofinformalselectionfromnaturaltreepopulations(e.g.El-Kassabyetandgermplasmtransferforcenturiesifnotmil-al.,2011).Inmanydevelopingcountries,however,lennia(FAO,2014a).104Moresystematicresearchalackofskilledtreebreedersconstrainstheuseofanddevelopmenteffortshavebeenconductedforadvancedbreedingmethods.alittleoveracentury,andthefirsttree-breedingprogrammeswereinitiatedinthe1930s.MostOverall,muchremainstobedonetorealizetree-breedingprogrammesaimtoachievegradualthefullpotentialbenefitsoftree-breedingpro-improvementofbreedingpopulationsratherthangrammesandthegeneticdiversityofnaturaldevelopmentofnewvarieties(exceptionsincludetreepopulations,particularlyinthetropics.Inbreedingofeucalyptusandpoplars).mostcountries,priorityrequirementsincludetheestablishmentofnationalinformationsystemsUntilrecently,treebreedingfocusedon(com-andbettercoordinationamongstakeholders–parativelyfew)speciesusedforwoodproductionwithinandbetweengovernmentagenciesanddepartments(especiallydepartmentsofforestry,104ThematerialpresentedinthissubsectionisbasedonTheStateagricultureandenvironment),researchinstitutesoftheWorld’sForestGeneticResources(FAO,2014a).anduniversitiesandtheprivatesector.Developing296thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5anationalFGRstrategyisakeymeansofimprov-Thecountryreportsindicatethattheuseingcoordinationbetweensuchactors.ofgenetictechnologiesandgenetic-resourcesmanagementofsomekindisoccurringinaboutAquaticgeneticresourcesforfood50percentoffarmedspecies.Approximatelyhalfandagricultureindicatethatgeneticallyimprovedaquaticorgan-Themajorityoffarmedaquaticspeciesareveryismscontributeatleasttosomeextenttonationalsimilartothewildtype,i.e.totheirwildrelatives.aquacultureproduction.AllthereportsindicateatAsnotedelsewhereinthisreport,breedingandleastsomeuseofselectivebreedinginaquaculture:domesticationofaquaticspeciesisgenerallya35percenttoagreatextent;53percenttosomerelativelyrecentdevelopment,althoughasmallextent;and13percenttoaminorextent.Geneticnumberofspeciesweredomesticatedafewimprovementofaquaticgeneticresourcesisoftenthousandyearsago,forexamplethecommontheresultofadvancedbreedingprogrammescon-carp(Cyprinuscarpio)(Balon,1995).Thebreed-ductedbylargeprivatecompaniesinareasoutsideingofornamentalfishhasbeenanimportantthenaturaldistributionrangeofthespecies.aspectofAsiancultureformillennia.IncreasingnumbersofaquaticspeciesarebeingbredunderTheobjectiveofmostgenetic-improvementfarmedconditionsandthishashelpedtheaqua-programmesinaquaticspeciesistoincreaseculturesectorbecomethefastest-growingfood-growthrate.However,colour,bodyshape,spawn-producingsector(Duarte,MarbàandHolmer,ingtimeandfecunditycanalsobeimproved.2007).IncreasingnumbersofornamentalspeciesDiseaseresistanceisanimportanttrait,especiallyarealsobeingbredincaptivity.Somewildtypesinmarineshrimpaquaculture,andisbeingtar-canbebredincaptivitythroughmanipulationofgetedbygeneticimprovementprogrammesinphotoperiod,temperature,hormonetreatmentorvariousspecies(Lightner,2011).throughnaturalprocesses.GeneticimprovementcreatestremendousOncecontrolledbreedinghasbeenestablished,aopportunitiestoincreasefoodproductionfromnumberofdifferentgeneticimprovementmethodsaquaculture(Gjedrem,RobinsonandRye,2012).canbeappliedtoaquaticspecies.Amongthese,However,therearechallenges.Geneticdataareselectivebreedinghasthelongesthistoryofuseintechnicallydemandingandcostlytocollect.Theaquacultureandistheformofgenetictechnologyavailabilityoffundingforbreedingprogrammesmostcommonlyreportedinthecountryreports105isofteninadequate.ExpandingtheroleofsubmittedforTheStateoftheWorld’sAquaticpublic–privatepartnershipsisapotentialmeansGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,ofaddressingsomefundingconstraints.forthcoming).Otherapproachesincludemonosexproduction,hybridproductionandtriploid/5.9.3Associatedbiodiversity–polyploidproductionthroughchromosome-setoverviewmanipulation.Genetransferandothergenetic-engineeringtechnologieshavebeensuccessfulIntroductionunderresearchconditions,buthavenotbeenusedAlthoughmostassociated-biodiversityspeciescommerciallyduetoconsumerresistanceandenvi-arenotdomesticatedorevenmaintainedoutsideronmentalconcerns.Genomicselectionandgenetheirnaturalhabitats,somearerearedincaptiv-editingshowpromiseandmaybecomeincreasinglyityinordertomaintainorincreasetheirnumbersimportantinthegeneticimprovementoffarmedforconservationpurposes,sothattheycanbeaquaticspecies(Dunham,2011).readilydeployedtopromotethesupplyofeco-systemservicesorforpurposessuchasuseas105Allreferencestocountryreportsinthissubsectionreferthosefishingbait.Comprehensiveinformationonmassonaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.productionofbeneficialinvertebratesandento-mopathogensforbiologicalcontrol,proteinforthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE297STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartChumanandanimals(includingfish)andpollina-2016;Yinetal.,2008).Somesoil-dwellinginver-tioniscompiledinMorales-Ramos,Guadalupe-tebratescanbecultivatedtosupplyhorticulturalRojasandShapiro-Ilan(2014).Onlyafewsuchproducts(vermicompost)orforproteinproduc-speciesaresubjecttogenetic-improvementtionforuseinanimalfeedorhumanfood(Lowe,programmes.However,evenifnodeliberateButtandSherman,2014).However,therearenogeneticimprovementactivitiesareimplemented,reportsofgenetic-improvementactivitiesforsoilinbreedingdepression,foundereffects,geneticinvertebrates.driftandadaptationtothecaptiveenvironmentoftenmeanthatanimalpopulationsincaptivityUnlikeothercomponentsofassociatedbiodi-differgeneticallyfromtheirwildcounterpartsversity,micro-organismsforfoodprocessingare(vanHuisetal.,2013).Anumberofcountrygenerallymaintainedbycompaniesandkeptreportsmentioncaptivebreedingofassociatedundercontrolledconditionstoensurethepuritybiodiversityspeciesamongexsituconservationofstrains.Breedingisundertakentodevelopactivities(seeSection7.3).strainswithdesirablepropertiessuchasincreasedEventhoughmostinsectsusedinfoodandagri-productivityortoleranceofparticularchemicalculturearecollectedfromthewild,afewspeciescompounds.havebeendomesticated,forexamplethesilk-worm(Bombyxmori)andsomepollinators(par-5.9.4PollinatorsticularlyApisspp.andBombusspp.).Literatureongeneticimprovementeffortsaimedatimprov-IntroductioningtheefficacyofarthropodBCAsisverylimitedAmonghoney-beespecies,onlyone,thewestern(Henryetal.,2010).However,therehavebeenahoneybee(Apismellifera),hasbeenwidelyfewcasesinwhichsuchspecieshavebeenbredmanagedandtransportedacrosstheworld.Afewforpesticideresistancesothattheycanbeusedotherpollinatorspeciesaremanagedonamoreinconjunctionwithpesticides(Orr,2009).Inlimitedscale,includingsolitarybees,suchasthe2015,theEuropeanUnionstartedtheBreedingalfalfaleafcutterbeeMegachilerotundataintheInvertebratesforNextGenerationBioControlUnitedStatesofAmericaandCanadaandthered(BINGO)106project(withintheEUHorizon2020masonbeeOsmiabicornisinEurope(IPBES,2016b)programme),aninternationalinitiativetarget-(seealsoSection5.6.6).Thecommerciallymostingresearchandtrainingonbreedingandtraitsignificantmanagedpollinatorsotherthanhoneyimprovementinarthropodnaturalenemiessuchbeesarebumblebees(Bombusspp.)(VelthuisandasthemitePhytoseiuluspersimilis,themiridbugvanDoorn,2006).ApismelliferahasbeenthemainNesidiocoristenuisandtheparasitoidjewelwasptargetofgeneticselectionandbreedingeffortsNasoniavitripennis.andisthemainfocusofthissection.Inthecaseofsoilbiodiversity,considerableHoneybees(Apisspp.)areeusocialinsects,workisbeingundertakenontheselectionofmeaningthattheyliveincoloniescomprisingonenaturallyoccurringbeneficialmicro-organismsqueen,tensofthousandsofworkersandthousandsthatplayrolesinplantnutrition(e.g.Rhizobium,ofmales(referredtoasdrones)(Seeley,1985).TheTrichoderma,BeauveriaandBacillusspp.),bio-workerscollectnectarfromflowersandconvertitlogicalcontrolofweeds,pestsandpathogens,intohoneyusingself-excretedenzymes.Theyalsobiologicalcontrolofaflatoxin-producingfungiexcretewaxscalesfromabdominalwaxglandsand(e.g.usingAflasafe)107andpost-harvestman-formitintocombsusedtostorehoneyandpollenagement(e.g.Cardetal.,2016;Trognitzetal.,andforrearingoffspring(Winston,1987).106https://www.bingo-itn.eu/en/bingo.htmPriortothedevelopmentofmoveableframe107https://aflasafe.comhivebeekeepingforthewesternhoneybeeinthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury(Crane,1999),whichallowedtherearingofqueensfrom298thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5chosencolonies,therewerenoconsciouseffortstoAumeierandZiegelmann,2010).Recentatten-breedhoneybees.However,oncethismethodhadtioninhoney-beeselectionhasfocusedonlocalbecomeestablished,numerouscommercialenter-populationsthatseemtoexhibittolerancetotheprisesweresetupinNorthAmerica,Europe,Asiavarroa–virusnexus(Locke,2016)andonthesearchandAustralasiatoproduceApismelliferaqueensforthegeneticbasisofvarroaresistance(Spötterforsaletobeekeepers.Themostimportanttraitsetal.,2016).Evidencefortheheritabilityoftraitsbredforbysuchcompanieshavebeenhighhoneyconferringtoleranceprovidesthescientificration-production,docility,reducedswarmingand–espe-aleforeffortstobreedfortoleranthoneybees.ciallyinthelasttwodecades–diseasetolerance.Companies,however,revealfewdetailsoftheirStatusandtrendsofbee-breedingbreedingeffortsorthedegreeofsuccessachieved.programmesEstimatingthenumberofbee-breedingpro-Apeculiarityofhoneybeesisthatthequeengrammesisdifficultbecausemostorallareintheonlymateswithinthefirstfewdaysofemergencehandsofcommercialenterprises,whosenumbersasanadultanddoessoonlywith10to20dronesvaryasnewcompaniesbecomeestablishedandfromsurroundingcoloniesata“dronecongre-othersshutdown.Thereareprobablyaround100gationarea”situatedat10to50metresabovesuchcommercialenterprisesworldwide,includinggroundanduptoseveralkilometresfromherafewlong-termprogrammesthatoverthepastnatalcolony–amechanismthatislikelytoreduce20yearshaveselectedforhoneybeestoleranttoinbreeding(Koenigeretal.,2014).Honey-beethevarroa–virusnexus,forexampleintheUnitedmatingisthereforedifficulttocontrol,andthisStatesofAmerica(Ibrahim,ReuterandSpivak,hampersselection.Instrumental(artificial)insem-2007;Rindereretal.,2010)andinEurope(Kefussetinationovercomesthesedrawbacks(Laidlaw,al.,2015).Thereisgrowinginterestamonginstitu-1977).However,itiscomplicated,requiresexpen-tionsandbeekeepergroupsinselectinglocal(par-sivespecialistequipment,andisrarelypractisedticularlyendemic)honeybeesthataretoleranttooutsideacademiclaboratories.thevarroa–virusnexus(e.g.theSmartBeesprojectfundedbytheEuropeanUnion–seeBox5.24).Objectivesofbee-breedingprogrammesSucheffortsaregenerallydevolvedtoregionalResearchinthemid-twentiethcenturyorlocalbeekeepergroupsandinstitutes,butmay(Rothenbuhler,1964)ledtothediscoveryoftwonumberwellover100worldwide.behaviouraltraits,“uncapping”and“removal”ofdiseasedlarvae,thatgivehoney-beecolo-Theperformanceofthequeens(andcoloniesniesaleveloftolerancetothevirulentbroodtheyhead)generatedbycommercialbreedingcom-diseaseAmericanfoulbrood(causativeagent:paniesisrarelyquantified,andthereforerigorousPaenibacillusplutonius).Anothertraitthathasdataonthesuccessofbreedingprogrammesarebeensuccessfullyselectedforis“pollenhoarding”unavailable,althoughanimprovementinhoney(Page,2013).Othertraitssuchashoneyproduc-productionandpollinationpotentialislikely.tion,defencebehaviour,swarminganddiseaseCurrentbreedingandselectioneffortsforhoneyresistanceareheritable,i.e.canbeselectedforbeestoleranttothevarroa–virusnexusareintooandimproved(Bienefeld,2016),althoughlittleisearlyastagetohavehadtheirsuccessquantified.knownabouttheirgenomicunderpinning.Ifsuccessfultheycouldreducerelianceoncommer-cialacaricides,whichwouldprovideanimmediateArguablythemostseriousproblemfacingenvironmental-healthbenefitbyreducingtheriskhoneybeesisthehighlyprevalentandvirulentofthesepesticidesenteringhoneyandthehumanvarroa–virusnexus,i.e.theectoparasiticmitefoodchain(Mullinetal.,2010).Varroadestructorandthevirusesittransmits(LeConte,EllisandRitter,2010;McMahonetThesmallnumberofcompaniesinAustralasia,al.,2016;Natsopoulouetal.,2017;Rosenkranz,EastAsia,NorthAmericaandEuropethatrearthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE299STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox5.24SmartBees:aEuropeanprojectfortheconservationofendangeredhoney-beesubspeciesAdaptationofhoney-beepopulationstotheclimateandresistanceofagivenbeeorhive.TheprojectalsomonitoreddiseasesoftheirparticularlocalenvironmentshasgivenrisetheattitudesandinformationneedsofbeekeeperswithtoapproximatelytendifferentsubspeciesacrossEurope.Thisrespecttohoney-beebiodiversity,andcompiledatoolkitofdiversityis,however,underpressure.Onereasonforthisisextensionmethodstoaddresstheseneeds.theeffectsofthevarroamite(Varroadestructor),whichhasledtocatastrophiclossesofhoney-beecolonies.AnotherisSmartBeesshedlightontheintricateinteractionsthesystematicreplacementofmanynativeEuropeanhoney-betweenvarroamites,virusesandbees,whichwillbeepopulationswithtworacesthathavebeenbredforhopefullyallowtheidentificationofnewanglesofattackproductivity,gentlebehaviouranddiseaseresistance.Bothforpreventingcolonylossescausedbydiseasessuchthesefactorsaredrasticallyreducingthegeneticdiversityasvarroosis.Moreover,breedinggroupshavealsobeenofhoneybeesinEuropeandendangeringsustainable,initiatedformostoftheendangeredsubspeciesofApisregionallyacclimatedbeekeeping.mellifera.Thesehavealreadycompletedthreeseasonsofperformancetesting,withtheaimofadaptinglocalbeesUndertheEuropeanUnion-sponsoredSmartBeesproject,totherequirementsof“preservationthroughutilization”.whichranfrom2014to2018,16institutesfrom11countriesTowardstheendoftheprojectperiod,thegroupswerecooperatedtoaddressthisproblem.OneachievementoftransformedintoaninternationalbreedingassociationforSmartBeeswasanassessmentofremaininghoney-beetheconservationandimprovementoflocalbeepopulations,diversityinEuropeinunprecedenteddetailandquality.whichwillhopefullyallowthesuccessoftheprojecttobeAnothermajoroutcomewasthecharacterizationofthebuiltonanditspositivespirittobecarriedintothefuture.geneticbasisoffactorsconferringresistancetovarroamites.Resultsfromthesestudieswerecombinedtoproducealow-Source:ProvidedbyKasparBienefeld.costmoleculartoolthatenablesbeekeepersandscientistsNote:Forfurtherinformation,visittheSmartBeeswebsite:toeasilycheckthesubspeciesaffiliationandpotentialhttp://www.smartbees-fp7.eubumblebeesdonotreportonwhetherselectionandselectiontheory(e.g.Rinderer,ed.,1986).Anispractisedorifsowhatsuccesseshavebeenapproachtoestimationofthebreedingvalueofachieved.honeybeesthattakestheeusocialcolonyintoproperconsideration(bestlinearunbiasedpre-Constraintstobeebreedingandkeyneedsdiction[BLUP]-animalmodel)hasbeendevelopedandpriorities(Bienefeldetal.,2007).Theselectionoftraitsinhoneybeesrequiresper-formancetestingoftheentirecolony.ThiscantakeAcrossitsnativedistribution,Apismelliferaisoneormoreyearsfortraitssuchashoneyyieldorgeneticallydifferentiatedintodiversesubspeciesoverwintersurvivalandhencerepresentsatime(Wallbergetal.,2014),apatternthatisproba-constraint.ThehaplodiploidcharacterofhoneyblyalsotruefortheeightrecognizedAsiaticbees(themaleishaploidandthefemaleisdiploid)Apisspecies.Akeypriorityistomaintaintheandthefactthattraitsofinteresttobreeders,suchgeneticdiversityofendemicpopulationsthatastheamountofhoneystored,arecolony-levelmayharbourlocallyadaptedtraits(Büchleretcharacteristics(i.e.relatetotheproductsoftheal.,2014)inthefaceofthecommercialtransportworkers,whileitisonlythequeenthatproducesofcoloniesfromoneregiontoanother.Thoughoffspring)alsocreatechallenges.However,thesebeekeepingpersedoesnotseemtonegativelyhavebeenlargelyovercomebypopulation-geneticaffectthegeneticdiversityofhoneybees(Harpuretal.,2012),researchisneededintotheimpactof300thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5hybridizationbetweensubspeciesofA.mellifera,alsopotentiallybeusedtoincreasetheclimatewhichcouldleadtothelossofgenesunderpin-resilienceofcorals,littleworkhasbeendoneonninglocaladaptations.thisandsuchapproachesarenotdiscussedfurtherhere.AssistedevolutioncantargetthecoralhostBecausebeekeeper(asopposedtocommercial)animaloranyoftheassociatedmicrobialsymbi-breedingandselectionproceedviatherearingofonts(Figure5.8).Researchonassistedevolutionqueensfromselectedcoloniesandallowingthemisinitsearlystagesandthefewresultsthathavetomatenaturallywithdronesfromsurroundingbeenpublishedaresummarizedbelow.colonies,akeyneedistoencouragethelocalcom-munityofbeekeeperstouseselectedstockintheirHostmanipulationscolonies.ThishasthebenefitofmaintainingtheHostmanipulationscurrentlybeingexploredaregeneticdiversityoflocalendemicpopulationsandbasedongenetic(points1to3below)orepige-theiradaptivepotential.Engagementandpartici-netic(point4)manipulations:pationofbeekeepersarethereforeessentialtothesuccessofanylong-termbee-breedingendeavour.1.Assistedgeneflowistheintentionaltrans-Anotherpriorityistoobjectivelyquantifythetraitslocationofindividualswithinaspeciesrangetosoughtbybeekeepers.Thisrequiresresearchintofacilitateadaptationtoanticipatedlocalcondi-efficientperformancetestingandestimationofthetions(AitkenandWhitlock,2013).Coralpopula-heritabilityofthesetraits(andmarkerscorrelatedtionsinrelativelycoolerregionscantheoreticallywiththem).Researchalsoneedstoaddressthefol-bepreparedforfurtheroceanwarmingbytrans-lowingthreeoutstandingquestions:arelocal(par-locatingcoralcoloniesfromwarmerreeflocationsticularlyendemic)subspeciesofhoneybeebettertothecoolerones.Translocatedcoloniesmayadaptedthanotherbeestolocalconditions?Doespropagateasexuallyandsexually,inthelatterheritablevarianceexistfortolerancenotonlytocasebreedingamongthemselvesorinterbreed-varroamitesbutalsotoco-transmittedviruses?Caningwiththenativepopulation.Itisanticipatedsuchtolerancebeselectedforwithinlocal(particu-thatinterbreedingwillleadtotheintrogressionlarlyendemic)subspecies?ofthermaltoleranceallelesintothegeneticback-groundofthelocalcorals.Thiswillgiveriseto5.9.5Assistedevolutionforoffspringthathaveincreasedthermaltolerancereef-buildingcoralsrelativetothenativepopulationwhilestillbeingsufficientlyadaptedtootherenvironmentalIntroductionparameterstomaintainoverallhigherfitness.As(Human)-assistedevolutionisdefinedastheavariationonassistedgeneflow,interbreedingaccelerationofnaturallyoccurringevolution-betweencoloniesfromcoolandwarmlocationsaryprocessestoenhancecertaintraits(Jonescanbeconductedexsitu,withthehybridoff-andMonaco,2009;vanOppenetal.,2015).Forspringsubsequentlydeployedonthecoolerreefsreef-buildingcorals,theprimaryfocusofthisinter-(vanOppenetal.,2014).ventionistoincreaseresiliencetoclimatechange(vanOppenetal.,2017),whichisamajorthreatProgress:RecentworkfoundthatF1hybridtocoralreefsworldwide(Hughesetal.,2018)(seelarvaebredexsitufromconspecificparentscol-alsoSection4.5.4).Assistedevolutionisbasedonlectedindifferentthermalenvironmentshadseveralbiological-engineeringprinciplesthatarehigherthermaltolerance(testedonlyunderlab-successfullybeingappliedtoimprovehumanoratoryconditions)ifthemotherorbothparentshealthandfoodproduction,butwhichareonlyweresourcedfromthewarmerlocation(Dixonjustbeginningtobeexploredinthefieldofbio-etal.,2015).Further,regionalF1hybridrecruitsdiversityconservation(Piaggioetal.,2017).Whilerearedinthelaboratorybutgrownatthecoolergeneticengineeringorsyntheticbiologycouldfieldlocationshowedsurvivalintermediatebetweenthatofthepure-bredrecruitsrearedthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE301STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFigure5.8Motivationforandstepsinvolvedintheassisted-evolutionapproachesincoralsCoralhostanimalCoral-associatedmicrobesApproachesAssistedSelectiveInterspecificConditioningProbioticsExperimentalgeneflowbreedinghybridizationevolutionActionsTranslocateSelectstockCrossspeciestoExpose≥1InoculateSelectonrandomindividualswithinusingambientincreasegeneticgenerationsofcoralwithmutationintheirdistributionenvironment,naturalstockstostress-tolerantrangetofacilitatephenotype,geneticdiversityandsublethalstressmicrobialsymbiontsthelaboratory;producenewgeneinfectcoralearlyadaptationmarkersconditionscombinationslifestagesPossiblycombinefromparentscollectedfromthecoolerlocationonlyoccasionallyinnature,i.e.itisonlyrelevantandthoserearedfromparentscollectedfromtheoverevolutionarytimescales(withtheexcep-warmerlocation(vanOppenetal.,2014).ThesetionoftheCaribbeanAcroporadiscussedbelow).earlyfindingspointtothepromiseofassistedHowever,hybridscanalsobecreatedinthelabora-geneflowasameansofpreparingcoralpopula-tory(Isomura,IwaoandFukami,2013;Isomuraettionsinrelativelycoolregionsforfurtherclimateal.,2016;Willisetal.,1997).Thisprocessincreaseswarming.Furtherresearchisrequiredintopossi-geneticdiversityandmakesnovelgeneticcom-blenegativeimpactsofassistedgeneflowinlaterbinationsthatmaybebeneficialforadaptation.generations,forexampleoutbreedingdepression.Artifical(i.e.inthelaboratory)ornatural(i.e.inthefield)selectioncanbeusedtoidentifyhybrid2.Selectivebreedingistheintentionalbreedinggenotypesthathaveaugmentedclimateresilienceoforganismswithdesirabletraitsinanattempttorelativetopure-bredcorals.produceoffspringwithsimilardesirableorimprovedtraits.AcommonwayofselectingbroodstockisProgress:Thenaturalhybridbetweenthetheuseofquantitativetraitloci(QTLs)forrelevantCaribbeanspeciesAcroporapalmata(elkhorncoral)phenotypictraits.AsmallnumberofQTLshaveandA.cervicornis(staghorncoral),A.proliferabeenidentifiedforcoral-bleachingtoleranceand(fusedstaghorn),hasequivalentorhigherfitnessantioxidantcapacity(BayandPalumbi,2014;Jinetrelativetoitsparentspecies,andhasincreasedal.,2016;Lundgrenetal.,2013).Anotherapproachitsdistributionandabundanceinrecenttimesofistobreedsurvivorsfromrecentbleachingevents.massivecoral-reefdegradation(Fogarty,2012).TherationalehereisthatnaturalselectionwillhaveSimilarly,experimentallyproducedF1hybridsremovedthemorethermallysensitiveindividualsbetweenA.pulchraandA.millepora(fluroscaleandthatthesurvivorswillhavegeneticcharacteris-cushioncoral)fromtheGreatBarrierReefgrewticsunderpinninghighthermaltolerance.fasterthantheirparentsinsomereefenvironments(Willisetal.,2006).SomeF1hybridgenotypesofProgress:NoQTL-guidedselectivebreedingofseveralotherAcroporaspeciespairsfromtheGreatcoralhasbeenconducted,butbleachingsurvivorsBarrierReefproducedinthelaboratoryhadequalarecurrentlybeingusedinbreedingexperiments.orhigherfitness(growth,survivalandclimateresilience)relativetoatleastoneofthepure-bred3.Interspecifichybridizationisaprocessparentspecies(Chanetal.,2018).Whileitremainswherebyeggandspermfromtwodifferentspeciesproduceviableyoung.Incoral,thisprocessoccurs302thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFUSEOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE5tobedemonstratedthatthesefitnessadvantagesthethermaltoleranceofthecoral(reviewedinarealsoexpressedinlatergenerations,thesefind-Quigleyetal.[2018]).However,thetemporalsta-ingssuggestthatinterspecifichybridizationisabilityofmanipulatedSymbiodiniumsymbiosesisusefulmeansofmaintainingorrestoringgeneticvariableandthereforetheefficacyofprobioticdiversityandhenceadaptivecapacity.GenetictreatmentswithSymbiodiniumisquestionable.diversitywillundoubtedlydecreaseifhighmortal-Littleresearchhasbeendoneonthepotentialityevents,suchasthoseseenontheGreatBarrierofmanipulatingcoral-associatedprokaryoticorReefin2016and2017,becomemorefrequent,andfungalcommunitycompositionasameansofexsituhybridizationfollowedbydeploymentofincreasingcoralstresstolerance.However,pre-hybridsinthefieldmayhelpcombatthisdecline.liminaryfindingsarepromising.Forexample,Damjanovicetal.(2017)foundthatprokaryotic4.Conditioningistheexposureofanorgan-communitiesdifferedsignificantlyinfour-monthismtosublethallevelsofstresswiththegoalofoldjuvenilesofthecoralAcroporatenuis(purpleinducingachangeinitsphenotype(here,antippedacropora)thatwereinoculatedattheincreaseinclimateresilienceorstresstolerance).larvalstagewithmicrobiomesisolatedfromtheThisissometimesalsoreferredtoasepigeneticmucusoffourdifferentcoralspeciesandkeptprogrammingorstressmemory,andreferstonon-underambientconditionsinexperimentalaquari-geneticchanges.Ifadaptiveepigeneticchangesareums,suggestingmanipulationofcoralprokaryoticpassedontolatergenerations,thenconditioningcommunitiesisfeasible.Inoculationofthecoral(i.e.transgenerationalacclimatization)maybeamodeltheanemoneAiptasiapallidawithacock-potentialmeansofincreasingclimateresilienceintailofbacteriaabletoinhibitbiofilmformationcorals.Apossibleapproachwouldbetoconditionandswarminginabacterialcoralpathogenpre-adultcoralbroodstockwiththeaimofproducingventedtheprogressionofthediseasecausedbylarvalmaterialthathasanincreasedchanceofsur-thepathogen(Alagelyetal.,2011).Exposureofvivingitsearlylifestages,duringwhichlevelsofexperimentalcoralstooilandacocktailofbacteriamortalityaretypicallyhigh,andhenceenhancingwiththeabilitytodegradehydrocarbonsresultedthesuccessofcoralreefrestorationefforts.inachangeinthecoral-associatedprokaryoticcommunitiesandreducedthenegativeeffectsofProgress:Theextenttowhichadaptiveepige-oilcomparedtothoseincoralsthatwereexposedneticchangesareheritableincoralsiscurrentlytooilbutnotinoculatedwiththebacteria(dospoorlyunderstood(PutnamandGates,2015;TordaSantosetal.,2015).Thesefindingsareparticularlyetal.,2017).Experimentstotestthisareunderway.encouraginggiventhatevidencethatprokaryoteshavearoleincoralthermaltoleranceisgrowingManipulationofcoral-associatedmicrobes(Liangetal.,2017;Ziegleretal.,2017).Manipulationsofcoral-associatedmicrobesaimtoincreasecoral’sclimateresilience,eitherby2.Experimentalevolutionisthedirectedevolu-changingthecompositionofmicrobialcommuni-tionofapopulationacrossmultiplegenerationsties(point1)orbymanipulatingthegenomesofunderdefinedandreproducibleconditions.Thisisasmallnumberofmicrobialsymbionts(point2).mostlydoneinthelaboratory.1.Probioticsarelivemicro-organismsthatProgress:Exposureofculturesofalgalendo-whenadministeredinadequateamountsconfersymbiontsofcoralstoincreasingtemperaturesahealthbenefittothehost.Whereincreasingover55to80generationshasbeenshowntocausecoralresilienceisconcerned,relevantorganismsastableandadaptiveincreaseintemperaturearelikelytoincludebacteria,algalendosymbiontstolerance(Chakravarti,BeltranandvanOppen,(Symbiodiniumspp.)andfungi.2017;Huertasetal.,2011).CoralshavebeenfoundtobeabletoestablishsymbiosiswiththeProgress:Corallarvaeorearlyrecruitscanevolvedalgalstrains,buttheincreaseinbleachingestablishsymbiosiswitharangeofSymbiodiniumstrains,oftenwithfar-reachingconsequencesforthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE303STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCtoleranceincoralsassociatingwiththeevolvedtivelylongperiodsoftime.Ensuringthelong-termstrainwaslimitedandsmallerthanthatobservedavailabilityofthenecessaryfinancial,technicalforthealgaeinvitro(Chakravarti,BeltranandvanandhumanresourcesisamajorneedidentifiedOppen,2017).Thereisaneedtodevelopmethodsbycountriesacrossallsectors.Skilledcapacityandthattransferthermaltolerancemoreefficientlyaccesstothetechnicalresourcesneededtodeployfromtheculturedtotheinhospitesituation.thetremendousadvancesthathavebeenmadeNaturallythermallytolerantSymbiodiniumstrainsincharacterizationandgenetic-improvementtendtobelesseffectiveassuppliersofnutrientstomethodsarewidelyrecognizedaspriorities.Anthecoralhostthanthermallysensitivestrains,andunderlyingconcernisthatafewfavouredcropitiscurrentlyunknownwhetherthistrade-offcanspeciesandlivestockspeciesandbreedsreceivebeovercomeviaexperimentalevolution.averylargeproportionoftheresourcesputintogeneticimprovement,thusamplifyingtherelativeConcludingremarksneglectofotherspeciesandbreeds.AnumberAsof2018,assistedevolutionforcoral-reefresto-ofcountriesidentifypublic–privatepartnershipsrationremainsintheearlystagesofresearchandasawayofsecuringlong-termsupportanddevelopment.Followingthepublicationofthespreadinggenetic-improvementeffortstoawiderconceptin2015(vanOppenetal.,2015),variousrangeofspecies.researchgroupsaroundtheworldhavebeendevelopingresearchprogrammesandprojectsLimiteduseofavailablegeneticdiversityisinthisfield,108andconsiderableprogresscanbeanotherissuehighlightedacrosssectors.Again,expectedoverthenextfiveyears.Thiswillneedtheneedforlong-termsupportandimprovedtobeaccompaniedbyresearchonthepublicandcapacitytoexploretherangeofdiversityavaila-politicalacceptanceoftheseapproaches.Practicalbleandbegintointroduceitintoimprovementapplicationwillrequirelegislativeapprovalforprogrammesisnoted.Theneedforimprovedthedeploymentofmanipulatedcoralstockoritslinksbetweenresearch,genetic-improvementpro-symbiontsontoreefs.Researchontheupscalinggrammesandproducersisanotherfrequentlymen-ofcoral-rearingfacilities,assessmentofecologicaltionedconcern.Assisted-evolutionaryapproachesrisksandbenefits,economic(cost)analysesandofthekindbeingexploredforcoralsmightprovethedevelopmentofdecision-makingframeworksusefulforothertypesofassociatedbiodiversity,forforthetimingandspatialscale/locationofdeploy-examplethroughassistedgenefloworpopulationmentarealsoneeded(vanOppenetal.,2017).selection.Whileconsiderationwouldneedtobegiventopossibleunintendedconsequences,such5.9.6Needsandprioritiesapproachesprovideoptionsthatdonotrequirethefullapparatusassociatedwithlong-termbreedingGeneticimprovementrequiressustainedselectionprogrammesofthekindimplementedincropandoverseveralgenerationsandthusinvolvesrela-livestockspecies.108Formoreinformation,visitthefollowingwebsites:https://www.aims.gov.au/reef-recovery/assisted-evolutionhttps://www.researchgate.net/project/CORALASSIST-Assisting-Coral-Reef-Survival-in-the-Face-of-Climate-Changehttp://coralassistedevolution.comhttps://www.aims.gov.au/reef-recovery/rrap;https://www.microbial-symbiosis.com/research304thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREChapter6ThestateofcharacterizationofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureKeymessages•Manyassociated-biodiversityspecies(thebiodiversitypresentinandaroundproduction•Characterizationofthecomponentsofbiodiversitysystemsthatcontributestothesupplyofregulatingforfoodandagriculture,forexampletheandsupportingecosystemservices)haveneveracquisitionofdataonthemorphologicalandbeenidentifiedanddescribed,particularlyinphysiologicalcharacteristicsofspecies(orvarietiesthecaseofinvertebratesandmicro-organisms.orbreeds)orontheirgeographicaldistributions,Informationonthecharacteristicsandfunctionsofproductionlevelsinparticularenvironments,manyothercomponentsofassociatedbiodiversitydemographicsorecologicalfunctionsandisextremelylimited.relationships,isvitaltothesustainableuseandconservationoftheseresources.•Forseveraltypesofassociatedbiodiversity,includingsoilmicro-organismsandthoseusedfor•Whilealargeamountinformationhasbeenfoodprocessing,advancesinmoleculartechniquesaccumulatedonthecharacteristicsoftheandsequencingtechnologiesarefacilitatingdomesticatedspeciesusedinfoodandagriculture,characterization.Inmanycountries,however,gapsmanyinformationgapsremain,particularlyforintermsofskills,facilitiesandequipmentconstrainspecies,varietiesandbreedsthatarenotwidelyopportunitiestobenefitfromthesedevelopments.usedcommercially.Informationonwildfoodspeciesisalsooftenlimited.6.1Introductionassessgeneticvariabilitywithinandbetweenpopulationsandtoinvestigatethegeneticsunder-Effectivemanagementofcomponentsofbiodi-lyingparticulartraits(e.g.physicalappearance,versityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)(e.g.particu-productivity,diseaseresistanceandotheradaptivelarspecies,orbreedsorvarietieswithinspecies)characteristics).Clearly,factorssuchasgeograph-requiresinformationontheircharacteristics.icaldistributionandpopulationsizeandstruc-However,theuseoftheterm“characterization”turecanchangesignificantlyoverrelativelyshortvariesfromonesectoroffoodandagriculturetoperiodsoftime.Repeatedmeasurementtokeepanother.Broaderdefinitionsencompassnotonlytrackofchangesofthiskindisoftenreferredtothetangiblecharacteristicsoftheorganismsthem-asmonitoring.Monitoringprogrammesforvariousselves,butalsotheirgeographicaldistributions,thecomponentsofBFAarediscussedinthe“stateofsizeandstructureoftheirpopulations,theirusesinknowledge”subsectionsofChapter4.foodandagriculture,theirotherroleswithintheecosystem,andpotentialthreatstotheirsurvival.ThischapterpresentsanoverviewofthestateMoleculargeneticdatacanbeused,interalia,toofcharacterizationeffortsforeachofthemaincategoriesofBFAdiscussedinthisreport.ItbeginsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE305STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCwithanoverviewofthestateofcharacterizationabsentorlimitedtoinformationondistributionandofplant(crop),animal(livestock),forestandorigins.Characterizationdatathatexistoftenremainaquaticgeneticresources,drawingontherespec-scatteredanddifficulttoobtain.ThereisanurgenttiveglobalassessmentspreparedbyFAO(FAO,needtodevelopeffectiveinformationsystemsandtoforthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).Thenextencouragetheuseofagreedprotocolsandpracticesinsectionsdiscussassociatedbiodiversityandwildcharacterizationactivities.foods,drawingmainlyontheinformationpro-videdinthecountryreports.1Thechapterends6.2.1Plantgeneticresourceswithashortdiscussionofneedsandpriorities,forfoodandagriculturefocusingonthelattertwocategoriesofBFA.Whereplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagri-6.2Plant,animal,forestandculture(PGRFA)areconcerned,theterm“charac-aquaticgeneticresourcesterization”isusedtodescribetheprocessbywhichforfoodandagriculturegenebankaccessionsaredescribedwithrespecttoaparticularsetofuniversallyagreedmorphological•Characterizationofgeneticresourcesisessentialtotraits,knownasdescriptors(FAO,2010a,2014f).2theirsustainableuseandconservation,providingThesetraitsareusuallyhighlyheritable,easilyinformationon,interalia,geneticdiversityandthemeasuredorassessed,andexpressedthesamepresenceofusefultraitsinspecies,breedsorvarieties,wayinallenvironments.“Evaluation”,ontheotheronthesize,structureandgeographicaldistributionofhand,providesdataabouttraitsthataregenerallypopulations,andonthreatsaffectingthem.consideredtohaveactualorpotentialagronomicutility.Often,theexpressionofthesetraitsvaries•Asignificantproportionofcropaccessionsconservedwiththeenvironment,sovalidconclusionsrequireexsitu,particularlyunderutilizedcropsandcropevaluationindifferentenvironments.wildrelatives,remainsincompletelycharacterizedandevaluatedformorphologicalandagronomicThestateofcharacterizationandevaluationistraits.Thelimitedavailabilityofcharacterizationandtypicallyassessedonthebasisoftheproportionevaluationdatainpubliclyavailabledatabasesisaofaccessionsthathavebeencharacterizedandmajorconstrainttotheuseofplantgeneticresourcesevaluated.Table6.1providesanindicationoftheinbreedingprogrammes.levelofimplementationofvariouscomponentsofcharacterizationandevaluationasof2008(atthe•Inthecaseofanimalgeneticresources,whiletimeofwriting,themostrecentavailabledatasetrecentyearshaveseensomeimprovementintheprovidinginformationatthislevelforalargestateofinventory,characterizationandmonitoringsampleofcountriesglobally).activities,majorgapsremain,particularlyinthedevelopingregionsoftheworld.BreedinventoriesInreportingonactivitiesundertakentoimple-areoftenincompleteandpopulationtrendsmenttheSecondGlobalPlanofActionforPlantinadequatelymonitored.Dataonbreeds’phenotypicGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculturecharacteristicsareoftenlacking,constrainingtheirusebetweenJanuary2012andJune2014,27countriesinbreedingprogrammes.providedinformationonthelevelofmorpholog-icalcharacterizationoftheirexsitucollections.•Inthecaseofforestandaquaticgeneticresources,Table6.2showsthepercentageofaccessionscharacterizationatwithin-specieslevelisoftencharacterizedforatleastonemorphologicaltraitandtheaveragenumberofmorphologicaltraits1Throughoutthischapter,unlessnotedotherwise,thetermperconservedaccessionforthefivecropswith“countryreports”referstothecountryreportssubmittedascontributionstoTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFood2ThematerialpresentedinthissubsectionislargelybasedonandAgriculture.See“Aboutthispublication”foradditionalTheSecondReportontheStateoftheWorld’sPlantGeneticinformation.ResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2010a).306thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6Table6.1Traitsandmethodsusedforcharacterizinggermplasm:percentageofaccessionscharacterizedand/orevaluated,byregionRegionNumberofMorphologyMolecularAgronomicBiochemicalAbioticBioticcollections(%)markers(%)traits(%)traits(%)stresses(%)stresses(%)Africa625083891424Americas25342786231825Asiaandthe337671266202741PacificEurope315674382223NearEast229766477576369Notes:Thefiguresarebasedonresponsesfrom323stakeholdersfrom42developingcountriestoaquestiononthepercentageofaccessionscharacterizedand/orevaluatedforthevarioustraits.Percentagesareaveragedacrosscountriesineachregion.“Numberorcollections”=totalnumberofexsitucollectionssurveyedforwhichcharacterizationdataexist.Source:FAO,2010a.Table6.2Degreeofcharacterizationforthefivelargestcropcollectionsconservedby27reportingcountriesCropNumberofaccessionsAccessionscharacterizedAveragenumberoftraitsconserved(%)perconservedaccessionWheat138873539.9Barley675918116.6Rice318717318.1Sorghum162938016.1Beans211055512.2Source:FAO,2016m.thelargestcollectionsinthesecountries(FAO,areparticularlyacuteforunderutilizedcropsand2016m).Highestlevelsofcharacterizationarecropwildrelatives,someofwhicharelikelytoreportedforbarley,sorghumandricecollections,becomeincreasinglyimportantinthecontextbothintermsoftheproportionofaccessionsofclimatechange.Molecularcharacterizationcoveredandintermsoftheaveragenumberofofgermplasmhasbecomemorewidespreadtraitscharacterized.acrossregionsandcrops.However,muchremainstobedonebothtogeneratemoredataandtoDespiteongoingworkonthepartofgenebanksmakethemmorereadilyavailable.Systematicandassociatedprogrammes,ofteninvolvingsurveyingandinventoryofPGRFAinsituremainregionalandinternationalcollaboration,asignif-underdeveloped.Thisareaofworktendstobeicantportionofgermplasmaccessionsremainsconstrainedbyalackoffunding,humanresources,uncharacterizedornotproperlydocumented.knowledgeandcoordination.Lackofstandardizationindatacollection,storageanddissemination,andsuboptimalaccesstodata,6.2.2Animalgeneticresourcesarealsoconstraints.Manycountriesregardalackforfoodandagricultureofreadilyavailablecharacterizationandevalu-ationdataasamajorconstrainttothegreaterCharacterizationofanimalgeneticresourcesuseofPGRFAinbreedingprogrammes.Problemsforfoodandagriculture(AnGR)encompassesathestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE307STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCrangeofdata-gatheringactivities(FAO,2015a).3populationdemographicssothattrendsinriskTheunitofmanagementforAnGRisgenerallythestatuscanbetrackedovertime.Potentialthreats,breed.Aprimarytaskofcharacterizationactivi-suchaschangesinproductionpractices,marketsortiesisthereforetoidentify(ifthishasnotalreadydiseaseepidemiology,alsoneedtobemonitored.beendone)thedistinctbreedpopulationspresentinthetargetedarea.Countriesinterestedinpro-VarioustypesofgeneticmarkershavebeenusedmotingsustainablemanagementoftheirAnGRincharacterizationstudiesovertheyears,startinggenerallyseektoestablishcompletenationalwithbloodgroupsorotherproteins,followedbyinventoriesoftheirbreeds.Bothphenotypicandmicrosatellitemarkers.Genomicapproaches,suchmoleculargeneticstudiescancontributetotheastheuseofsinglenucleotidepolymorphismprocessofbreedinventoryandtothefurthermarkersandwhole-genomesequencing,areaccumulationofknowledgeonbreeds(includingnowincreasinglyused.Oneshortcomingofmanybreedsnotincludedinofficialinventories)andthegeneticcharacterizationstudies,however,hasrelationshipsamongthem.beenthattheyhavebeenundertakenasacademicactivities,withtheresultsdestinedtoappearinPhenotypiccharacterizationencompassesthescientificpress,ratherthanundertakentodescriptionofbreeds’morphologicalandphysio-provideinformationtargetedforusebystake-logicaltraits,productionperformanceandadaptiveholdersdirectlyinvolvedinthemanagementofcharacteristics(FAO,2012d).IfdataonproductionAnGR.Exceptionsincludecasesinwhichstudieslevelsaretobeinterpretedproperly,dataarehaverevealedhighlevelsofinbreedingwithinaalsoneededontheproductionenvironmentsingivenbreedorhighlevelsofsimilaritybetweenwhichtheanimalsareraised.Dataofthiskindbreedspreviouslybelievedtobemoredistinct.mayalsoallowinferencestobedrawnregardingSpecificallydesignedmolecular-characterizationthebreeds’adaptivecharacteristicsandhelpinstudieshavealsobeenusedtoidentifythegeneticthedevelopmentofplansfortheirsustainablebasis(oratleasttodevelopgenetictests)formanagement.Dataonbreeds’geographicaldis-variousdefectsorothersimplyinheritedtraits.tributionscanbeusefulinincreasingtheprecisionofestimatesoftheirriskstatus4andinidentify-Whilerecentyearshaveseensomeimprove-ingthecharacteristics(climate,terrain,etc.)ofmentsinthestateofinventory,characterizationtheproductionenvironmentsinwhichbreedsareandmonitoringactivitiesforAnGR,majorgapsraised.Theterm“landscapegenomics”hasbeenremain,particularlyinthedevelopingregionsofcoinedtodescribestudiesthatrelatedetectabletheworld(Figure6.1).Manycountriesconsidergeneticvariationtogeographicallocationsandthattheirbreedinventoriesarenotyetcomplete.theircharacteristics(Joostetal.,2007).Manybreedpopulationsarenotsubjecttomon-itoringactivitiesthataresufficientlycomprehen-Asurveythatcollectsdataonthesizeandstruc-siveandregulartoallowriskstatustobetrackedtureofabreed’spopulationanditsgeographicalovertime.Thephenotypicdataneededtoade-distributionandhenceallowsitsextinctionriskquatelycomparetheperformanceofdifferentstatustobedeterminedisoftenreferredtoasbreedsinspecificproductionenvironmentsortoabaselinesurvey(FAO,2011f).Baselinesurveystakeadvantageofdevelopmentsinmolecularneedtobefollowedupbyregularmonitoringofgeneticsareoftenunavailable.3Thematerialpresentedinthissubsectionislargelybasedon6.2.3ForestgeneticresourcesTheSecondReportonTheStateoftheWorld’sAnimalGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2015a).Effortstopromoteconservationandsustainableuseofforestgeneticresources(FGR)requireinfor-4Forexample,breedswhosepopulationsareconcentratedinamationon,interalia,thefollowing:levelsofdiver-limitedgeographicalareatendtobeatgreaterriskoflosingasity,inparticulartreepopulationsandtheextentoflargeproportionoftheirpopulationstoeventssuchasdiseasetherisksfacingthem;thelocationofpopulationsoutbreaksandclimaticdisasters.308thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6Figure6.1Reportedprogressintheimplementationof(A)phenotypicand(B)molecularcharacterizationinlivestockspeciesofeconomicimportanceANumberofcountriesAfrica40Asia20EuropeandtheCaucasusLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean35NearandMiddleEast18NorthAmerica7SouthwestPaciﬁcWorld10%7B12820%40%60%80%100%NumberofcountriesAfrica40Asia20EuropeandtheCaucasus35LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean18NearandMiddleEast7NorthAmerica1SouthwestPaciﬁc7World20%40%60%80%1280%100%ComprehensivestudieswereundertakenbeforetheadoptionoftheGPASufﬁcientinformationhasbeengeneratedbecauseofprogressmadesincetheadoptionoftheGPASomeinformationhasbeengenerated(furtherprogresssincetheadoptionoftheGPA)Someinformationhasbeengenerated(nofurtherprogresssincetheadoptionoftheGPA)None,butactionisplannedandfundingidentiﬁedNone,butactionisplannedandfundingissoughtNoneNotes:Analysisbasedon128reportspreparedbycountriesin2014ontheirimplementationofactivitiesrelevanttotheimplementationoftheGlobalPlanofActionforAnimalGeneticResources(GPA).PartAofthefiguresummarizesanswerstoaquestionon“progressinimplementingphenotypiccharacterizationstudiescoveringmorphology,performance,location,productionenvironmentsandspecificfeaturesinalllivestockspeciesofeconomicimportance.”PartBofthefiguresummarizesanswerstoaquestionon“progressinmolecularcharacterizationof[therespectivecountry’s]animalgeneticresourcescoveringalllivestockspeciesofeconomicimportance.”Source:FAO,2014g.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE309STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable6.3Charactersmostfrequentlyassessedin692evaluationsofforest-treegeneticvariabilityreportedbycountriesCharacterTypeofcharacterProportionoftotalevaluationsassessingthischaracter(%)CharactersleastsubjecttophenotypicMorphological17.5variation,i.e.seed,fruits,conesandpodsDiseaseandpestresistanceAdaptive/productive13LeafanatomyMorphological7Bole/stemdiameterProductive7GrowthrateProductive5.5Biomass/fodderproductivityProductive5HeightProductive5.5DroughtresistanceAdaptive/productive5PhenologyAdaptive5BarkMorphological5Chemistry/exudatesBiochemical3Source:FAO,2014a.orindividualswithrarealleles;relationshipsdocumentthegeneticresourcespresentincircabetweengeneticvariabilityandenvironmen-situmenvironments.6Characterizationofintra-talparameters;andtrendsingeneticvariability,specificdiversityisrecognizedasacentralcom-forexampleinresponsetosilviculturalregimesponentoftheconservationanduseofindividualandenvironmentalchanges(FAO,2014a).5Tree-treespecies.However,thesheernumberofspeciesbreedingprogrammesrequireinformationonpresentinmanycountriesmakescharacterizingtheidentityofspeciesandpopulationswiththemorethanasmallfractionofspeciesatthislevelgreatestpotentialforcommercialdevelopment,extremelychallenging.Theimpracticalityofmeas-ondesirableproductiveoradaptivetraitsinpri-uringchangesingeneticvariationinallormostorityspecies(includingthoserelevanttoclimatetreespeciesmeansthatmonitoringofFGRismainlychange),ongeneticmarkerslinkedtoadaptivedoneeitherbymonitoringonlypriorityormodelorotherdesirablecharacteristicsandonsourcesspeciesorbymonitoringsurrogatemeasuressuchofpropagationmaterials.Datacanbegatheredasforestareaortreecover(seeSection4.5.5).throughstudiesofmorphologicalcharacteristics,field-basedstudies,provenanceandprogenytrials,Provenancetesting–growingtreesselectedtheuseofvariousbiochemicalandDNAmarkers,fromdifferentlocations(provenances)undertheandotherlaboratory-basedinvestigations.Atsameenvironmentalconditionssoastodetermineinterspecificlevel,characterizationdataareoftentheextenttowhichobservedvariationamongpop-capturedthroughforestinventoriesundertakenulationsorindividualscanbeattributedtogeneticinthecourseofresource-managementactivities.differences–hasalonghistoryandcontinuestobeHowever,suchsurveysoftenfailtocaptureandusedwidelyintree-breedingandimprovementpro-grammes.Provenancetestingistimeconsuming,5ThematerialpresentedinthissubsectionislargelybasedonThe6Heavilymodifiedorfragmentedlandscapes,suchasthoseofStateoftheWorld’sForestGeneticResources(FAO,2014a).traditionalagroforestryandfarmingsystems.310thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6expensiveandvulnerabletorisksassociatedwith6.2.4Aquaticgeneticresourcesnaturaldisastersandotherdisruptions.However,forfoodandagricultureasitdoesnotrequireadvancedtechnicalinfrastruc-ture,itiswidelyusedintropicalcountries,whereCharacterizationandmonitoringofaquatictreesoftenhavefastgrowthratesandrelativelygeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture(AqGR)shortrotationperiods.Greatreductionsinthecostsoccursmainlyatspecieslevel.Wheremonitoringofgenesequencingandincreasesincomputerpro-isconcerned,theinternationalstandardsforcessingspeedandpowerhaveledtoaproliferationreportingproductionfromculturedandcapturedofDNAstudiesintreespecies,includingwhole-speciesaretheAquaticSciencesandFisheriesgenomesequencing,andrapidprogressinidenti-InformationSystem(ASFIS)listandtheclassi-fyingthelocationandfunctionofgenes.ficationsystemoftheInternationalStandardStatisticalClassificationofAquaticAnimalsandThecountryreportspreparedforTheStateofPlants(ISCAAP).MembercountriesprovideantheWorld’sForestGeneticResourcesreferto27annualreporttoFAOontheirfisheriesandaqua-charactersassessedinthecourseofevaluatingcultureproductionandthisinformationcanbegeneticvariability(inatotalof692evaluations).publiclyaccessedthroughFAOFishStatJ.7TheThemostfrequentlymentionedareshowninTableinformationisalsosummarizedinFAO’sbiennial6.3.ThesedataindicatethatpurelymorphologicalpublicationseriesTheStateofWorldFisheriescharactersremainwidelyusedintheevaluationofandAquaculture,whichalsoprovidesinforma-variability,despitetheincreasingfocusonmolec-tion(atspecieslevel)onthestatusofaquacul-ularmarkers.Theyalsohighlighttheimportancetureandmarinecapturefisheriesresources(seethatcountriesplaceonidentifyingtreesandgeno-Section4.2.4).typesforbreedingforpestanddiseaseresistance.ThereisatpresentnoglobalinformationThelevelofmonitoringeffortsvariesgreatlysystemonaquaticgeneticdiversitybelowspeciesbetweencountries.Developedcountrieswithlevel(FAO,2016n).Theinternationalstandardwell-establishednationalforestinventoriesandclassificationforuseinfisherystatistics,(themonitoringsystemshavecomprehensivelydoc-ASFISlist–seeabove),doesnotincludeanysub-umentedtheirforestresourcesanddescribedspecies,stocks,orfarmedtypes8ortheirwildrel-changesintheirFGR.Severaldevelopingcountriesatives.Powerfulgenetic-sequencingandgenetic-havealsomadegoodprogressinthisregardduringmappingtechnologiesarenowmakingiteasierthepastdecade.However,geneticmonitoringofandlessexpensivetocharacterizeaquaticorgan-forestsisataveryearlystageofdevelopment,ismsatfinerscalesofresolution,suchasatstock,withonlyasmallnumberofpilotstudieshavingstrainandevenindividual-pedigreelevels(FAO,beenimplementedtodate.Asubstantialamount2017n).Effortsarebeingmadetofindwaysofofgeneticinformationisavailableonlyonthemostapplyingthesetoolsintheassessmentandman-widelyplantedgeneraglobally:Acacia,Eucalyptus,agementofcapture-fisherystocks(Bravington,PopulusandPinus.EffortstocharacterizespeciesGreweandDavies,2016).Thesevariousdevel-thatarelesswidelyplantedbutimportantlocallyopmentswillenablemore-refinedreportingfororinnaturallyregeneratedforestsurgentlyneedfarmedtypesofculturedspecies,aswellasfortobestrengthened.EvenwhenFGR-relateddatasomehighlymigratorycapture-fisherystocks.arecollected,theyoftenremainscatteredanddiffi-cultforpotentialuserstoobtain.Thus,informationAlthoughinformationongeneticdiversityatsystemsforFGRurgentlyneedtobeestablishedorwithin-specieslevelcanbeextremelyusefulinstrengthened.TheuseofcommonprotocolsforAqGRmanagement,littleiscollectedormadeFGRinventories,characterizationandmonitoringwouldhelptoensurethatdatacollectedfrom7http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishstatj/endifferentcountriesarecomparable.8Afarmedtypemaybeastrain,hybrid,triploid,monosexgroup,othergeneticallyalteredform,varietyorwildtype.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE311STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCavailabletopotentialusers,exceptinthecaseofDatabaseonIntroductionsofAquaticSpeciessomehigh-valuespeciesindevelopedcountries.(DIAS).10DIAScontainsover5000recordsfromAbout70percentofthecountryreportssubmit-inlandandmarineecosystems,includingfishes,tedforTheStateoftheWorld’sAquaticGeneticmolluscs,crustaceans,echinodermsandplants.ResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(SoW-AqGR)Thisdatabaseisnotupdatedannually,andcur-(FAO,forthcoming)indicatethatgeneticinforma-rentlyservesmoreasahistoricalrecordofintro-tionisusedonlytoaminorextentornotatallinductionsthanasamonitoringsystem.managingfarmedaquaticresources.InadditiontoestablishingorstrengtheningIntheaquaculturesector,monitoringatthesurveyingandmonitoringsystemsandnational,levelofthestrain,asisdoneforbreedsintheter-regionalandglobalinformationsystemsforrestriallivestocksector,isconstrainedbyalackoffarmedAqGRandtheirwildrelatives,prioritiesinstandardizedstrainnomenclatureandcharacter-thisfieldofAqGRmanagementincludeimprovingization,andtherelativelyrecenthistoryofstraininformationonfishgeneticdiversityandadoptingdevelopmentinaquaticspecies(FAO,2016n).Instandardnomenclatureforitsdescription.Neithercapturefisheries,geneticdiversityissometimestheSoW-AqGRprocessnortheFAOfisheriesandusedinthemanagementofhigh-valuespecies.aquaculturedatabaseshaverequiredcountriesForexample,within-speciesdataareavailableontolistaquaculturefarmingsystemsorreportonsalmonids,andareusedinmanagingpopulationsthestateofaquaticecosystems.Monitoringandinthewild(NMFS,2016).However,thefinancialcharacterizationofthesearethereforegenerallyandtechnicalcapacityneededinordertoestablishmissingfromglobalfisheryreports.Giventhatbaselinedataandconductregularsampling,mon-manywildrelativesoffarmedaquaticspeciesitoringandanalysesislackinginmanyareas.Stockareindeclineduetohabitatlossordegradationidentificationincapturefisherieshastraditionally(FAO,forthcoming),particularattentionneedstobeenbasedongeographiclocation,andproduc-bepaidtocharacterizingspeciesfoundinecosys-tionhasbeenreportedandmonitoredaccordinglytemsthatarethreatenedbydisturbancessuchas(e.g.NorthAtlanticcodstocks,LakeVictoriaNilewetlanddrainageandtheconstructionofdamsorperch,in-shoreherringstocksandColumbiaRiverhydropowerplants.chinooksalmon).Ifwatersaretobestockedusingfishrearedincaptivity,characterizationiscritical6.3Associatedbiodiversitytoeffortstoavoidundesirableimpactsonthegeneticdiversityofwildpopulations.•Characterizationofassociatedbiodiversityislimitedandmostlyundertakenatspecieslevel.Forgivencountriesorhabitats,aquaticspeciesWhilemanylargerspecieshavebeenidentifiedandcanbecategorizedasnativeornon-nativedescribed,over99percentofbacteriaandprotist(sometimescalledexoticoralienspecies).Non-speciesremainunknown.nativespeciesareimportantinaquaculture,withapproximately200speciesorspeciesitems9•Moleculartechnologies,includingmetagenomicsbeingfarmedinareaswheretheyarenon-nativeandbarcoding,areallowingrapidprogresstobe(FAO,forthcoming).Nineofthetenmostwidelymadeinidentifyingassociated-biodiversityspecies,culturedspeciesarefarmedinmorecountriesespeciallythosepresentinsoils.Suchtechniqueswheretheyarenon-nativethancountrieswherealsoallowinvestigationofthefunctionalattributestheyarenative.Introductionsofaquaticspeciesofpopulations.SeveralcountrieshaveactiveacrossnationalboundariesarerecordedinFAO’sprogrammesforcharacterizingsoilmicro-organismsusingmolecularmethods.9Aspeciesitemreferstoasinglespecies,agroupofspecies(whereidentificationtothespecieslevelisnotpossible)oran10http://www.fao.org/fishery/dias/eninterspecifichybrid.312thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6•Anumberofexsitucollectionsofassociatedconditions,forexampleduringstressfuleventsbiodiversityarebeingcharacterized.Manyofthesesuchasdroughts,maybeuseful.Dataonbio-arespeciesassociatedwithfood-productionprocessesgeographicaldistributionandpopulationsize,(e.g.fermentation),withcollectionsbeingmaintainedstructureandtrendsarevaluableindetermininginboththeprivateandthepublicsectors.species’riskstatusesandassessingtheneedforconservationmeasures.Thestateofknowledge6.3.1Overviewofthestatusandtrendsofassociatedbiodiversityinvolvedinthesupplyofvariousecosystemser-Whilecharacterizationofassociatedbiodiversity11vicesisdiscussedinSection4.3.isnotsuchawell-establishedorclearlydefinedareaofactivityascharacterizationofPGRFA,AsillustratedinTable6.4,thevastmajor-AnGR,FGRorAqGR,understandingthechar-ityworld’ssoilmicrofaunaandmicro-organismacteristicsofthespeciesandecosystemsassoci-speciesarethoughttobeundescribed.Ingeneral,atedwithfoodandagriculturalproductionisathepercentageofspeciesdescribeddecreasesvitalpartofeffortstopromotetheirsustainablewiththesizeoftheorganisms.However,signifi-useandconservation.Adistinguishingfeaturecantprogressiscurrentlybeingmadeincharac-ofassociatedbiodiversityrelativetocrops,live-terizingsoilbiodiversitythroughtheapplicationstock,speciesraisedinaquacultureortargetedofmoleculartechnologies,whichcanbeusedbycapturefisheriesand(toalesserextent)forest(interalia)tocharacterizeunculturablemicro-trees,isthatmanyspeciesremainunknowntoorganisms(FAOandITPS,2015).Theavailabilityofscience.Moraetal.(2011)estimatethat86percentthesetechnologieshasledtoanincreasednumberoftheextantspeciesonEarthand91percentofofstudiescharacterizingsoilbiodiversityatlargethoseintheoceanarestillundescribed.12Whilespatialscales(Orgiazzietal.,2015).Molecularthereareabout1milliondescribedinsectspecies,technologiesarealsorevolutionizingtaxonomicanestimated4millionspeciesareundescribedresearchonlargerorganisms.Forexample,DNA(Chapman,2009).Inthecaseofmicro-organisms,barcodingallowstheidentificationofbeespeciesitisestimatedthat99.999percentoftaxaremainthataredifficulttorecognizeusingtraditionaltobediscovered(LoceyandLennon,2016).methods(Packeretal.,2016).AfteraspecieshasbeenformallydescribedWithregardtoaquaticbiodiversity,theCensusandnamed,additionalknowledgeaboutitschar-ofMarineLife,aten-yearinternationalefforttoacteristicscanbeaccumulatedovertime.Intheassessthediversity,distributionandabundancecaseofassociatedbiodiversity,functionaltraitsofmarinespecies,completedin2010,concluded–characteristicsthataffectaspecies’responsestothatnearly250000validmarinespecieshadbeentheenvironmentanditsroleinecosystemfunction-described(Ausubel,CristandWaggoner,2010).Theing–areofparticularinterest.Forexample,knowl-censusitselffoundmorethan6000potentiallyedgeofwhetheraspeciescanperformparticularnewspeciesandcompletedformaldescriptionsfunctions(pollination,controlofpestspecies,rolesofmorethan1200ofthem(ibid.).TheCensusofinsoilformation,etc.)underparticularecologicalCoralReefEcosystems,conductedasapartoftheproject,developedmethodsofmolecularanalysis11AdescriptionofassociatedbiodiversitycanbefoundinandstandardizedsamplingfororganismslivingSection1.5andstateandtrendsofassociatedbiodiversityareincoralreefsandledtothediscoveryofapproxi-presentedinSection4.3.mately100newspecies(McIntyre,ed.,2010).12NewlydiscoveredspeciesareconsideredscientificallydescribedOnlyafractionoftheestimated5000typesofwhentheyhavebeengivenatwo-partLatinnameandhavemicro-organismsusedintheproductionofarti-hadadescriptionpublishedinapeer-reviewedscientificsanal(includingindigenous)fermentedfoodsjournal.Thedescriptiontypicallyincludesathoroughlistingandbeveragesworldwidehavebeenstudiedofmorphologicalcharacteristics,inparticularofthosescientifically.Moreover,studieshaveoftenmerelythatdistinguishthespeciesfromotherspecies.Formoreinformation,visithttp://eol.org/info/467thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE313STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable6.4KnownandestimatednumberofspeciesofsoilorganismsandvascularplantsTypeoforganismNumberofEstimatedtotalnumberofProportiondescribed(%)describedspeciesspeciesVascularplants35070040000088Macrofauna300002325000–3000060–50Earthworms7000310087Ants1400010000055Termites27005000017Mesofauna1000000–100000000.2–2.57000000–700000000.03–0.3Mites400001500000–51000001.9–6.5Collembolans(springtails)8500>1000000<1.5Microfaunaandmicro-organismsNematodes20000–25000Protists21000Fungi97000Bacteria15000Source:Orgiazzietal.,eds.(2016),updatedfromBarrios(2007).identifiedtheprimarymicrobiotainthefinishedthechoiceofstarterculturesandthemanage-productorundertakensomepreliminarycharac-mentofthefermentationprocesstobefine-terizationofthem.However,in-depthinformationtunedtoincreaseproductqualityandsafety.Oneisnowrapidlyaccumulatingonmicrobialcommu-challengeistoensurethatthemanufactureofnitiesinvolvedinfoodprocessing,includingontraditionalfoodproductsonalargescaleundertheirstructure,interactions,successionduringtheconditionsthatfavourproductsafetyandprovidefermentationprocessandinfluenceonproductconsistencyintermsofqualitydonotleadtothequalityandsafety.13lossoftheuniqueflavoursandothercharacter-isticsassociatedwiththeoriginalproducts.ThisInthecaseoffermentationprocessesthatarewillrequireamorethoroughunderstandingofalreadyrelativelywellunderstood,thegoalsarethetypesofmicro-organismsinvolvedandtheirtofurtherimprovereliabilityandproductqualityspecificactivities.Thesignificanceofadvancesinbyoptimizingstarter-cultureperformanceandtheuseofmoleculartechniquesinthecharac-eliminatingfactorsthatimpedethefermen-terizationoffood-processingmicro-organismsistationprocess.Somemicro-organismsusedindiscussedinBox6.1.foodproductionhavealreadybeensequencedgenetically,andthishascreatednewopportuni-6.3.2Country-reportanalysistiestoimprovecultureperformance.Theuseofup-to-dateanalyticalmethodsisprovidingdetailedThecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcountriesinformationontherolesofindividualstrainsandtoindicatewhethertheassociatedbiodiversityspeciesinfermentationprocesses.Thisisallowingspeciestheyconserveexsituhavebeencharac-terizedorevaluated.Fifty-onecountriesreportex13Theseparagraphsonfood-processingorganismsdrawonsitucollectionsofspeciesofassociatedbiodiver-theCGRFABackgroundStudyPaperpreparedbyAlexandrakisity(seeSection7.3.2).Forty-fivedistinctspeciesetal.(2013)withinthesecollectionsarereportedtohavebeen314thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6Box6.1Theroleofmoleculartechniquesinthecharacterizationoffood-processingmicro-organismsHigh-throughputsequencingtechnologiesareprovidingproductionparametersongeneexpressionandmetabolitenewmeansofimprovingthefunctionalityandsafetyofaccumulation.Food-safetyapplicationsincluderiskanalysis,microbialfoodprocessing(Alkemaetal.,2016).Sequencinganddetectionandquantificationoftranscriptsorproteinsthattechnologieshaveevolvedrapidlyinrecentyears,anditispredictthepresenceofundesirablemolecules(GiraffaandnowpossibletosequenceabacterialgenomeinafewhoursCarminati,2008;Postollecetal.,2011).andatarelativelylowcost.Recentdevelopmentsinsingle-Metagenomicsisthestudyofgeneticmaterialrecoveredcellsequencingallowthegenomesofunculturedmicro-directlyfromcomplexsamplestocharacterizetheorganismstobesequenced(atpresent,thevastmajorityofdiversityofmicrobialcommunities(Bokulichetal.,2016;micro-organismscannotbeculturedinvitro)(Nawy,2013).Handelsman,2004;NikolakiandTsiamis,2013).TheabilityComplete,annotatedgenomesequencesareavailablefortoclonelargefragmentsofmetagenomicDNAallowsthousandsofbacterialanddozensoffungalspecies(NCBI,entirefunctionaloperons(unitsofgenomicDNAcontaining2018).Comparativegenomicsusesthesedatatoidentifyclustersofgenes)tobetargetedandentiremetabolicbiologicalsimilaritiesanddifferencesandevolutionarypathwaystobetraced.Comparativemetagenomics,inrelationshipsbetweenorganisms.Partialgenomesequencingwhichlibraries(collectionsofDNAsequences)prepared(randomortargeted)andsinglenucleotidepolymorphismfromdifferentsitesoratdifferenttimesarecompared,also(SNP)microarraysallowgeneticmarkerslinkedtotraitsofprovidesinsights(Randazzo,CaggiaandNeviani,2009;interesttobeidentifiedmorerapidly.Riesenfeld,SchlossandHandelsman,2004).MetagenomicsandmetatranscriptomicscanbeverypowerfulmeansofTechnologiesthattargetgeneexpression(RNA-seq,genestudyingthemicrobiologyoffermentedfoods,forexampleexpressionmicroarrays),proteinlevels(massspectrometry,criticalfermentationparametersaffectingquality,andproteinchips)andmetabolites(chromatography,massinteractionsbetweenbacteriainfermentationecosystems.spectrometry,nuclearmagneticresonance)arebeingusedtoWorkinthesefieldswillbepropelledforwardbytheidentifyandquantifygeneproductsandothermoleculesatongoingrapidadvancesinsequencingtechnologiesandahighresolution.Dataobtainedusingthesemethodscanbebioinformatics(vanHijum,VaughanandVogel,2013).usedtostudytheeffectsoftheenvironment(temperature,humidity,nutrients,etc.)onmicrobialphysiologicalpropertiesSource:ProvidedbyFrançoisFauteux,drawingonAlexandrakietal.(2013).andmetabolicprocesses,andtheimpactofindustrialcharacterizedorevaluatedcompletelyorpartiallyThecountry-reportingguidelinesdidnotinvite(15speciesoffish,10ofinsects,9ofplants,9ofcountriestoprovidedetaileddescriptionsoftheirbacteriaand1eachofcrustaceansandmammals).characterizationstudiesortoreportonstudiesThestatusofcharacterizationorevaluationofaconductedoutsidethecontextofexsituconser-further262distinctassociated-biodiversityspeciesvationprogrammes.However,thecountryreportsmaintainedinexsitucollectionsisreportedasnotdescribeanumberofinitiativestargetingthechar-knownornotcharacterized(Figure6.2).14Onlyacterizationofcomponentsofassociatedbiodiver-twospecies(Rhizobiumleguminosarumandthesityinarangeofdifferentcontexts.15westernhoneybee[Apismellifera])arereportedbymorethanonecountrytohavebeencharacter-Manycountrieshighlighttheneedtoaddressizedorevaluated.gapsinknowledgeonthecharacteristicsofthemicro-organismsfoundinandaroundproduction14Inaddition,asinglecountryreported885distinctplantspecies15Examplesofinitiativesthatassesstrendsinthestatusofvariousascharacterizedorcharacterizedpartially.componentsofassociatedbiodiversityarepresentedinSection4.3.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE315STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFigure6.2Statusofcharacterizationorevaluationofassociatedbiodiversityspeciesreportedtobeconservedexsitu,byregionNumberofspeciesAfrica28Asia240EuropeandCentralAsiaLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean30NearEastandNorthAfrica7World0%1732520%40%60%80%100%NotknownDonePartiallyNotdoneNotreportedNotes:Fifty-onecountriesoutof91reportconservationofassociatedbiodiversityspeciesinexsitucollections.Somespecieswerereportedbymorethanonecountry.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.systems,andseveralprojectsandprogrammesinidentificationofarbuscularmycorrhizalspeciesthisfieldarereported.Forexample,theUnitedanddeterminationofsporedensities,theextentKingdommentionsapilotprojectinvolvinggov-ofrootcolonizationandtheinfectionpotentialernmentandresearchinstitutionsthatisdevel-ofcropswithmycorrhizalfungi.Spainmentionsopingandapplyinggeneticbarcodingandmeta-astudyentitledExplorationofMicrobialDiversitybarcodingapproachestotheidentificationandanditsBiotechnologicalPotential,whichtargetscharacterizationofsoilmicro-organismcommuni-thecharacterizationofmarinemicro-organismsties.Itnotesthattheoutcomeofthisworkmayinandoflacticacidbacteriaassociatedwithtradi-thefutureenabletrendsinsoilmicro-organismstotionalAndeanfermented-foodproducts,withbemonitored.SriLankamentionsthatthestatethemostrelevantstrainsbeingdepositedattheofitsmicro-organismdiversityispoorlyknownSpanishTypeCultureCollection.andnotmonitored,butthatthereareplanstocollectbaselinedataonmicro-organisms(andEcuadorhighlightstheHigherPolytechnicinvertebrates)acrossproductionsystemsinorderSchoolofChimborazo’sBIOCENOSISproject,atoenablechangestobedetected.multidisciplinaryinitiativethatfocusesmainlyontheidentification,characterizationandeval-Anumberofcountrieshighlightworkrelateduationofmicro-organismsforpotentialuseintotherolesofmicro-organismsinthesupplyofimprovingsoilfertility,pestcontrolandbio-particularecosystemservices(e.g.pestcontrol,remediation.Outcomeshaveincludedtheiden-soilformationorimproving/maintainingsoilfer-tificationofphosphorus-solubilizingbacteria.tility,carbonsequestrationandbioremediation)Techniquesforcontrollingdiseasessuchassiga-ortothedevelopmentofproductssuchasbiofer-toka(adiseaseofbananas)andpestssuchastilizers,biopesticidesandbiofuels.Forexample,thechochoborer(apestoftheAndeanlupinSwitzerlandreportsthatthetasksoftheSwissspeciestarwi[Lupinusmutabilis])usingmicro-CollectionofArbuscularMycorrhizalFungiincludeorganismsarereportedtobeinthefinalstages316thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6Box6.2Characterizationstudiesonmicro-organisms–examplesfromPeruPeru’smicrobialbiodiversityremainslargelyunknown.Phytophthorainfestans,themicro-organismthatcausespotatoblight,However,anumberofresearchprogrammesaretargetingseenthroughamicroscope.©InternationalPotatoCenter(CIP)andNationalthecharacterizationoftheseresources.InstituteofAgriculturalInnovation(Peru).Notes:ThisorganismisconservedexsituintheDivisionforIntegratedCropTheMarinoTabusoBiologyandBiotechnologyManagementoftheInternationalPotatoCenterfortheProjectCharacterizationofLaboratoryofNationalAgrarianUniversity–LaPopulationsofPhytophthorainfestansandinthreeAgroecologicalRegionsofPeruMolina(UNALM)isstudying,interalia,themolecularandStrengtheningofINIACapacitiesforContinuousMonitoringofthePrincipalcharacterizationofsymbioticandfree-livingnitrogen-fixingPathogensofthePotato.bacteria,theoptimizationofbiofertilizerproduction,thebeneficialeffectsofrhizobiaandplantgrowth-promotingThecountry’slegislationrelatedtotheestablishmentrhizobacteriaincropssuchasbeans,cotton,maize,ofamoratoriumontheentryoflivingmodifiedmaca(Lepidiummeyenii),tara(Caesalpiniaspinose)organisms1requiresthedevelopmentofabaselineofandaguaymanto(Physalisperuviana)andthemicrobialdataonbiodiversity(explicitlyincludingsoilfungiandinteractionsoccurringintherhizosphereofvariouscrops.bacteriapresentincropfields)potentiallyaffectedbytheUNALM’sMycologyandBiotechnologyLaboratoryhasintroductionoflivingmodifiedorganisms.TheMinistrybeenstudyingfungiandbacteriaassociatedwiththeoftheEnvironmentisimplementingbaselinestudiesnitrogencyclesincethe1970s,andiscurrentlyconductingwithinthisframework.Inthecaseofmaizeproductionmicrobialandmolecularbioprospectingofundisturbedsystems,forexample,specificobjectivesincludesurveyingsoilsintheAmazonrainforestandinhotsprings.andsamplingairandsoilorganismsassociatedwithSeveralbacterialandfungalstrainshavebeenisolatedthesesystemsinordertoidentifythemanddetermineandevaluatedfortheproductionofalkalophilicandtheirdistribution,establishingmethodologiesforthermophiliclignocellulase.characterizationandmonitoring,anddevelopinggeoreferenceddatabasesthatcanbeusedtogenerateResearchersattheLaboratoryofMicrobialEcology,thematicmaps.NationalUniversityofSanMarcos,arestudyingmarineorganisms,especiallyactinomyceteswithantibacterialSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofPeru.activities.TheBiologicalOceanographyUnitofthe1DecretoSupremoNº008/12/MINAM-ReglamentodelaLeyNº29.811,LeyMarineInstituteofPeru(IMARPE)isimplementingresearchonphytoplanktondynamicsandonthequeestablecelamoratoriaalingresoyproduccióndeorganismosvivosmicro-organismsofmarinesediments.IMARPE’sAquaticmodificados(available,inSpanish,athttp://www.fao.org/faolex/results/OrganismGermplasmBankaimstoidentifystrainsofdetails/en/c/LEX-FAOC117809/).aquaticorganisms,characterizethemmolecularlyandbiochemically,conservethemandmakethemavailabletothescientificcommunity,privateinstitutionsanduniversitiesforresearch(inthefieldsofaquaculture,bioremediation,toxicitytestingandfoodproduction)andteaching.Researchprojectshaveinvestigatedthepotentialuseofmicro-algaeinfuelproduction,incosmeticsandforotherbiotechnologicalpurposes.TheEnvironmentalBiotechnologyLaboratoryofCayetanoHerediaUniversityisstudyingmicro-organismswiththeaimofdevelopingbiotechnologiesfortherecoveryofmetalsandforbioremediation.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE317STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCoftestingandtobeshowinggoodpotential.SeveralcountriesrefertothesignificantrolethatPanamamentionsaprojectonthecharacteriza-citizen-scienceapproachescanplayinmonitor-tionofsoilmicro-organismsinbiointensive16pro-ingprogrammesandanumberofinitiativesofductionsystems.AnumberofexamplesfromPeruthiskindarereported.Forexample,theUnitedarepresentedinBox6.2.Kingdommentionstheinvolvementofnon-specialistmembersofthepublicincollectingdataSomecountriesmentionworkontheidentifica-onbutterflies,beesandplants.Bhutanreferstotionofmicro-organismsthatarewelladaptedtotheweb-basedBhutanBiodiversityPortal,17whichparticularharshconditionsorthathavethepoten-featurescitizen-contributedobservationdataontialtoplayaroleinadaptingproductionsystemscomponentsofbiodiversity.Irelandreportsthattoenvironmentalchange.Forexample,CostaRicatheIrishNationalBiodiversityDataCentrerunsannotesthatthereisalackofinformationonhowextensiveannualprogrammeoftrainingandiden-soilmicro-organismswillbeaffectedbyclimatetificationworkshopsforpeopleinvolvedinmoni-changeandmentionsinitiativestargetingthetoringspeciesfromarangeoftaxonomicgroups,identificationofmicro-organismsthatcanhelpincludingbumblebeesandbutterflies.plantscopeunderconditionsofwaterstress.Indiamentionsprojectsfocusingonbacterialgenera6.4Wildfoodsthatpredominateinextremeenvironmentsandtheiruseinagricultureandalliedsectorsandon•Thereisagrowingbodyofliteratureonthenutrienttheroleofarchaeainalleviatingsalinitystressandcompositionofwildfoodsandontheirmedicinalmoisturestressinplants.properties.Otherdata(molecular-geneticdata,ecogeographicaldata,vernacularnames,partsused,Thecountryreportsproviderelativelylittlemodesofpreparation,specificuses,seasonalpatternsinformationoneffortstoidentifythecharacter-inharvestinganduse,andtraditionalknowledgeisticsofassociatedbiodiversityspeciesbelong-relatedtovariousaspectsofmanagement)canallingtoothertaxonomicgroups.Inthecaseofbeimportantinplanningthesustainableuseandinvertebrates,reportedexamplesincludeastudyconservationofwildfoodspecies.onthefunctionsofcarabidbeetlesinquinoaandpotatoagroecosystemsinPeru’sAltiplano.•Within-speciesdifferencesarereportedtohavebeenEcuadorreportsthatithascharacterizedcoralidentifiedandcharacterizedin27percentofthewildecosystemsandothervulnerablemarineecosys-foodspeciesreportedbycountries.temandisimplementingconcreteactionsaimedatpreventing,controllingandmitigatingthe•Halfthecountriesreportingexsituwildfoodimpactsthathumanactivitiesandclimatechangecollectionsreportthecompleteorpartialarehavingonthem.BulgariamentionsthatitcharacterizationorevaluationofaccessionsfromahasestablishedaNationalCentreofExcellencecombinedtotalof150wildfoodspecies.inBiodiversityandEcosystemResearch,which,amongotheractivities,hasdevelopedalabora-•Needsandprioritiesforthecharacterizationofwildtoryforworkonthetaxonomyandphylogenyoffoodsincludestrengtheningcapacity,increasingtheinvertebrates.Numerouscountriesmentionthatavailabilityofresourcesandimprovingmechanismsbotanicgardensandherbariaplayanimportantforsharinganddocumentingknowledge.roleintaxonomicactivities.6.4.1OverviewAsnotedabove,reportedexamplesofmon-itoringprogrammesforvariouscomponentsofThecharacterizationofwildfoodsinvolvestheassociatedbiodiversityarediscussedinSection4.3.collectionofvarioustypesofdata.Forexample,moleculargeneticdata(Box6.3)anddataon16Anorganicproductionsystemfocusedonmaximumyieldsusingaminimalareaofland,whileincreasingbiodiversityandsoilfertility.17https://biodiversity.bt318thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6Box6.3Whyundertakegeneticdataanalysisofcropwildrelativesandwildfoodplants?TheVoluntaryGuidelinesfortheConservationandAssistanceintheidentificationoftraitsofinterestSustainableUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlantsforcropimprovement.Geneticdiversityanalysiscanalso(FAO,2017o)(seeBox7.16)listthefollowingbenefitsofhelpdetectparticularpopulationsforcharacterizationandmoleculargeneticdiversitystudies:evaluation.Geneticdiversityanalysisisacommonapproachtoestablishinggenebankcorecollections(vanHintumIdentificationandclassificationofpopulations.etal.,2000).Molecularmarkerscanhelpdistinguishbetweencloselyrelatedtaxaandidentifygeneflowbetweentaxa.Understandingofevolutionaryforces.GeneticdiversityanalysiscanhelptoassessandunderstandhowProvisionofgeneticbaselineinformation.Annaturalselectionandneutralevolutionaryforcesareunderstandingofthepatternofallelicrichnessandevennessaffectingpopulationstargetedforconservation.acrossthegeographicbreadthofaspeciesestablishesarelativebaselineagainstwhichchangecanbemeasuredTheVoluntaryGuidelinesweredevelopedbyFAOandduringlatermonitoring.ByassessinggeneticdiversityendorsedbytheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodregularlyovertime,geneticerosioncanbedetectedearly,andAgriculture.TheyareintendedasreferencematerialandnecessarypopulationmanagementmeasurescanbeforusebynationalgovernmentswhenpreparingNationalimplementedbeforesignificantgeneticlossoccurs.PlansfortheConservationandSustainableUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlants.ThefocusisoninsituIdentificationofpopulationsforconservation.Theconservationandfosteringlinkagesbetweeninsituandamountandpatternsofgeneticdiversitybothwithinandexsituconservation,andultimatelytheuseofcropwildbetweenthepopulationsofaspeciescanhelpidentifyrelativesandwildfoodplants.whichcropwildrelativeandwildfoodplantpopulationsshouldbetargetedforinsituandexsituconservation.Source:FAO,2017o.Duplicateaccessions,aswellasnovelgeneticvariabilityandgapsincollections,canalsobeidentified.ecogeography(i.e.theeffectofenvironmentandandunderutilizedfoods.19Thelatestversion(4.0)ecologyonthedistributionofspecies),vernacularcontainsdataon10156foods,ofwhich3118names,partsused,modesofpreparation,specific(31percent)areidentifiedaswildplantanduses,seasonalpatternsinharvestinganduse,andanimalfoods(belongingtoatotalof1289species)traditionalknowledgerelatedtotheseandother(Figure6.3).Wildfoodsfrom63countriesareaspectsofmanagementcanallbeimportantinincludedinthedatabase,withthehighestplanningthesustainableuseandconservationnumberofspeciesentriesbasedonstudiesinofwildfoodspecies.FurtherinformationonthetheUnitedStatesofAmerica(27studies,totalcharacterizationofspeciestargetedbycaptureof66species)followedbyCanada(12studies,fisheriesispresentedinSection6.2.4.totalof33species),Turkey(23studies,totalof27species),Nigeria(20studies,totalof22species),ThereisagrowingbodyofliteratureontheMexico(7studies,totalof17species),Brazilnutrientcompositionofwildfoodsandontheir(12studies,totalof16species),India(9studies,medicinalproperties.TheFAO/INFOODSFoodCompositionDatabaseforBiodiversity18compiles19Itshouldbenotedthatmostdataaretheresultsoftargetedcompositionvaluesforfoodsatwithin-speciessearchesonparticularfoods(potatoes,cassava,quinoa,pulses,level(i.e.variety/cultivar/breedlevel)andforwildfish,beef,pork,insectsandmilkofunderutilizedspecies)whileotherfoodswereincludedrandomly.Thisexplainstheuneven18http://www.fao.org/infoods/infoods/endistributionoffoodsincluded.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE319STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFigure6.3WildfoodsintheFAO/INFOODSFoodCompositionDatabaseforBiodiversityAFishandBOthershellﬁsh1%MeatVegetables11%FishandStarchyrootsshellﬁshandtubersStarchy39%FruitsrootsandVegetablestubers12%NutsandseedsNutsLegumesandseedsCereals4%MiscellaneousMeat16%EggsLegumesFruitsMilk1%16%05001000150020002500n=1289speciesWildfoodsAllentriesNotes:InpartAofthefigure,‘’Allentries’’(lightbluebars)includewildfoods,underutilizedfoods,andfoodsforwhichdataareavailableatthevariety,cultivarorbreedlevels.InpartB,‘’Other’’includesmilk,eggsandmiscellaneouswildfoods.Source:Authors’calculationbasedonBioFoodComp4.0,FAO/INFOODS.totalof16species),Italy(9studies,totalofnarwhal(Monodonmonoceros),Americanbeaver15species),Australia(5studies,totalof11species),(Castorcanadensis);(withinthestarchyrootsandChina(6studies,totalof10species)andGreecetubersgroup)variousspeciesofpotatoes,includ-(10studies,totalof10species).ingSolanuminfundibuliforme,Commerson’snightshade(S.commersonii),S.jamesii,heartleafThewildfoodspecieswiththelargestnumbernightshade(S.cardiophyllum),S.microdontum,ofrecordsinthedatabase20arethefollowing:S.spegazzinii,S.megistacrolobum,S.brachisto(withinthefishandshellfishgroup)NiletilapiatrichumandChacopotato(S.chacoense).(Oreochromisniloticus),Atlantichorsemackerel(Trachurustrachurus),Arcticgrayling(ThymallusIntotal,food-compositiondataforwildfoodsarcticus),Europeanperch(Percafluviatilis),lakearetakenfrom245studies,2170ofwhichchar-whitefish(Coregonusclupeaformis),burbot(Lotaacterizefoodsfromtwoormorecountries.Inlota),northernpike(Esoxlucius),molacarpletmostcases,dataareavailableformacronutrients(Amblypharyngodonmola),Atlanticbonito(Sardaandminerals.Forfish,fattyacidsandaminosarda);(withinthemeatgroup)reindeer(Rangiferacidsarealsoincluded.Vitaminandphyto-tarandus),ringedseal(Phocahispida),Eurasianchemicalcompositions,whichareparticularlyrel-elk(Alcesalces),walrus(Odobenusrosmarus),evanttothepromotionofwildandbiodiversefoods,arerarelyinvestigated.WhiletheFAO/20EachrecordincludesdatafromaspecificnutritionalanalysisINFOODSdatabasecontainsonlyaverysmalltargetingtherespectivespecies,forexamplefromastudyinaspecificcountry,offoodfromaspecificbreedorvariety,of21ThelistofstudiescanbefoundinthedownloadablefoodfromaspecificbodypartoroffoodsubjecttoaspecificBioFoodComp4.0,availableonthededicatedwebpage.cookingprocess(e.g.rawvscooked).320thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6Figure6.4Statusofidentificationandcharacterizationofdifferenceswithinwildfoodspeciesreportedbycountries,bytypeNumberofresponsesBirds241Crustaceans36Fish349Fungi161Insects24Mammals321Molluscs46Plants2733Reptilesandamphibians56Total20%40%60%80%39800%Notreported100%NoYesNotes:A“response”isthereportofagivenwildfoodspeciesbyagivencountry.Yes=Identificationandcharacterizationofwithin-speciesdifferenceshavebeenconducted;No=notconducted;Notreported=characterizationstatusisnotindicatedinthecountryreport.Asinglespeciesmaybereportedbymorethanonecountry.Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.fractionofallstudiesonthecharacterizationfollowingspecieswereeachmentionedbythreeofwildfoodspecies,itisnonethelessthemostcountries:Africanoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis);comprehensiveofitskind.governor’splum(Flacourtiaindica);Mysoregam-boges(Garciniaxanthochymus);horseradish6.4.2Country-reportanalysistree(Moringaoleifera);whitemulberry(Morusalba);commonpurslane(Portulacaoleracea);CharacterizationofdifferenceswithinAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar);pike-perchwildfoodspecies(Sanderlucioperca);Javaplum(Syzygiumcumini);Amongthe2822wildfoodspeciesreportedtamarind(Tamarindusindica);andgraylingbycountries(seeSection4.4),within-species(Thymallusthymallus).differencesarereportedtohavebeenidenti-fiedandcharacterizedforatotalof772speciesThestateofcharacterizationofwildfoodsfrom23countries(Figure6.4).Fifty-onespeciesvariesbytypeoffoodandbycountry,witharereportedbymorethanonecountryasinsects,reptilesandamphibianshavingahigherhavingbeencharacterizedatthislevel,withproportionofspeciescharacterizedthanotherthemostfrequentlymentionedbeingbrowncategories.Overall,thehighestnumberofspeciestrout(Salmotrutta)(sevencountries)andreportedtobecharacterizedareplants.jujube(Ziziphusmauritiana)(fourcountries).TheReportedobjectivesforthecharacterizationofwildfoodsarediverse.Forexample,ArgentinathestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE321STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox6.4StudyanddevelopmentoffoodsandnaturalproductswithpotentialhealthbenefitsinParaguayTheFacultyofChemicalSciencesoftheNationalUniversity•macronutrientcompositionofthespottedsorubimofAsuncíonhasbeenworkingsince1981onthechemical,(Pseudoplatystomacoruscans),barredsorubim(P.nutritionalandpharmacologicalpropertiesofplantfasciatum)andstreakedprochilod(Prochilodusscrofa)resourcesandtheirextracts,withtheobjectiveofdevelopingoftheParaguayRiver;foodsandotherproductswithpotentialhealthbenefits.Topicsofresearchprojectsaimedatincreasingnutritional•physicochemicalcharacterization,vitaminCcontentknowledgeofindigenous,nativeandwildfoodresourcesasandantioxidantcapacityofnativewildraspberry,abasisforenhancingtheirconservationandsustainableuseRubushasslerivar.paraguariensis;haveincluded:•nutritionalvalueoffruitsoftarumá(Vitex•characterizationofnativefruits(genusCampomanesia)megapotamica);inParaguay;•physicalcharacteristics,centesimalcomposition•nutritionalvalueofpodsoftheSouthAmericanandmineralsinfruitsofthemacadamia(Macadamiamesquite(Prosopisalba)andtheChileanmesquiteintegrifolia)harvestedintheDepartmentof(P.chilensis)harvestedinindigenouscommunitiesofCordillera;andtheBoquerón,ChacoDepartment;•totalantioxidantpotentialoftwonativefruits:•chemicalcompositionandnutritionalvalueofpigeonguavijú(Myrcianthespungens)andpakurí(Rheediapea(Cajanuscajan);brasiliensis).•nutritionalvalueandaflatoxincontentofAloysiaSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofParaguay.polystachya(akindofbeebrush)extracts;•nutritionalcompositionoffreshcommonpurslane(Portulacaoleracea)growinginthecityofVillaHayes;reportsongoingworkonthetaxonomic,phyto-Characterizationofexsitucollectionschemicalandmorphologicalcharacterizationofofwildfoodsnativeplantsusedformedicinal,aromaticandWithregardtothecharacterizationofexsitucol-nutritionalpurposes,includingvaleriana(Valerianalectionsofwildfoods(seeSection7.4.2),16coun-sp.),peperina(Minthostachysmollis),incayuyotries(outof32countriesreportingexsituwild(Lippiaintegrifolia),marcela(Achyroclinesatureifoodcollections)reportcharacterizationoreval-oides)andcedrón(Aloysiatriphylla),withtheuationtohavebeencompletedorpartiallycom-objectiveofimprovingfoodproductionandsocialpletedforatleastonespeciesorgenus–amount-conditionsintheregionswherethesespeciesgrow.ingtoatotalof150species,ofwhich9percentareParaguayreportsthatresearchprogrammesonthefungi,27percentanimals(mostfrequentlyfishchemical,nutritionalandpharmacologicalproper-andmolluscs)and64percentplants.Together,tiesofplantresourcesandtheirextractsareaimingAsiaandEuroperepresentover65percentoftodevelopproductswithpotentialhealthbenefitsthereportsofpartialandcompletecharacteriza-(Box6.4).ElSalvadormentionsplanstoworkontionorevaluationofwildfoodspeciesconservedtheidentification,georeferencing,characterizationexsitu.Countriesrefertoarangeofdifferentandinventoryofplantgeneticresourcesandtheirtypesofcharacterizationactivitiesforwildfoodunderutilizedwildrelatives,withtheobjectiveofspeciesconservedexsitu,includingphenotypic,exploringgeneticandproductionpotentialonaphylogenetic,geneticandchemicalcharacteri-commercialscale.zation.Fewprovideinformationonthespecific322thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFcharacterizationofbiodiversityFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE6traitscharacterized.Thosethatarementionedtrendsofassociated-biodiversityspecies.Someincludetraitsrelatedtofoodandnutritionidentifytheneedtoestablishbiodiversityinfor-(starchcontentforexample),responsestodif-mationsystems.Afewspecificprioritiesintermsferentwaterregimesandresistancetopestsandoftaxonomicorfunctionalgroupsarementioned.diseases.AnumberofcountriesnotethatexForexample,Indiareferstotheneedforstudiessitucollectionsofsomespecieshavebeendevel-onthetaxonomyofpollinatorsanddetritivores.opedwiththeaimofestablishingnationalrefer-encecollectionsforcomparisonwithunknownThefactormostcommonlyreportedinthesamplesandfordocumentingspeciesdistribu-countryreportsasaconstrainttothecharacteriza-tionandwithin-speciesvariation.Forexample,tionofassociatedbiodiversityisalackofresources.NorwayreportsthatsomespeciesofwildfruitsNumerouscountriesmentionashortageoftaxon-andmedicinalandaromaticherbsconservedexomists,withmanyspecifyingtheneedtoallocatesituhavebeeninvestigatedquitethoroughlyfundsfortraininginthisfield,inparticularonintheinstitutionsthatkeepthem.Itnotes,moleculartechniques.Somecountriesmentionhowever,thatthereisnocommondatabasethatthatthereisadiminishinginterestintaxonomyassemblesinformationonthecharacterizationonthepartofyoungscientists.Switzerlandnotesandevaluationstatusofthesecollections.thatknowledgeonsystematicsisbeinglostasaresultofthedissolutionofrelevantprofessorial6.5Needsandprioritieschairs.Kenyareportsthatknowledgeisbeinglostbecauseofthetransferofexperiencedtaxono-Countriesgenerallyrecognizetheneedtomistsfromcollectionfacilitiessuchasmuseumsstrengthenthecharacterizationofassociatedtouniversitieswithoutreplacement.Countriesbiodiversityandwildfoods,notinginsomecasesmentiontheneedtoinvestincharacterizationthatalackofcharacterizationdataconstrainsthefacilitiesandequipment,againparticularlyforimplementationofactivitiesinthefieldsofcon-molecularcharacterization.Afewmentionthataservationandsustainableuse.Severalspecificallylackofpoliciesornationalprogrammesaddressingmentiontheneedtocollectdatathatcanservecharacterizationisaconstraint.Wherewildfoodsasabaselinefortheassessmentofthestatusandareconcerned,lackofcapacityandresources,andtheabsenceofmechanismsforsharinganddocu-mentingknowledge,arehighlighted.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE323Chapter7ThestateofconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureKeymessagesandpestnaturalenemiesfoundinandaroundproductionsystems)arespecificallytargetedby•Crop,livestock,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesinsituconservationprogrammes.Mostconservationforfoodandagricultureareconservedinsituthroughoccursviathepromotionofbiodiversity-friendlyavarietyofapproaches,includingthepromotionofproductionpractices,theestablishmentofmanagementstrategiesthatinvolvethesustainableprotectedareas,andpolicyandlegalmeasuresuseoftheseresourcesandtheestablishmentofaimedatrestrictingactivitiesthatdamageprotectedareas.Althougheffortsarereportedtobebiodiversity.Althoughlimited,public-sectorandincreasing,coverageisoftenincomplete.private-sectorexsituconservationinitiativesexistforsomespeciesofassociatedbiodiversity,•Exsituconservationeffortsforgeneticresourcesforwithmanycountrieshavingculturecollectionsfoodandagricultureareincreasing,inparticularforofmicro-organismsusedinagricultureorinplantgeneticresources,althoughmanygapsremain.agrifoodindustries.Technicalchallengespersistwithrespecttothe•Wherewildfoodsareconcerned,8and13percentexsituconservationofsomespecies.Conservationofthenumberofwildspeciesreportedbycountriesprogrammesneedtobecomemorecomprehensivetobeusedforfoodarereportedtobeconservedandresearchintoconservationstrategiesandinsituandexsitu,respectively.techniquesneedstobestrengthened.•Relativelyfewassociatedbiodiversityspecies(speciessuchaspollinators,soilorganisms7.1Introductionefforts,research,monitoringofspeciesorecosystemsorthreatsaffectingthem,provisionofincentivesConservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagricul-forbiodiversity-friendlymanagementactivities,orture(BFA)comprisesadiverserangeofactionsthedevelopmentandimplementationofpolicytakenwiththeaimofpreventingthelossofdiversityandlegalmeasuresthataddressthreatstobio-atgenetic,speciesand/orecosystemlevel.Thesediversityorpromoteitssustainableuse.Actionscanactionscanoperateonavarietyofscales,includingbespecificallytargeted(e.g.aimingtoprotectatheindividualplot,field,foreststand,aquacultureparticularspecies)ormorediffuse(e.g.aimingtopondorgenebank,thefarmorholding,theeco-protectallthebiodiversityinandaroundagivensystem,landscapeorlargergeographicalarea,theproductionsystemorinagivengeographicalarea).speciesmigrationroute,thecountry,theregionTheymayormaynotinvolveuseofthetargetedorthewholeworld.Theycaninvolve,interalia,componentsofbiodiversity(e.g.farmingorharvest-hands-onmanagementactivitiesinandaroundpro-ingthem,ordeployingthemtopromotethesupplyductionsystems,educationandawareness-raisingofsupportingorregulatingecosystemservices).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE325STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCPracticalconservationmeasuresaretypicallycat-7.2Plant,animal,forestegorizedasinsituorexsitu(seeSection1.5),andaquaticgeneticresourcesalthoughtherearesomedifferencesinhowtheseforfoodandagriculturetermsareusedinthedifferentsectorsoffoodandagriculture(seebelowforfurtherdetails).Thetwo•Plant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesareapproachesaregenerallyregardedascomplemen-conservedthroughvariousinsitu,exsituandcircatarytoeachother.situmapproachesthatseektoprovidecomplementaryandeffectivecoverageofthetargetgenepoolsandThischapterdiscussesthestateofconservationcombineconservationofexistinggeneticdiversitymeasuresforthevariouscategoriesofBFAconsid-withcontinuingevolutionandadaptation.eredinthisreport.Itbeginswithashortoverviewofeffortstoconserveplant(crop),animal(livestock),•Exsitucollectionsarerelativelywelldevelopedforforestandaquaticgeneticresources,drawingonplant(crop)geneticresources.However,inonlyatherespectivesectoralglobalassessmentspreparedveryfewspecies(majorstaplecrops)isitlikelythatabyFAO(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).substantialpercentageofthetotalgeneticdiversityThisisfollowedbysectionsontheconservationofpresentinthespeciesisconservedexsitu.Muchoftheassociatedbiodiversity1andwildfoods,drawingdiversitypresentinminorcrops,andinlivestock,forestmainlyontheinformationprovidedinthecountryandaquaticspecies,isalsonotyetsecuredexsitu.reports.2Twocross-cuttingissuesarethendiscussedingreaterdetail:firsttheroleofprotectedareas•ExsituprogrammesareconstrainedbyvariousintheconservationofBFAandthenthestateoftechnicalissues,includingthoserelatedtotheeffortstomaintaintraditionalknowledgerelatedcryoconservationofsomeanimalreproductivetoBFA.Thechapterendswithashortdiscussionofmaterials(particularlyinthecaseofaquaticanimals)needsandprioritiesinthefieldofconservation,andthoserelatedtoregenerationofstoredseeds.focusingonassociatedbiodiversityandwildfoods.BiotechnologicalmethodsthatdonotinvolvethestorageofreproductivematerialmayinfutureimproveVariousaspectsofBFAmanagementthatmaycoverageofexsituconservationacrosssectors.contributetoconservationeffortsarediscussedinotherchapters.Monitoringandcharacteri-•Insituconservationmeasuresforplant,animal,forestzationofBFAarediscussedinChapters4and6.andaquaticgeneticresourcesaregenerallyinsufficientPotentially“biodiversity-friendly”managementtoprovidethesecomponentsofbiodiversitywithpracticesandapproachesinfoodandagricultureadequateprotection.Variousstepscanbetaken,arediscussedinChapter5.BFA-relatededucationdependingonthecircumstances,tomakeconservationandtraining,research,cooperation,incentiveeffortsmorecomprehensiveandeffective,includingmeasures,andpolicyandlegalframeworksareimprovingsupportfortheproductionandmarketingdiscussedinChapter8.ofpotentiallythreateneddomesticatedbreedsandvarieties,andimprovingthetargetingand1Thebiodiversitypresentinandaroundproductionsystemsmanagementofprotectedareastobetteraccountthatsupportsfoodandagriculturethroughpollination,pestforcropandlivestockwildrelativesandforgeneticanddiseaseregulation,improvingsoilfertilityandthesupplydiversitywithintreeandaquaticspecies.ofmanyotherecosystemservices–seeSection1.5foradiscussionofthisterm.7.2.1Plantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture2Giventheabove-notedwiderangeofactivitiespotentiallycontributingtoconservation–andthevariouswaysinwhichExsituconservationisthemostsignificantandtheboundariesbetweenconservationandotheraspectswidespreadmeansofconservingplantgeneticofmanagementcanbedrawn–therehasinevitablybeenresourcesforfoodandagriculture(PGRFA).Mostsomevariationinhowtheconceptofconservationhasbeenconservedplantaccessionsarekeptinspecial-interpretedinthecountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheizedfacilitiesknownasgenebanks,maintainedWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureandacrossthebypublicorprivateinstitutionsactingaloneorvarioussectoralglobalassessmentsofgeneticresources.326thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.1TheWorldInformationandEarlyWarningSystemonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureTheWorldInformationandEarlyWarningSystemonPlantaddressinginsituconservationofcropwildrelativesGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(WIEWS)isandwildfoodplants,on-farmmanagementoftheglobalinformationsystemonplantgeneticresourcesfarmers’varieties/landraces,exsituconservation,forfoodandagriculture(PGRFA)usedbyFAOforthemanagementandsustainableuseofPGRFA,andpreparationofperiodic,country-drivenglobalassessmentshumanandinstitutionalcapacitybuilding;ofthestatusofconservationanduseofPGRFA.WIEWSis•morethan4.9millionaccessionsfromover6900usedtomonitortheimplementationof:generaconservedundermedium-orlong-termconditionsinover575genebanksin90countriesand•theplantcomponentofIndicator2.5.1ofSustainable16international/regionalcentres;andDevelopmentGoal2,ZeroHunger;and•morethan17000national,regionalandinternationalinstitutesandorganizationsdealingwiththe•theSecondGlobalPlanofActionforPGRFA.conservationandsustainableuseofPGRFA,eachWIEWSdataareconveyedviaaglobalnetworkofassignedauniqueidentifierasanexsitugermplasm-nationalfocalpointsappointedbygovernments.holdingorganization.WIEWScontainsinformationon:•theimplementationbycountriesofthe18priorityNote:Formoreinformationsee:http://www.fao.org/wiews/enactivitiesoftheSecondGlobalPlanofAction,basedon63indicatorsadoptedbytheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,networkedwithotherinstitutions.Orthodoxgardens,ofwhichthereareover3400aroundseedsarekeptinspeciallydesignedcoldstores.theworld(BGCI,2018).TheSvalbardGlobalSeedVegetativelypropagatedcropsandthosewithVault,3whichopenedin2008,providesasecurerecalcitrantseedsaremaintainedaslivingplantsinglobalbackupofcropdiversityheldingenebanksfieldgenebanks.Insomecases,tissuesamplesarearoundtheworld.Concertedeffortshavebeenstoredthroughinvitrocultureorcryogenically.madetodepositduplicatesamplesofaccessionsPollenorembryosarealsosometimesconserved,fromtheCGIARglobalcollectionsandmanyandthereisincreasinginterestintheconserva-nationalandregionalcollections.tionimplicationsofstoringDNAsamplesordigitalDNAsequenceinformation.Forseveralstaplecrops,forexamplewheatandrice,alargeproportionofthegeneticdiver-Germplasmofcropsandcropwildrelativesissitywithinthespeciesisrepresentedinexsituconservedinmorethan575genebanksworldwide,collections.4However,formanyothercrops,con-withatotalofabout4.9millionaccessionsmain-siderablegapsremain.Manycountriesstilllacktainedundermedium-andlong-termconditionsadequatehumancapacity,facilities,fundsorglobally(seeBox7.1).The11genebanksofthemanagementsystemstomeettheirexsitucon-CGIARandtheWorldVegetableCentremaintainservationneeds,puttinganumberofcollectionsover800000accessionsfromover600differentatrisk.Thedocumentationandcharacterizationgenera.Itisestimatedthatalmost2millionacces-sionshavebeenaddedtoexsitugenebankswith3https://www.croptrust.org/our-work/svalbard-global-seed-vaultmedium-andlong-termcollectionssince1995,4Exceptwhereindicatedotherwise,thematerialpresentedinalthoughgapsstillremain(FAO,2018s).TherearealsosubstantialexsitucollectionsinbotanicthissubsectionisbasedonTheSecondReportontheStateoftheWorld’sPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2010a).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE327STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCofmanycollectionsisstillinadequate,andwherealthoughsurveystargetingtheseresourcesareinformationdoesexistitisoftendifficulttoaccess.becomingmorecommon.AsubstantialamountofTheoverallpoordocumentationofexsitucollec-cropwildrelativediversityislocatedoutsidepro-tionsalsoconstrainseffortstoreduceduplicationtectedareas,includingonfarms.Protectingthemofconservationmeasuresandhencereducesmayrequire,forexample,specificmanagementefficiencyatglobalandregionallevels.Greateragreementsbetweenconservationagenciesandeffortsareneededtobuildatrulyrationalglobalthosewhoown,orhaverightsover,therespec-systemofexsitucollections.Thisrequires,inpar-tivesites.Suchagreementsarebecomingmoreticular,strongerregionalandinternationaltrustcommon,especiallyinNorthAmericaandEurope.andcooperation.SeeBox7.16forinformationontheVoluntaryGuidelinesfortheConservationandSustainableInterestincollectingcropwildrelatives,wildUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlantsfoodplantsandneglectedandunderutilizedendorsedbytheCommissiononGeneticResourcesspeciesisgrowing,andcoverageingenebankshasforFoodandAgriculturein2017.increasedinrecentyears.However,therearecon-cernsaboutpossiblelossesinexsitucollectionsasInreportingonactivitiesundertakentoimple-aresultofalackoffundsforregeneration(FAO,menttheSecondGlobalPlanofActionforPlant2016m).GiventhatthereproductivebehavioursGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureandseedphysiologyofcropwildrelativesandbetween2012and2014,countriesindicatedthatwildfoodspeciesaregenerallynotwellknownincreasedattentionwasbeinggiventotheinandthattheirregenerationisthereforemoresituconservationanduseofcropwildrelatives.difficultanddemanding,itcanbeexpectedthatOverall,9percentoftheover30000insitucon-thesespecieswillincreasinglybeaffectedbysuchservationsitesthatwerereportedin39countriesbudgetaryconstraints.hadmanagementplansaddressingcropwildrelativesandwildfoodplants(FAO,2018t).AInsituconservationofPGRFAisoftentakentototalof104activitiesoninsituconservationandincludebothon-farmconservationofdomesti-managementofcropwildrelativesandwildfoodcatedcropspeciesandconservationofcropwildplantsimplemented,withinstitutionalsupport,inrelativesinnaturalorsemi-naturalecosystems.32countrieswerereported(ibid.).However,thetermissometimesusedinanar-rowersensetoreferonlytothelatter(i.e.adis-On-farmconservationefforts,particularlytinctionissometimesdrawnbetweeninsituandeffortstomaintaintraditionalcropvarieties,haveon-farmconservation).Insituconservationofcropgainedconsiderablegroundinrecentyears.Manywildrelativesgenerallyoccursasaside-effectofprogrammeshavebeenestablishedandnewtoolseffortstoprotecthabitatsorcharismaticspecies,havebeendevelopedthatallowbetterassessmentratherthanasaresultofdeliberatetargeting.ofthisdiversityandthemechanismsthroughThemainmechanisminvolvedisthedesignationwhichitismaintained.Increasingattentionhasofprotectedareasofvarioustypes(seeSectionbeenpaid,forexample,tothesignificanceofpar-7.5forfurtherdiscussionoftherolesofprotectedticulartypesofmanagementsystem(e.g.homeareas).Thelackofspecificmeasurestargetinggardens),“informal”seedsystems,theinterfacecropwildrelativesincreasestheriskthatimpor-betweenwildandagriculturalplantsandecosys-tantresourceswillfallthroughgapsinconserva-tems,traditionalknowledgeandtherolesofpar-tioncoverage.ticulargroupsoffarmersascustodiansofdiversity.Areasrichincropwildrelativediversity(e.g.areasAnumberofdifferentmeasurescanbetaken,oforigin)arelesswellcoveredbyprotectedareasdependingonthecircumstances,tosupportthanoverallglobalfigureswouldsuggest.WildthemaintenanceofPGRFAon-farm.Theserelativesarealsooftenlesscomprehensivelysur-includeaddingvaluetolocalgeneticresourcesveyedthanothercomponentsofbiodiversity,viaimprovedcharacterization,improvingthem328thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7throughbreedingandseedprocessing,increas-programmes,extensionprogrammesoraware-ingconsumerdemandthroughmarketincentivesnessraising),activitiesfocusedonbreedingpro-andawareness-raisingefforts,improvingaccesstogrammes,andactivitiesfocusedonparticipationPGRFAandinformationaboutthem,andestab-andempowermentatcommunitylevel(FAO,lishingsupportivepolicies,legislationandincen-2010a,2013g).Thebenefitsofinsituconserva-tives.Recentyearshave,tovaryingdegrees,seentionareconsideredtoincludetheopportunitiesitpositivedevelopmentsinallthesefields.providesfor:livestockpopulationstocontinuetoevolveinresponsetochangesintheproductionDespitethebroadlyupwardtrendinthelevelenvironment;themaintenanceofknowledgeandofimplementationofinsituconservationandskillsrelatedtothemanagementofthesepopu-on-farmmanagementactivitiesforPGRFA,muchlations;andtheongoingsupplyofanyecosystemremainstobedone.Therecontinuestobeaneedservicesthepopulationsmayprovide(FAO,2015a).formore-effectivepolicies,legislationandreg-ulationsgoverningtheinsituconservationandWhereexsituconservationisconcerned,adis-on-farmmanagementofPGRFA,bothinsideandtinctionisdrawnbetweenexsituinvivoandexsituoutsideprotectedareas.Closercollaborationandinvitroconservation(FAO,2015a).Exsituinvivocoordinationareneededbetweentheagricul-conservationisachieved“throughthemainte-tureandenvironmentsectors.Manyaspectsofnanceofliveanimalpopulationsnotkeptunderinsituconservationandon-farmmanagementnormalmanagementconditions(e.g.inazoolog-requirefurtherresearch.Thereisalsoaneedforicalparkoragovernmentalfarm)and/oroutsidemoredetailedsurveysofcropwildrelativesandtheareawheretheyevolvedorarenownormallywildfoodplants,andforresearchontheirmor-foundandbred.”Exsituinvitroconservationphologicalandmolecularcharacterizationand(alsoreferredtoascryoconservation)isachievedevaluation,toallowbettertargetingofconser-“throughthemaintenance,undercryogeniccon-vationactions.ditions,ofcellsortissuesthathavethepoten-tialtobeusedtoreconstituteliveanimalsand7.2.2Animalgeneticresourcespopulationsatalaterdate.”Thematerialmostforfoodandagriculturecommonlycryoconservedissemen,followedbyembryos.Oocytes,somaticcellsandisolatedDNAAsnotedaboveforBFAingeneral,insituandarealsosometimesstored.Exsituinvitroconser-exsituapproachestotheconservationofanimalvationprovidesasourceofgeneticmaterialthatgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture(AnGR)canbedrawnuponasabackupifadisaster(e.g.aregenerallyregardedascomplementarytoeachadiseaseepidemic)strikesthelivepopulationorother.InsituconservationofAnGRhasbeenusedinotherwaystosupportthegeneticmanage-definedasfollows:“supportforcontinuedusementofthelivepopulation(FAO,2012e).Wherebylivestockkeepersintheproductionsysteminliveanimalsaremaintained,distinctionsbetweenwhichthelivestockevolvedorarenownormallyinsituandexsituconservationarenotalwaysfoundandbred”(FAO,2015a).However,abroaderclearcut.Invivoconservationcanberegardeddefinitionwouldincludeactionstargetingferalasaspectrumrangingfromthemaintenanceofpopulationsorthewildrelativesofdomesticatedanimalsinvery“artificial”environmentssuchasanimals.Insituconservationstrategiescaninvolvezoos,throughmaintenanceinexperimentalfarmsawiderangeofactions,includingthosethataimandfarmparks,toactionstakentosupportthetoincreasedemandforproductsandservicesfrommaintenanceofat-riskbreedsbylivestockkeepersat-riskbreeds(e.g.marketdevelopmentorpromo-innormalproductionsystems(FAO,2007a).tionofbreeds’rolesintourismorinhabitatorland-scapemanagement),thosethatfocusonsupport-Mostcountriesthatparticipatedinthereport-ingorincentivizinglivestockkeepers(e.g.incen-ingprocessforTheSecondReportontheStatetiveorsubsidypayments,recognitionorawardoftheWorld’sAnimalGeneticResourcesforFoodthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE329STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.2long-termconservationfacilities)showsthatTheDomesticAnimalDiversityfewerthan1percentofbreedsarereportedtoInformationSystemhavesufficientgeneticmaterialstoredingene-banks(3percentarereportedtohaveinsufficientTheDomesticAnimalDiversityInformationSystemmaterialandthestatusoftheothersisunknown).(DAD-IS),1maintainedanddevelopedbyFAO,containsThecoverageofinsituconservationactivitieswasdatafrom182countriesonatotalofmorethan8000alsoincomplete(i.e.manycountriesconsideredlivestockbreedsbelongingto38species.Dataarethattheirconservationmeasureswereinsufficiententeredintothesystembynationalcoordinatorsfortoadequatelyprotecttheirbreedsfromtheriskofthemanagementofanimalgeneticresources,whoareextinction).However,adiverserangeofdifferentnominatedbytheirrespectivegovernments.activitieswerereported.Forexample,countrieswereincreasinglydevelopingnichemarketsforDatafromDAD-IShavelongbeenusedinthespecialityproductsasameansofincreasingthepublicationofperiodicreportsonthestatusandtrendsprofitabilityofpotentiallythreatenedbreeds.ofanimalgeneticresources.Theyarenowalsousedtomonitortheanimal-relatedcomponentsofSustainableInadequatefunding,infrastructureandtech-DevelopmentGoalIndicators2.5.1(Numberofplantandnicalskillsoftenremainsignificantobstaclestoanimalgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculturesecuredtheestablishmentorfurtherdevelopmentofinmedium-orlong-termconservationfacilities)and2.5.2genebanksforAnGR.Moregenerally,inorderto(Proportionoflocalbreeds,classifiedasbeingatrisk,not-strengthenbothinsituandexsituconservationat-riskoratunknownlevelofriskofextinction).efforts,thereisaneedtostrengthenthehumancapacitiesandinstitutionalstructuresthatunder-DAD-IScanalsobeusedtoaccessdetaileddatapinconservationmeasures(andotheraspectsofonthestatusandcharacteristicsofindividualbreeds,AnGRmanagement),forexampleinthefieldsofincludingonpopulationsizeandstructure,uses,originresearch,educationandtraining,stakeholderpar-anddevelopment,notableadaptivefeatures,morphology,ticipation(particularlylivestock-keeperparticipa-performance,managementconditionsandconservationtion),policiesandlegalframeworks.programmes.Itcontainsalargenumberofphotographsofindividualbreeds.Userscanaccessstandardself-7.2.3Forestgeneticresourcesgeneratedreportsorexportdataforfurtheranalysis.Insituconservationisthepreferredmeansof1http://www.fao.org/dad-is/enconservingforestgeneticresources(FGR),asitisadynamicapproachthatallowstemporalandandAgriculture(FAO,2015a)indicatedthattheyspatialchangesingeneticdiversity.ThemaingoalhadatleastsomeAnGRconservationactivitiesinistomaintainevolutionaryprocesses(naturalplace.Invitrogenebankshadbeenestablishedbyselection,geneticdrift,geneflowandmutation)64outof128reportingcountries,andafurtherwithintreepopulations,ratherthantopreserve41countrieswereplanningtodoso.Manyoftheircurrentgeneticdiversity(e.g.Eriksson,thesegenebankswereintheearlystagesofdevel-NamkoongandRoberds,1993;FAO,FLDandopmentandthecollectionsoftenhadmanygapsIPGRI,2004a;LandeandBarrowclough,1987).intheircoverageofrelevantbreedsandpopula-Exsituconservation,incontrast,ismostlystatictions.BasedondatafromtheDomesticAnimal(i.e.maintainsone-offsamplesofgeneticdiver-DiversityInformationSystem(DAD-IS)(seeBox7.2),sity).Inmostcases,itiseasierandcheapertocon-SustainableDevelopmentGoalIndicator2.5.1servetreepopulationsintheirnaturalhabitats(Numberofplantandanimalgeneticresourcesthanunderexsituconditions.However,exsitucon-forfoodandagriculturesecuredinmedium-orservationofFGR(e.g.inseedbanks,seedorchards,fieldcollections,provenancetrials,plantedcon-servationstandsorbotanicgardens)isanecessary330thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7complementtoinsituconservation,especiallyHowever,manytreespeciesproduceseedsthatwhenpopulationsizeiscriticallylowinthewild.cannotbestoredusingthismethod.Thisisamajorconstrainttoexsituconservation,especiallyintheIntheforestsector,whereconservationlargelyhumidtropics,wheremorethan70percentoffocusesonwildspecies,athirdcategory–circatreespecieshaverecalcitrantorintermediateseedsitumconservation–isdistinguishedfrominbehaviour(Sacandéetal.,2004).Exsituconserva-situandexsituconservation.Thetermisusedtionofsuchspeciesisbasedonfieldcollections,todescribeatypeofconservationthatempha-conservationstandsandbreedingpopulationssizestheroleofregeneratingsaplingsinlinkingandonmoresophisticatedapproaches,suchasvegetationremnantsinheavilymodifiedorfrag-cryopreservation,seedlingconservation,invitromentedlandscapes,suchasthoseoftraditionalconservation,pollenstorageandDNAstorageagroforestryandfarmingsystems(FAO,2014a).(FAO,FLDandIPGRI,2004b).ConservationofFGRonfarmsoftenfallsintothiscategory.Inothercases,itconstitutesatypeofexCountriesthatcontributedtoTheStateofthesituconservation.World’sForestGeneticResources(SoW-FGR)(FAO,2014a)reportedawidevarietyofinsituconserva-InsituconservationofFGRistypicallycarriedtionactivities,coveringatotalofnearly1000speciesoutinprotectedareasormanagednaturalforestsoftrees,scrubs,palmsandbamboo(includingsub-bydesignatingconservationstands(FAO,DFSCandspecies).However,interpretationoftheconceptIPGRI,2001).Bothprotectedareasandmanagedofinsituconservationvariesfromcountrytonaturalforestsmayhavesomelimitationsfromthecountry(e.g.whetherornotthemerepresencegeneticconservationpointofview.Mostprotectedofagiventreespeciesinaprotectedareacanbeareasareestablishedtoconserveendangeredregardedassufficientgroundsforstatingthatitanimalandplantspeciesorecosystems,andrarelyissubjecttoFGRconservation).FortheSoW-FGRtoconservethegeneticdiversityofforesttrees.process,countrieswerenotaskedtoreportontheConsequently,conservationofFGRisoftengivenacompletenessofinsituconservation(i.e.whetherlowpriorityornotrecognizedatallinthemanage-conservationeffortscoverthewholedistributionmentofprotectedareas.Furthermore,silviculturalrangeofagivenspecies).Thesefactors,alongwithtreatmentsthatmaybenecessarytomaintainorthegeneralincompletenessofreporting,maketheenhancegeneticprocesseswithintreepopulationsglobalsituationdifficulttoassess.However,outofareoftennotpermittedinprotectedareas.Inthenearly8000speciesreportedlyusedbycountriescaseofmanagedforests,pastorcurrentutiliza-forvariouspurposes,onlyabout12percentweretionandmanagementpracticesmayhavealteredreportedtobesubjecttoanyformofinsitucon-thegeneticcompositionoftreepopulations,andservation.Althoughmanycountriesreportedthatsomeforeststandsmayhavebeenestablishedwithprotectedareasrepresenttheirmaininsituconser-treegermplasmbroughtinfromotherlocations.vationactivityforFGR,mostoftheseareashadnotThus,theconservationvalueandsuitabilityofabeendesignatedwiththeaimofconservingFGRgiventreepopulationlocatedinaprotectedareaanddidnothavemanagementplansspecificallyoramanagedforestshouldbecarefullyevaluatedaddressingthisobjective.basedonhistoricalrecords,ifavailable,orotherrelevantinformation,beforestandsaredesig-MostinsituconservationofFGRtakesplacenatedforFGRconservation.Ideally,anetworkofoutsideprotectedareasonarangeofpublic,suchconservationstandsshouldcoverthewholeprivateandtraditionallyownedlands,espe-distributionrangeofatreespecies.ciallyinmultiple-useforestsandforestsprimarilydesignatedforwoodproduction(FAO,2014a).Inforesttreesthathaveorthodoxseeds,exsituUnfortunately,insituconservationofFGRwithinconservationcanbeimplementedbydryingandtheworld’smanyprotectedareasandmanagedstoringseedsatlowtemperatures.Theseedscanbeforestsremainspoorlydocumented,andcountriesmaintainedforyearswithoutlosingtheirviability.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE331STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartChavedevelopedtheirnationalstrategiesformeasuresforsuchspeciesarethereforelessFGRconservationbasedonavarietyofdiffer-commonthantheequivalentmeasuresforterres-entapproachesto,andinterpretationsof,intrialdomesticatedanimalsandplants.On-farmsituconservation.WorkinEuropeoffersarareconservationinaquacultureisnoteasilydistin-exampleofthedevelopmentofaregionalstrat-guishablefromexsituconservationinaninvivoegyforFGRconservationbasedonasystem-genebank.Thereareafewexamplesofmanagedaticassessmentofexistingconservationeffortsgenebanksthatmaintainlivegeneticallyimproved(Lefèvreetal.,2013;deVriesetal.,2015)andfarmedtypesunderfarmingconditionsthatallowaharmonizedconceptofconservationunitscontinuedevolution.Suchfacilitiesexist,for(Koskelaetal.,2013).example,forcommoncarpinHungary(BakosandGorda,2001).CountriesthatcontributedtotheSoW-FGRreportedatotalof1800speciestobeconservedAtgloballevel,theAichiBiodiversityTargetsexsitu,manyconservedonlyinbotanicgardens.undertheConventiononBiologicalDiversity’sOfthe2260priorityspecieslistedinthecountryStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011–2020callonreports,5626werereportedtobesubjecttosomegovernmentsandotherstakeholderstoestablishformofexsituconservation.Only135werebeingprotectedareasin17percentoftheirterrestrialconservedinmorethanonecountry.Globally,andinlandwatersand10percentoftheirmarinethetotalnumberofFGRaccessionsreportedwasareasby2020(seeSection7.5forfurtherdiscus-159579,includinganunknownnumberofmulti-sion).Moreover,since1996,criteriaforidentifyingpleaccessions.Mostaccessionsareinfieldcollec-wetlandsforinclusionintheRamsarConvention’stions,includingclonebanksandprovenancetrials;ListofWetlandsofInternationalImportancehavefarfewerareinseedorinvitrocollections.includedcriteriarelatedtofishbiodiversity.Thelist’s2200sitesrepresentoneoftheworld’slargestInconclusion,thereisaneedtoenhancealltypesnetworksofprotectedareasandmakeamajorofFGRconservation.PrioritiesforactionaresetoutcontributiontoinsituconservationofAqGR.intheGlobalPlanofActionfortheConservation,ManystudieshaveindicatedthatincreasingfishSustainableUseandDevelopmentofForestGeneticpopulationswithinamarineprotectedarealeadsResources,adoptedin2013(FAO,2014b).tospilloverandincreasedfisheriescatchesoutsidetheprotectedarea(Halpern,2003).However,this7.2.4Aquaticgeneticresourcesisnotinvariablythecaseanddependsonnumer-forfoodandagricultureoussite-specificconditions(Charlesetal.,2016;Fletcheretal.,2015).Levelsofprotectioninpro-Insituconservationmeasuresintheaquatictectedareasrangefromstrict“no-take”areastosectorcompriseactionstakentoprotectaquaticmultipleuseareasthataremanagedforavarietygeneticresources(AqGR)bothinthewildandofpurposes,includingconservationandharvest-inaquaculture.Themaininsitumeasuresforing(seeSection7.5).Thecountryreportssubmit-wildaquaticbiodiversityaretheestablish-tedforTheStateoftheWorld’sAquaticGeneticmentofprotectedareasandtheuseoffishery-ResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(SoW-AqGR)managementmethodsthatpromotesustainable(FAO,forthcoming)generallybearouttheviewfishingandconservation.AsnotedinSection4.2.4,thatprotectedareascanbeaneffectivemeansincontrasttothecropandlivestocksectors,whereofprotectingaquaticbiodiversity,withover2100producershavebeenmaintainingarangeofoutof2300protectedareasmentionedinthebreedsandformillennia,domesticationofmostreportsconsideredtobeveryorsomewhateffec-farmedaquaticspeciesonlystartedinthelasttive,althoughtheseresultsareheavilyinfluencedcentury.On-farm(i.e.in-aquaculture)conservationbyafewcountriesreportinglargenumbersofeffectiveaquaticprotectedareas.5ThisreferstothecountryreportssubmittedforTheStateoftheWorld’sForestGeneticResources(FAO,2014a).332thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Thecountryreports6listedseveralobjectivesforaddressingthisproblem(Leeetal.,2013),butnoinsituconservationofAqGR,includingmaintenancepracticalsolutionshaveyetbeenfound.ofgeneticdiversity,maintenanceofgoodstrainsforaquacultureproduction,meetingconsumerSixty-nine(75percent)ofthe92countriesthatandmarketdemands,facilitatingadaptationtothesubmittedreportsfortheSoW-AqGRindicatedimpactsofclimatechangeandprovidingmaterialthatexsituconservationactivitieswerebeingforfuturegeneticimprovementinaquaculture.implementedatnationallevelforaquaticorgan-Maintenanceofgeneticdiversitywasreportedismsofnationalrelevancefallingwithinthescopetobethemostimportantobjectiveinbothdevel-ofthereport.Approximately290differentspeciesopedanddevelopingcountries.Meetingmarketwerebeingmaintainedin690exsitucollectionsdemandswasreportedtobetheleastimportantinthesecountries.Almost200ofthesespeciesobjective.Theecosystemapproachtofisherieswereconsideredtobethreatenedorendangeredandaquaculture,anapproachthataimsto“plan,atnationaland/orinternationallevels.Thirty-fourdevelopandmanagefisheriesinamannerthatcountries(49percent)hadsuchspeciesamongaddressesthemultipleneedsanddesiresofsoci-theircollections.Finfishaccountfor90percentofeties,withoutjeopardizingtheoptionsforfuturethespeciesconserved,withtheother10percentgenerationstobenefitfromthefullrangeofgoodsaccountedforbymacro-invertebratesandaquaticandservicesprovidedbymarineecosystem”(FAO,micro-organismssuchasrotifersandmicro-algae.2003d),isbeingadoptedbyfisheriesmanagersThefinfishesmaintainedincludeboththoseusedaroundtheworld(FAO,2016h)(formoreinforma-fordirecthumanconsumptionandthoseusedastionseeSection5.3.3).However,onlyaminorityoflivefeedforaquaculture.Themicro-organismsarereportingcountrieswereabletoindicatetheexist-inmostcasesusedaslivefeedforaquaculture.enceofpoliciesthatclearlyaddresstheobjectiveAbout38percentofreportingcountriesindicatedofconservingAqGRinfisheriesandaquaculture.thattheyhadinvitrocollectionsofAqGR(farmedThecountryreportsalsoprovidedlittleevidencespeciesandwildrelatives),coveringatotalofoforganizedeffortsspecificallytopromotethe133differentspecies.conservationofAqGRinmodifiedecosystemssuchasricefields.ToensuretheconservationofAqGRPrioritiesforimprovingtheconservationofthereisaneedforbetterharmonizationoffisheryAqGRinclude,ontheinsituside,maintainingandenvironmentaldataandforthedevelopmentandimprovingaquatichabitats,improvingfisheryandimplementationofappropriateregulatorymanagement,designatingfreshwaterandmarinemeasuresforthemanagementofwildrelativesofprotectedareas(takingintoaccountgenetic,eco-farmedspecies.logicalanddemographicparameterstopromotetheconservationofdistincttargetpopulations),ExsitumeasuresforAqGRincludethemain-improvingwatermanagement,reducingpollu-tenanceandcaptivebreedingofliveorganismstion,reducingthenegativeimpactsofcaptureinzoos,aquariaandlivegenebanks,thestoragefisheries,andusinganecosystemapproachintheofcelllinesandtissueculturesinvitroandthemanagementofriparianandopen-waterhabitats.cryopreservationofmalegametes,tissueculturesExsituconservationeffortscouldbesteppedupandcells.However,embryosandeggsofaquaticthroughtheestablishmentofnewconservationspeciesareextremelydifficulttofreezeandkeepfacilitiesandcaptive-breedingprogrammes,asviable.Therefore,itisonlythemalegametewellasthroughresearchintoconservationstrat-thatcanbeeffectivelycryopreserved.Researchisegiesandtechniques,includingmaintenanceoflivepopulations,cryopreservationofgametesand6ThisreferstothecountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheembryos,andtissuebanking.World’sAquaticGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(SoW-AqGR)(FAO,forthcoming).Effectiveintegrationofinsituandexsituconservationisimportant,particularlygiventhestronglinksbetweenfarmedstocksandtheirthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE333STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCwildrelatives.Hatcherieshavebeendevelopedtopestanddiseaseregulation,improvingsoilfer-raiseaquaticspeciesexsituforeventualreleasetilityandthesupplyofmanyotherecosystembackintothewildorintomodifiedhabitatssuchservices–seeSection1.5foradiscussionofthisasricefieldsandreservoirs.Thesearesometimesterm)canbenefitbothfrominsituconservationcalled“conservationhatcheries”andtheyattemptmeasuresthattargetindividualspeciesandthosetoreducetheartificialselectionpressuresofthethattargettheprotectionofwholeecosystems.hatcheryenvironmentbymaintainingrelativelyInbothcases,theconservationmeasuresmayor“natural”conditions(e.g.providingnaturalsub-maynotbemotivatedspecificallybytheobjec-stratesandfeed).ThisapproachiscommonintiveofmaintainingorpromotingthesupplyofrestorationeffortsinNorthAmericaandEuropeecosystemservicestofoodandagriculture.In(Schramm,1995).Conservationhatcheriesaresituconservationprogrammesrelevanttoasso-usuallydevotedtorare,threatenedorendan-ciatedbiodiversitycaninvolvearangeofdiffer-geredspeciesorstocks.entapproaches,includingtheestablishmentofprotectedareas,provisionoflegalprotection7.3Associatedbiodiversityforthreatenedspecies,andvariouspolicyandlegalmeasuresaimedatrestrictingactivitiesthat•Insituconservationofassociatedbiodiversity(speciesdamagebiodiversityorpromotingthosethataresuchaspollinators,soilorganismsandpestnaturalbiodiversityfriendly.Onamorelocalscale,effortsenemiesfoundinandaroundproductionsystems)iscanbemadetomaintainandenhancehabitatsachievedthroughanumberofapproaches,includingtheforparticularspeciesorgroupsofspeciesthatareestablishmentofprotectedareas,useofbiodiversity-underthreat,todirectlymanagethreatenedpop-friendlymanagementpractices,provisionofprotectionulations(viatranslocation,releaseofcaptive-bredagainstinvasivespeciesandpollution,ecosystemindividuals,etc.)ortoprovideprotectionagainstrestoration,establishmentofwildlifecorridorsandspecificthreatssuchashunting,overharvesting,strengtheningrelevantpoliciesandinstitutions.diseaseoutbreaksorfires.•CommunityparticipationandthedevelopmentandThissectiondescribesthestateofinsitucon-implementationofbiodiversity-friendlymanagementservationactivitiesforassociatedbiodiversityaspracticesprovideimportantmechanismsforinsitupresentedinthecountryreports.Exceptwhereconservationofassociatedbiodiversity.notedotherwise,itfocusesontheactivitiesspecif-icallyreportedtoconstitute“insituconservation•Culturecollectionsmaintainingawiderangeoffungi,andmanagementactivitiesorprogrammesthatbacteriaandothermicro-organismsofrelevancesupportthemaintenanceofassociatedbiodiver-tofoodandagriculturearebecomingincreasinglysity.”Thestateofimplementationofvariousindi-widespread.Informationexchangecombinedwiththevidualmanagementmethodsatproduction-systemuseofnewbiotechnologicalmethodsisstrengtheninglevelthatmaycontributetoinsituconservationtheeffectivenessofthesecollectionsascontributorsstrategiesforassociatedbiodiversityisdiscussedtoexsituconservation.indetailinChapter5.TheroleofprotectedareasisfurtherdiscussedinSection7.5.Broaderinstitu-•Botanicgardensprovideaverysubstantialglobaltional,policyandlegalframeworksfortheman-repositoryofplantspecieswithpotentialtobeusedagementofassociatedbiodiversity,includingthoseforrestorationandotherpurposes.thatdirectlyorindirectlycontributetoinsitucon-servationefforts,arediscussedinChapter8.7.3.1InsituconservationOverviewAssociatedbiodiversity(i.e.thebiodiversityCountrieswereinvitedtoindicatethecompo-presentinandaroundproductionsystemsthatnentsofassociatedbiodiversitybeingconservedsupportsfoodandagriculturethroughpollination,334thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Table7.1Associatedbiodiversityspeciesandgenerareportedtobeconservedinsitu,bytaxonomicgroupTaxonomicgroupCountofspeciesCountofgeneraExamplesofspeciesandgenerareportedAmazonaspp.(agenusofparrots),Dendrocoposspp.(agenusofBirds4850woodpeckers),Gallinagogallinago(commonsnipe),Laniusspp.(typicalshrikes),Oxyuraleucocephala(white-headedduck),Saxicolarubetra(winchat),Milvusmilvus(blackkite)Acastaspp.(agenusofbarnacles),Astacusspp.(agenusofcrayfish),Austropotamobiusspp.(agenusofcrayfish),Birguslatro(coconutCrustaceans4041crab),Lepasspp.(agenusofbarnacles),Megabalanusspp.(agenusofbarnacles),Nobiaspp.,Savigniumspp.(agenusofbarnacles),Tetraclitaspp.(agenusofbarnacles)Alosaspp.(agenusofray-finnedfish),Labeospp.(agenusofray-finnedFish7075fish),Lampetraspp.(agenusoflampreys),Salmospp.(salmonsandtrouts),Torspp.(mahseers),Zingelspp.(agenusofray-finnedfish)Apismellifera(westernhoneybee),Coccinellaspp.(agenusofladybirdInsectsandarachnids108115beetles),Cirrospilusspp.(agenusofhymenoptera),Scymnusspp.(agenusofladybirdbeetles),Typhlodromusspp.(agenusofmites)Barbastellabarbastellus(barbastelle–abat),Castorfiber(EurasianMammals6472beaver),Dugongdugon(dugong),Myotisspp.(agenusofbats),Ovisspp.(sheep),Rhinolophusspp.(agenusofbats),Susscrofa(wildboar),Ursusspp.(agenusofbears)Margaritiferaspp.(agenusoffreshwatermussels),Pinctadaspp.(pearlMolluscs1125oysters),Sepiaspp.(agenusofcuttlefish),Trochusspp.(agenusofseasnails),Uniocrassus(thick-shelledrivermussel),Vertigospp.(agenusoflandsnails)Abelmoschusspp.,Abiesalba(Europeansilverfir),Acerpseudoplatanus(sycamore),Acoruscalamus(flagroot),Adansoniadigitata(baobab),Plants532629Alliumspp.,Citrusmedica(citron),Dioscoreaspp.,Fagussylvatica(Europeanbeech),Fraxinusexcelsior(Europeanash),Jatrophaspp.,Piperspp.(pepperplants),Quercusspp.(oaks),Solanumspp.,Vignaspp.,Ziziphusspp.ReptilesandBombinaspp.(fire-belliedtoads),Dermochelyscoriacea(leatherbackseaamphibians2222turtle),Triturusspp.(agenusofnewts),Natrixspp.(colubridsnakes),Viperaberus(commonviper)Others24Arthrospirafusiformis,Holothuriaspp.(agenusofseacucumbers),Tachypleusspp.(agenusofhorseshoecrabs)Total8971033Note:Thecountofgeneracoversthosementionedinresponsesatgenuslevelandthosementionedinresponsesatspecieslevel.Sixtyoutofatotalof91countriesreportedatleastonespeciesorothertaxon.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.insitu,7thetypesofconservationactivitybeingonomiclevels.Intotal,897distinctspeciesandundertakentoprotectthem,thesiteorlocation1033generawereidentified.Someindividualoftheactivities,theproductionsystem(s)involvedcountriesreportedlargenumbersofspecies/tax-andtheobjectivesoftheconservationefforts.onomicgroups.India,forexample,reported258Sixtycountriesprovidedinformation,amount-differententities.AsindicatedinTable7.1,theingtoatotalof1237responsesatvarioustax-speciesandgenerareportedbelongtoafairlywiderangeoftaxonomicgroups,althoughthey7Thecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcountriestoreportincludeveryfewmicro-organismsandnofungi.separatelyonmicro-organisms,invertebrates,vertebratesHowever,atleastfourcountriesfromAfricaandplants.andEuropeindicatethatfungiingeneralarethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE335STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFigure7.1ReportedobjectivesfortheinsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversityNumberofresponsesMicro-organisms10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%18Invertebrates234Vertebrates302Plants683Total12370%100%EcosystemservicesSpeciesconservationandprotectionEducationandresearchUtilizationHabitatconservationandprotectionOtherMonitoringNotreportedReintroductionNotes:A“response”isamentionbyaspecificcountryofaspecificcomponentofassociatedbiodiversity(speciesorhighertaxonomicgroup)reportedintherespectivecategory(micro-organisms,invertebrates,vertebratesandplants).Sixtyoutofatotalof91countriesreportedatleastoneresponse.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.theobjectofinsituconservation.OtherbroadCountries’responsesregardingobjectivesforgroupsmentionedincludenitrogen-fixingbac-theinsituconservationofspecificspecies/otherteria,soilmicro-organisms,zooplanktonandtaxaofassociatedbiodiversityaresummarizedinphytoplankton.Amonganimals,arthropods(par-Figure7.1.Themostfrequentlyreportedobjec-ticularlyinsects)andvertebratesarestronglyrep-tiveissimplytheconservationandprotectionofresented.Severaloftheanimalspecieslistedintherespectivecomponentsofassociatedbiodi-Table7.1contributetothesupplyofecosystemversity(43percentofresponses).Only6percentservicesincrop,livestock,forestoraquaticpro-ofresponsesindicateprovisionofecosystemductionsystems,includingpestanddiseaseregu-servicesasanobjective,althoughthisobjectivelation(e.g.manybirds,insects,bats,reptilesandismorecommonlymentionedforinvertebratesamphibians),pollination(e.g.manyinsects,birds(29percentofresponses),andonly4percentandbats),ecosystemengineeringandprovisionofmentionutilization.habitat(e.g.largemammalsandfish)andwaterpurification(e.g.crustaceansandmolluscs).PlantsForeachreportedcomponentofassociatedarethegroupwiththemostspeciesreportedtobiodiversity(i.e.speciesorothertaxon),countriesbeconservedinsitu.Manyherbaceousandwoodywereinvitedtoindicatespecificactionsunder-speciescontributetoecosystemservicessuchastakentopromoteitsconservation.Asindicatednutrientcycling,natural-hazardregulation,provi-inFigure7.2,theimplementationofbiodiversity-sionofhabitatanderosioncontrol.Moreinforma-friendlymanagementpracticesisthemostcom-tiononBFAandecosystemservices,andonassoci-monlymentionedaction(26percentofaggre-atedbiodiversityspeciesreportedtobemanagedgatedresponses),followedbymonitoringandfortheprovisionofecosystemservices,isprovidedcollectionmissions(11percent)andstrengthen-inSection2.2andSection4.3.1,respectively.inginstitutionsandpolicies(9percent).Theestab-lishmentandmaintenanceofprotectedareasis336thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Figure7.2ReportedactionsfortheinsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversityNumberofresponsesMicro-organisms10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%18Invertebrates228Vertebrates338Plants713Total13280%100%TranslocationandreintroductionmeasuresStrengtheninginstitutionsandpoliciesProtectionagainstpollution,disease,invasivespecies,Useofbiodiversity-friendlymanagementpracticesotherthreatsOtherRestrictionofutilizationNotreportedEstablishmentandmaintenanceofprotectedareasNotes:A“response”isamentionbyaspecificcountryofanactionforaspecificcomponentofassociatedbiodiversity(speciesorhighertaxonomicgroup).Insomecasesmorethanoneactionwasreportedforthesamecomponentofassociatedbiodiversity.Sixtyoutofatotalof91countriesreportedatleastoneresponse.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.mentionedin4percentofresponsesrelatedtotheyaremostcommonlyforest,fisheryorgrazingtheconservationofspecificcomponentsofbio-systems.Somecountries,however,alsomentiondiversity,althoughamajorityofthecountriescropandmixedsystems.Whereindividualspeciesreportinginsituconservationactivitiesforasso-arereportedtobeconservedviaprotectedareas,ciatedbiodiversitymentionatleastsomeroleforlittleinformationisgenerallyprovidedonwhyprotectedareas(seebelow).theseparticularspeciesaretargetedorregardedassignificant(e.g.ontheirriskstatusortheirsig-Establishmentandmaintenanceofnificanceintheprovisionofecosystemservices).protectedareasManyofthespeciesmentionedaretrees,fish,Asnotedabove,protecEtceodsysatermeasesrvaicreeswidelymen-planSptescietshcaontsearvraetionsoanudrpcreotsecotiofnwildfoods,medici-tionedinthecountryrEedpucoatriotnsaansdrceosemarcphonentsofnalUptlilaiznattiosnand/orwildrelativesofdomesticatedHabitatconservationandprotectionOtherinsituconservationeffMoorntistorfinograssociatedbiodi-cropNsotorerpolirtveedstock.Anumberoflarge,spectacu-versity(moreinformatRieoinntroodunctitohneglobalstatuslaror“charismatic”species,aswellassomethatandtrendsofprotectedareascanbefoundinarecharacteristicofparticulartargetedhabitats,Section7.5).8Theprotectedareasreferredtoinarealsomentioned.Somecountriesindicatethatthiscontextaremostlylocatedinforest,marineconservationeffortsaredirectedatwholeecosys-(e.g.Box7.3),freshwaterorgrasslandareas.tems(e.g.mangroves,hillforestsorcoralreefs)Wherespecificproductionsystemsarementioned,ornotethatalltaxonomicgroupspresentinthelocalareabenefit.8Somecountriesexplicitlystatethatprotectedareastatuscontributestotheprotectionofassociatedbiodiversity,whileThecountryreportsprovidesomeexamplesotherslistprotectedareasassitesatwhichconservationofcasesinwhichconservationinprotectedactivitiesforassociatedbiodiversityareundertaken(insomeareasisexplicitlyregardedasameansofpro-casesalsoindicatingthespecificactionsinvolved).motingthesupplyofregulatingorsupportingthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE337STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.3Marinesanctuariesandmonitoringsystems–examplesfromJamaicaTheBoscobelSanctuaryisaprotectedareaoffthenorthcoastTheConchAbundanceSurveyProgramme,implementedofJamaica.ItispartoftheSandalsFoundation’sMarineeverythreetofiveyearsonthe8000km2PedroBank,thePlan,whichincludesacommitmenttothemanagementfishinggroundofthequeenconch,establishesresearchofmarinesanctuaries,placementofmarkerbuoysintransectsontheseafloor,atdepthsrangingfrom10mtodesignatedareas,monitoringofreefsandfishpopulations,30m,at80sites.CountsaremadewithinthesetransectsandworkingalongsidetheJamaicanGovernment,fisherfolkandothercriticalecosystemparametersarerecordedinandcommunitymemberstoensurethecountry’scitizensareordertodeterminethebiomassandstocksize.Thedataareawareofthebenefitsofmarineprotectedareas.SincetheusedtoestablishanationalquotaforthesubsequentfishinglaunchoftheBoscobelSanctuaryin2010,andsubsequentlyseason.Betweensurveys,catchandeffortdatabasedonitsdeclarationasaSpecialFisheryConservationAreain2012,landingsareusedtodetermineannualquotas.severalsurveyshaveshownsignsofnewcoralgrowthandanincreaseinthefishpopulation.11InFishSanctuaries,nofishingisallowedunderanycircumstances.InSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofJamaica.SpecialFisheriesConservationAreas,fishingmaybepermittedunderspecialcircumstances,forinstancetocontrolinvasivealienspeciesorforresearch.JamaicanfishsanctuariesBogueIslandsMontegoDiscoveryBayWhiteSandalsLagoonBayPointRiverBoscobelOrangeBayOracabessaBayBoscobelEastandWestEastPortlandBlueﬁeldsBaySandalsWhitehouseBayGalleon,GalleonSt.ElizabethHarbourThreeBaysPortMorantSaltHarbourHarbourLagoonParishesMangrovesBanksandshelvesFishsanctuariesIslandsandcaysCoralreefsSeagrassMapcredits:S.Lee,TheCARIBSAVEPartnership(incollaborationwithC-Fish,TheNatureConservancy,FisheriesDivisionandCaribbeanCoastalAreaManagementFoundation).ecosystemservicestofoodandagriculture.Fornotesthat,althoughthismaynotalwaysbeaexample,Senegalmentionsthatthecountry’sdirectobjectiveofsitemanagement,nationalforestprotectedareasincludesomethataredes-parksbenefitfisheriesbymaintainingunpol-ignatedas“soilconservationreserves”.Nepallutedriversandwetlands.Somecountriesrefer338thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.4MarineprotectedareasinPalauForcenturies,traditionalleadersinPalauhaveworkedtonearbyunprotectedareas.Studieshavefoundthattotalprotectlocalwatersandhabitatsthatarecriticaltotheresource-fishbiomassis,onaverage,twiceaslargeinMPAscommunity’sfoodsecuritythroughthecustomofbul–aasinnearbycontrolareasandhavefoundtop-predatormoratoriumoncatchingkeyspeciesorfishingoncertainreefs.biomasstobeastrikingfivetimesgreaterinMPAs.ThePalauProtectedAreaNetworkisaninnovativemechanismPalauhasnowcreatedamodern-daybulintheformdesignedtoprotectthenation’scriticalbiodiversityandofthePalauNationalMarineSanctuaryAct(2015),whichensuretheseresourcesareeffectivelyconserved.establishesoneoftheworld’slargestprotectedareasofocean.Thesanctuarywillfullyprotectabout80percentofIn2009,Palauestablishedtheworld’sfirstsharkthenation’smaritimeterritory,ahigherpercentagethaninsanctuary.Alltypesofsharkfishingareforbiddenwithinanyothercountry.Fullprotectionmeansthatnoextractivethecountry’sexclusiveeconomiczone.Thesanctuaryactivities,suchasfishingormining,cantakeplace.Thecoversroughly600000km2andprotectsover135sharkreservecovers500000km2.andrayspecies–animalsthatarevitaltothebalanceoftheocean’secosystems.Mostexistingmarineprotectedareas(MPAs)inPalauhavebeenfoundtoharbouralargerbiomassofSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofPalau.“resourcefish”(commerciallyimportantspecies)thantomoregeneralbenefits.Kenya,forexample,Onthepositiveside,itmentionsthatthe5400hareportsthatprotectedareashelptomaintaintheHuvaluForestConservationArea,thecountry’svariousecosystemservicesprovidedbyforestslargestareaspecificallymanagedforconservationandtheirassociatedbiodiversity.Samoamentionsandsustainableresourceuse,includes100haofthatitsobjectiveofdesignating15percentofitstapulandwherehunting,loggingandresearchterrestrialareaasprotectedismotivatedbytheareprohibited.ExamplesfromPalauandJordanobjectiveofmaintainingthesupplyofecosystemofhowtraditionalconservationpracticeshaveservices.Asidefromresponsesexplicitlyrelatedtoinfluencedtheestablishmentofprotectedareastheinsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversity,arepresentedinBox7.4andBox7.5.Senegalanumberofcountriesmentionprotectedareasmentionsthatinsomecommunities,traditional(particularlyforestandmarineprotectedareas)conservationsitesthataremaintainedessen-intheirresponsestoaquestionon“actionsandtiallyforreligiousreasons(placesofworship,countermeasurestakentolimitunsustainableusesacredwoodsandforests,siteswithfuneraryand/orsupportsustainableuseofassociatedbio-monuments,cemeteries,etc.)haveallowedthediversityand/orwildfoods.”recoveryofpopulationsofsomespeciesthathaddisappearedfromexploitedsites.KenyanotesSeveralcountriesnotethesignificanceofthatmanysacredgroves(kayas)incoastalforeststraditionalprotectedsitesandtraditionalarebeingmanagedandprotectedusinglocalresource-managementstrategiesthatcomple-knowledgeandpractices.mentorreinforceofficialprotectedareasorinspiretheirestablishment.Forexample,NiuereportsUseofbiodiversity-friendlymanagementthatsmallareashavetraditionallybeendefinedpracticesasstrictprotectionzones(referredtoastapu)orAnumberofcountriesreportinsituconserva-subjecttoseasonalclosures.Itnotes,however,thattionmeasuresbasedontheuseofmanagementthesepracticesareindangerofdyingoutbecausepracticesthatprotectorpromotebiodiversityinofalackofformalrecognitionbygovernment.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE339STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.5ThetraditionalHimarangelandmanagementsysteminJordanHima(“protectedarea”inArabic)isatraditionalsystemRangelandoftheHimaBaniHashemwithspeciessuchasSalsolasp.,ofland-resourcetenurethathasbeenpractisedformoreParonychiaargentea,Atriplexhalimus,Artemisiaherba-albaandthan1400yearsontheArabianPeninsula.PastoralistTeucriumpolium.©AmerMaadat.communitiesestablishrulesforthegrazingofherdsanddesignateset-asideareaswheregrazingisonlypermittedconflictsovernaturalresourceshavedeclined,whilebiomassundercertainconditions,forinstanceduringdroughtperiodsandindigenousplantspecieshaveincreased.Shared(Daviesetal.,2012).Himacontributestotheconservationresponsibilityfortheenvironmentandeffectiveparticipationofbiodiversityandthesustainableuseofrangelands.ofthelocalcommunityhavegreatlycontributedtotheThepracticehasgenerallydeclinedinrecentyearsduetoproject’ssuccess.AfterthesuccessinBaniHashem,Himaindustrialization,climatechangeandpopulationpressure.hasbeenimplementedinotherregions.However,somevillagesinJordanwhosepasturelandshavebeenaffectedbyovergrazingareadoptingtheHimasystemSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofJordan.inordertomaintainlocalbiodiversityandimprovelocalNote:Formoreinformation,seehttps://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-livingstandards.stories/story/back-future-rangeland-management-jordanIn2011,theBaniHashemvillageprojectwasestablishedthroughapartnershipbetweentheMinistryofAgricultureandtheInternationalUnionforConservationofNaturewiththeaimofrevivingHima.Intheinitialphase,anawareness-raisingprogrammewaslaunchedtoinformstakeholdersofthebenefitsofregulatinggrazing.One-hundredhectaresofrangelandwereallocatedtothecommunityfortheiruseandmanagement,andatribalcharterwasdraftedandsignedbycommunitymembers.Asaresult,overgrazingandcrop,livestock,forestoraquaticproductionsys-tionsforthemanagementofsharedresources–tems.9Forexample,Senegalmentionstheintro-inresponsetoobserveddeclinesinbiodiversity.ductionofagroforestrypractices–implementedArgentinamentionstheworkoftheAlianzaatcommunitylevelandbasedonlocalconven-delPastizal(GrasslandAlliance),10whichbringstogetherNGOsfromArgentina,Brazil,Paraguay9AsdiscussedinChapter5,manycountriesreportmanagementandUruguay,undertheauspicesofBirdLifepracticesthatarelikelytopromotethepresenceofparticularInternational,alongwithresearchorganiza-componentsofassociatedbiodiversity.However,thesearetions,nationalparksandprivateentities,inannotalwaysreportedinthecontextofinsituconservation.efforttoreconcilegrasslandmeatproductionThismaybebecausethespeciesinquestionarenottargetswiththeconservationofbiodiversitythroughforconservation(e.g.arenotrare)and/orbecauseactionsaretheuseoflivestock-managementpracticesthatmotivatedbytheproductionbenefitsobtainedratherthanhelptomaintaingrasslandhabitatsandthesur-byconservationobjectives.Alargenumberofcountriesalsovivalofgrasslandspecies(seealsoSection3.3.2).mentionthepromotionofsustainablemanagementpractices,Norwayreportsthatconservationprogrammesmostlyincropproductionbutalsoinsomecasesinlivestockfornativeandendangeredcattlebreedstendkeeping,forestryandfisheries,intheirresponsestoaquestionon“actionsandcountermeasurestakentolimitunsustainable10http://www.alianzadelpastizal.org/enuseand/orsupportsustainableuseofassociatedbiodiversityand/orwildfoods”inthesectionofthecountry-reportingguidelinesonsustainableuse.340thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.6Agri-environmentalschemessupportingcroplandandgrasslandbiodiversity–examplesfromBelgiumWild-flowerbiodiversityincropsystemsispromotedWild-flowerstripdesignedtoattractbees.©VlaamseLandmaatschappijbyprovidingfarmerswithcontractsforextensive(FlemishLandAgency).managementpractices(grain-basedcroprotations),withrequirementsmodifiedtoaccommodatetheneedsofwithin-fieldpractices(nopesticides,adaptivemowing)theparticularwild-flowerspeciespresent.Insectandmaintainingunharvestedlandtoprovidecerealsasbiodiversityispromotedbyadjustingsowingandcuttingwinterfood.practicessoastoleave3mto30mwidestripsofflower-richpasture.ArangeofvertebratespeciesassociatedSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofBelgium.withgrasslandsaresupportedviacontractsforextensiveuseofmeadows,withspecificrequirementsmodifiedtoaccommodateparticularconservationobjectivesbasedonexpertadvice.Optionsforsupportingmeadowbirds,forexample,includedelayingmowingandgrazingdatesonmeadowsandpastures,conversionofarablelandtograssland,provisionofprotectivestructuresaroundthebirds’nestsandadaptingmowingpractices.Optionsforbirdsassociatedwithcroplandsincludesowingstripscontainingamixofgrassandherbspecies,adaptingtopromotegrazinginoutlyingfields,whicharedescribedinBox7.7.Severalcountriesalsohelpstomaintainandenhancethediversityofnotetheimportanceofprovidingsupporttothegrasses,otherplants,invertebratesandmicro-developmentofthebeekeepingsector,includ-organismsassociatedwithopenlandscapes.ingsupportforbeekeepers’organizations.OtherWhereforestmanagementisconcerned,itnotesgroupsofspeciestargetedincludesoilorgan-thatincreasingthevolumeofstandingandlyingismsandthenaturalenemiesofpestspecies.deadwoodprovidesahabitatformanyassociated-Forexample,Cameroonmentionsthatfarmersbiodiversityspecies.arebeingtaughtaboutsoilmanagementandwaterconservationandencouragedtoabandonManycountriesfromdevelopedregionsslash-and-burnpracticesthatdestroyhumusmentionthatbiodiversity-friendlypracticesareandsoilinvertebratesandmicro-organisms.Thepromotedviaagri-environmentalschemes(seeUnitedKingdomreportsschemespromotingSection8.7forfurtherinformation).Examplesarethecreationofflower-richmarginsthatprovidepresentedinBox7.6andBox7.7.habitatforbeneficialpredators.Italsomen-tionstheconversionofcroplandtograsslandtoSomecountryreportshighlightinsituconser-benefitsoilbiodiversity,andthemaintenanceofvationactivitiesthatinvolvethedeploymentofhedgerows,enhancedstubblesandspecies-richmanagementtechniquesspecificallydesignedgrasslandtobenefitthenaturalenemiesofpests.tofavourparticularfunctionalgroupsofasso-Lebanonmentionsthatanumberofinvertebrateciateddiversity.Pollinatorsarethegroupmostspeciesareconservedon-farmbecauseoftheircommonlytargeted.Programmespromotingroleinbiologicalcontrol.pollinator-friendlypracticesandpollinator-habitatcreationintheUnitedStatesofAmericathestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE341STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.7InitiativessupportingtheinsituconservationofpollinatorsintheUnitedStatesofAmericaTheConservationStewardshipProgram(CSP)provideslong-farmersandranchersinMichigan,Minnesota,NorthDakota,termstewardshippaymentstolandownerswhoimplementSouthDakotaandWisconsinwhoestablishnewhabitatsadvancedconservationsystems.Asof2015,nearly3000fordeclininghoney-beepopulationsontheirexistingCRPCSPcontractholdershadestablishedpollinatorhabitatsinland(thesefivestatesarehometomorethanhalfofthenon-croppedareasontheirlands.Participantshadseededcountry’scommerciallymanagedhoneybeesduringtheover11000acres(4452ha)ofnectar-andpollen-producingsummerandofferalargeareaofpotentialhabitat).In2012,plantsinfieldborders,vegetativebarriers,bufferstripsUSDAreserved100000acres(40469ha)ofCRPlandforandalongwaterways.Inadditiontohabitat-enhancementpollinatorhabitat.Asof2015,about35percentofthislandmeasures,theCSPsupportsproducersinreducingpesticidehadbeenenrolledintheprogramme.InadditiontotheapplicationandinprovidingcriticalfoodsuppliesforlandcoveredbythespecialCRPpollinator-habitatinitiative,pollinatorsandotherbeneficialinsects.USDAestimatesthatafurther98000acres(39659ha)ofCRPlandarepollinatorhabitat.TheNationalStrategytoTheConservationReserveProgram(CRP)providesPromotetheHealthofHoneyBeesandOtherPollinatorspaymentstofarmerswhoagreetoremoveenvironmentally(adoptedin2015)isseekingwaystoincreasetheareasensitivelandfromproductionandtoplantspeciesthatcoveredbytheinitiative.willimproveenvironmentalhealth.InJune2014,theUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)announcedtheSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.availabilityofUSD8millioninmanagementincentivesforProtectionagainstpollution,disease,ReferenceLaboratory(withSatelliteStations)forinvasivespeciesandotherthreatstheManagementofPollinatorBeeDiseasesandAsidefromtheestablishmentofprotectedareasPestsforFoodSecurity.SeveralexamplesfromandmeasurestargetingmanagementpracticesIrelandarepresentedinBox7.8.Legalmeasuresatproduction-systemlevel,countriesreportarestrictingorregulatinghunting,fishingandwild-numberofothermeasuresthathelptoprotectfoodgatheringand/ortradeinproductssourcedassociatedbiodiversityagainstvariousthreats.fromthewildarewidelyreportedincountries’Measuresofthistypeincludenationallegalandresponsesonmeasuresimplementedtoreducepolicyinstrumentstargetingactivitiessuchastheunsustainableuseofassociatedbiodiversityinfrastructuredevelopment,releaseofpollutants,andwildfoods.hunting,trappingandpoisoning,aswellasstrat-egiesandprogrammesimplementedbygovern-Establishmentandmaintenancementagenciesandotherstakeholdersinvolvedofconnectivehabitatinnatural-resourcesmanagementtolimitthreatsAnumberofcountryreportsnotethesignifi-suchashabitatdestructionandthespreadofcanceofmaintainingwildlifecorridorsorotherdiseasesorinvasivespecies.Thecountryreportshabitatfeaturesthathelptoconnectpotentiallygenerallydonotprovidemuchdetailonactivitiesisolatedpopulationsorallowmigratoryspeciesinthiscategoryoronthespecificspecies,speciestocompletetheirlifecycles.Thereportfromthegroupsorecosystemsthatbenefit.Jamaicamen-UnitedStatesofAmerica,forexample,mentionstionseffortstocontrolinvasivespeciessuchaslion-collaborativeworkwithCanadaandMexicotofish.Cameroonreportseffortstoprotectaquaticprotectthemigratorymonarchbutterfly(Danausecosystemsagainstpollutionfromagricultureandplexippus).Ecuadorreportsaplantocreate16mining.BurkinaFasoreferstotheprojectAfricancorridorsencompassingfourgloballyrelevant342thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.8Selectedspecies-conservationmeasuresinIrelandPlantsVertebratesSlendergreenfeather-moss(Hamatocaulisvernicosus):Lesserhorseshoebat(Rhinolophushipposideros):forest-preventionofpeatlanddamage.managementmeasures;specificmanagementoftrafficSlendernaiad(Najasflexilis):preventionofeutrophication,andenergy-transportsystems.Otter(Lutralutra):forestry-relatedmeasures;restoring/acidificationandpeatlanddamage.improvingwaterquality;regulation/managementofhuntingKillarneyfern(Trichomanesspeciosum):preventionofandtaking;managementofurbanandindustrialwaste;managementoftrafficandenergy-transportsystems.deliberatecollection;habitatprotection–preventionGreyseal(Halichoerusgrypus):measurestopreventofencroachmentofinvasiveorvigorousspecies,disturbancebyhumanactivities,accidentalentanglementwaterpollution,removalofwoodlandoralterationofinfishinggear,illegalkillingandpollution;establishmentwatercourses.ofprotectedareas/sites;regulation/managementofhuntingandtaking;regulation/managementoffisheriesInvertebratesandotherexploitationofnaturalresourcesinmarineandFreshwaterpearlmussel(Margaritiferamargaritifera):brackishsystems.Sealamprey(Petromyzonmarinus):wetland-relatedmeasurespreventionofsedimentationandenrichmentofhabitat;–theOfficeofPublicWorkshascooperatedwithInlandrestoring/improvingwaterquality;managementofurbanFisheriesIrelandtodevelopstrategiestominimizetheandindustrialwaste.adverseimpactsofdrainagemaintenancework.White-clawedcrayfish(Austropotamobiuspallipes):Killarneyshad(Alosafallaxkillarnensis):actiontoprecludethemaintenanceofIreland’sstatusasfreeofbothnon-use,orbringingontolakes,ofanycraftwithoutapermitnativecrayfishspeciesandthecrayfishplaguedisease;–thesystemincludesaprovisionrequiringallapplicantsrestoring/improvingwaterquality.toproducedocumentationthattheircrafthasbeenpower-Narrow-mouthedwhorlsnail(Vertigoangustior):monitoringhosedlocallyasrecentlyaspossible,inordertoreducetheofgrazingandwetlanddrainage.riskofintroducinginvasiveaquaticorganisms.Desmoulin’swhorlsnail(V.moulinsiana):managementtopreventfurtherdeclinescausedbysuccessionanddryingoutofwetlands.Source:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofIreland.ecosystems,namelypáramos(formoreinforma-FacilityprogrammePequeñasDonaciones(Smalltiononpáramos,seeBox4.7),mangroveswamp,Donations).Asof2016,324organizationshaddryforestandtropicalrainforest.Thesecorri-undertakenworkthathadcontributedtoecolog-dorsarebeingestablishedthroughparticipatoryicalconnectivity.approacheswithintheframeworkoftheprojectBiocorredoresparaelbuenvivir(BiocorridorsTranslocationandreintroductionmeasuresforGoodLiving).TheaimistoincreasehumanAnothertypeofconservationactivitymentionedwell-beingandthemaintenanceofbiodiversityinthecountryreportsisdirectmanipulationofbyconnectinghabitatpatches,supportingsus-targetedpopulationsviatranslocation,introduc-tainableproductionpracticesandfacilitatingtionorreintroductionofpopulationsintonewtheinvolvementoflocalcommunityorganiza-orformerhabitatsorreleaseofcaptive-bredtionsinconservationandrestorationinterven-individualstosupplementwildpopulations–tions,withsupportfromtheGlobalEnvironmentanapproachthatclearlyneedstobeimplementedthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE343STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCwithcaution.ThereportfromtheUnitedKingdom,andstrengtheninginstitutionalandindividualforexample,mentionsthereintroductionofthecapacitiesforbiodiversityconservationinfiveshort-hairedbumblebee(Bombussubterraneus),targetcountries.11aspeciesthatwasdeclaredextinctatnationallevelin2000.FollowinggeneticanalysisofspecimensAnumberofcountriesnotetheimportanceofinnatural-historycollectionsandpotentialsourcecommunityparticipation,including,whererele-populations,Swedenwaschosenasasourceofvant,theinvolvementofindigenouscommunitiesqueenbeesforthereintroductionprogramme.andtheutilizationoftraditionalknowledgeinBeeswerecollected,screenedfordiseaseandtheplanningandoperationofprotectedareasreleasedatDungenessNationalNatureReserveandotherinsituconservationinitiativestarget-insoutheasternEnglandin2012and2013.ingassociatedbiodiversity.SolomonIslands,forFlower-richhabitatcorridorswerecreatedonexample,mentionstheDugongandSeagrassneighbouringland.OthercountriesreportingConservationProject,whichaimstoenhancethereintroductionortranslocationmeasuresincludeconservationofdugongs(Dugongdugon)andHungary(beaver[Castorfiber])andBelgium(cray-associatedseagrassecosystemsineightcoun-fish,seatrout[Salmotruttatrutta]andAtlantictriesintheIndo-Pacificregion.Itnotesthatakeysalmon[S.salar]).Indiamentionsthebreedingobjectiveoftheprojectistomobilizecommu-andranchingofseveralfishspeciestosupportnityparticipationandownershipofconservationself-recruitment.Perumentionsthereleaseofefforts,withafocusonintroducingsustainableyoungtaricayaturtles(Podocnemisunifilis).fisheriespractices,innovativefinancialincentivesJamaicamentionsthereplantingofcorals.andtheestablishmentoflocallymanagedmarineprotectedareas.Severalcountriesnotethesignif-Productprocessingandmarketingicanceofmultistakeholdercooperation,bothatSomecountriesrefertoinsituconservationactiv-localandnationallevelsandinternationally(seeitiesthatarecreatingopportunitiesforincomeexamplesaboveandinChapter8).Severalalsogenerationfromassociated-biodiversityspeciesmentiontheimportanceofasupportivepolicyorfromtheecosystemsthatsupportthem.Forframework(seeforexampleBox7.9),noting,example,Chadmentionsaprojectsupportingtheforinstance,thatinsituconservationmeasuresutilizationofnon-timberforestproducts.Sloveniaforassociatedbiodiversityareincludedintheirreportsthatthemarketingofhigh-valueproductsnationalbiodiversitystrategyandactionplansor(e.g.cheesesandotherdairyproducts)contrib-mainstreamedintonationaldevelopmentplansutestotheconservationofextensivesemi-naturalandpolicies.grasslandsandtheirassociatedbiodiversity,asthehigherpricesobtainedallowforinvestmentinthe7.3.2Exsituconservationlabourandskillsneededtomanagethesesystems.Itnotestheimportance,inthiscontext,oflocalAssociated-biodiversityspeciescanbeconservedmarketingsystems,productpromotionandaware-exsituinvariousways,includingingenebanks,nessraisingamongproducersandcustomers.culturecollections,zoos,botanicgardensorprivatelyheldcollections.ExsitucollectionsStrengtheninginstitutionsandpoliciescanserveasabackupagainstlossesinsituandInstitutionaldevelopmenteffortsthatsupporttheprovideanaccessiblesourceofmaterialforinsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversityareongoingresearchorotheruses.Forsomeimpor-highlightedinanumberofcountryreports.Tonga,tanttypesofassociatedbiodiversity,however,forexample,mentionstheprojectMarineandpracticalissuesconstraintheeffectivenessofexCoastalBiodiversityManagementinthePacificsituconservationandmeanthatitspotentialroleIslandCountries,whichfocusesondevelopingisrelativelylimited.Forexample,invertebrates11Fiji,Kiribati,SolomonIslands,TongaandVanuatu.344thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.9PlanofActionfortheConservationoftheNordicBrownBeeThebrownbee,Apismelliferamellifera,isthehoney-beeThebrownbeenetworkcarriesoutthefollowingsubspeciesnativetotheNordicregionandiswelladaptedactivitiesrecommendedintheactionplan:totheclimateintheNordiccountries.Duringthetwentiethcentury,otherhoney-beesubspecieswereintroducedinto•NordGenhascreateda“brownbeewiki”1forthetheregionbybeekeepers,andthenativebrownbeeisnowcollectionoftraditionalknowledgeonbrownbee-threatenedbydisplacementandintrogression(hybridization).specificmanagement.BeekeepersareencouragedHowever,thevalueofthesubspeciesisincreasinglybeingtocontributetothewikibyaddinginformationandrecognizedandconservationeffortsareunderway.changingcontent,asnecessary.Thewikiisintendedasaresourceforanyonewhokeepsbrownbees.TheNordicGeneticResourceCenter(NordGen)initiatedaprojectaimingtodocumentthestatusoftheNordic•Genotypingisunderway,withseveralprojectshavingbrownbee,andconservationactivitiestargetingit,intheprovidedancestry-informativemarkersforanumberofNordicandBalticregion.Followingthepublicationofthebrown-beepopulations.projectreport(StatusandconservationoftheNordicbrownbee:finalreport)in2014,aNordicbrownbeenetwork•Databasesolutionsforbreedingpurposesareconsistingofbeekeepers,researchersandmembersofbeingassessedandexperiencesindifferentnationalbeekeepingorganizationswasestablished,withcountriesdiscussed.NordGenactingasasecretariat.In2015,theworkinggroupcompiledaPlanofActionfortheConservationoftheNordic•Brandingofbrown-beehoneybycreatingasmallBrownBee(NordGen,2015).Theworkinggroupconcludedinformationleafletinthevariousnationalthatcooperationamongstakeholdersandcoordinationatlanguagesoftheregiontoaccompanyhoneyjarsisnationalandinternationallevelsareofutmostimportancebeingconsidered.totheconservationofthebrownbee.Source:ProvidedbyBirgitteLund,MaleneKarupPalne,KimHolmBoesen,PeerBerg,LinnFennaGroeneveldandAnjaLaupstadVatland.1https://wiki.nordgen.org/brownbeehavenolong-liveddormantstagesintheirlifeofthelargenumbersofpotentialcandidatesandcycles(Cocketal.,2011)andifbredincaptivitythecomplexityoftheirecologicalroles.canundergogeneticchangesthatimpairtheirabilitytoprovideecosystemservices(Bouletreau,Speciesreportedtobeconservedexsitu1986;Hopper,RoushandPowell,1993;Waage,Inresponsetoaquestioninthecountry-reporting2007).Althoughtherehavebeenstudiesontheguidelinesonspeciesofassociatedbiodiversitycryopreservationofbeesemen(Hopkins,Herrconservedexsitu,51countriesmentionedatotalandSheppard,2012;HopkinsandHerr,2010),theof1549speciesandothertaxonomicgroups,methodhasnotyetbeenestablishedandmain-including1184distinctspecies(Table7.2).12Thestreamed.Wherepotentialreintroductionsaretaxonomicbalanceoftheresponsespresumablyconcerned,itneedstoberecalledthattherolesreflectsboththeabove-mentionedpracticalcon-ofindividualspeciesinthesupplyofecosystemstraintstotheexsituconservationofsometypesservicesgenerallydependoncomplexinterac-oforganismsandthewaysinwhichcountriestionswithmanyotherspecies,andthatthere-interpretedtheconceptofassociatedbiodiver-foreconservinganassociated-biodiversityspeciessity.Moreinformationonassociatedbiodiversityexsitudoesnotmeanthatitsinsiturolescannec-essarilyberestored.Identifyingpriorityspecies12Theseinclude917distinctplantspeciesreportedbyasingleforconservationexsituisalsodifficultbecausecountry(Lebanon).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE345STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable7.2sections,withsupportingexamplestakenfromAssociatedbiodiversityspeciesreportedthecountryreports.tobeconservedexsitu,bytaxonomicgroupCulturecollections13TaxonomicgroupCountofdistinctArangeofdifferentmethodscanbeusedtopre-speciesservemicro-organismsunderlaboratorycondi-tions.Box7.10presentsanoverviewofthemainBacteria56methodsavailable.MoleculartoolsareincreasinglybeingusedtodifferentiatebetweenstrainsandtoBirds6aidintheiridentification.Non-optimizedconser-vationtechniquescanleadtogeneticchangesinCrustaceans3conservedsamples,andmoleculartechniquescanbeusedtodeterminewhetherstrainsarebeingFish36maintainedwithoutchange(Smith,2012).Fungi38Collectionsrangefromsmalloperationstarget-ingalimitednumberofspecies,collectedandmain-Insectsandarachnids21tainedbyindividualresearchers,throughlargeroperationsbasedinlaboratorieswithinlargemulti-Mammals18functionalorganizations,toinstitutionsestablishedaspublic-servicecollectionsandcoveringabroadMolluscs1rangeoforganismsfrommanysources.Theymayfocusonaparticularkingdom(e.g.fungiorbacteria)Plants996oronspecificgenera.Alternatively,theymayfocusonaspecificuse,forexampleonindustrialenzymesReptilesandamphibians5orantimicrobials,oronparticularhostcrops.Theymaybelinkedtoaparticularsector,forexampletheAnnelidsandnematodes4environment,healthcareoragriculture.Total1184Overrecentdecades,theconceptofthemicro-bialculturecollectionasamererepositoryofNote:Fifty-oneoutofatotalof91countriesreportedatleastmicro-organismshasgivenwaytothatoftheonespecies.microbiologicalresourcecentreservingas“anSource:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sessentialpartoftheinfrastructureunderpinningBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.lifesciencesandbiotechnology”–supportingandconductingresearchanddevelopmentactiv-andtheecosystemservicesitprovidestofoodandities,conservingbiodiversity,addressingintellec-agriculture,andonassociatedbiodiversityspeciestualpropertyissuesandprovidinginformationreportedtobemanagedfortheprovisionofeco-tothepublicandtopolicy-makers(OECD,2001).systemservices,isprovidedinSections2.2andCollectionscanincludeculturableorganisms4.3.1,respectively.(e.g.mostalgae,bacteria,filamentousfungi,yeasts,protozoaandviruses),theirreplicablepartsReportedobjectivesforexsituconservationare(e.g.genomes,plasmidsandcomplementaryDNA),summarizedinFigure7.3.Forallcategoriesaggre-viablebutnotyetculturableorganisms,cellsandgated,whereobjectivesarementioned,researchtissues,andrelateddatabasesofmolecular,phys-andeducationrepresentthemostcommonresponse(38percentofanswers),followedby13ThissubsectiondrawsontheCGRFABackgroundStudyPaperagriculturaluse(17percentofanswers).TherearepreparedbyAlexandrakietal.(2013).markeddifferencesbetweenobjectivesforthecon-servationofthedifferenttypesofassociatedbio-diversity.Forexample,astrongerfocusonresearchandeducationisreportedformicro-organisms,oncommercialactivitiesforinvertebratesandonleisurepurposesforvertebrates.Themainmethodsusedfortheexsitucon-servationofassociatedbiodiversity,i.e.culturecollections,genebanks,livingcollectionsinbotanicgardensandcaptivebreedingandrearing,aredescribedinmoredetailinthefollowing346thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Figure7.3ReportedobjectivesfortheexsituconservationofassociatedbiodiversityNumberofresponsesMicro-organisms10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%291Invertebrates116Vertebrates130Plants269Total8080%100%BreedingResearchandeducationCharacterizationandtaxonomyRestorationandreintroductionCommercialactivitiesAgriculturaluseLeisureOtherMaintenanceofgeneticdiversityNotreportedNotes:A“response”isamentionbyaspecificcountryofanobjectiveforaspecificcomponentofassociatedbiodiversity(speciesorhighertaxonomicgroup).Thesefiguresdonotinclude1005reportsof“conservation”astheobjectivefortheconservationofplantassociatedbiodiversity.Fifty-oneoutofatotalof91reportingcountriesreportedatleastonespecies.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.iologicalandstructuralinformation(Aroraetal.,typesofmicro-organisms,tocollectionsheldby2005).Manyinitiativespromotingcollaborativeindividualresearchinstitutesoruniversitiesandactivitiesamongculturecollectionsatbothinter-collectionsheldbyprivateorganizations.Inmanynationalandnationallevelshavebeenestablished.cases,thereportedactivitiescoveradiverserangeSeveralexamplesarepresentedinBox7.11.ofmicro-organisms,bothintaxonomictermsandintermsoftheirsourcesandcurrentorpotentialuses.Thecoverageofmicrobialdiversityinculturecollectionsremainsfarfromcomplete.IntheSeveralcountriesreporttheestablishmentoffood-processingsector,forexample,althoughnationalprogrammestargetingtheexsitucon-manymicrobialstrainsinvolvedintraditionalandservationofmicro-organisms,ornetworksthatsmall-scaleoperationsEhcoasyvsteembseerevincesisolatedandaimStpoeciceoscoorndseirnvaatitoenatnhdeprwoteoctrikonofculturecollectionsstudied,relativelyfewoEfdutchateiosneanhdarveseeabrcehendepos-atnUattiliiozantioanllevel.Forexample,SpainmentionstheHabitatconservationandprotectionOtheritedinnationalorotheMrowniteolrlin-mgaintainedinstitu-SpanNoisthrepMortiecdro-organismsNetwork(REDESMI).14tionalculturecollectionRse.introductionObjectivesincludemappingthemicrobialgeneticresourcesconservedinSpainandincreasingtheirCulturecollectionsarethetypeofconservationvisibilityviatheREDESMIwebsite,sharinggoodactivityformicro-organismsmostcommonlyreferredpracticesinthemanagement,characterizationtointhecountryreports.AsnotedinSection7.3.1,andconservationofmicrobialstrains,andgen-veryfewinsituconservationprogrammesthateratingadatabaseofstrainswith“addedvalue”specificallytargetmicro-organismsarementioned.(e.g.thosewithhighbiotechnologicalpoten-Culturecollectionsarereportedfromallregionstial).InitiativesinMexico,EthiopiaandIndiaareexceptthePacific,althoughonlyaminorityofdescribedinBox7.12,Box7.13andBox7.14.countryreportsexplicitlymentionsuchcollections.Thefacilitiesreferredtorangefromnationalgene-14www.redesmi.esbanksformicro-organismsingeneralorforparticularthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE347STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.10Conservationmethodsformicro-organismsstoredexsituTheprimaryobjectiveofexsitustorageistomaintainisgenerallyusedforpreservingfungi,includingyeasts.micro-organismsinaviablestate,withoutmorphological,Theadvantagesofstorageinwaterarelowcostandeasyphysiologicalorgeneticchange,untiltheyarerequiredapplication.Somephytopathogenicfungihavereportedlyforuse.Ideally,completeviabilityandstabilityshouldbebeenstoredsuccessfullyfortenyearsusingthismethod.maintained.However,factorssuchaseaseofuse,However,themaximumpotentiallengthofstorageisoftenavailabilityandcostmayalsohavetobeconsideredwhenlimited,andsomefungiwillnotsurvivesubmergedevenchoosingastoragemethod.forshortperiods.Aswithallmethodsthatallowgrowthormetabolismduringstorage,itisconsideredonlytobeusefulConservationthroughsubcultivation.Thismethodforshort-termpreservationandshouldbebackedupbyinvolvesrepeatedcultivationofthemicro-organismonanlonger-termstoragemethods.agarnutrientmedium.Itisawidelyusedtechniqueandisperhapstheoldest,simplestandmostcost-effectivemeansSilica-gelstorage.Thismethodinvolvesinoculatingofmaintainingmicro-organismsunderlaboratoryconditions,asuspensionoffungalpropagulesontocoldsilicagel.especiallyifculturesarerequiredfrequentlyandquickly.ThecultureisthendehydratedtoenablestoragewithoutConservedmaterialisoftenrefrigerated,asthisextendsthegrowthormetabolism.Silica-gelstoragehasanumberintervalsbetweeneachroundofcultivation.Intervalsvaryofadvantages:itischeap,simpleanddoesnotrequiredependingonthetypeofmicro-organisminvolved,rangingcomplexapparatus.However,itcanonlybeusedforfrom30daystoseveralyearsat3°Cto5°C.Theaveragesporulatingfungi.Organismsofthiskindhavebeenstoredlongevityforyeastsisonetothreemonths.Somebacteriafor7to18yearsusingthistechniqueandappeartoremaincanbemaintainedfor5to12months,andfilamentousfungimorphologicallystableafterresuscitation.foroverfiveyears.AproblemwithsubcultivationisthatculturingconditionsselectforadistinctsubpopulationSoilstorage.Thistechniquecanbeappliedtoarangeofofthebacteriapresent.micro-organismsthatcanwithstandadegreeofdesiccation,forexampletothesporesandrestingstagesoffilamentousConservationundermineraloil.ThismethodisfungiandbacteriasuchasBacillusspp.Themethodinvolvesnormallyusedforconservingyeastsandfilamentousfungi.inoculatingdoubleautoclavedsoilwith1mlofsporeHowever,itcanalsobeusedforbacteria.Thetechniquesuspensioninsteriledistilledwaterandthenincubationatinvolvescoveringamicrobialculturegrownonaliquidor20°Cto25°Cforfivetotendays,dependingontheagarnutrientmediumwithsterilenon-toxicmineraloil.growthrateoftheorganism.ThisinitialgrowthperiodThislimitstheculture’saccesstooxygenandreducesitsallowstheorganismtoutilizetheavailablemoisturemetabolismandgrowth.Italsoreducescelldrying.Thebeforedormancyisinduced.Thebottlesarethenstoredlengthoftimeforwhichmicro-organismscanbemaintainedinarefrigeratorat4°Cto7°C.Soilstoragecanbeoneusingthismethodrangesfromseveralmonthstoseveralofthemostpracticalandcost-efficientwaystopreserveyears.Manyculturesdeteriorateundermineraloilandfilamentoussporulatingmicro-organisms.Otheradvantageshavetobetransferredregularly.However,organismsthatincludegoodviabilityofculturesforuptotenyears,reducedreactbadlytoothertechniquescanbestoredusingthisriskofmiteinfestationandthepossibilityofrepeatedlymethod.Disadvantagesincludetheriskthatsamplesmaybeobtaininginoculafromthesamesource.contaminatedbyairbornespores,slowgrowthonretrievalandthepossibilitythatcontinuousgrowthunderadverseDrying.Thismethodtakesadvantageofthenaturalconditionsmayhaveaselectiveinfluence.Thetechniqueabilityofmicro-organismstofallintoanabiosis,i.e.astateisnonethelessrecommendedasastoragemethodforofsuspendedanimation.Arangeofmaterialscanbeusedlaboratorieswithlimitedresourcesandfacilities.ascarriersforthecultures,andtheycanbedriedatroomtemperatureorbyheatingto36°Cto40°C.DryingisWaterstorage.Immersioninsterilewatercanbeusedwidelyusedtopreservebreweryandbakeryyeasts.toextendthelifeofaculturegrownonagar.Thismethod(Cont.)348thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.10(Cont.)Conservationmethodsformicro-organismsstoredexsituFreeze-drying.Thismethodisaveryeffectivemeansofactivitytakesplacebelow-70°C,recrystallizationoficecanconservingbacteria,yeastsandthesporesoffilamentousoccurattemperaturesabove-139°C,andthiscancausefungi.Theprocessinvolveswaterbeingremovedfromthestructuraldamageduringstorage.Thefavouredmethodsamplebysublimationunderavacuum.Ifcarriedoutcorrectly,isthereforestorageatultralowtemperatures,normallyfreeze-dryingpreventsshrinkageandstructuralchangeand-150°Cto-196°C,invapour-orliquid-phasenitrogen.helpsretainviability.Themanyadvantagesoffreeze-dryingProvidedadequatecareistakenduringfreezingandincludethefactthatthespecimenistotallysealedandthawing,theculturewillnotchangeeitherphenotypicallyorprotectedfrominfectionandinfestation.Culturesgenerallygenotypically.Toreducetherisksofcryo-injury,traditionalhavegoodviability/stabilityandcanbestoredformanycryopreservationmethodshaveinvolvedcontrolledcoolingyears.Ampoulestakeuplittlespaceandcanbestoredeasily.atarateof-1°Cperminute,typicallyinthepresenceofSamplesdonothavetoberevivedbeforepostaldistribution.acryoprotectant.AdvantagesofthismethodincludetheHowever,freeze-dryingdoeshavesomedisadvantages:lengthofstorage(consideredtobeeffectivelylimitlessifsomeisolatesfailtosurvivetheprocess,othershavereducedthestoragetemperatureiskeptbelow-150°C),thewideviabilityandgeneticchangemayoccur.Thefreeze-dryingrangeoforganismsthatcanbeconserved,andthefactprocessisalsorelativelycomplexandcanbetime-consumingthatorganismsremainfreeofcontaminationwhenstoredandexpensive.Ampoulesoffreeze-driedorganismsmustbeinsealedampoules.Disadvantagesincludethehighcostofstoredoutofdirectsunlight.Chilledstoragewillreducethetheapparatusandtheneedforacontinuoussupplyofliquidrateofdeteriorationandextendshelf-life.nitrogen.Ifthesupplyfails(orthedouble-jacketed,vacuum-sealedstoragevesselscorrodeandrupture),awholeLiquid-drying.Thismethodisausefulalternativethatcollectioncanbelost.Thetechniqueshouldthereforenotcanbeusedforpreservingbacteriathatareparticularlybeusedinplaceswherearegularsupplyofliquidnitrogensensitivetotheinitialfreezingstageofthenormalfreeze-cannotbeguaranteed.dryingprocess.Thedistinctivefeatureofliquid-dryingisthatculturesarenotallowedtofreeze.DryingoccursdirectlySource:AdaptedfromAlexandrakietal.(2013).fromtheliquidphase.Themethodcanbeusedforlong-termNote:ForfurtherinformationonthesemethodsseeMalikandHoffmannpreservationofnearlyallyeastgenera.(1993)Simõesetal.(2013),SmithandRyan(2012),Smith,RyanandDay,eds.(2001),Uzunova-DonevaandDonev(2005).Cryoconservation.Thismethodinvolvesthestorageofsamplesatverylowtemperatures.AlthoughlittlemetabolicManycountriesemphasizethelinksbetweenhaveadequateaccesstoinformationonthem.Forculturecollectionsandresearchactivities(asnotedexample,thereportfromSpainnotesthatinmanyabove,collectionsareoftenmaintainedbyuniver-casescollectionslackup-to-datecataloguescon-sitiesorresearchinstitutes).Apotentialconcerntainingbasicinformation(taxonomicinformation,inthisregardisthat“conservation”associatedoriginandcultureconditions)ontheconservedwithindividualresearchprojectsmayendwhenstrains.Effortstoaddressthisissuearebeingtheprojectsend.Forexample,thecountryreportmadethroughtheREDESMInetwork(seeabove).fromVietNammentionsthelossofanumberofstrainsofpathogenicmicro-organismsusedinvet-Genebankserinaryresearchasaresultofinadequateman-Bothplantsandanimalscanbeconservedexsituagementoverthelongerterm.Anotherconcerningenebanks(Section7.2).Inthecaseofanimals,mentionedinsomecountryreportsisthatpoten-thetermisnormallyusedtorefertocryocon-tialusersofconservedmicro-organismsmaynotservedcollectionsofsemen,embryosorotherthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE349STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.11Cooperationintheexsituconservationofmicro-organismsAnumberoforganizationshelptopromotecoordination,ConservationandSustainableUseofMicrobialResources5collaborationanddiscussionamongtheholdersofcultureandtheUnitedStatesCultureCollectionNetwork)6canbecollections.TheWorldFederationforCultureCollectionsfoundviatheWFCCwebsite.7(WFCC),MicrobialStrainDataNetwork(MSDN)andMicrobialResourceCentres(MIRCENs)operateglobally.MicrobialResourceResearchInfrastructure(MRRI)WFCCoverseestheWorldDataCenterforMicroorganisms,bringstogetherEuropeanmicrobialresourcecollectionswhichholdsinformationon764culturecollectionsin76andstakeholders(collectionusers,policy-makers,researchcountriesandregions,togethercontainingalmost3millionprogrammesandpotentialfunders)toimproveaccesstocultures1(thefiguresdonotcoverallthecollectionsinthehigh-qualitymicrobialresourcesinanappropriatelegalworld,astherearemanyprivateindustrialcollectionsandframework.Itaimstopromotecoherenceintheapplicationsomeinindependentlaboratories).TheEuropeanCultureofqualitystandards,homogeneityindatastorageandCollectionOrganization(ECCO)fostersinitiativesthathelpmanagement,andworkloadsharing.TheintentionistolinkcollectionsobtainsupportandorganizethedeliveryofEuropeancollectionstopartnerselsewhereintheworld.productsandservices.Forexample,EuropeanCommunityFrameworkProgrammeprojectsincludetheelectronicSeveralinitiativeshavesoughttodesignquality-catalogueprojectCommonAccesstoBiologicalResourcesmanagementsystemsformicrobialculturecollections.andInformation(CABRI),2whichsetsoperationalstandardsThefirstcommunity-designedsystemwastheWFCCforEuropeanbiologicalresourcecentres.Cooperationisalsoguidelinesfortheestablishmentandoperationofcollectionsfosteredthroughnationalandinternationalaffiliationssuchofmicro-organisms.8Quality-managementsystemshaveastheBelgianCoordinatedCollectionofMicro-organismsalsobeenestablishedbynationalculture-collection(BCCM)3andtheUnitedKingdomNationalCultureCollectionorganizations,suchastheUKNCC,andbyvariousproject(UKNCC).4Informationonotherimportantnetworks,consortia,includingCABRI.federationsandsocieties(e.g.theAsianConsortiumfortheSource:AdaptedfromAlexandrakietal.(2013).1http://www.wfcc.info/ccinfo/statistics/Note:ThefiguresfromtheWorldDataCenterforMicroorganismshavebeen2http://www.cabri.org/updatedtocorrespondtothoseavailableontheorganization’swebsiteasof3http://bccm.belspo.be/November2018.4http://www.ukncc.co.uk/5www.acm-mrc.asia6www.usccn.org7http://www.wfcc.info/collections/networks8www.wfcc.info/guidelinesbiologicalmaterialsstoredinliquidnitrogen.Thepurposesaswellasforconservation.Themajorityfeasibilityofthisapproachvariesacrossspeciesofspeciesreportedtobeconservedingenebanksandtaxonomicgroupsand–asnotedaboveintheareplants.Therangeofspeciesreportedtobeintroductiontothissubsection–isnotapracticalmaintainedisdiverse,bothintaxonomictermsoptioninthecaseofmanyimportantassociated-andintermsoftheirrolesorpotentialrolesinthebiodiversityspecies.Plantgeneticresourcescansupplyofecosystemservices.Forexample,JordanbeconservedintheformofseedskeptincoldmentionsthegenusZiziphus(aspinyshrub),whichstorage,aslivingplantsgrowninfieldgenebanks,playsaroleinhabitatprovisioning.Lebanonmen-orviainvitrocultureorcryopreservation.tionsthegenusAcacia,whichplaysaroleinpestcontrol,soilformationandprotection,andhabitatNineteencountryreports(25percent)indicateprovisioning.Bangladeshreportsafieldgenebanktheconservationofplantoranimalcomponentsofformangrovespecies.ThereportsfromChadandassociatedbiodiversityingenebanks.Manycoun-Kenyamentiontheconservationofplantspeciestriesstatethatcollectionsareusedforresearch350thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.12TheculturecollectionofMexico’sNationalGeneticResourcesCentreTheestablishmentofMexico’sNationalGeneticResourcesaimbeingtoconservethediversityofmicro-organismsofCentre,whichopenedin2012,haspermittedtheimportancetofoodsecurity.Asof2015,thecollectionhaddevelopmentofanationalstrategyforinvitroconservationabout3000accessions,includingfilamentousfungiandofmicro-organismsofimportancetonationalfoodsecurity.bacteriausefulforbiologicalcontrol,bacteriaandyeastsTheCentre’smicro-organismculturecollection,establishedusedinfoodproduction,industrialprocessesandagriculture,inaccordancewiththerequirementsoftheWorldFederationbacteriathataffectplantandanimalhealth,mycorrhizalofCultureCollections,theWorldIntellectualPropertyfungi,probiotics,growth-promotingbacteria,bacteriaOrganization(WIPO)andtheMexicanInstituteofIndustrialusedinbioremediationandcyanobacteriaassociatedwithProperty,isrecognizedasaninternationaldepositoryecologicalimpactsandclimatechange.ThechallengeforauthorityunderWIPO’sBudapestTreatyontheInternationalthefutureistoincreasetheefficiency,accessibilityandRecognitionoftheDepositofMicroorganismsforthesustainabilityofthecollectionthroughtheintroductionofPurposesofPatentProcedure.Itsmissionistoserveasatechnologiesthatfavourtheuseoftheconservedresourcespubliccollectionthatprovideshigh-qualityservicesintheinawiderangeofecologicalnichestosupportnationalfieldsofconservation,identificationandcharacterizationdevelopment.ofmicro-organismsassociatedwithvariousactivitiesinthefood,agricultureandlivestockindustries–withthemainSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofMexico.Box7.13TheMicrobialBiodiversityDirectorateoftheEthiopianBiodiversityInstituteTheEthiopianBiodiversityInstitute(EBI)1ismandatedestablishingnationalmicrobial-collectioncentres.ItsinsituwithpromotingtheconservationandsustainableuseconservationresearchonLakesChitu,ArenguadeandKilleofthecountry’sbiodiversityandregulatingaccessandexploresthepotentialofblue-greenalgae(Arthrospira)asabenefit-sharing.TheInstituteconsistsoffiveDirectorates:functionalandnutritiousfoodsourcewithhealth-promotingtheCropandHorticultureBiodiversityDirectorate;theproperties(Gutiérrez-Salmeán,Fabila-CastilloandChamorro-AnimalBiodiversityDirectorate;theMicrobialBiodiversityCevallos,2015).OtherfieldsofresearchincludethegrowingDirectorate;theForestandRangelandPlantsBiodiversityofoystermushroomsusingagriculturalresiduessuchasDirectorate;andtheGeneticResourcesAccessandBenefitcottonwaste,coffeewasteandwoodchips.SharingDirectorate.Thisstructureensuresefficiencyinresearchon,andconservationof,Ethiopia’sbiodiversityandAwidevarietyoftraditionalEthiopianfoodsareassociatedindigenousknowledge.producedthroughfermentation,usingawiderangeofrawmaterialsandtraditionaltechniques.Kochoandbulla,Throughtheirrolesasbiodegraders,biofertilizers,forexample,arefoodsproducedfromthefermentationnitrogenfixersandfermenters,naturallyoccurringmicro-ofensete(Enseteventricosum),commonlyknownastheorganismsprovideawiderangeofbenefitstofoodandAbyssinianbanana.TheMicrobialBiodiversityDirectorateagriculture.TheMicrobialBiodiversityDirectorateofEBIhasundertakenresearchontheisolation,identificationandplaysanimportantroleinsurveyingandexploringthecharacterizationofyeastspeciesinvolvedinkochoandbulladiversityanddistributionofmicrobialgeneticresources,fermentation,withtheaimofincreasingthenutritionalbuildingcapacityamongstakeholdersintheconservationqualityofthesefoods(Tsegay,GizawandTefera,2016).andsustainableuseofmicrobialbiodiversityand1http://www.ebi.gov.et/about-us/Sources:CountryreportofEthiopiaandthedocumentscitedinthetext.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE351STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.14Micro-organismconservationforimprovedagriculturalproductioninIndiaSoilbiodiversity,includingmicro-organismbiodiversity,Thecollectionsconstituteavaluablereservoirofresourcesplaysmultiplerolesinfoodandagriculture,includingintheforuseinimprovingagriculturalproductionandprocessing.formationofsoilorganicmatter,maintenanceofsoilfertility,Theyhavebeenusedtodevelopinnovativeapplicationsnitrogenfixation,nutrientuptakebyplants,reductionofinareassuchastheuseofbiofertilizers,biopesticidesanderosion,degradationofdeadplantandanimalmaterial,andbio-inoculantstoreducetheuseofsyntheticagrochemicaleliminationofhazardouswaste.inputs,thebiofortificationofmicronutrientsincrops,theuseofmicrobestomitigateabioticstressescausedbynutrientIn2001,consciousofthedegradationofthecountry’sdeficiency,drought,salinity,temperature,etc.,andtheusesoilqualityandmicro-organismresourcesasaresultofofmicrobesinprocessessuchasfermentationandinthedriverssuchasexcessiveuseofagrochemicals,inappropriateproductionofantibioticsandvitamins.agriculturalpractices,climatechangeandrepeatedfloodsandothernaturaldisasters,theGovernmentofIndiaNeedsandprioritiesinthisfieldincludeimprovingestablishedtheNationalBureauofAgriculturallyImportantbaselinedataonthediversityofmicro-organismsindifferentMicroorganisms.1Emphasiswasgiventoexsituconservation,ecosystemsandagroecologicalzones.Alackofsuchdataandnumerousmicro-organisms–bacteria,fungiandmeansthatimpactsofmanagementpractices,naturalactinomycetes–arenowconservedin18microbialresourcedisastersandclimatechangearedifficulttoestimate.Thecentres.Themicrobialbiodiversityconservedincludesaboutuseofmicrobialdiversityandmicrobe-basedtechnologies850bacterialandviralspecies,7175speciesofalgae,needstobescaledupanddisseminatedamongfarmersincluding1453speciesofcyanobacteria,14500speciesofthroughaneffectiveextensionnetwork.Thereisalsoaneedfungiand2223speciesoflichens.toaddressthelackofnationalpoliciessupportingtheuseofmicrobe-basedtechnologies.1http://nbaim.org.in/default.aspxSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofIndia.withmedicinaluses.Whereanimalsareconcerned,avarietyofpurposes,includingconservation,afewcountriesreportthecryopreservationoffishresearch,andornamentalandeducationaldis-milt.DenmarkmentionsthePlanofActionforplaysaimedatthepublic.TherelativeweighttheConservationoftheNordicBrownBee(Apisgiventotheseobjectivesvaries:notallbotanicmelliferamellifera)(NordGen,2015)(seeBox7.9).gardensoperateconservationprogrammesintheAmongothermeasures,theplanforeseesthesenseofschemesthatspecificallytargetdefinedestablishmentofacollectionofcryoconservedconservationobjectivesandmaintainthequan-brown-beesemenfromtheNordicandBaltictitiesofspecimensandgeneticdiversityrequiredregion.Norwaymentionsaprojectthatattemptedtomeettheseobjective(HernándesBermejo,tocryoconserveendangeredhoney-beesubspecies1998).Whileassociatedbiodiversitymaynotbutwasnotsuccessful.TheroleofJapan’snationalbeacategorythatiswidelyrecognizedortar-genebankinrestoringgeneticresourcesforfoodgetedforconservationinbotanicgardens,manyandagricultureaftertheearthquakeandtsunamigardensmaintainplantsthatgrowinandaroundof2011isbrieflydescribedinBox7.15.crop,livestock,forestandaquaticproductionsystems.BotanicgardenscanplayanimportantLivingcollectionsinbotanicgardensroleinspeciesreintroductions.Theyareincreas-Botanicgardensarewidespreadineveryregioninglybecominginvolvedinecologicalrestora-oftheworld.Collectionsaremaintainedfortionprogrammesinhabitatssuchasgrasslands352thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.15TheroleofJapan’sNationalAgricultureandFoodResearchOrganizationGenebankinrecoveringgeneticresourcesaftertheearthquakeof2011ThenaturalenvironmentofthePacificcoastinTohokuRegionTheNationalAgricultureandFoodResearchOrganizationwasheavilyimpactedbytheGreatEastJapanEarthquakeof(NARO)hasbeenimplementingtheNAROGenebankprojectMarch2011,whichcausedmajorchangestothetopographysince1985.NARO’sGeneticResourcesCentermanagesofthearea.Theearthquakecausedlandsubsidence,andthetheprojectasthecoreinstitutionofthenationalnetworktsunamithatfollowedtheearthquakemovedvastamountsforgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.Theprojectofsoil.Theaffectedzonecontainsmanypriorityareasforplaysakeyroleintheexsituconservationofgeneticbiodiversityconservation,includingsomeofthe500ImportantresourcesforfoodandagricultureinJapan,andholdsWetlandsinJapanandsomeImportantBirdAreas.226000plantaccessions,33000micro-organismaccessionsand2000animalaccessions(livestockandinsects).TheAlthoughmuchoftheareainundatedbythetsunamiForestResearchandManagementOrganizationandJapanwasfarmedorurbanland,therewerealsomajorimpactsFisheriesResearchandEducationAgencyhave,respectively,onvegetationincoastalareas,includinginafforestedlandmanagedgenebankprojectsforforestgeneticresourcesandplantedwiththeJapaneseblackpine(Pinusthunbegii)andaquaticgeneticresourcessince1985.TheNAROGenebank’stheJapaneseredpine(P.densiflora),rivers,ponds,marshesactivitieswillcontributetotherecoveryofgeneticresourcesandotherwetlands,secondarygrasslandsandsand-dunes.forfoodandagricultureaffectedbytheearthquakeandtoAbout497haofsand-dunevegetationandabout829haoftherevivaloftheregion.coastalforestswerelost.ThecompositionofspecieslivingonsometidalflatshaschangedsignificantlyduetotheSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofJapan.changesintheirtopographyandsubstrates.andforests(BGCI,2013).AswellasmaintainingForexample,companiesthatraisebiologicalfieldandgreenhousecollections,somebotaniccontrolagentsforsalearemotivatedbyprofit-gardensalsomaintainseedbanksorinvitromakingratherthanbyconcernsaboutthelosscollections(seeabove).Morethan500botanicofbiodiversity.Theymaynonethelessmain-gardensinmorethan100countriesarememberstainlargepopulationsofimportantassociated-ofBotanicGardensConservationInternational,15biodiversityspeciesinexsituconditions.Zoosanorganizationthataims“tocollect,conserve,andaquariumshavethepotentialtoplayancharacterizeandcultivatesamplesfromallofthe“insurance”roleinconservationandmaybeworld’splantsasaninsurancepolicyagainsttheirtheonlyoptionavailablefortheshort-termcon-extinctioninthewildandasasourceofplantservationofwildspeciesthreatenedbyseverematerialforhumaninnovation,adaptationandhabitatloss(Condeetal.,2011).Theydonotresilience”(BGCI,2018).normallyhaveanyparticularfocusonassoci-atedbiodiversity,butoftenkeepspeciesthatareCaptivebreedingandrearingofanimalsfoundinandaroundproductionsystems.AswithManyvertebrateandinvertebrateassociated-somebotanicgardens,somezoosmaybemorebiodiversityspeciesarebredandrearedincap-orientedtowardseducationaland/orrecreationaltivity,forinstanceinzoos,aquariumsorresearchobjectivesthantowardsimplementingconserva-institutesorbycommercialcompanies.Inmanytionprogrammesinastrictsense.However,ancases,conservationisnottheprimaryobjective.increasingnumberdohaveexplicitconserva-tionobjectives,withlinkstofieldprogrammes15http://www.bgci.org(e.g.ZSL,2017).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE353STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCInvertebratebiocontrolorganismsareconservedexsituatthelaboratoriesoftheEightcountries(11percent)reportcaptivebreed-AgriculturalandLivestockResearchInstituteofingandrearingactivitiesasaformofexsituPanama19andtheAquaticResourcesAuthorityofconservationofinvertebratebiocontrolorganisms.Panama20forresearchpurposes.Theorganismsmentionedareentomophagous,16parasitic17orparasitoid18invertebrates,withtheVertebratesmostfrequentlyreportedbeingparasitoidwasps,Afewcountryreportsmentionzoosasinstitu-mostlybelongingtothegenusTrichogramma,fol-tionscontributingtotheexsituconservationoflowedbyladybirdbeetles(Coccinellidae).Othervertebrateassociatedbiodiversity.However,nonetypesoforganismsmentionedincludeearwigsprovideinformationatspecieslevel.Somecoun-(Dermaptera),rovebeetles(Staphylinidae)andtriesnotethatzooscontributetoresearchandtospiders.Biocontrolorganismsarereportedtoberaisingpublicawareness.Captivebreedingoffishbredbothbyprivatecompaniesandbypublicspeciesisacommonwayofincreasingdepletedresearchinstitutesanduniversities.naturalstocks(seeSection7.2.4).Afewcountriesreportactivitiesofthiskindconductedbygov-Invertebratepollinatorsernmentalagenciesorprivatecompanies,withSevencountries(9percent)reportcaptivebreed-salmonspeciesthemostfrequentlymentioned.21ingandrearingactivitiesasaformofexsitucon-servationofinvertebratepollinators.Thegenera7.4WildfoodsmostcommonlyreportedtobeconservedexsituareBombusandApis.Thislownumberofcoun-•CountriesreportthattheyareimplementinginsitutriesreflectsthefindingsofIPBES(2016b),whichconservationmeasuresthattargettheprotectionofindicatethatwhilethereareanumberofinwholeecosystemsthatsupplywildfoods,andtoasitupollinator-conservationinitiativesbasedonlesserextent,measurestargetingindividualwildhabitatmanagement,veryfewinitiativestargetfoodspecies.theexsituconservationofwildpollinators.Severalcountriesmentionthatinvertebratepollinators•Over350wildfoodspeciesarereportedtobeareconservedinnationalagriculturalresearchconservedexsitu,representing13percentofallwildcentres.Forexample,Georgiamaintainsabreed-foodspeciesreported.ingfarmforitsnativehoneybee,theCaucasianhoneybee(Apismelliferacaucasia).Jordancon-7.4.1Insituconservationserves2000queencellsofSyrianhoneybees(Apismelliferasyriaca)peryearataresearchfacility.SpeciesthataresourcesofwildfoodscanbenefitfromarangeofinsituconservationmeasuresthatOtherinvertebratestargetindividualspeciesorthattargettheprotec-Veryfewcountriesmentioncaptivebreedingtionofwholeecosystems.Inbothcases,thecon-andrearingofinvertebratesotherthanpollina-servationmeasuresmayormaynotbemotivatedtorsandbiocontrolorganisms.ExceptionsincludespecificallybytheobjectiveofprotectingsuppliesBangladesh,whichmentionsthatthetigerofwildfoods.worm(Eiseniafetida)andtheredearthworm(Lumbricusrubellus)areraisedfortheproduction19http://www.idiap.gob.paofvermicompost.Panamamentionsthatcorals20http://arap.gob.pa21Salmonarenormallyrecognizedmainlyfortheirrolein16Anorganismthateatsinsects.17Anorganismthatlivesinoronanorganismofadifferentspecies,supplyingprovisioningservices(i.e.servingasasourceoffood).However,theyalsocontributetoregulatingandsupportingthehost.Theparasitebenefitsattheexpenseofthehost.services.Forexample,thecountryreportfromBelgium18Aparasitethateventuallykillsitshost.mentionsthattheyplayaroleinnutrientcyclingandthereportfromSwedenmentionstheirroleinhabitatprovisioning.354thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Table7.3Wildfoodspeciesandgenerareportedtobeconservedinsitu,bytaxonomicgroupTaxonomicgroupCountofspeciesCountofgeneraExamplesofspeciesreportedBirds33Perdixperdix(greypartridge),Phasianuscolchicus(Commonpheasant)Crustaceans54Astacusastacus(Europeancrayfish),Macrobrachiumrosenbergii(giantriverprawn),Pacifastacusleniusculus(signalcrayfish)Fish5544Barbusbarbus(barbel),Labeobata(bata),Salmosalar(Atlanticsalmon),Salmotrutta(browntrout),Merlucciushubbsi(hake),Tortor(mahseer)Capreoluscapreolus(Europeanroedeer),Cervuselaphus(reddeer),Cervusnippon(sikadeer),Giraffacamelopardalis(giraffe),HippopotamusMammals1413amphibius(hippopotamus),Lepuseuropaeus(Europeanhare),Pecaritajacu(collaredpeccary),Rupicaprarupicapra(chamois),Susscrofa(wildboar)Reptiles43Melanosuchusniger(blackcaiman),Podocnemisexpansa(tartaruga),Pythonsebae(Africanrockpython)Fungi22Ophiocordycepssinensis(yartsagunbu),Tricholomamatsutake(matsutake)Aeglemarmelos(Indianbael),Capparisspinosa(caper),Centellaasiatica(centella),Dilleniaindica(chulta),Dioscoreabulbifera(airpotato),Plants150126Diplaziumesculentum(vegetablefern),Malussylvestris(crabapple),Mauritiaflexuosa(aguaje)Parkiabiglobosa(Africanlocustbeantree),Prunusavium(wildcherry),Pyruspyraster(wildpear),Sclerocaryabirrea(marula),Vitellariaparadoxa(sheatree),Ximeniacaffra(sourplum)Total233195Notes:Thecountofgenerareferstoallgenerareported,whetheratgenusleveloratspecieslevel.Thirty-fouroutofatotalof91countriesreportedatleastonespeciesorothertaxon.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Therangeofdifferentapproachesthatcanprogrammesthatsupportthemaintenanceofbeusedintheinsituconservationofdomesti-wildfoods.”TheVoluntaryGuidelinesforthecatedandwildcomponentsofBFAisdiscussedConservationandSustainableUseofCropWildinSections7.2and7.3.1.ProtectedareasareRelativesandWildFoodPlants,endorsedbythediscussedindetailinSection7.5,includinganCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandassessmentofthelevelofcoverageofwildfoodAgriculture,aredescribedinBox7.16.specieswithinthecomprehensivelyassessedtax-onomicgroupsofTheInternationalUnionforCountrieswereinvitedtolistwildfoodspeciesConservationofNatureRedListofThreatenedconservedinsitu,toreportthetypesofinsituSpeciesTM(TheIUCNRedList).Broaderinstitu-conservationactivitiesundertaken,andtoindi-tional,policyandlegalframeworksfortheman-catethesiteorlocationoftheactivityandtheagementofBFA,includingthosethatdirectlyobjectivesoftheconservationefforts.Atotalorindirectlycontributetoinsituconservationof407responsesatvarioustaxonomiclevelsefforts,includingforwildfoods,arediscussedwerereportedbyatotalof34countries.TheseinChapter8.Thepresentsectionfocusesonresponsesmentioned233distinctspeciesand195thestateofinsituconservationactivitiesforgenera.Examplesofwildfoodspeciesreportedwildfoodsaspresentedinthecountryreports.tobeconservedinsituareprovidedinTable7.3.Exceptwherenotedotherwise,itreferstoactiv-itiesspecificallyreportedtoconstitute“insituWhilethecountryreportsmentionoverconservationandmanagementactivitiesor2800wildfoodspecies(seeSection4.4),thenumberofsuchspeciesreportedtobeconservedinsituismuchlower(8percentofthosereported).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE355STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.16VoluntaryGuidelinesfortheConservationandSustainableUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlantsThecontinuouslyevolvingadaptivetheconservationandsustainableuseofcropwildrelativesandwildfoodplants.TheypresentthegeneralcontextandCropwildrelativesarepotentialsourcesofdesirabletraitsforVoluntaryGuidelinesfortheConservationandSustainableUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlantsVoluntaryGuidelinescharacteristicsofcropwildrequisitesfordevelopinganationalplan,thenfocusonbreedingwell-adaptedvarietieswhilewildfoodplantsconstitutefortheConservationrelativeshaveenabledthemtoassessmentoftheparticularnationalcontexttogenerateimportantcomponentsofthedietsofmanypeopleworldwide.copewithchangingenvironmentaltheevidencebaseneededtounderpinthenationalplanandUnfortunately,theirnaturalwildhabitatsareincreasinglyunderandSustainabledeterminetheappropriatescopeintermsofgeographicalthreatfrombothhumanactivitiesandnaturaldisasters.HabitatUseofCropWildandtaxacoverage.Theyalsostressthecriticalimportancelosshasadirect,negativeimpactonthediversityofthesevaluableRelativesandWildofadequateandsustainablefinancialandhumanresources.resources.Theseguidelines,intendedasreferencematerialsforTechnicalactivitiesrecommendedforinclusioninanationalpreparingaNationalPlanfortheConservationandSustainableFoodPlantsplanaredescribedandguidanceisgivenonhowtowriteUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlants,willcontributethestrategicnationalplanitself,alongwithadviceonhowtostemmingthiscontinuinglossindiversity.Theguidelinesareconditionsandmadethemarichtoimplementtheactivitiesidentified.Monitoringanddata-thereforeausefultoolfordevelopmentpractitioners,researchers,managementmethodologiesandaninventoryofrelevantstudentsandpolicy-makerswhoworkontheconservationandreservoirofnoveltraitsandgeneslearningtoolsforcapacitybuildingarealsopresented.sustainableuseofthesevaluableresources.TheVoluntaryGuidelineswereendorsedbythethatcanbeusedtodevelopcropCommissionin2017.ISBN978-92-5-109919-3varietiesthataretolerantofbioticNote:Thevoluntaryguidelinescanbeviewedathttp://www.fao.org/3/9789251099193a-i7788e.pdfI7788EN/1/09.17FAOandabioticstressesandadaptedtoclimatechange.Wildfoodplantsconstituteimportantcomponentsofthedietsofmanypeopleacrosstheglobeandarerichsourcesofveryimportantmicronutrients.Inresponsetoincreasinglevelsofthreattobothcategoriesofspecies,theCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureoversawthepreparationofVoluntaryGuidelinesfortheConservationandSustainableUseofCropWildRelativesandWildFoodPlants.TheVoluntaryGuidelinesareintendedprimarilyforusebygovernmentsinthedevelopmentofnationalplansforThismayinpartbeexplainedbythefactthatmanyofprotectedareasisthemostcommonlyreportedwildfoodspeciesareconservedunderbroader(16percentofaggregatedanswers),followedhabitatorecosystemconservationprogrammesbymonitoring,inventoryandcharacterizationthatdonottargetindividualspecies.Countries’(14percent),conservationofhabitats(12percent)responsesfrequentlyrefertogroupsofwildandtheestablishmentofmanagementplansfoodsratherthanparticularspecies.Forexample,(9percent).Actionsmentionedbyafewcoun-Ecuadormentionsthatseveralhundredspeciesoftriesincludefishandfrystocking,restrictionsfisharefoundinaquaticconservationareas.onthecollectionofwildfoods,establishingandreinforcingsurveillancetoensureregulationsareCountries’responsesonobjectivesfortheinsitucompliedwith,awarenessraising,provisionofconservationofwildfoodsaresummarizedinsubsidies,andintroductionandtranslocationofFigure7.4.Themostfrequentlyreportedobjec-species.Severalcountriesreportwaysinwhichtivesaresimplytheconservationandprotectionofhabitatsaremanagedwithaviewtoconservingspecies(41percentofresponses)andofhabitatswildfoodsinsitu,forexampleviatheestablish-(16percent).Objectivesrelatedtofoodandnutri-mentofwildlifecorridors(Switzerland)andthetionaccountfor10percentofresponses,thosemaintenanceoffreshwaterecosystemsformigrat-relatedtoeducationandresearchfor9percentingfish(Belgium).andthoserelatedtoreintroductionandutiliza-tionfor7percenteach.ConservationactionsforwildfoodsarereportedtooperateonarangeofdifferentscalesandtoAmongspecificactionstakentopromotetheininvolvearangeofdifferentstakeholders.Guinea,situconservationofwildfoods,theestablishment356thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Figure7.4ReportedobjectivesfortheinsituconservationofwildfoodsSpeciesconservationandprotection41%Characterization1%NewEcotourism2%adjouBreeding3%PreviOther4%1©2©Utilization7%Habitatconservation3©Reintroduction7%andprotection16%4Educationandresearch9%Foodandnutrition10%56Notes:Basedon373responses.A“response”isamentionbyaspecificcountryofaconservationobjectiveforaspecificwildfood7speciesorhighertaxonomicgroup.Insomecasesmorethanoneconservationobjectivewasreportedforthesamewildfood.Thirty-fouroutofatotalof91reportingcountriesprovidedinformationforatleastonespeciesorothertaxon.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.forexample,reportsthefollowingactivitiesinormentionthedevelopmentofotheralternativeG1thiscontext:livelihoodactivities.Forexample,KenyamentionsG2•raisingawareness(ofcommunities)andsettingdomesticationandcommercializationofaloe.G3upvillagecommitteestocombatbushfires;Bhutanreportstheinitiationofcommunity-basedG4•involvinglocalcommunitiesinthemanage-projectstogrowtwospeciesoforchid(CymbidiumG5mentofnaturalresources;erythraeumandC.hookerianum)commonlyhar-•establishinganeco-rangerse7r.v3ic&e7.t4oprotectvestedfromthewildforuseasfood.forestreservesandprotectedareas;•regulatinghunting;Breeding7.4.2ExsituconservationResearchandeducation•conductinginventoryandchaCrahacrtaectreirzizaattioionnandtaTxohniosmsyectiondesRcersitboreastiotnhaendsrteaintterodoufctieonxsituconser-activitiesforwildspeciesusedfCoormfmoeorcidalapcutivrit-iesvationactivitiesAfgorircuwltuirladlufsoeodsaspresentedintheposes;LeisurecountryreportsO.tIhterfocusesonactivitiesandpro-•strengtheningtheregulationofMthaienteenxapncleooitfag-eneticgdrivaemrsitmyesspecifNicoatrlelpyorrteedportedtobeestablishedtionofwildfoodresources;andfortheconservationofwildfoods.•strengtheningnetworkingamoTnragnsloncaetiiognhan-dre-intrCodouuctniotnrmieesaswureesreinvitedtolistwSitlredngftoheondingspinestictuietiosnsandpoliciesbouringcountries.Protectionagainstpotlhlutaiotn,adriseeasceo,innvsaesirvveespdecieesx,situ,toprUosevoifdbeiodiinvefrositrym-friaen-dlymanagementpractAlthoughnotexplicitlyreportedasotahefrothrrematsoftiononthesizeofcollectionsanOdtheornconserva-Restrictionofutilizationinsituconservationofwildfoods,aconditions,toindicatetheoNbojterecptoivrteedsofthefewcountriestionEstablishmentandmaintenanceofprotectedareasintheirresponsestoaquestionon“actionsandconservationefforts,andtoprovideinformationcountermeasurestakentolimitunsustainableuseoncharacterizationandevaluationstatusoftheand/orsupportsustainableuseofassociatedbiodi-collections(seeSection6.4forinformationontheversityand/orwildfoods”refertothecultivationstateofcharacterizationofexsitucollectionsofordomesticationofwildfoodspecieswiththeaimwildfoods).Thirty-fourcountryreportsrefertoaofreducingpressureonoverexploitedwildstockstotalof527responsesatvarioustaxonomiclevels,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE357STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable7.4Wildfoodspeciesandgenerareportedtobeconservedexsitu,bytaxonomicgroupTaxonomicgroupCountofspeciesCountofgeneraExamplesofspeciesandgenerareportedInsects12Gonimbrasiabelina(mopaneworm),Choreutisspp.(agenusofmoths)Perdixperdix(greypartridge),Phasianuscolchicus(commonpheasant),Birds56Chlamydotisundulata(houbarabustard),Struthiocamelus(commonostrich)Crustaceans11Litopenaeusvannamei(Pacificwhiteshrimp)Mytilusgalloprovincialis(Mediterraneanmussel),Crassostreagigas(PacificMolluscs99oyster),Crassostreasikamea(Kumamotooyster),Lamellidensmarginalis,Bellamyabengalensis,Brotiacostula,Haliotisrufescens(redabalone),PilaglobosaOncorhynchusmykiss(rainbowtrout),Salmosalar(Atlanticsalmon),Fish5036Anoplopomafimbria(sablefish),Heteropneustesfossilis(airsaccatfish),Paralichthyscalifornicus(Californiahalibut)Hystrixindica(Indianporcupine),Axisaxis(chital),CephalophusrufilatusMammals1213(red-flankedduiker),Damaliscuslunatus(topi),Moschiolameminna(Indianspottedmousedeer),Muntiacusmuntjak(barkingdeer),Susscrofa(wildboar)Auriculariaolivaceus(jellyfungus),Calocybeindica,CantharellusFungi1424applanatus,Cantharelluselongatipes,Helvellavillosa,Lentinussquarrosulus,Phlebopussudanicus,Tricholomamatsutake(matsutake),Volvariellavolvacea(paddystrawmushroom)Carissaspinarum(bushplum),Capparisspinosa(caper),FoeniculumPlants275189vulgare(fennel),Origanumvulgare(oregano),Portulacaoleracea(commonpurslane),Sambucusnigra(elderberry),Ziziphusmauritiana(jujube)Other11ChaetoceroscalcitransTotal368281Note:Thecountofgenerareferstoallgenerareported,whetheratgenusleveloratspecieslevel.Thirty-fouroutofatotalof91countriesreportedatleastonespeciesorothertaxon.Source:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.includingreferencesto368distinctspeciesandclassedasassociatedbiodiversity.Thusthemain281genera(Table7.4).Asinthecaseofinsitumethodsusedintheexsituconservationoftheseconservation(Section7.4.1),thenumberofwildcategoriesofBFAarealsorelevantinthecontextfoodspeciesreportedtobeconservedexsituisoftheconservationofwildfoodspecies.ThesemuchlowerthanthetotalnumbermentionedinmethodsarediscussedinSections7.2and7.3.thecountryreports(13percent).For71percentofresponsesreferringtospeciesThemainexsituconservationmethodsorothertaxonomicgroupsofwildfoodscon-reportedforwildfoodspeciesincludegene-servedexsitu,countriesalsoprovidedinfor-banks,livingcollectionsinbotanicgardens,andmationonconservationobjectives.Themostcaptivebreedingandrearing.Manyofthespeciesfrequentlyreportedobjectiveissimplyspeciesreportedassourcesofwildfoodsfallwithinotherconservation(25percentofresponses).OthercategoriesofBFAdiscussedinthisreport,forresponsesincluderesearch(10percent),breedingexamplespeciesharvestedinthefisheriesand(9percent)andobjectivesrelatedtofoodandforestsectors,wildrelativesofcrops,livestocknutrition(7percent).andspeciesraisedinaquaculture,andspecies358thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE77.5Rolesofprotectedareasareas,andassuchareincreasinglybeingincor-poratedintogovernmentlegislation.•Approximately15percentoflandandinlandwaters,10percentofcoastalandmarineareaswithinnationalDesignationofprotectedareasisrecognizedjurisdictionandjustover4percentoftheworld’sasanimportantcomponentofglobaleffortstooceansliewithinprotectedareas.However,protectedimprovetheinsituconservationofbiodiversity.areanetworksremainecologicallyunrepresentativeAichiBiodiversityTarget11,undertheConventionandpoorlyconnected,andmanycriticalsitesforonBiologicalDiversity’s(CBD’s)StrategicPlanforbiodiversityarepoorlyconserved.Biodiversity2011–2020readsasfollows:•AfirstoverviewofhowthebiodiversityusedforBy2020,atleast17percentofterrestrialhumanfoodincludedinTheIUCNRedListiscoveredandinlandwater,and10percentofcoastalbytheprotectedareasnetworkconcludesthatoverandmarineareas,especiallyareasof98percentofspeciesusedforhumanfood(95percentparticularimportanceforbiodiversityandinthecaseofthreatenedspecies)partiallyorfullyecosystemservices,areconservedthroughmeetconservationtargetsforcoverage.effectivelyandequitablymanaged,ecologicallyrepresentativeandwellconnected•Inadditiontoprotectedareas,countriesreportawidesystemsofprotectedareasandothereffectiverangeofdesignatedareasofparticularsignificancearea-basedconservationmeasures,andforbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture,includingintegratedintothewiderlandscapesandGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSystems,seascapes(CBD,2010a).WorldHeritageSitesandWetlandsofInternationalProtectedareascontributeinmanywaystoImportance(RamsarSites).theachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(Dudleyetal.,2017).OnetargetunderProtectedareas,asdefinedbytheInternationalSustainableDevelopmentGoal14(ConserveUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN),areandsustainablyusetheoceans,seasandmarineclearlydelineatedgeographicalspaces,recog-resourcesforsustainabledevelopment)andtwonized,dedicatedandmanaged,throughlegalorunderSustainableDevelopmentGoal15(Protect,othereffectivemeans,toachievethelong-termrestoreandpromotesustainableuseofterrestrialconservationofnature,alongwithassociatedecosystems,sustainablymanageforests,combatecosystemservicesandculturalvalues(IUCN,desertification,andhaltandreverselanddeg-2008).Withinthisbroadframework,protectedradationandhaltbiodiversityloss)aredirectlyareascanbemanagedinawidevarietyofwaysrelatedtoprotectedareas.22andunderarangeofgovernancetypes,rangingProtectedareascontributetothedeliveryofafromstrictlyprotectedsitesentirelysetasiderangeofecosystemservicesthatareessentialtofromhumaninterventiontoprotectedland-foodandagriculture,includingbyprotectingandscapesthatincludelong-termmanagedareasenhancingwaterflowsandwaterquality,con-andsettledhumancommunities,reservesownedservinghabitatsthatmaintainnursery,feedingandrunbygovernmentsandself-declaredpro-andbreedingareasforfishandotherspeciestectedareasrunbyindigenouscommunitiesharvestedbypeople,formingsoilsandmaintain-withintheirtraditionalterritories(Daviesetingsoilfertility,reducinglanddegradation,pro-al.,2012).IUCNclassifiesprotectedareasintovidinghavensforpollinators,reducingpollution,sixmanagementcategories(onewithasubdivi-sion)accordingtotheirmanagementobjectives22Indicator14.5.1is“Coverageofprotectedareasinrelationto(seeTable7.5).Thecategoriesarerecognizedbymarineareas.”Indicator15.1.2is“ProportionofimportantinternationalbodiessuchastheUnitedNationssitesforterrestrialandfreshwaterbiodiversitythatarecoveredandbymanynationalgovernmentsastheglobalbyprotectedareas,byecosystemtype.”Indicator15.4.1isstandardfordefiningandrecordingprotected“Coveragebyprotectedareasofimportantsitesformountainbiodiversity.”thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE359STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable7.5IUCNProtectedAreaManagementCategoriesCategoryDefinitionPrimaryobjectiveCategoryIa:StrictlyprotectedforbiodiversityandalsopossiblyToconserveregionally,nationallyorgloballyoutstandingStrictNatureReservegeological/geomorphologicalfeatures,wherehumanecosystems,speciesand/orgeodiversityfeatures:thesevisitation,useandimpactsarecontrolledandlimitedtoattributeswillhavebeenformedmostlyorentirelybyensureprotectionoftheconservationvalues.non-humanforcesandwillbedegradedordestroyedwhensubjectedtoallbutverylighthumanimpact.CategoryIb:Usuallylargeunmodifiedorslightlymodifiedareas,Toprotectthelong-termecologicalintegrityofnaturalWildernessArearetainingtheirnaturalcharacterandinfluence,withoutareasthatareundisturbedbysignificanthumanactivity,permanentorsignificanthumanhabitation,protectedandfreeofmoderninfrastructureandwherenaturalforcesmanagedtopreservetheirnaturalcondition.andprocessespredominate,sothatcurrentandfuturegenerationshavetheopportunitytoexperiencesuchareas.CategoryII:Largenaturalornear-naturalareasprotectinglarge-ToprotectnaturalbiodiversityalongwithitsunderlyingNationalParkscaleecologicalprocesseswithcharacteristicspeciesandecologicalstructureandsupportingenvironmentalecosystems,whichalsohaveenvironmentallyandculturallyprocesses,andtopromoteeducationandrecreation.compatiblespiritual,scientific,educational,recreationalandvisitoropportunities.CategoryIII:Areassetasidetoprotectaspecificnaturalmonument,ToprotectspecificoutstandingnaturalfeaturesandtheirNaturalMonumentwhichcanbealandform,seamount,marinecavern,associatedbiodiversityandhabitats.orFeaturegeologicalfeaturesuchasacave,oralivingfeaturesuchasanancientgrove.CategoryIV:Areastoprotectparticularspeciesorhabitats,whereTomaintain,conserveandrestorespeciesandhabitats.Habitat/Speciesmanagementreflectsthispriority.Manywillneedregular,ManagementAreaactiveinterventionstomeettheneedsofparticularspeciesorhabitats,butthisisnotarequirementofthecategory.CategoryV:WheretheinteractionofpeopleandnatureovertimeToprotectandsustainimportantlandscapes/seascapesProtectedLandscape/hasproducedadistinctcharacterwithsignificantandtheassociatednatureconservationandothervaluesSeascapeecological,biological,culturalandscenicvalue:andwherecreatedbyinteractionswithhumansthroughtraditionalsafeguardingtheintegrityofthisinteractionisvitaltomanagementpractices.protectingandsustainingtheareaanditsassociatednatureconservationandothervalues.CategoryVI:Areaswhichconserveecosystems,togetherwithToprotectnaturalecosystemsandusenaturalresourcesProtectedareawithassociatedculturalvaluesandtraditionalnaturalresourcesustainably,whenconservationandsustainableusecanbesustainableuseofmanagementsystems.Generallylarge,mainlyinanaturalmutuallybeneficial.naturalresourcescondition,withaproportionundersustainablenaturalresourcemanagementandwherelow-levelnon-industrialnaturalresourceusecompatiblewithnatureconservationisseenasoneofthemainaims.Source:BasedonDudley,ed.,2008.maintainingcoastalprotectionandnaturaleffectivelysitesaremanaged,howtheyareinte-flood-controlmechanisms,andprotectingres-gratedwithsurroundinglandscapesandland-useervoirsofcropwildrelativesthatcanbeusedtostrategies,andwhetherornottheyaresupportedenhancecropproductivityandresilience(FAO,bylocalcommunities.Asprotectedareasexist2014h;WorldBank,2010).Theirroleinclimateunderarangeofmanagementandgovernancechangeadaptationandmitigationisincreas-regimes(seeabove),theeffectivenessofdeliveryinglyrecognized.Ithasbeenestimatedthatthevariesacrosssites.globalnetworkofprotectedareasstoresatleast15percentofterrestrialcarbon(WorldBank,2010).AsindicatedintheAichiTargetquotedabove,However,theeffectivenessofprotectedareasininadditiontoprotectedareasperse,thesignif-thedeliveryofecosystemservicesdependsonhowicanceof“othereffectivearea-basedconserva-tionmeasures”(OECMs)toinsituconservationis360thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Figure7.5Percentagecoverage14.88%Progressofglobalcoverageofprotectedareas11.9%Progresstodateincoverageof2000Terrestrial2018protectedareas1millionkm²17.22%1.72%Marine7.43%0.7%2018200017millionkm²27millionkm²47millionkm²59millionkm²Nationalwaters200020102018Aimby2020EntireoceanNote:ThefigureisbasedonthesituationinNovember2018.Source:UNEP-WCMC.alsorecognized.TheConferenceofthePartiesto17percentofterrestrialareasby2020islikelytotheCBD,atitsfourteenthmeeting,heldin2018,bemetglobally(seeFigure7.5).However,pro-adoptedthefollowingdefinitionofOECMs:tectedareanetworksremainecologicallyunrep-resentativeandpoorlyconnected,andmanyageographicallydefinedareaotherthancriticalsitesforbiodiversityarepoorlyconserved.aProtectedArea,whichisgovernedandTheelementofAichiTarget11onprotectingmanagedinwaysthatachievepositiveand10percentofcoastalandmarineareasisoncoursesustainedlong-termoutcomesfortheinsitutobemetincoastalwaters,althoughopen-oceanconservationofbiodiversity,withassociatedanddeep-seaareas,includingthehighseas,areecosystemfunctionsandservicesand,wherenotwellcovered(seeFigure7.6).TheCBDreportsapplicable,cultural,spiritual,socioeconomic,thatinadequatemanagement,monitoringandandotherlocallyrelevantvalues.enforcementofprotectedareasremainswide-spread(CBDSecretariat,2014a),andthiscanlimit7.5.1Statusandtrendstheeffectivenessofprotectedareasnetworks(Watsonetal.,2014).ThepreciseextentofsuchApproximately15percentoflandandinlandproblems,however,remainsunclearasinforma-waters,10percentofcoastalandmarineareastionontheeffectivenessofprotectedareasman-withinnationaljurisdictionandjustover4percentagementinmanycountries,andontrendsinthisoftheworld’soceansliewithinprotectedareasregard,islimited(Geldmannetal.,2015),although(UNEP-WCMCandIUCN,2018).TheProtectedreportingisimproving.ToaddressthisknowledgePlanetReport2018(UNEP-WCMC,IUCNandNGS,gapontheeffectivenessofprotectedareas,in2018)(whichisbasedonthedatacontainedinthe2010PartiestotheCBDwereinvitedtoimple-WorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas,themostcom-mentmanagement-effectivenessevaluationsinatprehensivesourceofinformationaboutprotectedleast60percentoftheirtotalprotectedareasbyareas)anticipatesthatthecoverageelementofAichiTarget11(seeabove)onconservingthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE361STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFigure7.6Geographicdistributionoftheterrestrial,marineandcoastalprotectedareasoftheworldTerrestrialprotectedareasMarineandcoastalprotectedareasSource:UNEP-WCMCandIUCN,2018.2015(CBDSecretariat,2010b).In2016,allnational240priorityactionsintheareaofaddressingfocalpointstotheCBDwereinvitedtoreviewprotected-areamanagement.Thisindicatessignif-andupdatetheirmanagement-effectivenessicantimprovementsinthereporting,andeffec-dataintheGlobalDatabaseonProtectedAreastiveness,ofthemanagementofprotectedareas.ManagementEffectiveness(GD-PAME),23whichisthemostcomprehensiveglobaldatasetonInordertoaddressgapsinreportingandassessments,providinginformationon238563implementationofeffectivemanagementinprotectedareas,from244countriesandter-protectedareasandsitesthataredefinedasritories,coveringmorethan46millionkm2OECMs,IUCNhasadoptedanewstandardfor(UNEP-WCMC,2018).ThelatestreportfromtheIUCNGreenListofProtectedandConservedtheGD-PAMEindicatesthatonly20percentofAreas(IUCNandWCPA,2017)(seeBox7.17).nationalgovernmentsprovidedupdatedinfor-Inaddition,theIUCNWorldCommissiononmationonmanagementeffectiveness.However,ProtectedAreas(IUCNWCPA)hasdevelopeditiswidelyrecognizedthatmanymoreassess-guidanceforconservationinmarineprotectedmentshavebeenmadethanthosethatarefor-areas(IUCNWCPA,2018).mallyreported.Forexample,analysesofnationalcommitmentsforimprovingthemanagement7.5.2ContributiontoconservationofeffectivenessofprotectedareaswereinformallywildspeciesusedforfoodsubmittedtotheCBDSecretariatby95coun-triesin2018.ReportedcommitmentsincludedAsspatialdataforspeciesdistributionrangeshavebecomemorewidelyaccessibleandavail-23https://pame.protectedplanet.netable,variousstudieshaveanalysedtheextenttowhichtheprotectedareanetworkeffectivelyconservesbiodiversity(Butchartetal.,2015;362thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Rodriguesetal.,2004).GlobalgapanalysesandtheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreashavebeenconductedforseveralcompletetax-(UNEP-WCMCandIUCN,2018).Theformeristheonomicgroups,forexamplecacti,amphibians,world’smostcomprehensiveinformationsourceturtles,birdsandmammals(Butchartetal.,2015;fortheextinctionriskofspecies(IUCN,2017a).Goettsch,DuránandGaston,2018;RodriguesTheversionusedfortheanalysisincludes87967etal.,2004).Thissubsectionpresentsananalysisspecies,ofwhich11percent(9627species)areoftheextenttowhichselectedcomponentsofclassifiedasusedforfoodbyhumans.Ofthese,aBFAarecoveredbyprotectedareas.totalof1783species(18percent)arelistedunderathreatenedcategory(CriticallyEndangered,Withregardtoscope,itshouldbenotedthatEndangeredorVulnerable),611(6percent)asOECMs(seeabove)arenotincludedintheanal-NearThreatenedand1218(13percent)asDataysis.WhiletheseareasarerecognizedasbeingDeficient(Figure4.25).Almosthalf(48percent)vitallyimportanttotheinsituconservationofbio-oftheassessedspeciesthatareutilizedforfooddiversity,thereiscurrentlynogloballymanagedarefishes(4611species).Birdsaccountfor1646,datasetonareasdefinedasOECMsfromwhichmammalsfor1237andplantsfor804.Thelatterdatacouldeasilybeextractedtoconductaspatialinclude14cropwildrelativespecies(outofatotalanalysis.ThereisaglobaldatasetonIndigenous760suchspeciesassessedgloballyforTheIUCNandCommunityConservedAreas(ICCAs)24main-RedList).However,toavoidbiasestheanalysistainedalongsidetheWorldDatabaseonProtectedonlycoveredtaxonomicgroupsthathadbeenAreas,bytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentcomprehensivelyassessed26forTheIUCNRedListProgramme’sWorldConservationMonitoringandforwhichcompletedataontheirdistribu-Centre(UNEP-WCMC).ICCAsarerecognizedastionrangeswereavailable(seeTable7.6).AmongcontributingtoAichiTarget11.However,thetermthesegroups,theselectedgroupsofbonyfishesOECMalsoappliestootherconservationareas,hadthehighestpercentage(29percent)ofspeciessuchasprivatelyconservedareas.Aftertheadop-utilizedforfood,followedbysharksandraystionofagloballyagreeddefinitionforOECMs,(26percent),theselectedgroupsofcrustaceansPartiestotheCBDinvitedIUCNandUNEP-WCMC(26percent)andmammals(21percent).toexpandtheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreasbyprovidingasectiononOECMs.SubjectThemethodologydescribedbyRodriguesetal.toavailabilityofresources,reportingofOECMs(2004)wasusedtosystematicallyidentifygapsbygovernmentsandnon-stateactorsandconfi-inthecurrentglobalprotectedareasnetwork.dentialityrestrictions(forexample,informationForeachspecies,thepercentageofitsgeo-onsomeprivatesitesandICCAlocationsisconfi-graphicalrangecoveredbyprotectedareaswasdential),thisworkisduetostartin2019.Finally,determinedbyoverlayingaspecies-distributiontheanalysisalsodoesnotincludemappingofkeymapwithamapofprotectedareas.Aspeciesbiodiversityareas(KBAs),asdataontheirlocationwasclassedasa“gapspecies”ifitwasnotfoundwerenotaccessibleforanalysiswithinthetime-withinprotectedareas,andclassedas“covered”frameofthestudy.25ifapredeterminedpercentageofitsgeographicrange(referredtoasthe“conservationtarget”)Theanalysiswasbasedontwoglobaldatasets,wasincludedinprotectedareas.ForspecieswithTheIUCNRedList(seeBox4.1)(Version2017-2)geographicrangesof1000km2orless,thecon-servationtargetwastakentoequatetotheentire24http://www.iccaregistry.org/range.Forspecieswithrangesof250000km225KBAsaregeographicalareasonlandand/orinwaterwith26Comprehensivelyassessedgroupsarethetaxonomicgroupsdefinedecological,physical,administrativeormanagementforwhichtheextinctionriskofallextantspecieshavebeenboundariesthatareactuallyorpotentiallymanageableevaluatedfollowingtheIUCNRedListCategoriesandCriteria.asasingleunit(e.g.aprotectedareaorothermanagedconservationunit)(IUCN,2016c).EffortsareunderwaytomapthedistributionofprotectedareasinrelationtoKBAs.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE363STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable7.6NumberofspeciesinthecomprehensivelyassessedgroupsofTheIUCNRedListwithmappedrangesandclassifiedasusedforhumanfoodTaxonomicgroup/IUCNCRENVUNTLCDDTotalRedListCategoryAmphibians920342214112238Birds55113205191101951588Selectedbonyfishes1210313850392686Conifers0000101Selectedcrustaceans049615854231Selecteddicots001210114Selectedgastropods0000303Hagfishes0011024Mammals81168198112543671169Seagrasses0000404Selectedreptiles305111020Sharksandrays62757516282285Total16634254142424553154243Note:FiguresindicatethenumberofspeciesclassifiedasusedforhumanfoodincomprehensivelyassessedgroupsinTheIUCNRedListgroupedbyIUCNRedListCategory(CR=Critically,EN=Endangered,VU=Vulnerable,NT=NearThreatened,LC=LeastConcern,andDD=DataDeficient).Selectedbonyfishes=sturgeons,tunas,billfishes,blennies,pufferfishes,angelfishes,butterflyfishes,surgeonfishes,groupers,wrasses,seabreams,picarelsandporgies;selectedcrustaceans=lobsters,freshwatercrabs,freshwatercrayfishesandfreshwatershrimps;selecteddicots=magnolias,mangroves;selectedgastropods=conesnails;selectedreptiles=marineturtles,seasnakesandcrocodiles.Source:TheIUCNRedListversion2017-2.ormore,theconservationtargetwastakentoAmongthespeciesconsidered,4percent(166)equateto10percentoftherange.ConservationareclassedasCriticallyEndangered,8percentastargetsforspecieswithintermediaterangeswereEndangered,13percentasVulnerable,10percentdeterminedbyinterpolatingbetweenthesetwoasNearThreatened,58percentasLeastConcernextremes(seeRodriguesetal.,2004).and7percentasDataDeficient.Followingthe“bestestimate”calculationmethod(SchipperetSpecieswhoseconservationtargetwasonlyal.,2008;Hoffmanetal.,2010),i.e.assumingthatpartlymetwereclassedas“partialgap”species.27DataDeficientspeciesarethreatenedinthesameTheanalysisexcludedspeciesthatwereextinctorproportionasdatasufficientspecies,atotalofwhoserangeswereuncertain.Onlyspeciesconsid-27percentofthespeciesconsideredarethreat-eredtobenativeorreintroducedwereincluded.enedwithextinction.Theanalysisconsideredatotalof214879pro-tectedareasandatotalof4243species.Ofthespeciesincludedintheanalysis,83species(2percent)werefoundnottobepresentinpro-27Furtherinformationaboutthescope,assessmentmethodologytectedareas,(i.e.tobegapspecies–seeabove),andcaveatstothisanalysisispresentedinthethematic1472(35percent)topartiallymeettheirconser-studyStudyonthelinkagesbetweenprotectedareasandvationtarget(i.e.tobepartialgapspecies)andtheconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture2688species(63percent)tomeettheircon-commissionedtosupportthepreparationofTheStateoftheservationtarget(i.e.tobe“covered”).AmongWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.364thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Figure7.7ProtectedareacoverageofspeciesinthecomprehensivelyassessedtaxonomicgroupsofTheIUCNRedListwithmappedrangesandclassifiedasusedforhumanfoodNumberofspeciesAmphibians20%40%60%80%238Birds15881169MammalsSelectedbonyﬁshes686Selectedcrustaceans231285Sharksandrays100%0%GapPartialgapCoveredNotes:“Gap”=speciesrangenotcoveredbyprotectedareas.“Partialgap”=speciesrangepartiallycoveredbyprotectedareasbutnottotargetlevel.“Covered”=speciesrangecoveredtotargetlevel.Selectedcrustaceans=lobsters,freshwatercrabs,freshwatercrayfishesandfreshwatershrimps;selectedbonyfishes=sturgeons,tunas,billfishes,blennies,pufferfishes,angelfishes,butterflyfishes,surgeonfishes,groupers,wrasses,seabreams,picarelsandporgies.Comprehensivelyassessedtaxawithfewerthan25mappedspeciesutilizedforfoodarenotshown.Thesecorrespondtoconifers(1species),hagfishes(4species),seagrasses(4species),selecteddicots(magnoliasandmangroves,14species),selectedgastropods(conesnails,3species)andselectedreptiles(marineturtles,seasnakesandcrocodiles,20species).Source:Authors’calculationsusingdatafromTheIUCNRedListversion2017-2andtheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(UNEP-WCMCandIUCN,2018).thegroupsofspeciesconsidered,crustaceansthattheproportionofgapspeciesishigheramongwerefoundtohavethehighestproportionofthreatenedspeciesiscomparabletotheoutcomesgapspecies(4percent),followedbymammalsofglobalgapanalyses,whichhavefoundthat(3percent)andbirds(2percent)(seeFigure7.7).threatenedspecies,whichfrequentlyhavesmallerAtotalof52threatenedspecies(5percentofranges,aremorelikelythanotherstofalloutsidethetotal)werefoundtobegapspecies,611theprotectedareanetwork(Akasakaetal.,2017;(58percent)tobepartialgapspeciesand388Goettsch,DuránandGaston,2018;Gruberetal.,(37percent)tobecovered(Figure7.8).Birdsand2012;Rodriguesetal.,2004).mammalswerefoundtohavethehighestpropor-tionofthreatenedspecieslocatedoutsidepro-Theanalysisprovidesafirstoverviewofhowtectedareas(6percentinbothcases),followedthebiodiversityusedforhumanfoodincludedbyamphibians(3percent)(Figure7.8).inTheIUCNRedListiscoveredbytheprotectedareasnetwork.However,itisimportanttonoteTheproportionofgapspeciesfoundinthethat,eventhoughTheIUCNRedLististhemostpresentanalysisisoversix-foldlowerthanthecomprehensivesourceofinformationonspecies12percentfoundtofallintothiscategoryinanextinctionriskatthegloballevel,notallspeciesanalysisofallspecieswithincomprehensivelyutilizedforfoodareincludedandnotallspeciesassessedtaxonomicgroups(Butchartetal.,2015).includedhaveinformationrecordedontheiruses.TheproportionofspeciesfoundtobecoveredAlthoughuseandtradeinformationiscurrentlytotargetlevelissubstantiallyhigherthanthenotpartoftheminimumrequiredstandardsfor43percentfoundinthewiderstudy.ThefindingRedListassessments,provisionofthisinformationthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE365STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCFigure7.8ProtectedareacoverageofspeciesinthecomprehensivelyassessedtaxonomicgroupsofTheIUCNRedListwithmappedrangesandclassifiedasthreatenedandasusedforhumanfoodNumberofspeciesAmphibians20%40%60%80%63Birds373447MammalsSelectedbonyﬁshes53Selectedcrustaceans1390Sharksandrays100%0%GapPartialgapCoveredNotes:“Gap”=speciesrangenotcoveredbyprotectedareas.“Partialgap”=speciesrangepartiallycoveredbyprotectedareasbutnottotargetlevel.“Covered”=speciesrangecoveredtotargetlevel.“Selectedbonyfishes”=sturgeons,tunas,billfishes,blennies,pufferfishes,angelfishes,butterflyfishes,surgeonfishes,groupers,wrasses,seabreams,picarelsandporgies.“Selectedcrustaceans”=lobsters,freshwatercrabs,freshwatercrayfishesandfreshwatershrimps.Comprehensivelyassessedtaxawithfewerthan25mappedspeciesutilizedforfoodarenotshown.Thesecorrespondtohagfishes(1partialgapspecies),selecteddicots([magnoliasandmangroves]1coveredspecies),selectedreptiles([marineturtles,seasnakes,andcrocodiles]5partialgapand3coveredspecies).Therewerenomappedthreatenedspeciesutilizedforfoodforthefollowingtaxonomicgroups:conifers,seagrassesandselectedgastropods(conesnails).Source:Authors’calculationsusingdatafromTheIUCNRedListversion2017-2andtheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(UNEP-WCMCandIUCN,2018).needstobeencouragedasitwouldallowanalysestheirconservationobjectives.Asurvey28sharedofthiskindtobemorecomprehensiveandaccu-byIUCNwiththemanagersof50participatingrate.AsTheIUCNRedListbroadensitstaxonomicsites(bothcandidatesitesandGreen-Listcertifiedandgeographiccoverageinitseffortstoachieveasites,seeBox7.17)received29responsesfrom“barometeroflife”(Stuartetal.,2010)andhighly22countriesacrosssixcontinents,representingrelevanttaxonomicgroupssuchasfungi,plants,allmajorbiomes,includingforests,coastalareasinsectsandfishcometobebetterrepresented,andislands,andwetlands,andarangeofdesig-itwillbeimportanttoupdatetheanalysis.Annations,includingfiveUNESCOWorldHeritageobviousnextstepistoimproveunderstandingofAreas.TheyalsorepresentedeveryIUCNProtectedthethreatsaffectingbiodiversityusedforfoodsoAreaCategory(Table7.7)andeachIUCNgovern-astoallowbetterplanningofconservationactions,ancetype(Borrini-Feyerabendetal.,2013).includingtheidentificationofprioritysitesfortheconservationofunprotectedspecies.Thesurveyresultshighlightedthecloserelation-shipthatmanyprotectedareashavewithagricul-7.5.3Managementofbiodiversity28Thesurveywasina“prism”format:foreachquestion,forfoodandagriculturerespondentswereofferedatrioofansweringstatementsinprotectedareaspositionedatthecornersofatriangleandaskedtoplaceamarkeratthepointwithinthetrianglethatbestmatchedTheIUCNGreenListofProtectedandConservedtheircontextandsituation.An“other”boxwasprovided,aswellasatextboxinwhichrespondentscouldaddnarrativeAreas(Box7.17)helpsprotected-areamanag-commentsifdesired.ersandotherstakeholderstoprogresstowards366thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.17TheIUCNGreenListofProtectedandConservedAreasTheIUCNGreenListofProtectedandConservedAreas(IUCNSiteswishingtoachieveIUCNGreenListstatusmustGreenList)aimstoincreasethenumberofprotectedanddemonstrate,andthenmaintain,successfulimplementationofconservedareasthatdeliversuccessfulconservationoutcomestheIUCNGreenListStandard.Thisisevaluatedintwophases:througheffectiveandequitablegovernanceandmanagement.•Candidatephase:AvoluntarycommitmenttotheTheIUCNGreenListofProtectedandConservedIUCNGreenListProgrammeisfollowedbythestartAreasStandard(IUCNGreenListStandard)providesanoftheapplicationprocess.Thisindicateswhethersitesinternationalbenchmarkforqualitythatmotivatesimprovedmeetthebasicrequirementsforconsideration.Sitesperformance.Bycommittingtomeetthisglobalstandard,thenundergoaninitialassessmentagainsttheIUCNsitemanagers(inbothformallyprotectedareasandGreenListStandard.Duringthecandidatephase,sitelocationswhereothereffectivearea-basedconservationmanagerslearnwhatmayneedtobestrengthenedmeasuresareinoperation)seektodemonstrateandbeforethesitecanbefurtherconsideredforinclusionmaintainperformanceanddeliverrealresults.ontheGreenList.TheIUCNGreenListStandardisorganizedintofour•IUCNGreenListstatus:Themanagementandcomponents:GoodGovernance;SoundDesignandrepresentativesofthesiteareprovidedwithaPlanning;EffectiveManagement;andSuccessfulcertificate,andthesiteisrecognizedandpromotedbyConservationOutcomes.Thefirstthreesupportthefourth.IUCNasaglobalexemplarinconservation.Eachcomponenthasasetofcriteriaandindicatorstomeasureitsachievement.Source:IUCNandWCPA,2017.turalpracticeandproduction,andindicatedaclearagricultureinmanagementplanning,andneedforbettersupporttoprotected-areamanagersonly25percentindicatedthattheydeliber-indefiningBFAandaccountingforitintheircon-atelyincludeagricultureaspartoftheirman-servationwork.Themainfindingswereasfollows:agementoperations.•81percentofrespondentsindicatedthat7.5.4Country-reportanalysisagriculturalactivityoccurswithinthebound-ariesandoverallmanagementareaoftheirThecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcountriesrespectivesites,and83percentconcludedtoprovideinformationon“landscape-basedini-thatagricultureisasignificantactivityinthetiativestoprotectorrecognizeareasoflandandsurroundingarea;water…ofparticularsignificanceforbiodiver-sityforfoodandagriculture.”29Responsesrefer•nearly40percentofprotectedareasfromtoarangeofdesignationsestablishedwithinwhichresponseswerereceivedaresituatedtheframeworkofinternationalagreementsorwithinanagriculture-dominatedlandscape–including73percentof“NationalPark”29Countrieswereprovidedwiththefollowinglistofexamples:(IUCNCategoryII)designations;“InternationalPartnershipfortheSatoyamaInitiative(IPSI)designatedareas;GloballyImportantAgriculturalSystems•90percentofrespondentsindicatedthatthey(GIAHS)designatedareas;Identifiedbufferzonesaroundconsidertheirprotectedareatodeliversignif-UNESCOManandBiospherereserves;Indigenousandicantbenefitstoagriculturalproduction,forCommunityConservedAreas;IUCNCategoryV(ProtectedexamplethroughecosystemservicessuchasLandscape/Seascape);HighNatureValuegrasslands,Ramsarinsectpollinationorwaterprovision;WetlandsofInternationalImportance,UNESCOWorldHeritageSites(Natural,MixedNaturalCultural),UNESCOWorldHeritage•only35percentofrespondentsindicatedthatForests,Conservationforests,etc.”theyconsiderthatitisnecessarytoincludethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE367STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCTable7.7TypesofdesignatedareareportedtobeofparticularsignificanceforbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureTypeofdesignatedareaDescriptionNumberofcountriesAreasdesignatedfortheAnyareadesignatedforconservationofnaturebasedonanynationalorinternationalcriteria.reportingconservationofnatureWetlandsofInternationalRamsarsitesaredesignatedonthebasisofasetofninecriteriarelatedtowetlandtypes,89Importance(Ramsarsites)ecologicalcommunitiesandsupportforwaterbirds,fishorothertaxa.25Biospherereserves(UNESCOManBiospherereservesmaycontainterrestrial,marineand/orcoastalecosystems.Theyshouldbe16andBiosphereProgramme)representativeoftheirbiogeographicregionandofsignificanceforbiodiversityconservation.Eachsitepromotessolutionsthatreconciletheconservationofbiodiversitywithitssustainable9UNESCOWorldHeritageSitesuseintheinterestsofsustainabledevelopmentatregionalscale.Theapproachisbasedonathree-tieredzoningstructureconsistingofoneormorelegallyconstitutedcoreareas,buffer14Indigenousandcommunityzones,andanoutertransitionarea.conservedareas(ICCAs)2WorldHeritageSitesaredesignatedbasedonsixculturalandfournaturalcriteria.The4GloballyImportantAgriculturallatterincludecontaining“themostimportantandsignificantnaturalhabitatsforin-situ15HeritageSystems(GIAHS)conservationofbiologicaldiversity,includingthosecontainingthreatenedspeciesofAreasrecognizedassourcesofoutstandinguniversalvaluefromthepointofviewofscienceorconservation.”productsassignedgeographicalindicationsICCAsarenaturaland/ormodifiedecosystemscontainingsignificantbiodiversityvalues,ecologicalservicesandculturalvalues,voluntarilyconservedbyindigenouspeoplesandlocalOtherscommunities,bothsedentaryandmobile,throughtheuseoftraditionalpractices,knowledgeandcustomarylaw.GIAHSaredefinedas“remarkablelandusesystemsandlandscapeswhicharerichingloballysignificantbiologicaldiversityevolvingfromtheco-adaptationofacommunitywithitsenvironmentanditsneedsandaspirationsofsustainabledevelopment.”Ageographicalindicationis“asignusedonproductsthathaveaspecificgeographicaloriginandpossessqualitiesorareputationthatareduetothatorigin.”Areasdesignatedtosupportthemaintenanceoftraditionalmanagementpractices;landscapesprotectedbyvirtueoftheirecologicalandculturalvalues;areasmanagedunderagro-environmentschemes;multiple-usemanagementareas.Notes:“Numberofcountriesreporting”=numberofcountriesmentioningtherespectivetypeofsiteinresponsetoaquestionabout“landscape-basedinitiativestoprotectorrecognizeareasoflandandwater…ofparticularsignificanceforbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture.”Analysisbasedon91countryreports.Sources:FAO,2018u;ICCAConsortium,2018;RamsarConvention,2010;UNESCO,2016;UNESCOWorldHeritageCentre,2015;WIPO,2017;countryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.regulations,undertheauspicesofinternationalSystems(GIAHS)(seeBox7.18)areamongthenetworksorbasedonnationalorregionalregu-designationsmentioned.Forexample,Germanylations.Table7.7providesasummary.reportsthatintheRhönBiosphereReserve,themottoofwhichis“protectionthroughuse”,Nearlyallreportingcountries(89)refertoareasseveralmanagementpractices,includingthedesignatedfortheconservationofnature,includ-reintroductionofendangeredlivestockbreedsingsitesofficiallyrecognizedasprotectedareas.suchastheRhönsheep,contributetothecon-WetlandsofInternationalImportance(Ramsarservationoftheagriculturallandscape.China,Sites),30andGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritagewhichhosts15GIAHS,mentionsseveralofthesesystems,includingtherice–fishsymbioticsystemof30AsofNovember2018,therewere2334RamsarsitescoveringQingtianCountyandtherice–fish–ducksystemofalmost250millionhectares.DetailscanbefoundviatheDongCounty.Algeriareferstoitsghoutsystem,aRamsarConventionwebsiteathttps://rsis.ramsar.org368thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.18FAO’sGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSystemsIn2002,FAOlaunchedaglobalinitiativeforthePastorallandscapeandMountKilimanjaro,identification,conservationandadaptivemanagementofKenya-UnitedRepublicofTanzania.GloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSystems(GIAHS),©FAO/DavidBoerma.definedas“remarkablelandusesystemsandlandscapeswhicharerichingloballysignificantbiodiversityThedesignationofGIAHScontributestotheevolvingfromtheco-adaptationofacommunitywithachievementofseveralSustainableDevelopmentGoalsitsenvironmentanditsneedsandaspirationsforincludingthoserelatedtoreducingpovertyandincreasingsustainabledevelopment.”Thedesignationofagriculturalfoodsecurity.Forinstance,producersintheChineserice–systemsasGIAHSaims,interalia,topromotewiderfishculturesystembenefitedfromariseinpricesfortheirrecognitionoftheircontributionstofoodsecurityandproducts,aswellasfromincreasingnumbersoftouristsbiodiversityconservationonanationalandworldvisitingthelocalarea,followingthedesignationofthescaleandtoenhancethebenefitslocalpeoplederivesystemin2005.Finally,GIAHSplayakeyroleinclimatefromthemaintenanceofexistingsustainablepracticeschangemitigationandadaptation,andinthefightagainstandlocalbiodiversitythrough,forinstance,thethegeneticerosionoflocallyadaptedcropsandlivestock.establishmentofpaymentforecosystemservicesorecolabellingschemes.Sources:FAO,2018c,2018u;KoohafkanandAltieri,2010.Theofficialdesignationofcandidatesitesfollowsavettingprocessthatconsiderstheircontributionstolocalfoodandlivelihoodsecurity,theuniquenessandrichnessoftheirinsituagrobiodiversity,theirassociatedtraditionalknowledgeandfarmingpractices,theirculturalrichnessandsocialorganizationandtheirabilitytoconservecenturies-oldhuman-shapeduniquelandscapesorseascapes.Between2005and2018,about50systemswereofficiallyrecognizedasGIAHS.Sitesrangefromrice–fish–ducksystemsinChinatoNorthAfricanoases,andfromtheundergroundwater-collectiontunnelsofKashan,intheIslamicRepublicofIran,toawater-resilientMaasaiagropastoralistsysteminKenya.Rice–fishculture,China.@FAO/LuohuiLiang.Andeanagriculture,Kiwicha,Peru.Ghoutsystem,OuedSouf,Algeria©Institut©FAO/AlipioCanahua.NationaldelaRechercheAgronomiqued’Algérie.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE369STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.19TheroleofgeographicalindicationsinthemaintenanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureGeographicalindicationsareusedtodifferentiateproductsCocoaArribabeansfromalocalEcuadorianvariety.thathavespecificcharacteristics,qualitiesorreputation©EmilieVandecandelaere.thatresultessentiallyfromtheirgeographicalorigin.Thisdifferentiationcanrelatetotheproduct’shistoryortoofthesegeneticresourcesorhabitatsorlandscapesdistinctivecharacteristicslinkedtolocalnaturalorhumanassociatedwiththem.Oneexampleisthegeographicalfactorssuchassoil,climate,knowledgeortraditions.TheindicationofCocoaArribainEcuador,whichaimstopreserveAgreementonTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyancientcacaovarietiesthatwereincreasinglybeingreplacedRights(TRIPSAgreement)requiresmembersoftheWorldTradebynew,widelyusedvarieties(hybrids)thataremoreOrganizationtoprotectgeographicalindicationsasaformofproductivebutdonottasteasgoodandlackthespecificintellectualproperty.Differentlegaltoolsareuseddependingcharacteristicsoftheancientlocalvarieties.onthecountry,includingsuigenerissystems(e.g.theEuropeanUnion’sProtectedDesignationofOriginandProtectedSource:ProvidedbyFlorenceTartanacandEmilieVandecandelaere,GeographicalIndicationschemes)andtrademarksystems.basedonFAO(2017i)andFAOandSINER-GI(2010).Geographicalindicationscancontributetothedevelopmentofsustainablefoodsystems,particularlywhentheyaredevelopedandmanagedbylocalproducers.Theyaddvaluetotraditionalfoodproducts,benefitingproducers,especiallyfamilyfarmersandsmallholders,andcanalsobenefitconsumersbypromotingbetteraccesstolocalnutritiousfood.Origin-linkedproductsoftenusespecifictraditional,endemicorlocallyadaptedspecies,varietiesorbreedsofplants,animalsormicro-organisms.Thepromotionofsuchproductsthroughgeographicalindicationscanthushelptomaintainbiodiversity,bypreventingthedisappearancetraditionalandcomplexhydroagriculturalsystemmarineprotectedareascontainingmeadowsofforfoodproductionindryareas,whichwasdes-theendemicMediterraneanseagrassPosidoniaignatedasaGIAHSin2011.ICCAs(seeabove)oceanicaprovidesafishspawningandnursingarewidelyreported,mainlybynon-OECDcoun-habitatthatisexpectedtoincreasetheresiliencetries.Bangladesh,BurkinaFasoandCameroon,ofthesurroundingecosystemtofishingpres-forinstance,reportthepresenceofcommunity-sure.Bangladeshnotesthattheestablishmentmanagedforests,whereindigenousandlocalcom-offishsanctuarieshasresultedinasubstantialmunitiescanharvestfuelwoodandnon-timberincreaseinfishproductionandintheabundanceforestproductsandconcurrentlyworktowardsofendangeredspecies.Gabonstressestheimpor-theirlong-termconservation.Afewcountriestanceofforestsinprotectedareastofoodsecurityrefertoareasrecognizedassourcesofproductsandnutritionandassourcesofvaluablemedic-assignedgeographicalindications(seeBox7.19).inalplantspecies.FijimentionstheUcunivanualocallymanagedmarineprotectedarea,astretchSeveralcountriesnotethecontributionsthatofinshorewaterthatwasdeclaredano-takevariouscategoriesofareasdesignatedfornaturezoneforthreeyearsin1997,buildinguponlocalprotectionmaketothesupplyofecosystemservices.traditionsandtaboos.ThisstrategyledtotheForexample,Maltareportsthatdesignationof370thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.20Maintenanceanduseofindigenousknowledge–examplesfromKenyaTheNationalMuseumsofKenyadocumentindigenousKakamegaEnvironmentalandEducationProgramme(KEEP),knowledgethroughvariousresearchactivities,usuallywhosemainobjectivesaretoparticipateinconservationcoordinatedthroughtheKenyaResourceCenterforeffortswithintheforestandcreateawarenessinlocalIndigenousKnowledge(KENRIK)undertheCenterforcommunitiesandschools.KEEPcommunityactivitiesincludeBiologicalDiversityDepartment.ThemainaimofKENRIKbutterflyfarming/silkwormrearing,beekeeping,snakeistodocumentandpreservetheendangered/threatenedrearing,growingmedicinalplantsandmaintainingtreeindigenousknowledgeheldbyvariouscommunitiesinKenya.nurseries.ActivitiesarebasedonthetraditionalknowledgeSuchknowledgehastraditionallyplayedanimportantroleinheldbymembersofthiscommunitythathavebeenpassedenvironmentalconservation,natural-resourcesmanagement,fromgenerationtogeneration.foodsecurityandtraditionalhealthcaresystems.Source:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofKenya.ThecommunitiesaroundtheKakamegaForesthaveformedacommunity-basedorganizationknownastherecoveryofrapidlydecliningclampopulationsandofAgricultureiscollectingandtryingtopreservetomore-abundantharvestsandhigherincomestraditionalknowledgeonthepreparationofforlocalinhabitants.Furtherexamplesarepre-traditionalfoodsthroughaprojectcalled“HelasentedinSection7.3.1.bojun”thathasestablishedanumberoffoodoutletsthroughoutthecountry.7.6MaintenanceoftraditionalknowledgeassociatedwithAnumberofcountriesnotethatsometra-foodandagricultureditionalknowledgerelatedtoskillscannotberecordedinwritingandcanonlybemaintainedifCountrieswereinvitedtoreportonactivitiesitisusedinpractice.Severalmentioncivil-societyundertakentomaintaintraditionalknowledgeorganizationsthatcontributetotheactivemain-ofassociatedbiodiversity(forfurtherinforma-tenanceoftraditionalpracticesthroughavarietytionondriversofchangeaffectingthestatusofofculturalactivities.SomeexamplesfromthetraditionalknowledgeseeSection3.9).VariousPacificarepresentedinBox7.21.ExamplesoftheinitiativesrelatedbothtoassociatedbiodiversityroleofwomeninthemaintenanceoftraditionalandtoothercomponentsofBFAwerereported.knowledgeforimprovedfoodandseedsecuritySeveralcountriesnotethatpublicinstitutionsunderclimatechangecanbefoundinBox7.22.suchasmuseums,nationalarchivesandresearchcentresplayanimportantroleinmaintainingCountrieswereinvitedtoindicatewhethertra-traditionalknowledgeandpracticesassociatedditionalknowledgeisusedtoinformconservationwithBFA.Forexample,Jordan’sNationalCenterdecisionsandtosharebestpracticesandlessonsforAgriculturalResearchandExtensionhasdoc-learned.Afewcountryreportsstatethattradi-umentedmorethan100wildedibleplantsthattionalknowledgehasbeenconsideredintheplan-aretraditionallyutilizedbylocalcommunities.ningofprotectedareas.SomenotethattraditionalActivitiesundertakenbytheKenyaResourceknowledgehasinfluencedeffortstopromotetheCenterforIndigenousKnowledgearedescribedsustainablemanagementofarableland,forests,inBox7.20.SriLankanotesthatitsDepartmentfisheriesandaquacultureholdings,oftenthroughparticipatoryapproachesinvolvinglocalcommu-nitiesintheelaborationofmanagementplans.Examplesincludetraditionalforest-managementthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE371STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.21MaintenanceanduseoftraditionalpracticesinthePacificIntheCookIslands,manyfarmersseetrainingonInPapuaNewGuineafarmerstraditionallyusenaturalsustainablecropproductionprovidedbytheMinistryofinsect-repellingplantssuchasginger,lemongrass,chiliandAgricultureasarevivalofthetraditionalknowledgepassedmarigold.TheNationalAgriculturalResearchInstitutehasdownthroughthegenerations.Schoolstudentslearnaboutdevelopedformulasforusingthesespeciesasplant-derivedtraditionalknowledgewhenvisitingconservationsites.pesticidesandtrainsmanyruralfarmersintheiruse.Certainculturalpracticesfosterthegeneticdiversityoffoodcrops,Fijihasusedmassmediasuchastelevisionprogrammesforinstancewhenabrideleavesherparents’homevillagetopromotetheuseoftraditionalknowledgeinfoodtojointhefamilyofherbridegroom,sheusuallybringsseedssystems.ExamplesincludetheTalkBusinessprogrammeorseedlingsgiventoherbyherparentsandotherrelativesonFijiTV1andaseriesofFijiFarmersLeaflets2publishedduringthewedding.Thisallowsvarieties,andthetraditionalbytheMinistryofAgriculture.Traditionalknowledgeisalsoknowledgerelatedtotheircultivation,tobespreadfromonepassedonatcommunitylevelthroughtheuseoftraditionalcommunitytoanother.Thepracticealsopromotesthe“safevarietiesofyamsandothercrops,andpracticessuchaskeeping”ofgeneticmaterialsthroughduplication:ifthehuntingforwildpigs.bride’sparentsloseaparticularvariety,theycangotohertoobtainareplacement.InKiribatithetraditionaltechniqueofrearingmilkfishinnaturalorhuman-madebrackish-waterpondsisstillInSolomonIslands,traditionalknowledgeassociatedpractisedtoday.Themilkfishfryarecaughtfromthewild,withforestfoodsinCentralChoiseuisdocumentedinaduringnew-andfull-moonphases,usingcoconutleavesandbooktitledTheforestfoodsofLauru(JansenandSirikolo,plantbranches.Theyarethenguidedintobrackish-water2010).Thispublicationnotonlydocumentstheplantsusedpondsusingpandanusleaves,andareharvestedasfoodforfoodandhowtheyareprocessedandcooked,butalsoduringfestivals.thearea’straditionalland-classificationsystem,whichisbasedonecologicalzonesrangingfromthecoastalInNiue,thetraditionalprocessingofarrowroot(Taccamangroveswampstothemountaintops.Inaddition,thespp.)starchforfoodisstillwidelypractised.Arrowrootcountry’sNationalCulturalPolicyFramework(NasinolPolicyisanannualplantthatgrowsinthewild.Eachyear,duringFrameworkblongKALSA)fosterstheprotectionandrevivalAprilandMay,familiesusuallyharvestarrowroottubersofindigenouscultureandpromotesthetransmissionoftobeprocessedasfood.Theprocessedarrowrootstarchtraditionalknowledgetoyoungergenerations.isadelicacyusedinlocaldessertssuchasnane(pudding)andpitako(bread).Tongaholdsannualagriculture,forestryandfisheriesshowsthroughoutthemainislandsofTongatapu,Vava’u,InPalautraditionalknowledgeispassedtothenextHa’apai,Eua,Niuafo’ouandNiuatoputapu.Theshowsgenerationnotonlybyoraltransmissionbutalsoviawoodpromotebiodiversitythroughthepromotionanddisplayofcarvingsofancientcustomsandtraditionalpractices.Onethebestlocalproductsfromeachisland.Prizesareawardedsuchpracticeisbul,atraditionalwayofconservingcertainfortraditionalproductssuchasvariousnutoils,therebymarinespeciesduringtimesoflowavailabilitythatinvolvesencouragingtheproductionoftraditionalvarieties.atotalbanonharvestingthespeciestoallowthemtoreproduceandmultiply(seealsoBox7.4).1Seehttp://fijione.tv/talk-business-2/formoreinformation.Sources:CountryreportsoftheCookIslands,Fiji,Kiribati,Niue,Palau,Papua2Seehttp://www.agriculture.gov.fj/index.php/publications/farmers-leafletsNewGuinea,SolomonIslandsandTonga.formoreinformation.372thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7Box7.22Women’straditionalknowledgeforimprovedfoodandseedsecurityunderclimatechangeIndecidingwhattogrow,whenandwhere,womenoftenForthe(re)introductionofadditionalcropsintorelyongender-specificbioculturalindicatorsthatcanhelpZimbabwe’sChiredziandGoromonzidistricts,thereducethevulnerabilityoftheirhouseholdstothestressesprogrammealsoreliedonwomen’sweatherforecastingandshocksaffectingagriculturalproduction.OxfamNovib’sbasedonasetofenvironmentalindicators.TheseincludedprogrammePuttingLessonsintoPractice:ScalingupPeople’streephenology,wild-animalbehaviourandrecentweatherBiodiversityManagementforFoodSecuritycapitalizedpatterns.Forinstance,thepresenceofmigrantstorksinonwomen’straditionalknowledgeaboutseedandplanttheareaisinterpretedasindicatingforthcomingrain,andmanagementtofacilitatefemale-ledinnovationandcapacitysowingandcrop-diversificationstrategiesareplannedbuildingasaresponsetolocalenvironmentalchallenges.accordingly.Women’sforecastsareconsideredmoreaccuratethanthenationalweatherforecasts,asthelatterAspartoftheprogramme,womeninPeru’sLaresregiontendtocoverwiderareasandarethereforelessspecific.sortednativepotatolandracestobereintroducedintotheareabasedonthequalityofsprouts,theabsenceofTakingwomen’sparticularknowledgeaboutlocalblightsandpests,resistancetolocalclimaticconditionsandenvironmentalconditions,seedsystemsandcrop-nutritionalproperties.Inthisregion,theselectionofsowingdiversificationstrategiesintoaccountfacilitatedthesitesforpotatocultivarsisbasedonknowledgeaboutthefarmer-to-farmertransferofinnovationandstrengthenedpreviousoccurrenceoflateblightsandonplantproperties,thecapacityof(women)farmerstoautonomouslyidentifyoftenusedasproxyindicatorsforsoilfertility.Thesowing“new”copingmechanismsintraditionalpractices,timeisdecided,interalia,byobservingthebehaviourofwildknowledgeandbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture.animalsandreadingthestars.Source:OxfamNovibetal.,2016(ReportsubmittedtoFAOincontributiontoTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture).practicesthatareusedacrossthecountryinthe7.7NeedsandprioritiesUnitedRepublicofTanzania,wherebylandusedforgrazingandfirewoodcollectionisfallowedNeedsandprioritiesintheconservationofplantforaperiodoftimetoallowforregeneration,(crop),animal(livestock),forestandaquaticandtheprojectTechnologicalInnovationofgeneticresourcesarediscussedindetailintheFamilyFarmingProductionSystems(Innovaciónrespectivesectoralglobalassessments(FAO,forth-TecnológicadelosSistemasdeProduccióndelacoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).Asdiscussedabove,AgriculturaFamiliar)inPanama,whichdesignedmanygapsremaininconservationprogrammesandimplementedagroecologicalfoodsystemsforgeneticresourcesinthesecategories.Thefol-throughaparticipatoryprocesswiththepop-lowingparagraphsfocusonassociatedbiodiver-ulationoftheNgäbeBuglédistrict.Guyanasityandwildfoods.reportsthatitsNationalAgriculturalResearchandExtensionInstitutehasbenefitedfromtra-Byfarthemostcommonlyreportedconstraintditionalknowledgewhensettingconservationtoconservationactivitiesforassociatedbiodi-prioritiesforthemanagementofitsexsitufieldversityandwildfoodsisalackofknowledge.genebanksandinvitrostoredcollections.AnManycountriesindicatethatspeciesinventoriesexampleofsuccessfulforestmanagementbasedforvariouscategoriesofassociatedbiodiversityontraditionalknowledgeinVietNamispre-areincomplete.EvenforspeciesthathavebeensentedinBox7.23.recorded,geographicaldistributionsareoftennotwellmappedandmonitoringofpopulationtrendsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE373STATEOFMANAGEMENTPartCBox7.23CommunityforestmanagementanddevelopmentinBanBanh,VietNamForestmanagementinavillagenamedBanBanhintheelders’councilarehighlyrespectedandplaytheNorthWestMountainRegionofVietNamisdirectlyrelatedmostimportantrolesinensuringthattheintereststothespirituallifeoftheThaiethnicminoritycommunity.ofthewholecommunityareprotected.Thebeliefthatthespiritsoflocalpeople’sancestorsreside•Thecommunityrulesweredevelopedbytheintheforestprovidedthebasisforthedevelopmentofvillagersthemselves.Theyinitiatedtheprocesscustomarylawstomanageandprotectit.Theforestistheandcommittedthemselvestoparticipatinginallcommonpropertyofthecommunity,andprofitsmadefromstepsinvolvedincreatingtheirowneffectivesetsellingforestproductsgointoacommunityfund.TheThaiofregulations.Thevillagers’motivationtoprotectvillagers’traditionalknowledgetellsthemwhat,whentheforeststemsfromtheirdesiretomaintaintheirandhowtheyshouldcollectfromtheforest.Transgressingtraditionalcultureandlifestyle,whicharecloselyisbelievedtothreatenthesafetyandtranquillityofalllinkedtothisnaturalresource.villagers,asthespiritsarebelievedtotakerevengeonthe•TherulesweredevelopedbasedonThaiindigenouscommunityiftheforestisharmed.AnumberoffactorsknowledgeoflocalforestfloraandothercontributetothesuccessofcommunityforestmanagementbiodiversitysoastoavoidhumandisturbanceinanddevelopmentinBanBanh:thecriticalgrowthperiodoftheyearandpreventoverexploitation.•ThesystemisappropriatetoThaicustom,inwhichtheforestisconsideredthecommonpropertyofthewholeSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofVietNam.community.Communitymembersjointogethertoupholdtheirlocallaw.Thevillagechiefandthevillageisofteninadequateornon-existent.Manycoun-Activitiesaimedatmaintainingandbuildingontriesalsoreportthatknowledgeaboutthesignifi-traditionalknowledgerelevanttoconservationcanceofparticularspeciesorspeciesgroupsintheeffortsalsooftenneedtobestrengthened.Manysupplyofecosystemservicesislimited.Somenotecountriesnotethatalargeamountoftraditionalalackofinformationonhowdriversofchangeknowledgehasalreadybeenlostwithouteverareaffectingassociatedbiodiversityandwildhavingbeendocumented,andthatlossisongoingfoodsorontheeffectivenessofpotentialconser-astheuseoftraditionalpracticesdwindles.vationinterventions.Alltheseknowledgegapsmakeitdifficulttoprioritizespecies(orspeciesResourceconstraintsarealsowidelyreported.groups,productionsystemsorgeographicalloca-Inadequatefundingandalackoftrainedperson-tions)andtoplanconservationactivities.nelarethemostcommonlyreportedproblems,butanumberofcountriesalsomentionalackofSeveralcountryreportsmentionproblemstechnicalresources.Wherehumanresourcesareassociatedwithinadequatediffusionofrelevantconcerned,severalcountriesspecificallyrefertoinformationtothosewhoneeditinordertoplanweaknessesintaxonomyandsystematics.Someconservationactivities.Somenotethatalackofalsomentionthatalackofaninterdisciplinaryinformationsystemsordatabasesisaconstraint.approachinresearchhamperseffortstoimproveSeveralmentionthatstakeholderslackadequateconservationmethodsandstrategies.Manyinformationonmethodsandstrategiesforbothcountriesnotethatalackofresourcesmakesitinsituandexsituconservation.Asnotedabove,moredifficulttobridgeknowledgegapsofthetechnicalbarrierstothelong-termexsituconser-kinddescribedabove.Othersnotethatalackofvationofsomespeciesstillneedtobeaddressed.resourcesconstrainsprogrammeimplementation374thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFCONSERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITYFORFOODANDAGRICULTURE7orpreventseffectiveenforcementofregulationsconservationprogrammes.Withrespecttotheaimedatprotectingbiodiversity.Anumberofspecificsofconservationstrategiesthemselves,countriesreportthatconservation-relatededuca-somecountriesmentiontheneedtoexpandthetion,trainingandawareness-raisingactivitiesforuseofbiodiversity-friendlymanagementpracticesstakeholders,atalllevelsfromproducersandcon-inagriculture,forestryandfisheries,including,sumerstopolicy-makers,needtobestrengthened.whererelevant,traditionalmanagementpracticesassociatedwithlocalorindigenouscommunities.Theothermaincategoryofconstrainthigh-Somenotethepotentialroleoforganiccertifica-lightedinthecountryreportsisweaknessesintionorotherschemesthatpromotethemarketinglegal,policyandinstitutionalframeworks.Manyofproductsproducedusingsustainablemanage-countriesmentionalackofmainstreamingofmentpractices.associated-biodiversityconservationintopoliciestargetingthevarioussectorsoffoodandagri-Severalcountriesnotetheimportanceofmain-cultureandothersectorsoftheeconomy.Sometainingviableareasofnaturalorsemi-naturalnotealackoffocusonassociatedbiodiversityandhabitatwithinandaroundproductionsystems,wildfoodsingeneralbiodiversity-relatedpolicyincludingthosethatareintensivelymanaged,frameworks.Manycountriesthathavedevelopedsomenotingthatthiswillneedtoinvolverestor-relevantpoliciesandlawsreportthattheyarenotingorreconnectingdamagedorfragmentedproperlyimplemented.habitats.Somealsohighlighttheneedtoaddressspecificthreats,suchasinvasivealienspecies,Lackofcollaborationandcoordinationbetweenoverexploitationandoverharvesting,orparticularstakeholdersisanotherwidelyreportedconstraint.unsustainablepracticesinagriculture,fisheriesorManycountrieshighlight,inparticular,alackofforestry.Alsoemphasizedinanumberofcountrycross-sectoralcoordination,includingatpolicyreportsistheimportanceofecosystemorland-level.Somenoteconstraintsassociatedwithalackscape/seascapeapproachesorsimilarjoined-upofadequatelinksbetweenministries,betweenstrategiesthatintegratetheconservationofpar-researchersandpolicy-makers,orbetweenpolicy-ticularcomponentsofassociatedbiodiversityintomakersandproducersorlocalcommunities.widereffortstosustainablymanagetheproduc-tionsystemsinwhichtheyarefound,improvePrioritiesforactionmentionedinthecountrythelivelihoodsoflocalpeopleandpromotethereportsmostlyrelatetoaddressingtheunder-supplyofecosystemservices.lyingknowledge,resourceandpolicy-relatedconstraintstotheestablishmentofeffectivethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE375PartDenablingframeworksChapter8Thestateofpolicies,institutionsandcapacitiesKeymessages•EconomicvaluationtoolscanmakethebenefitsandcostsofBFAmorevisibleandthusdrivemore•Ensuringthesustainableuseofbiodiversityforeffectiveconservationpolicies.However,suchfoodandagriculture(BFA)requireseffectivevaluationsaredifficultandcostlytoimplement.actionsbycompetentauthoritiesandimprovedcollaborationamongarangeofstakeholdergroups•Manydifferenttypesofincentivemeasuresare(producersandtheirorganizations,consumers,beingusedbyarangeofactorstopromotesuppliersandmarketers,policy-makers,andtheconservationandsustainableuseofBFA.nationalandinternationalgovernmentalandnon-Effectivenesscanbeincreasedbycombiningthemgovernmentalorganizations)acrossthesectorsofintointegratedpackages.Perverseincentivesneedfoodandagricultureandbetweenthefoodandtobeidentifiedandremoved.agriculturesectorandtheenvironment/nature-conservationsector.•AppropriatelegalandpolicyframeworksareessentialfortheeffectivemanagementofBFA,•Educationandtrainingonthemanagementofbutgenerallyremainrelativelyweakand/orBFAatalllevelsneedstobestrengthened,aspoorlyimplemented.ImprovingthemisdoesawarenessraisingontheimportanceofBFAchallengingbecauseofthemultiplestakeholdersamongarangeofstakeholders,includingpolicy-andinterestsinvolved.makersandthegeneralpublic.•Inmostcountries,accessandbenefit-sharing•TherearemanygapsinBFA-relatedresearch,measuresareunderdevelopmentorintheearlyespeciallywithrespecttoassociatedbiodiversitystagesofimplementation.Measuresincreasingly(speciessuchaspollinators,soilorganismsandreflecttheimportanceanddistinctivefeaturesofpestnaturalenemiesfoundinandaroundgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.productionsystems),particularlyinvertebratesandmicro-organisms,wildfoods,andtheecosystemfunctionsofBFA.8.1Introductionsubsequentsectionsaddressthestateofcoopera-tioninthemanagementofBFA(includingcoop-Thischapterdiscussestheinstitutionalframeworkerationbetweendifferentstakeholdergroups,forthemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandcross-sectoralcooperationandinternationalagriculture(BFA).Thefirstsectionprovidesancooperation),thestateofancillaryorsupportiveoverviewoftherolesplayedbyvariouscategoriescomponentsoftheinstitutionalframeworksuchofstakeholdersinthemanagementofBFA.Theaseducation,trainingandresearch,thestateofthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE379EnablingframeworksPartDimplementationofvaluationstudiesforBFA8.2.1Producersandtheirorganizations1andthestateofincentivemeasurespromotingthesustainableuseandconservationofBFA.Small-andlarge-scaleproducersThefinalsectionpresentsanoverviewoftheProducersinthecrop,livestock,forestandaquaticstateofpoliciesandlegislationacrossarangesectorsrangefromsmall-scalefarmers,livestockoffieldsrelevanttothemanagementofBFA.keepers,fishers,aquaculturistsandforestdwell-Otherchaptersofthereportincludeinforma-erstoverylargecommercialcompanies.AllrelytiononprogrammesinspecificfieldsofactivityonBFAandtheiractionscanhavemajorimpactssuchasconservation,characterization,monitor-onthestateofbiodiversity.Muchoftheworld’sing,geneticimprovementandvariouspoten-BFAismanagedin,orassociatedwith,smallholdertiallybiodiversity-friendlymanagementpracticescroppingormixedsystems,pastoralistsystemsorandapproaches.Inmanycases,needsandprior-small-scaleforest,aquacultureorfishingsystems.2itiesidentifiedinthesechaptersincludeactionsItisestimated,forexample,thatoutof570millionrelatedtostrengtheningpolicy,legalandinstitu-farmsworldwide,475millionarelessthan2haintionalframeworks.area(Lowder,SkoetandRaney,2016).Thesefarmssupportatleast2billionpeoplebutoccupyonly8.2Stakeholders12percentoftotalagriculturalland(ibid.).•Large-andsmall-scalefarmers,livestockkeepers,Wheredomesticatedbiodiversityisconcerned,fishers,fishfarmersandforestdwellers,amongsmall-scaleproducerstend,broadlyspeaking,toothers,allrelydirectlyonbiodiversityforfoodberelativelyreliantontheadaptivecharacteris-andagriculture(BFA).Small-scaleproducers,inticsofthespecies,breedsandvarietiesthattheyparticular,oftenplayakeyroleinthesustainableuse,i.e.ontraitsthatallowplantsandanimalstouseandconservationofBFAandareoftenheavilysurviveandproduceinharshandchanginglocaldependentonthesupportingandregulatingconditionswithouttheneedforlargequantitiesecosystemservicesitprovidesinandaroundtheirofexternalinputs(FAO,2010a,2015a).Theyoftenproductionsystems.makeuseofmultipleproductsandservicessup-pliedbytheplantstheygrowand/ortheanimals•DespitetheirsignificancetoBFAmanagement,theykeep.Diverseproductionenvironmentssmall-scaleandindigenousproducers–includingandadiverserangeofusestypicallymeanthatinparticularwomen–areoftenmarginalizedandarelativelydiverserangeofgeneticresourcesexcludedfromdecision-makingprocessesthataffectismaintained.Small-scaleproducersareoftentheirproductionsystems.alsokeyplayersinthemanagementofassoci-atedbiodiversity.3Limiteduseofexternalinputs•Manyproducers’andcommunity-basedorganizationsmeansthattheyareoftenheavilydependentonplaysignificantrolesbothinprovidingpracticalecosystemservicesprovidedbytheassociatedsupportforthesustainablemanagementofBFAandinadvocatingpoliciesthatsupporttherolesofsmall-1ThissectiondrawsonthethematicstudyBiodiversityforFoodscaleproducersascustodiansofBFA.andAgriculture:theperspectivesofsmall-scalefoodproviders(IPC,forthcoming).•Arangeofsubregional,regionalandinternationalorganizationsandpartnershipscontributetothe2Theseareclearlyquitelooselydefinedcategories.Whatmanagementofassociatedbiodiversity,includingcountsas“small-scale”variesfromplacetoplace,asdothroughprojectstargetingthesustainableuseofthecircumstances(accesstoinputs,subsistencevsmarketpollinators,soilbiodiversityorbiologicalcontrolorientation,etc.)inwhichsmall-scaleproducersoperate.agents,themanagementofexsituconservationprogrammesandbroadereffortspromoting3Thebiodiversitypresentinandaroundproductionsystemssustainableproduction.thatsupportsfoodandagriculturethroughpollination,pestanddiseaseregulation,improvingsoilfertilityandthesupplyofmanyotherecosystemservices.SeeSection1.5forfurtherdiscussionofthisterm.380thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8biodiversityinandaroundtheirproductionrolebothincampaigningandadvocacyandinsystems.Themaintenance,revivaloradaptationpromotingpracticalactivitiesrelevanttothesus-oftraditionalmanagementpracticesdevelopedtainableuseandconservationofBFA.Onthecam-bysmall-scaleproducersoftencontributessignifi-paigningside,somesmall-scaleproducers’CSOscantlytothesustainableuseandconservationofhavesoughttochallengetheso-calledindustrialBFA,asdoongoingprocessesofinnovationonthemodelofproductionandconsumption,counter-partofsmall-scaleproducers.posinganapproachbasedonagroecologythat,inthewordsoftheDeclarationoftheInternationalWhilesmall-andmedium-scalesystemsremainForumforAgroecology(IFA,2015),significant,large-scalecommercialproductionisexpandingglobally,andincreasinglydominantindisplaces…thecontrolofglobalmarketsmanysubsectors.Large-scaleproducerscanoftenandgeneratesself-governancebydrawontechnologiesandinputsthatenablecommunities…minimize[s]theuseofthemtobasetheirenterprisesoncrops,livestockpurchasedinputs…requiresthere-shapingoraquaticorganismsfromanarrowingrangeofofmarketssothattheyarebasedonhigh-outputspecies,varietiesandbreedsortotheprinciplesofsolidarityeconomyandextractvastquantitiesofproductsfromaquatictheethicsofresponsibleproductionandandforestecosystems.Althoughultimatelyconsumption…promotesdirectanddependentontherangeofecosystemservicesfairshortdistributionchains…impliesaprovidedbyBFA,theiraccesstoinputsmeansthattransparentrelationshipbetweenproducerstheycanoftenoperaterelativelyindependentlyandconsumers…isbasedonthesolidarityofthelocalecologicalprocessesthathavetradi-ofsharedrisksandbenefits…challenge[s]tionallyunderpinnedandconstrainedproduction.andtransform[s]structuresofpowerinTheirmanagementpracticesandstrategiescan,society[and]put[s]thecontrolofseeds,however,havemajordetrimentaleffectsonbio-biodiversity,landandterritories,waters,diversitybothlocallyandatagreaterdistance,forknowledge,cultureandthecommonsintheexampleasaresultoftheenvironmentalimpactshandsofthepeopleswhofeedtheworld.ofthedischargeofwastesortheproductionandAtarelativelylocallevel,CSO’scampaigningtransportofinputs(seeChapter3forfurtherdis-activitiestargetarangeofBFA-relatedissues,cussion).Large-scale,specialistcompaniesarealsoincludingthemaintenanceorre-establishmentplayinganever-greaterroleinbreeding(genetic-ofcollectivelocalcontroloverresourcessuchasimprovement)programmesfordomesticatedforests,grazinglandsandfisheries(IPC,forth-plantsandanimals(terrestrialandaquatic),oftencoming).Box8.1presentsgovernanceoutcomesfocusingtheireffortsonarelativelynarrowrangesoughtbysmall-scaleproducers’organizationsofspecies,breedsandvarieties.Insomesub-assummarizedinthethematicstudyontheper-sectors,suchaspoultry,thebreedingindustryhasspectivesofsmall-scalefoodproviders(ibid.)pre-becomeveryconcentratedinthehandsofasmallparedasacontributiontothedevelopmentofnumberofcompanies(FAO,2015a).TheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture(SoW-BFA).Producers’organizationsProducers’andcommunity-basedorganiza-Despitebeingmajorstakeholdersinthesustaina-tionsofvariouskindscontributeinmanypracti-blemanagementofBFA,producersinallsectors–calwaystothesustainablemanagementoflocalparticularlysmall-scaleandindigenousproducersproductionsystems,whetherbyprovidingprac-–areoftenexcludedfromdecision-makingpro-ticalsupportandadviceonmanagementtech-cessesthataffecttheirproductionandlivelihoodniques,facilitatingthecollectivemanagementsystems.Inmanycountries,small-scaleproducers’oflocalresourcesorprovidingsupportforthecivilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)playasignificantmarketingoflocalproducts(seeBox8.2,Box8.3thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE381EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.1Governanceoutcomespromotedbysmall-scalefoodproviders’organizationsIntheframeworkoffoodsovereignty,andrespectingthe•reinforcetheirinterconnectingrural–urbanfoodwebsrightsofthewomenandmenwhouse,maintainandandlocalmarketssothattheysustainbiodiversityinenhancepeasantbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture,thetheirterritories;organizationsofsmall-scalefoodprovidersseekto:•transformresearchundertakenbyscientistsinpublic•strengthenandpromotedynamicmanagementinstitutionssothatitisreframedbypeasantsfortheofbiodiversitybasedonecologicalprinciplesandco-creationofdiverseknowledges,whichshallnotbecollectiverightsoverknowledgeandresources;patented;and•improveaccesstoandcontroloverbiodiversityand•changetherulesthatperverselyprotectpoliciesandsecurecollectiverightsoverthecommons;practicesthatdestroythebiodiversitythatsupportsfoodsovereignty.•realizeseedpoliciesthatguaranteethecollectiverightsofpeasantsandindigenouspeoplestouse,Source:IPC,forthcoming.exchange,breed,selectandselltheirseeds;Box8.2Communitycontrolofacoastalecosystem–anexamplefromSenegalIn2008,worriedaboutadeclineinfishstocks,localfishingorcollectionofshellsorwoodispermittedintheredcommunitiesinMangagoulack,Casamance,Senegal,createdzone.TheorangezoneisreservedforfishingthatsuppliestheAssociationofFishermenoftheRuralCommunitylocalconsumptionandmarkets.TheyellowareaisopentoMangagoulack(APCRM).Theassociationestablishedafishing,buttherearelimitationsonthefishingmethodsandcommunityconservationareanamedKawawana.Thenamegearthatcanbeused.derivesfromtheDjolaexpression“KapooyeWafolalWataNanang”,whichmeans“ourpatrimony,forusalltopreserve.”TheredzoneismarkedwithfetishesandrevivestheTheconservationareawasdemarcatedandrulesputinplacelocaltraditionof“sacredbolongs.”Itservesasarefugetocontrolaccesstothecoastalwatersandcombattheuseofforaquaticlife.Mangrovesandinletsprovidehabitatfordestructivemethodsthatthreatenlocalfishresources.humpbackdolphins,manatees,fishandshellfish.In2010,APCRMobtainedstatutoryrightsofThenewmanagementarrangementsrapidlyincreasedmanagementforKawawana,includingapreferentialrighttofishstocksandimprovedthelocaldiet.Threeyearsafterthefishonthelocalcoastalstrip.Mangagoulackisthefirstlocalcreationoftheconservationarea,localfishermen’scatchescommunityinSenegaltohavebeendevolvedmanagementhaddoubled.rightsforcoastalfisheries.Source:AdaptedfromIPC(forthcoming),withadditionalinformationfromThewatersoftheconservedareaaredividedintothreeICCARegistry(2012).zones,denotedbythecoloursred,orangeandyellow.NoandBox8.4forexamples).Insomecases,theuse,livestockgenetic-improvementprogrammes,par-developmentand/orconservationofaparticularticularlyinruminantspecies(seeSection5.9).componentofbiodiversityarethemainobjectiveoftheorganization.Forexample,inmanycoun-Whereassociatedbiodiversityisconcerned,tries,particularlyinthedevelopedregionsofthebeekeepers’organizationsplayanimportantroleworld,breeders’associationsaremajorplayersininbeemanagementandmaintainingthesupplyofpollinationservicesinmanycountries.The382thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.3Agroforestryunderlocalcontrol–anexamplefromCostaRicaTheCoproalde(CoordinationofNon-GovernmentalconditionsandsupplyaverydiverserangeoffoodsfromOrganizationswithAlternativeDevelopmentProjects)1smallplotsofland.Upto85foodormedicinalspeciescanNetworkwasformedin1988andbroughttogetherabeplantedina2000m2area.TheagroforestryplotsenablenumberofNGOsandpeasants’andindigenouspeoples’familiestoensuretheirfoodandnutritionalsecurityandorganizationsworkingonalternativedevelopmentobtainextraincomebysellingsurplusinlocalmarkets.projects.Inaround2009,Coproaldemembersstartedtoimplementsuccessionalagroforestrysystems.TheSource:AdaptedfromIPC(forthcoming)(basedontestimonyfromJuaninitiativewasmotivatedbyexchangeswithpeasantsArguedasChaverri,RedCoproalde,CostaRica,2014).fromthePlurinationalStateofBoliviaviathe“campesino1CoproaldeisanabbreviatedformoftheSpanishnameCoordinadoradeacampesino”(farmer-to-farmer)methodology.ThesuccessionalagroforestrysystemsmimicforestecologicalOrganismosnoGubernamentalesconProyectosAlternativosdeDesarrollo.Box8.4Theroleofawomen’sgroupinpromotingsustainablefishing–anexamplefromEcuadorThePescadoAzul(BlueFish)Women’sAssociationofaddedsmokedproductsfromsustainablysourcedyellowfinIsabelaintheGalapagospromotesresponsiblefishingtuna.Woodfromguavashrubs,aninvasivespecies,isusedbyempoweringthewomenofthelocalcommunity.Thetosmokethefish.ProductsaremarketedunderthePescadoassociationemphasizestraditionalknowledgeandtheAzulbrand,andtheassociationhasdevelopedlinkswithconservationandsustainableuseofmarineresources.ecotourismoperatorstohelpidentifymarkets.OtheractivitieshaveincludedreforestationoflocalmangrovesandeffortstoIllegalandunsustainablefishinginlocalcoastalwaterspromoteecologicalawareness.hasledtotheoverexploitationofseacucumbers,spinylobstersandavarietyoffishspecies.ToreducepressuresonSources:CountryreportofEcuadorandUNDP,2013.theseresources,PescadoAzulpromotesalternativelivelihoodopportunities.Themainfocushasbeenondevelopingvalue-countryreport4fromJordan,forexample,men-thewild.Forexample,theGambiamentionsthetionsaprojectinitiatedbytheJordanBeekeepers’importantroleofwomenoysterfarmers’associa-Unionthatsucceededininvolvingbeekeepersintionsinvariousmanagementactivities.Onesuchconservingandplantingtreestoprovideforageorganization,theNiumiWomenOysterFarmers’forhoneybees.Itnotesthatover20000treesAssociation,isreportedtobecollaboratingwithwereplantedbyunionmembersin2013–2014.thecountry’sDepartmentofParksandWildlifeAnumberofcountryreportsalsohighlighttheManagementinmonitoringshellfishexploitationrolesoflocalcommunity-basedorganizationsinintheNiumiNationalPark.ExamplesfromSenegalthesustainableuseofproductsharvestedfromandEcuadoroftherolesplayedbycommunity-basedorganizationsinpromotingsustainable4Throughoutthischapter,unlessnotedotherwise,thetermfishingarepresentedinBox8.2andBox8.4.“countryreports”referstothecountryreportssubmittedascontributionstoTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityMoregenerally,thecountryreportshighlightforFoodandAgriculture.See“Aboutthispublication”forthesignificanceofarangeofcommunity-basedadditionalinformation.organizationsandothercollectivebodies(involvingthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE383EnablingframeworksPartDproducersofvariousscales)inpromotingpar-oftenunpaidhouseholdandcommunity-relatedticipationinsustainablemanagementactivi-tasks(FAO,2016o).Moreover,womengenerallyties.Forexample,VietNammentionstheroleshavelessaccessthanmentoassetssuchaslandofPeople’sCommittees,especiallyatcommuneandlivestock,variousproductioninputsandser-anddistrictlevels,theWomen’sUnion,Farmers’vicessuchaseducation,extensionandcredit,AssociationandtheYouthUnion.Zambianotesandtendnottobewellrepresentedindecision-thesignificanceofthetraditionalleadershipinmakingprocessesrelatedtofoodandagriculturelocalcommunitiesaspotentialcatalystsforthe(FAO,2011e).SeeSection3.8foradiscussionofparticipationoflocalpeople.Amongdevelopeddriversofchangeaffectingtherolesofwomenincountries,theNetherlandsnotesashiftinmech-themanagementofBFA.anismsforimplementingagri-environmentalschemesawayfromafocusonindividualenter-Women’scloseinvolvementintaskssuchasprisesandtowardstheestablishmentofcollec-foodandfuelgathering,gardening,livestocktivebodiesintendedtoimproveinformationmanagementandfoodprocessingoftengivessharingandallowschemestobeimplementedthemuniqueknowledgeaboutlocalBFA,whichoverlargerareasandhencetohaveagreaterisoftenpassedfromgenerationtogenerationimpact.Anumberofcountriesmentiontheneed(Kennedyetal.,2017).Thisknowledge,alongtoimprovecollaborativelinksamongproducers’withtheirparticularrolesintheeconomy,influ-andcommunity-basedgroups,andbetweenencestheirmanagementstrategiesandpriori-themandotherstakeholders.ties,whichmaydifferfromthoseofmen(IUCN,2017b).Women,forinstance,mayprioritizepar-Therolesofwomenproducersticularcropcharacteristics,suchascookingtimeWomenfarmers,livestockkeepers,fishersandorpreservability,thatmaybeoverlookedbymen,forestdwellersoftenplayvital–althoughsome-whomaybemoreconcernedaboutmarketabilitytimesoverlooked–rolesintheuseandconserva-andyield(FAO,1999b).Inthecaseoflivestock,ittionofBFA.Acrosstheglobe,womengatherwildhasbeenarguedthatlocallyadaptedbreedscanplantsforfood,medicinaluse,fuelwoodandotherbeespeciallyimportantforwomen,andhencepurposes,actasherbalists,tendhomegardens,thatwomenareoftenkeyplayersintheuse–andselect,manageandstoreseeds,managecrops,hencepotentiallyinthesurvival–ofsuchbreedstreesandsmalllivestock,domesticateplants,par-(FAO,2012a).Reasonsforthisincludethefactthatticipateinsmall-scalefisheriesandaquaculture,locallyadaptedanimalstendtoberelativelyeasyandstore,preserveandprocessfoodsafterhar-tocarefor,whichmeansthatraisingthemcanvesting(FAO,1999b,2012a,2014a,2018a;HLPE,becombinedmoreeasilywithchild-rearingand2017a;Kennedyetal.,2017;WorldBank,FAOandotherhouseholdtasks.Moreover,suchanimalsareIFAD,2009).oftenabletomakegooduseofcommon-propertyresources,suchascommunalpasturesandfeedInseveralpartsofEastandSoutheastAsiaandthatcanbescavengedfromwasteground,achar-sub-SaharanAfricawomenrepresentthemajor-acteristicthatcanmakethemimportantresourcesityoftheagriculturalworkforce(FAO,2011e).forpeoplewho,likemanywomen,aredisadvan-In2016,womenwereestimatedtoaccountfortagedintermsoflandownership.14percentofpeopledirectlyengagedinfish-eriesandaquaculture,butitisestimatedthatifManyofthecountryreportsnotethesignifi-secondaryactivities(processing,trading,etc.)arecanceofwomen’srolesinfoodandagriculturalincluded,womenmakeupabouthalfthework-productionandprocessingorspecificallymentionforce(FAO,2018a;WorldBank,2012b).Women’stheirrolesinthesustainablemanagementofBFA.workinagriculture,fisheries,forestry,etc.isoftenInthelattercase,countriesgenerallyrefertoaccompaniedbytime-consuming,demandingandwomen’srolesinusing–andhencemaintaining–traditionalspecies,varietiesorbreedsofcrops384thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8orlivestockornotewomen’srolesingatheringItfurthernotesthatparticipatoryworkshopsonwildplantsandhencetheirknowledgeofecologicalappraisalmethodologiesandconserva-theseresourceandinterestinconservingthem.tionareenablingwomeninlocalcommunitiestoCameroon,forexample,mentionsthatinsomeparticipateindecision-makingonhowtoinvestruralcommunitieswomenmonitorthepresence,inandsustaintheirlocalresources(furtherexam-growthandripeningofimportantwildfoodsandplesofeducationandtrainingactivitiestargetingmedicinalplantsinforestandfarmlands,andthatwomenaredescribedinSection8.4).Anumberofwhenpreparinglandforcroppingtheymakesurecountriesmentionthecontributionsofwomen’sthatkeyplantsaremaintained.Itfurthernotesproducergroupstothesustainableuseandcon-thatwomenarethemainconserversofsuchservationofBFA(seeexamplesabove).plantspeciesandhavegoodknowledgeoftheirphenology(thetimingoflife-cycleeventssuchasOnlyafewreportingcountriesmentiontheflowering),howtoharvestthemsustainablyandinclusionofgenderdimensionsintheirnationalhowtoprocessthemforhouseholduseorforsale.biodiversitystrategiesandactionplans(NBSAPs).Severalcountries,however,acknowledgethatHowever,ananalysisofNBSAPsavailableasofwomen’srolesinfoodandagricultureareunder-2016(IUCN,2017b)foundthatthelatestplansvaluedandthatthiscanleadtomissedopportu-from24percentofthe174countriescoverednitiestostrengthentheirrolesasstewardsofBFA.includedatleastoneactivityaddressingtheinclu-Severalalsonotethatwomen’sdecision-makingsionofwomenorgenderconsiderations(althoughpowerinthemanagementandconservationofnotnecessarilyspecificallyrelatedtothefoodBFAstilltendstobeconstrainedbystereotypesandagriculturesector).Mostoftheactivitiesinandsocio-economicbarriersandthatwomenarequestionrelatetoeducationonbiodiversity-under-representedindecision-makingprocessesrelatedissues.TheNBSAPsfrom9percentoftherelatedtoBFA.174countrieswerefoundtoincludeactivitiesthatexplicitlypromotewomen’sempowermentThecountryreportsdescribeavarietyofini-(e.g.genderanalysis,educationandoutreachactiv-tiativesaimedatenhancingtherolesofwomenitiestargetingwomen,orcapacitydevelopmentintheconservationandsustainableuseofBFA.forwomen,includinginfieldssuchasagriculturalBangladesh,forinstance,reportsthateffortsareskillsandaccesstoseeds)(ibid.).beingmadetoengagewomenincommunity-basedconservationoffishandotheraquaticNeedsandprioritiesnotedinthecountryreportsbiodiversity,involvetheminsocial-forestrypro-withregardtostrengtheningwomen’srolesinthegrammesrunundertheDepartmentofForestry,managementBFAinclude:andtrainthemonintegratedmanagementofvegetablesandfruitcrops.Jordannotesthat•providingeducationonconservationandsus-theConservationofMedicinalandHerbalPlantstainableusetailoredtowomen’sspecificneeds;project(amongotheractivities)targetedwomen’sorganizationstoimproveawarenessandknowl-•improvingwomen’saccesstomarketstoedgeontheconservationandsustainableman-increaseeconomicreturnsfromthesustain-agementofmedicinalplants,supportedwomen’sableuseandconservationofBFA;“conservationthroughcultivation”ofplantspeciesandfacilitatedwomen’saccesstomicro-•providingscholarshipsforwomenandgirlscreditandparticipationingrowers’andproducers’topursuecareersinfoodandagriculture;organizations.Cameroonmentionsthatwomenarebeingtrainedasforestoragriculturalengi-•improvingtheintegrationofwomenintorele-neers,eco-guardsorwildlifetechniciansandarevantdecision-makingprocessesatalllevels;andbeingsensitizedinforest-resourcemanagement.•improvingwomen’saccesstoassets,espe-ciallylandandexternalinputs,includingbyimprovingtheiraccesstocredit.Somecountryreportsalsorefertogender-differentiatedvulnerabilitytotheimpactsofclimatechangeonfoodandagriculturalsystems.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE385EnablingframeworksPartDWomentendtoberelativelymoredependenton8.2.3Thepublicsectortheproductsoftheirlocalproductionsystemsfortheirfoodsecurity,fuelandotherproductsandPublicpoliciesandtheactivitiesofpublic-sectorservices,andhencemaybemorevulnerabletoorganizationscanhaveamajorinfluenceonBFAthelocal-scaleeffectsofclimatechange(FAO,anditsmanagement.Protectingbiodiversityistyp-2017p).Nospecificprioritiesarementionedinicallyastatedobjectiveofnationalenvironmentalthisregardinthecountryreports.However,FAOpolicies.PartiestotheConventiononBiological(2017p)emphasizestheneedtotapintowomen’sDiversity(CBD)areobligedtoputinplacenationalpotentialaskeyactorsindisasterriskreductionstrategies,plansorprogrammestoaddressthecon-andclimatechangeadaptationstrategiesandservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityandtoaddressthespecificconstraintstheyfaceintointegratethemanagementofbiodiversityintobuildingresiliencetodisastersandadaptingtorelevantcross-cuttingpolicies.Thepublicsectorclimatechange.maydirectlyoperateprojectsandprogrammesinfieldssuchasconservation,monitoringorgenetic8.2.2Suppliers,processors,tradersimprovement(seeSection5.9andChapters6and7andretailersforexamples),helptofacilitateBFAmanagementviaeducationandresearchprogrammes(seeManyoperators,largeandsmall,areinvolvedinSections8.4and8.5)ortakemeasuresthatinflu-processingandtransportingfoodandagriculturalencetheactionsofotherstakeholders,forexampleproductsandretailingthemtoconsumers,orusevialegalmeasures,provisionofincentivesorprovi-suchproductsasinputsforarangeofdifferentsionofinformation(seeSections8.6,8.7and8.8).industrialprocesses.TherequirementsofusersatallpointsinthevaluechaininfluencedemandPublicbodiesmentionedinthecountryreportsasforrawmaterialsandhencethecharacteristicscontributingtoBFAmanagementgenerallyeitherofcrop,livestock,forestandaquaticproductionhaveabroadbiodiversityfocus(largelyworkingonsystems.Similarly,arangeofindustriesserveastheconservationofwildbiodiversity),addressthesuppliersofinputstofoodandagriculturalpro-generaldevelopmentofaparticularsector(e.g.theductionandcaninfluencethetypesofproduc-forestsector)ortargetthemanagementofparticulartionpractised.Theimpactsofchangingmarketfarmedorharvestedresources(e.g.crops,livestockdemandsandtechnologicaldevelopmentsonBFAorfish).FewcountriesmentionpublicorganizationsanditsmanagementarediscussedinChapter3.withamandatespecificallyrelatedtothecontri-Aswellasactingasmarketsorsuppliers,indus-butionsthatcomponentsofassociatedbiodiversitytriesoutsidetheimmediatefoodandagriculturemaketofoodandagriculture.ExceptionsincludesectorcandirectlyaffectBFAviatheirimpactsontheUnitedStatesofAmerica’sNationalGeneticlanduseortheeffectsofpollutantstheyreleaseResourcesProgram,whichincludestheMicrobial(againseeChapter3forfurtherdiscussion).TheyGermplasmProgramandtheNationalInvertebratemayalsobenefitfromthevariousregulatingeco-GeneticResourceProgram.TheformeraimstosystemservicesprovidedbyBFA(andbiodiversityensurethatthegeneticdiversityofagriculturallymoregenerally)–maintenanceofwatersuppliesimportantmicro-organismsismaintained.Itsactiv-ordisasterriskreduction,forexample.Thecul-itiesincludetheauthenticationandcharacteriza-turalandhabitatservicesprovidedbybiodiversitytionofpotentiallyusefulmicrobialgermplasm,(seeSection2.2forfurtherdiscussion)canbeval-conservationofmicrobialgeneticdiversityanduabletothetourismandrecreationalindustries.measuresthatfacilitatethedistributionandutili-Suppliers,processors,tradersandretailersarealsozationofmicrobialgermplasmforuseinresearchinvolvedinarangeofinitiativesthatcontributetoandindustry.Thelatteraimstoinventoryandchar-thesustainableuseandconservationofBFA(seeacterizethevariousinsectspecies,races,stocks,examplesinSection8.2.4andSection8.7).strains,biotypesandothergeneticentitiesasso-ciatedwithagriculturalsystemsandtodocument386thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8theirinteractionswithagricultureandtheenvi-inDenmark,whichofferscoursesonseedpropa-ronment.Activitiesimplementedunderthispro-gationforinterestednon-experts,andProSpeciegrammeincludethepreservationofreferenceRarainSwitzerlandandGermany,whichhasbeenspecimens,maintenanceofgeneticallyimpor-collaboratingwithamajorsupermarketchainsincetantgermplasm,documentationofspecificinsect1999onthedistributionofproductsfromendan-stocks,managementofdatabasesanddistributiongeredtraditionalfruitandvegetablespecies.ofmaterialtoresearchersandbreeders.AnumberofcountriesmentionNGOswitha8.2.4Thenon-governmentalsectorbroadfocusonenvironmentalandconservationissuesoronlivelihoodsandruraldevelopmentInadditiontotheproducers’organizationsthatoperatesomeprojectsspecificallyaddressingdiscussedabove,non-governmentalandcivil-themanagementofBFA.Forexample,Bangladeshsocietyorganizations,includingsocialmovements,mentionsPolicyResearchforDevelopmentcontributeinvariouswaystothesustainableuseAlternative(UBINIG),acommunity-ledandcom-andconservationofBFA,includingbypromotingmunity-basedpolicyandresearchorganizationdynamicandsustainablemanagementpractices,thathasconnectionstofarmers,weavers,fishers,includingagroecology,atproduction-systemlevel,artisans,craftspeople,communityhealthproviderspromotingthemarketingandconsumptionofbio-diverseorbiodiversity-friendlyproducts,oradvo-Box8.5catingpoliciesthatfavoursustainableapproachesContributionsofnon-governmentaltoproduction.Forexample,localfoodmovementsorganizationstothesustainablemanagement–bothindevelopedandindevelopingcoun-ofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture–tries–createspacesforfarmerstosellbiodiverseexamplesfromtheNearEastproducts.Farmers’markets,box-deliveryschemes,consumer-purchasegroupsandparticipatory-InIraq,theNGONatureIraqsuccessfullysurveyedtheguaranteeschemes,forexample,allhelptomakenorthofthecountrytofindandconservetheindigenousbiodiverseproductsmoreavailableandaffordablewildgoat(Capraaegagrus).Theorganizationisalsotoconsumers,especiallyinurbansettings(FAOandeffectivelyraisingpublicawarenessontheimportanceofINRA,2016;Goodman,DuPuisandGoodman,2012;conservingbiologicaldiversity.Kneafseyetal.,2008).Arecentstudycarriedoutin11developingcountries,showshowsuch“innova-InJordan,theBeekeepers’Union,incollaborationwithtive”marketshaveallowedpeopletoregain–orthecountry’sNationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchandmaintain–accesstoproductsthatwerebeinglostExtension,itsRoyalBotanicGardenandtheHoneyBee(FAOandINRA,2018).NotonlydotheseinitiativesOnlineStudiesProject1(Germany),setupaneducationalhelpfarmersfindmarketingchannelsforbiodi-programmetoteachschoolanduniversitystudentsaboutversefoods,theyalsohaveaneducationalrole,thevalueofhoneybeesasbio-indicatorsandasprovidersagainespeciallyinurbansettings(Brunori,Rossiofecosystemservicesandhealthyproducts.andGuidi,2012;FAOandINRA,2018).InLebanon,severalNGOsareactivelyworkingtoSeveralcountryreportsmentionNGOsspecif-conserveandmaintainthecountry’snaturereservesandicallydedicatedtopromotingtheconservationitsnaturalandculturalheritagemoregenerally.Amongandsustainableuseoftraditionalplantvarietiesotheractivities,theseorganizationsdocumentandpublishoranimalbreeds,someofwhichalsoaddressdataontraditionalknowledgeconcerningwildfoodthemanagementofpollinators(seeforexamplespeciesandpromotetheuseofwildandhealthyfoods.Box8.5andBox8.6).TheseNGOsoftencollaboratewithproducers,privatecompaniesandthegeneralSources:AdaptedfromthecountryreportsofIraq,JordanandLebanon.publiconconservationandawareness-raisingpro-1https://www.hobos.dejects.ExamplesincludeFrøsamlerne(“seedsavers”)thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE387EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.6buyingfair-tradeororganicproductsortouseZambia’sBiodiversityCommunityNetworkfarmers’marketstosupportlocalagriculture.Theymayboycottfoodsseenasunsustainabletopressur-InZambia,theBiodiversityCommunityNetwork–anizeproducersandretailerstochangetheirpractices.NGOworkingwithintheInternationalFederationofOrganicAgricultureMovements(IFOAM)frameworkInsomecountries,citizenscientistsmakeanandinvolvedinbuildingthecapacityofcommunitiesinimportantcontributiontomonitoringthestatustheconservationanduseofbiodiversity–implementedofparticularcategoriesofbiodiversitysuchasaprojecttostrengthencommunity-basedon-farmbirdsandbutterflies.Aglobalreviewofsuchini-conservationandsustainableuseofcropdiversityintiatives(Chandleretal.,2017)concludedthattheythesemi-aridZambeziGwembeValley.TheprojectprovidealargeamountofdataondistributionwassupportedbytheBenefit-SharingFundoftheandpopulationabundanceandontraitssuchasInternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforphenology,inbirds,Lepidopteraandplants,asFoodandAgriculture.Itfocusedontheconservationofwellasonecosystem-functionvariables,mainlycropdiversityandstrengtheninglocalseedsystemsforinEurope,NorthAmerica,SouthAfrica,Indiaandsorghum,pearlmillet,cowpeaandbambaranuts.Australia(ibid.).Aconsiderableamountofworkonconservationprojectsisalsoundertakenbyvol-Source:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofZambia.unteersfromamongthegeneralpublic.andruralentrepreneursandworkstoconserveTherolesofcitizenscientistsarewidelynotedinforestsandthelivelihoodsofindigenouscommuni-thecountryreports,mainlyinthosefromdevelopedties.UBINIGaims,interalia,tofosterclimatechangeregions(seeChapters4and6forfurtherdiscussion).adaptationbydisseminatingknowledgeandprac-Manycountriesalsomentionawareness-raisingticesthathelptominimizerivererosion,promoteactivitiesaimedatinformingthegeneralpublictheselectionofappropriateseedforspecificagro-aboutissuesrelatedtoBFA(seeSection8.4).ecologicalzonesandstrengthentheconservationofmangroves.ZimbabwementionsseveralNGOsthat8.2.6Regionalandinternationalhaveestablishedcommunityseedbanksorhostedorganizationsseed-diversityfairsinsupportoftheconservationandparticipatorybreedingoflocalvarieties.NepalManyregionalandinternationalorganizationsnotestheroleofNGOssuchasLocalInitiativesforcontributetotheconservationandsustainableBiodiversity,ResearchandDevelopment(LI-BIRD)useofBFA.Therolesofsuchorganizationsintheintheestablishmentofcommunityseedbanksthatmanagementoflivestock,crop,forestandaquaticenhanceaccessto–andexchange,useandmanage-geneticresourcesarediscussedindetailinthementof–cropgeneticresources.respectiveFAOglobalassessments(FAO,forth-coming,2010a,2014a,2015a),andthereforethe8.2.5Thegeneralpublicfocushereismainlyoncontributionstotheman-agementofassociatedbiodiversityandwildfoods.WhilemanymembersofthegeneralpublichaveGiventhatthesearebroadanddiversecategoriesnodirectinvolvementinthemanagementofBFA,ofbiodiversitythatcanbeaffectedbymanydiffer-theirchoicesasconsumersandtheirpoliticaldeci-enttypesofactivity,therearemanyinternationalsionsandactivitiesascitizenshavethepotentialtoorganizationswhoseworkispotentiallyrelevant.increaseorreducepressuresonBFAorinfluenceitsmanagement.Forexample,consumersmaydecideAnumberofregionalandinternationalorganiza-tosupportsocialorenvironmentalobjectivesbytionsprovidedreportsasinputstotheSoW-BFApro-cess.5Mostarebasedonastandardquestionnaire5Forfurtherdetailsofthereportingprocess,seethe“Aboutthispublication”sectioninthepreliminarypagesofthereport.388thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8thatinvitedorganizationstoprovideinformationMostofthesementionatleastsomeactivitiestar-ontheiractivitiesrelatedtoassessment,moni-getingassociatedbiodiversity(Table8.1).Some,toring,conservationandsustainableuseofBFAhowever,referonlytothemanagementofdomes-(includinginparticularassociatedbiodiversityandticatedresourcesandwildrelativesandtheirroleinwildfoods)andtopolicies,institutions,capaci-thesupplyofprovisioningservices.Thereportfromty-buildingandregionalandinternationalcoop-AfricaRiceCenter,forexample,focusesonrice,erationinthemanagementofthesecomponentshighlightinginparticulartheorganization’sworkofbiodiversity.Inaddition,thecountry-reportingonbreeding,exsituconservationandresearch.guidelinesinvitedcountriestoprovideinforma-tionontheirinvolvementinregionaland/orinter-Theregionalorganizationsmostfrequentlynationalinitiativestargetingtheconservationandmentionedinthecountryreportsascontributorssustainableuseofassociatedbiodiversityandontoinitiativesrelatedtothemanagementofasso-thecontributionsofregionalorganizationsandciatedbiodiversityareintergovernmentalbodiesinternationalprogrammestocountry-leveleffortsormultilateralpartnershipsworkinginfieldssuchtopromotethecontributionsofassociatedbiodi-asfisheries,forestry,wildlifemanagementandtheversitytofoodsecurityandnutrition,production-managementofsharedwaterbodies.6Somecoun-systemresilienceandthesupplyofecosystemtriessimplynotetheirmembershipoftherespec-services.Theoverviewpresentedbelowisbasedtiveorganizations,whileothersrefertoindividuallargelyontheinformationprovidedintheinterna-projectsorprogrammes.Table8.1presentsexam-tionalorganizationreportsandthecountryreports.plesofactionsrelatedtoassociatedbiodiversityGiventheabove-notedbroadrangeofpotentiallyundertakenbyorganizationsmentionedbycoun-relevantorganizationsandspheresofactivity,itistriesinthiscontext.inevitablynon-exhaustive.FurtherinformationoncollaborativeactivitiespromotedbyinternationalIntheirresponsesonpolicies,programmesorganizationsispresentedinSection8.3.andenablingframeworks,anumberofcountriesmentiontheroleofregionalandsubregionalRegionalandsubregionalorganizationseconomicandpoliticalunionsandcommunities.Manyofthereportssubmittedbyregionalorgani-Forexample,severalmembersoftheEuropeanzationsdescribeawidevarietyofactivitiesrelatedUnionnotethesignificanceofregionallegislationtothemanagementofassociatedbiodiversity.relatedtobiodiversity-friendlyproductionprac-Severalmentionworkonthesustainableuseandtices(e.g.controllingtheuseofpesticidesandfer-conservationofspecificgroupsofbeneficialorgan-tilizers)ortotheprotectionofhabitatsassociatedisms,suchasbiologicalcontrolagents,soilorgan-withagricultural,forestoraquaticproductionismsandpollinators.Anumbermentionthemain-systems.Manyalsorefertoagri-environmentaltenanceofexsitucollectionsoforganismsbelong-schemesfundedbytheEuropeanAgriculturalingtothesegroupsforidentificationandresearchFundforRuralDevelopmentortoprojectsfundedpurposes.OthersprovidemoregeneraldescriptionsunderotherEuropeanUnionprogrammes(seeoftheireffortstoimprovethemanagementofSection8.7forfurtherdiscussionandexamplesbiodiversityinandaroundproductionsystems.Inofactivitiesundertakenwithintheframeworkofmanycases,activitiesspanallaspectsofmanage-EuropeanUnionlegislationandpolicies).Severalmentfromassessmentandmonitoringtocapacity-Africancountriesmentionpolicyframeworksfordevelopment,educationandawarenessraising.theagriculturesectordevelopedbysubregionalSomeofthereportingorganizationsarespecializedpoliticalandeconomiccommunities.However,croporlivestockresearchanddevelopmentinstitu-fewdetailsareprovidedaboutprovisionsspecifi-tionsandreportarangeofactivitiesrelatedtothecallyrelatedtoassociatedbiodiversity.managementofdomesticatedgeneticresources.6Mostoftheregionalorganizationsthatsubmittedreportsarealsomentionedinthecountryreports.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE389EnablingframeworksPartDTable8.1SelectedregionalintergovernmentalbodiesandmultilateralpartnershipsreportedbycountriestocontributetoinitiativesinthemanagementofassociatedbiodiversityNameoforganizationObjectives/mission/mandateSelectedactivitiesaddressingassociatedAfricabiodiversityandecosystemservicesMission:Tobecome“anefficientandvalue-addingAfricanUnionCommissioninstitutiondrivingtheAfricanintegrationandActivitiesacrossallareasofmanagement(assessment(https://www.au.int/web/en/developmentprocessinclosecollaborationwithandmonitoring;conservationandsustainableuse;commission)AfricanUnionMemberStates,theRegionalEconomicpolicies,institutionsandcapacity;regionalandCommunitiesandAfricancitizens.”internationalcooperation),particularlyincapacity-AfricanUnionInterafricandevelopmentandtheimplementationofregionalBureauofAnimalResourcesMission:“Toprovideleadershipinthedevelopmentstrategiesandprojects.(http://www.au-ibar.org)ofanimalresourcesforAfricathroughsupportingandBiodiversityconservation,geneticresourcesandempoweringAUMemberStatesandRegionalEconomicecosystemsareapriorityareaunderGoal7:CommissionofCentralCommunities.”EnvironmentallysustainableandclimateresilientAfricanForestseconomiesandcommunitiesofAgenda2063(African(http://comifac.org/en/)“COMIFACisanorganizationresponsiblefordirecting,UnionCommission,2015).harmonizingandmonitoringforestandenvironmentalEastAfricanCommunitypoliciesinCentralAfrica.”Beeconservationactivities:the“BeeProject”(http://(http://www.eac.int/)www.au-ibar.org/bee-project)“aimstoimprovebee“TheobjectivesoftheCommunityshallbetodevelopproductsandpollinationservicesthroughreducedInternationalCentreofInsectpoliciesandprogrammesaimedatwideningandincidenceofbeediseasesandpests,enhancedmarketsPhysiologyandEcologydeepeningco-operationamongthePartnerStatesinaccess,andbeehealthinstitutionalenvironment.”(http://www.icipe.org)political,economic,socialandculturalfields,researchandtechnology,defence,securityandlegalandjudicialVariousactivitiesrelatedtotheconservationandInternationalInstituteofaffairs,fortheirmutualbenefit.”sustainableuseofbiodiversity(e.g.establishmentofTropicalAgricultureprotectedareas,jointmanagementoftransboundary(http://www.iita.org)“ICIPE’smissionistohelpalleviatepoverty,ensureprotectedareas,monitoringofbiodiversity,valorizationfoodsecurityandimprovetheoverallhealthstatusofofgeneticresources,monitoringofresourceuseandLakeChadBasinCommissionpeoplesofthetropics,bydevelopingandextendingmanagement,developmentofecotourism,combating(http://www.cblt.org/en)managementtoolsandstrategiesforharmfulandusefulillicitexploitationofforestresourcesandprotection/arthropods,whilepreservingthenaturalresourcebasevalorizationoftraditionalknowledge).throughresearchandcapacitybuilding.”EffortstoharmonizepolicyframeworksfortheMission:“Toofferleadingresearchpartnershipthatmanagementoftransboundaryecosystems.facilitatesagriculturalsolutionstohunger,poverty,andOperationoftheLakeVictoriaBasinAquaticBiodiversitynaturalresourcedegradationthroughoutsub-SaharanMeta-DatabasebytheLakeVictoriaBasinCommission.Africa.”TheEastAfricanCommunityTreatyreferstotheestablishmentofapi-agroforestrysystems.Mandate:“SustainableandequitablemanagementoftheLakeChadwatersandothertransboundaryWorkontheroleofbees(includingstinglessbees,honeywaterresourcesoftheLakeChadBasin;Preservationbeesandcarpenterbees)intheprovisionofpollinationandprotectionofecosystemsofthecatchmentarea;services,thepotentialofinsectsashumanfoodandPromotionofintegration,andpreservationofpeaceandlivestockfeed,andintegratedpestmanagementsecuritypeaceintheConventionalBasin.”strategiesinvolvingarangeofnaturalenemies(predatorsandparasitoids)andfungal-basedbiopesticides.Maintenanceofcollectionsofinsectsandtheirnaturalenemiesandarepositoryofmicro-organismswiththepotentialforuseinthecontrolofarthropods.HostingtheAfricanBeeHealthProgrammeandtheAfricanReferenceLaboratoryforBeeHealth.Maintenanceofareferencecollectionofarthropodsandmicro-organisms.Researchontheuseofbiologicalcontrolagentsincropproductionandinthecontrolofaflatoxins(toxicsubstancesproducedbycertainkindsofmouldgrowingonstoredfoods).TheprogrammeReversalofLandandWaterDegradationTrendsintheLakeChadBasinEcosystemfeaturesactionstargetingtherestoration,conservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity,includingbypromotingsustainablepracticesinagropastoral,aquaticandforestproductionsystemsandcombattingthreatssuchasinvasivealienspecies,desertificationanddeforestation.(Cont.)390thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Table8.1(Cont.)SelectedregionalintergovernmentalbodiesandmultilateralpartnershipsreportedbycountriestocontributetoinitiativesinthemanagementofassociatedbiodiversityNameoforganizationObjectives/mission/mandateSelectedactivitiesaddressingassociatedbiodiversityandecosystemservicesNigerBasinAuthorityMission:“TheNBAis…responsibleforpromotingImplementationofvariousprojectsandstudies(http://www.abn.ne/)cooperationamongstMemberstatesandcontributingaddressingecosystemmanagementandtheprotectiontoimprovethelivingconditionsofthebasinpopulationsofbiodiversity.SenegalRiverBasinthroughsustainablemanagementofwaterresourcesDevelopmentAuthorityandassociatedecosystems”EstablishmentoftheRegionalWaterandEnvironment(http://www.portail-omvs.Observatorytomonitorbiodiversityandothernaturalorg/en)“Theobjective[oftheauthority]…istoimplementresourcesintheFouta-Djallonmassif.anintegratedandconcertedmanagementprogramAsiaofwaterresourcesandecosystemsforasustainableActivitiestargetingwildlifeingeneralwithafocusdevelopmentofthebasin.”“onpolicyharmonization;institutionalcapacitystrengtheningthroughknowledgeandintelligenceSouthAsiaWildlifeMission:“Tostrengthen,promoteandco-ordinatesharing;andcollaborationwithregionalandEnforcementNetworkregionalco-operationforcurbingillegalwildlifetradeinternationalpartnerstoenhancewildlifelaw(http://www.sawen.org/)thatthreatensthewildfloraandfaunaofSouthAsia.”enforcementinthemembercountries.”EuropeMandate:“TohelptheCommunityandmemberWorkonbiodiversitydata,indicatorsandassessments,countriesmakeinformeddecisionsaboutimprovingtheincludingonhabitatsandspeciesassociatedwithcrop,EuropeanEnvironmentenvironment,integratingenvironmentalconsiderationslivestock,forestandaquaticproductionsystems.Agencyintoeconomicpoliciesandmovingtowards(https://www.eea.europa.eu/)sustainability”and“TocoordinatetheEuropeanDevelopmentofguidelines,criteriaandindicatorsforenvironmentinformationandobservationnetwork.”sustainableforestmanagement.MonitoringandreportingonthestateofforestsandForestEurope(TheMinisterialMission:“FORESTEUROPEenhancesthecooperationforestmanagement.ConferenceontheProtectiononforestpoliciesinEuropeundertheleadershipofWorkonforestecosystemservicesandtheirvaluation.ofForestsinEurope)ministers,andsecuresandpromotesSustainableForestWorkonforestprotectionandadaptationtoclimate(http://foresteurope.org/)Management(SFM)withtheaimofmaintainingthechange.multiplefunctionsofforestscrucialtosociety.”PromotionofsustainableuseofnatureandgeneticNordicCouncilofMinisters“TheNordicCouncilofMinistersistheofficialbodyforresourcesinfisheriesandaquaculture,agriculture,food(http://www.norden.org/en/Nordicintergovernmentalco-operation.Representativesandforestry.nordic-council-of-ministers)oftheNordicgovernmentsmeetattheCouncilofMinisterstodraftNordicconventions,etc.”Workontheidentificationanduseofexoticcoccinellidae(ladybirdbeetles)asbiologicalcontrolLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanagentsforthepinkhibiscusmealybug(Maconellicoccushirsutus).CaribbeanAgricultural“TocontributetothesustainabledevelopmentofResearchandDevelopmentCaribbeanpeoplebythegeneration,transferandRegionalCoralReefPlanofActionPlanapprovedinInstituteapplicationofappropriatetechnologiesthrough2014.(http://www.cardi.org)agriculturalresearchfordevelopment.”(Cont.)CaribbeanRegionalObjectives“(a)theefficientmanagementandFisheriesMechanismsustainabledevelopmentofmarineandotheraquatic(http://www.crfm.int)resourceswithinthejurisdictionsofMemberStates;(b)thepromotionandestablishmentofco-operativearrangementsamonginterestedStatesfortheefficientmanagementofshared,straddlingorhighlymigratorymarineandotheraquaticresources;(c)theprovisionoftechnicaladvisoryandconsultativeservicestofisheriesdivisionsofMemberStatesinthedevelopment,managementandconservationoftheirmarineandotheraquaticresources.”thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE391EnablingframeworksPartDTable8.1(Cont.)SelectedregionalintergovernmentalbodiesandmultilateralpartnershipsreportedbycountriestocontributetoinitiativesinthemanagementofassociatedbiodiversityNameoforganizationObjectives/mission/mandateSelectedactivitiesaddressingassociatedbiodiversityandecosystemservicesInter-AmericanInstituteforMission:“Toencourage,promoteandsupportourPrioritiesforfutureworkshopsandcapacity-buildingCooperationonAgricultureMemberStatesintheireffortstoachieveagriculturalactivitiestopromotetheuseofagrobiodiversity(http://www.iica.int/en)developmentandruralwell-beingthroughinternationalincludetheadoptionofterritorialorlandscapetechnicalcooperationofexcellence.”approachesfortheintegralmanagementandsustainableuseofagrobiodiversityandassociatedspecies.TropicalAgriculturalResearchMission:“IncreasesustainableandinclusivehumanResearch,capacity-developmentandeducationalandHigherEducationCenterwell-beinginLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,activitiessupportingsustainableuseandconservation(https://www.catie.ac.cr/en)promotingeducation,researchandoutreachforofbiodiversityinforest,agriculturalandcoastal-marinethesustainablemanagementofagricultureandproductionsystems.conservationofnaturalresources.”NearEastandNorthAfricaRegionalOrganizationfor“PERSAGAis…dedicatedtotheconservationoftheMonitoringactivities,includingformangrovesandtheConservationofthecoastalandmarineenvironmentsfoundintheRedSea,coralreefs.EnvironmentoftheRedSeaGulfofAqaba,GulfofSuez,SuezCanal,andGulfEstablishmentofmarineprotectedareas.andGulfofAdenofAdensurroundingtheSocotraArchipelagoandActionstoprotectthemarineenvironmentfrom(http://www.persga.org/nearbywaters.”land-basedactivities(coralreefs,mangrovesandindex.php)seagrassbedsamongthepriorities).Valuationstudiesofmarineandcoastalecosystems.Climatechange-relatedactionsincludingvulnerabilityassessmentsforcoastalandmarineenvironmentsanddevelopmentofecosystem-basedadaptationmeasures.PacificPacificCommunityMission:“Weworkforthewell-beingofPacificpeopleStrategiesandprogrammesthataddressthesustainable(http://www.spc.int/)throughtheeffectiveandinnovativeapplicationmanagementoftheregion’smarineandterrestrialofscienceandknowledge,guidedbyadeepecosystems.understandingofPacificIslandcontextsandcultures.”BiologicalControlLaboratory“facilitatesandcoordinatesbiologicalcontrolprogrammesformanagingpestproblemsofthePacificIslandCountriesandTerritories.”CoralTriangleInitiative“TheCoralTriangleInitiativeonCoralReefs,Goalsinclude:theestablishmentofmarineprotected(http://www.Fisheries,andFoodSecurity(CTI-CFF)isamultilateralareas,targetingcoralreefs,mangroves,seagrasscoraltriangleinitiative.org/)partnershipofsixcountriesworkingtogethertosustainbedsandarangeofothermarineandcoastalextraordinarymarineandcoastalresourceshabitats;improvingthestatusofthreatenedmarinebyaddressingcrucialissuessuchasfoodsecurity,species;implementationofanecosystemapproachclimatechangeandmarinebiodiversity.”tomanagementoffisheries;andimplementationofclimatechangeadaptationmeasuresinmarineandcoastalenvironments.PacificOrganicandEthical“Throughcoordination,informationsharing,ArangeofactivitiespromotingorganicmanagementTradeCommunitynetworking,capacitybuildingandestablishingaandhenceaddressingthesustainableuseofbiodiversity.(http://www.organicpasifika.regionalcertificationschemegrowtheorganicandcom/poetcom)ethicaltrademovementandcontributetoaproductive,resilient,sustainableandhealthyPacificIslandregion.”Sources:Theorganizationslistedarementionedinthecountryreportsasexamplesofinternationalcooperationand/orsubmittedreportsontheirBFA-relatedactivitiesascontributionstothepreparationofTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Informationonmandatesandactivitiesistakenfromthecountryreportsorinternationalorganizationreportsand/orfromorganizationwebsites(accessedMay–June2017).392thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8FewcountryreportsmentionregionalNGOsplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculturethatspecificallytargetassociatedbiodiversityor(PGRFA)andtheirroleinthesupplyofprovision-wildfoods.OneexceptionistheInternationalingservices.Forexample,thereportfromtheAssociationfortheProtectionoftheEuropeanInternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementDarkBee,7mentionedinthereportfromPoland.Center11describestheorganization’sworkonexLikewise,onlyafewreportsmentionregionalsituconservationandcharacterizationofitstargetmultistakeholdernetworksthatpromotecollab-speciesandtheirwildrelatives.ThereportfromorationinresearchorotheractivitiesexplicitlytheGlobalCropDiversityTrust12notesthat,incol-relatedtothemanagementofassociatedbiodi-laborationwiththeMillenniumSeedBank,Kewversityandwildfoods.ExamplesincludePlanta(UnitedKingdom),itisimplementingaprojectEuropa,8anetworkofnon-governmental,govern-supportingnationalgenebanksincollectingandmentalandscientificorganizationsundertakingconservingcropwildrelatives.jointactionstoprotectspeciesofplantsandfungiinEurope,theAssociationofForestryResearchThecountryreportsprovidelimitedinformationofEastAfricaandtheAsiaPacificAssociationofontherolesofinternational(i.e.global)organi-ForestryResearchInstitutions.9zationsinthemanagementofassociatedbiodi-versityorBFAmoregenerally.Responsesrefer-CollaborativeinitiativesfocusingonassociatedringtocollaborativeinitiativesatthislevelmainlybiodiversityandwildfoodsarefurtherdiscussedrelatetointernationallegalinstrumentstowhichinSection8.3.Furtherinformationontherolesreportingcountriesareparties(seeSection8.8.1ofregionalorganizationsisprovidedintheforinformationoninternationalpolicyframe-regionalsynthesisreportspreparedaspartoftheworks).SeveralcountriesrefertotheongoingSoW-BFAprocess.10activitiesofintergovernmentalbodiessuchastheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodInternationalorganizationsandAgriculture,theIntergovernmentalScience-Informationontheassociatedbiodiversity-focusedpolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemactivitiesoftheorganizationsthatsubmittedServices,13UNEnvironment,14theInternationalreportsascontributionstotheSoW-BFAprocessisWhalingCommission15andtheOrganisationforsummarizedinTable8.2.Liketheirregionalcoun-EconomicCo-operationandDevelopment.16Forterparts,globalorganizationsreportavarietyofexample,NorwaymentionstheestablishmentcontributionstothemanagementofassociatedoftheGRID-ArendalCentre17tosupportthebiodiversity,rangingfromprojectstargetingtheworkoftheUnitedNationsintheenvironmen-sustainableuseofpollinatorsorbiologicalcontroltalfield(mainlythroughUNEnvironment).Someagentstothemanagementofexsitucollectionscountriesmentiontherolesofinternationalcon-andbroadereffortspromotingthemaintenanceservationNGOsorNGOnetworks(e.g.BirdLifeofhealthyagroecosystems.Again,organizationsInternational,18WorldConservationSociety19andwhosemandatesfocusoncropsorlivestockreportWWF20)thatoperateorsupportprojectsandpro-arangeofactivitiesrelatedtothemanagementgrammesatcountryorregionallevel.ofdomesticatedgeneticresourcesandinsomecaseswildrelatives.Mostoftheseorganizations11http://www.cimmyt.orgalsomentionactionstargetingassociatedbiodi-12https://www.croptrust.orgversity,althoughsomereportsfocusentirelyon13http://www.ipbes.net14http://www.unep.org7http://www.sicamm.org/15https://iwc.int/home8https://www.plantaeuropa.com16http://www.oecd.org9http://www.apafri.org/abc.htm17https://www.grida.no10Theregionalsynthesisreportswillbemadeavailableat18http://www.birdlife.org19https://www.wcs.orghttp://www.fao.org/cgrfa/topics/biodiversity/en20https://www.worldwildlife.orgthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE393EnablingframeworksPartDTable8.2Examplesofassociated-biodiversitymanagementactivitiesreportedbyinternationalorganizationsOrganizationComponent(s)ofExamplesofactivitiestargetingassociatedbiodiversityassociatedbiodiversitytargetedMIVPCentreforAgricultureandExsituconservation:housingalivingcollectionofmicro-organismsholdingBiosciencesInternational(CABI)✓✓some30000strainsrepresentingover6000speciesfrom142countries;(http://www.cabi.org)providingtrainingandcapacity-buildingtohelpmembercountries,inparticular,conserveandutilizebiodiversity,especiallyinestablishingmicrobialculturecollections.Workontheuseofmicro-organismandinvertebratebiocontrolagents.InternationalCenterforTropicalWorkonintegratedpestmanagementincludingtheuseofbiologicalcontrolagents.Agriculture(CIAT)✓(http://ciat.cgiar.org)InternationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchinthe✓Exsituconservation:holds1400strainsofrhizobiumoffoodandforagelegumes.DryAreas(http://www.icarda.org)Programmeofworkonagriculturalbiodiversityaddressesassessments,SecretariatoftheConventionadaptivemanagement,capacitybuildingandmainstreamingofallonBiologicalDiversity✓✓✓✓componentsofagriculturalbiodiversity.Cross-cuttinginitiativesaddress,interalia,theconservationandsustainable(https://www.cbd.int/secretariat)useofsoilbiodiversityandtheconservationandsustainableuseofpollinators.InternationalAtomicEnergy✓✓Characterizationandmonitoringprojectsonrhizobialbacteria.AgencyResearchontheuseofmicrobialbiotechnologytoimproveproductivityand(https://www.iaea.org)theadaptationoflegumestoclimatechange.Provisionoftechnicaladviceandtrainingontheuseoflegumesandrhizobiumstrainstomaintainthepopulationofessentialbacteriainsoils.InternationalFundfor✓WorkontheconservationofbiodiversityinforestandgrasslandproductionAgriculturalDevelopmentsystems.(https://www.ifad.org)IFOAM–OrganicsInternational✓✓✓✓UseofbiodiversityisacomponentinallIFOAMprojectsandprogrammes.(https://www.ifoam.bio)InternationalFoodPolicy✓Researchonfarmers’andconsumers’preferencesandwillingnesstopayforResearchInstitutebiodiversityandecosystems.(http://www.ifpri.org)InternationalRiceResearchStudiesonassociatedbiodiversity,includingbothbeneficialorganismsInstitute✓✓✓✓(e.g.forintegratedpestmanagement,Azollaasbiofertilizer)andother(http://irri.org)organisms(vertebrateandinvertebratepests,diseasesandweeds).ExsituAzollacollection.InternationalUnionforManagementofTheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpeciesConservationofNature✓✓✓✓Programmesaddressingtheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity(https://www.iucn.org)andthesupplyofecosystemservicesinforest,aquatic,grasslandandotherproductionsystems.SlowFoodCampaignsandprojectssupportingbiodiversefoodproductionsystems.(https://www.slowfood.com)✓✓✓SeveralSlowFoodPresidia(localprojectsthatprotecttraditionalproducts,traditionalprocessingmethodsorrurallandscapeorecosystematriskofloss)worldwidethatprotecttraditionalbeekeeping.UNEnvironmentWorldMonitoringandsupportforthemanagementofcomponentsofbiodiversityConservationMonitoringCentrethatcontributetothesupplyofecosystemservices,includingpollinators.(https://www.unep-wcmc.org)✓✓✓Promotionofecosystemandlandscapeapproachesinagricultural-developmentplanningatnationalscale.Provisionofadviceonpoliciesthataffectbiodiversityandecosystemservices,includingthosethatsupportfoodandagriculture.394thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Table8.2(Cont.)Examplesofassociated-biodiversitymanagementactivitiesreportedbyinternationalorganizationsOrganizationComponent(s)ofExamplesofactivitiestargetingassociatedbiodiversityassociatedbiodiversitytargetedMIVPBioversityInternationalWorkonthecontributionsofbiodiversityinforestandotherterrestrialproductionsystemstothesupplyofecosystemservices.WorldAgroforestryCentreResearchonthediverserolesthattreesplayinagriculturallandscapes,andusingthistoadvancepoliciesandpracticesthatbenefitthepoorandtheenvironment.WorldBankMainstreamingofclimate-smartagriculture,increasinglyinvolvingtheuseofalandscapeapproach.Notes:M=micro-organisms;I=invertebrates;V=vertebrates:P=Plants.ThequestionnaireinvitedorganizationstotickthecategoriesofBFAonwhichtheywork.Theorganizationsmarkedwithanasterisk()didnotspecifyanycategoriesofassociatedbiodiversity,butnonethelessmentionedrelevantactivities.Sources:InternationalorganizationreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture,supplementedinsomecasesbyinformationfromorganizationwebsites.8.3CooperationAswellasinvolvingadiverserangeofstakeholders,themanagementofBFAspanstheconventional•Awiderangeofnational-levelmultistakeholderboundariesbetweenthesectorsoffoodandagri-initiativescontributetothesustainablemanagementcultureandthosebetweenfoodandagricultureofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA).andnatureconservation.Moreover,strengtheningStrengtheningcooperationinthisfield,however,thesustainableuseandconservationofBFAoftenremainsapriority.requiresactionsonalargegeographicalscale(e.g.acrosswatershedsoralongmigrationroutes)and•Whilenumerousregionalandinternationalinvolvingawiderangeofdifferentstakeholders.collaborativeinitiativestargetthesustainableuseThedistributionalrangesofassociatedbiodiver-andconservationofcrop,livestock,forestandaquaticsityspeciesoftencrossnationalboundaries.Somegeneticresources,farfewersuchinitiativesspecificallycategoriessuchasinvertebratebiologicalcontroltargetthemanagementofassociatedbiodiversityagents(Cocketal.,2009)areexchangedinterna-(speciessuchaspollinators,soilorganismsandpesttionally.Globalchallengessuchasclimatechangenaturalenemiesfoundinandaroundproductionandemergingdiseasethreatsrequireglobalsystems)oritsroleinprovidingecosystemservicestoresponses.Countriesareinterdependentintheirfoodandagriculture.useofgeneticresourcesinthecrop,livestock,fishing,aquacultureandforestsectors(Bartleyet•Cooperationacrossthesectorsoffoodandagricultureal.,2009;FAO,forthcoming,2009c,2010a,2014a,inthemanagementofBFAoftenneedstobe2015a;Koskelaetal.,2009).Forallthesereasons,improved,asdoescooperationbetweenthefoodmultistakeholderandinternationalcooperationinandagriculturesectorandtheenvironment/natureBFAmanagementisvital.Thissectionpresentsanconservationsector.overviewofcooperativeactivities,drawinglargelyonthecountryreports,reportssubmittedbyinter-•Prioritiesforenhancingcooperationinthenationalorganizationsandthepublishedorforth-managementofBFAinclude:comingglobalassessmentsofgeneticresources––improvingmechanismsforinformation-sharinginthecrop,livestock,forestandaquaticsectorsbetweenstakeholders;and(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).––strengtheningparticipatorydecision-makingprocesses,includingtoensuretheinvolvementofsmall-scaleproducersandwomen.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE395EnablingframeworksPartD8.3.1Cooperationatnationallevelcases,effortsarebeingmadetomainstreambio-diversityintobroadereffortstodevelopruralThecountryreportssuggestthatBFAisrarelyareasorthenationaleconomymorebroadly.singledoutasadistinctandwell-definedtargetEthiopia,forexample,notesthatthecountry’sforcollaborativeactivities.However,theydescribeClimateResilientGreenEconomyStrategypro-arangeofmultistakeholderinitiativesthatfocusvidesanimportantmechanismformainstream-onparticularaspectsofBFAmanagementorthatingbiodiversityintotheagriculture,forest,includeBFAmanagementunderbroaderumbrel-powerandtransportsectors.Somecountrieslas.Examplesincludecommitteesandcouncilsreportmultistakeholderinitiativesaimedataddressingecosystemservices,climatechange,improvingtheintegrationofBFA-relatedissuesgeneticallymodifiedorganisms,invasivealienintotheirNBSAPsorstrengtheningcoordinationspecies,organicagriculture,accessandbenefit-intheimplementationoftheseinstrumentsmoresharingandthefinancingofbiodiversity-relatedgenerally.Evenwherenopermanentcollabo-programmes.Severalcountriesreportthatrativebodiesorframeworkshavebeensetup,nationalpolicies,plansandstrategiesinfieldsmultistakeholdercollaborationisoftenreportedsuchasthesehavebeendevelopedthroughtooccuratprojectlevelorbetweenindividualmultistakeholderconsultativeprocesses.Insomeinstitutionssuchasuniversitiesandresearchcentres.Manycountries,however,notethatBox8.7therearestillconsiderablegapsandweaknessesTheNorwegianGeneticResourceCentreintermsofcooperationbetweenresearchinsti-anditsgeneticresourcescommitteestutesandbetweenthemandotherstakeholders(seeSection8.5).TheNorwegianGeneticResourceCentrewasestablishedbytheMinistryofAgricultureandFoodtomonitorSomecountriesreportthattheyaremakingplant,forestandanimalgeneticresourcesforfoodandeffortstopromoteamorecross-sectoralapproachagriculture,promotetheirconservationanduse,facilitatetoresearch.Forexample,Finlandnotesthatthreeaccesstothemandincreaseknowledgeandawarenessmajorsectoralinstitutionsinappliedresearch,theontheirmanagement.HavingasinglecentreworkingGameandFisheriesResearchInstitute,theFinnishonalargeshareofthecountry’sgeneticresourcesforForestResearchInstituteandAgrifoodResearchfoodandagricultureputsNorwayinastrongpositionFinland,arebeingmergedintoonebody,withthetoidentifyandtakeadvantageofthesynergiesbetweenaimofstrengtheningcollaborationinresearchonsectorsandtoweightrade-offs,ofwhichtherearefew.(interalia)BFA,includingassociatedbiodiversityThecentreorganizesregularandadhocmeetingsduringandwildfoods,andimprovingthecost-efficiencywhichitssectoralcommitteesonanimal,plantandforestofresearch.geneticresources,bothjointlyandseparately,discussandprovideadviceon,interalia,thecentre’sstrategicandNationalmultistakeholderbodiesaddressingactionplansandnationalpoliciesofrelevancetogeneticthemanagementofgeneticresourcesareincreas-resourcesforfoodandagriculture(e.g.environment-inglybeingestablishedinthecrop,livestockandrelatedpolicies).Jointmeetingsofthethreegeneticforestsectors.However,theyarestillabsentinresourcecommitteeshaveledtointerestingexchangesofmanycountries.Forexample,outof129countriesknowledgeandexpertiseacrosssectorsonissuessuchasthatsubmittedcountryreportsforTheSecondthecharacterizationofgeneticresources,insituandexReportontheStateoftheWorld’sAnimalsituconservation,andthedevelopmentofindicators.GeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2015a),78indicatedthatin2014theyhadSource:CountryreportofNorway.anationaladvisorycommitteeforanimalgeneticresourcesinplace.Cross-sectoralcooperationinthemanagementofgeneticresources(i.e.betweenthecrop,livestock,forestandaquatic396thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.8FarmersarealsoencouragedtomonitortheirfarmingFrance’sAgriculturalBiodiversityObservatorypracticesandtoreflectonlinkagesbetweenthesepracticesandassociatedbiodiversity.TheAgriculturalBiodiversityObservatory(ABO)wasestablishedin2009asaparticipatoryscienceprogrammeTheABOpublishesitsresultsannually.Ithasnotyet(asforfarmersinalltypesofproductionsystem.TheABO’stwoof2017)beenpossibletodrawanyfirmconclusionsaboutmainobjectivesare(i)topopulateascientificdatabasethattrendsinthestatusofagriculturalbiodiversity.However,canbeused,interalia,todevelopbiodiversityindicatorsithasbeenpossibletodevelopindicatorsbasedontheforagriculturalenvironmentsandtoidentifylinksbetweendatagathered,whichwillbeaddedtotheindicatorsofthebiodiversityandfarmingpracticesand(ii)toraiseawarenessNationalObservatoryforBiodiversity.1oflinksbetweenbiodiversityandfarmingpracticesamongstakeholders,particularlyamongfarmers,andhelpthemTheimpactoftheABOextendsfarbeyondthefarmersevaluatetheirpractices.directlyinvolvedandplaysakeyroleinraisingawarenessofassociatedbiodiversityandrelatedissues.Forexample,TheABOwasestablishedbytheMinistryofAgriculture,in2016,severalnational-levelprofessionalagriculturalAgrifoodandForestrywithintheframeworkofFrance’sorganizationscommittedthemselvestolong-termNationalBiodiversityStrategy.ItbuildsontheNationalinvolvementintheNationalStrategyforBiodiversity.TheyalsoMuseumofNaturalHistory’sparticipatoryscienceindicatedthattheywantedtoseethefurtherdevelopmentofprogramme“Vigie-Nature”.ItiscoordinatednationallytheABOandencouragedfarmerstogetinvolved.bytheMinistryofAgriculture,theMuseumofNaturalHistoryandthePermanentAssemblyofChambersofInconclusion,theexperienceofestablishingtheABOAgriculture,incollaborationwiththeUniversityofRennes.hasshownthatensuringregularandcoherentstakeholderAtlocallevel,variousfacilitators,includingmembersofparticipationrequirestime.However,ithasalsoshownagriculturalassociationsorchambersofagriculture,providethatsuchaprogrammecanreallyraiseawarenessinsupporttofarmervolunteersintheimplementationoftheagriculturalcommunityandstimulatetheactivethefollowingfourobservationprotocols(allofwhicharecommitmentofactorsinthissector.environmentallyfriendly):Source:ProvidedbyPatriciaLarbouret,ChristophePinardandPierreVelge.(a)countingandcharacterizationofbutterflies;1http://indicateurs-biodiversite.naturefrance.fr(b)observationofpollinatornestingsites;(c)useofidentificationtoolsfortheobservationofterrestrialinvertebrates;and(d)observationofearthworms.sectors)isoftenlimited.Somecountryreports,21productsfromlocallyadaptedlivestockandcrops.however,mentionnationalstrategies,plansorWithineachsector,therearenumerousexamplespoliciesthataddressgeneticresourcesmanage-ofprojectsandprogrammesthatinvolvearangementinmultiplesectors,nationalbodies(e.g.ofstakeholders(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,committees,researchcentresornetworks)that2015a).Manycountries,however,considerthatcoordinateworkacrosssectors(seeBox8.7formechanismsforinvolvingstakeholders,inpar-example)or(lessfrequently)specificcross-sectoralticularsmall-scaleproducersandwomen,intheinitiativessuchasjointmarketingcampaignsforplanningandimplementationofmanagementactivitiesremaininadequate(ibid.).21ReportssubmittedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureandthosesubmittedforpreviousglobalWhereassociatedbiodiversityisconcerned,assessmentsofgeneticresources.anyprojectsorprogrammesthataimtopromotebiodiversity-friendlymanagementpracticesinthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE397EnablingframeworksPartDfoodandagriculturalproductionsystemsarelikelyofEuropeanUnionlegislation(seeSection8.7).toinvolveadegreeofcollaborationbetweenGenerally,however,thecountryreportsprovideproducersand/orbetweenthemandotherstake-littleindicationthatproducersorotherlocalstake-holderssuchaspublic-sectorbodiesorNGOs.Inholdersareheavilyinvolvedinplanningorprior-manycases,thiswillinvolvecollaborationbetweenitizingconservationandmanagementactivitiesforstakeholderswith“production”interestsandthoseassociatedbiodiversityorthatthereismuchcollab-with“natureconservation”interests.Thecountryorationinthisfieldamongproducers’orcommuni-reportsprovidenumerousexamples(seeSection8.7ty-basedorganizations.andChapters5and7).Theimportanceofparticipa-tory,multistakeholderapproachesisagainwidelySomecountryreportsdescribeinitiativesthatnoted.Finland,forinstance,reportsthatmanyinvolveproducersorthegeneralpublicinmoni-projectsinwhichenvironmentalauthorities,NGOs,toringparticularcategoriesofassociateddiversity.advisersandland-usershavecooperatedfromtheForexample,FrancementionstheAgriculturalbeginninghaveproducedimpressiveresults.IrelandObservatoryofBiodiversity,aMinistryofnotesinthiscontextthatvariousmanagementAgricultureinitiativethatinvolvesstakeholders,measuresfavourabletoassociatedbiodiversityareparticularlyfarmers,inmonitoringagriculturalbeingpromotedviatheparticipationoffarmersinbiodiversityandinvestigatingthelinksbetweenagri-environmentalschemes,i.e.incentiveschemesbiodiversityandagriculturalpractices(Box8.8).operatedbythepublicsectorwithintheframeworkGrenadanotesthatitsMinistryofAgriculture,Lands,Forestry,FisheriesandtheEnvironmentBox8.9hasestablishedvoluntarylinkageswithresearchTheRegionalProjectforSustainableinstitutions,NGOsandstakeholdergroups,whichManagementofGloballySignificantEndemicworkincollaborationtoshareprimarydatathatRuminantLivestock(PROGEBE)informtheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityinmarineandcoastalenvironmentsTrypanotolerantNdamacattleandDjallonkésheepandthatsupportimportantfisheries.goatsareunderthreatbecauseofhabitatdegradationcausedbydeforestationandabusivelogging,andCollaborativeawareness-raising,educationorbecauseofagriculturalpoliciesthatpromotethetraininginitiativesrelatedtoassociatedbiodiversityintensificationofproductionandtheintroductionofarenotwidelymentionedinthecountryreports.exoticbreeds.OneexceptionistheinitiativementionedinBox8.5ledbytheJordanBeekeepers’Unionincollabora-TheRegionalProjectforSustainableManagementtionwithnationalandinternationalpartners.ofGloballySignificantEndemicRuminantLivestock(commonlyreferredtousingtheFrenchacronym8.3.2CooperationatinternationallevelPROGEBE)tookactiontoimprovethemanagementofnaturalresourcesandendemiclivestockbreedsandAsdiscussedinSection8.2.6,BFAmanagementistheirproductsinseveralWestAfricancountries.addressedinanumberofglobalpolicyandlegalLand-useplanswerediscussedandvalidatedbyruralinstrumentsandbyanumberofinternationalcommunities,andrulesfortheuseofnaturalresourcesorganizations.Aswellassupportingandregulatingintargetareaswereestablished.Actionwasalsotakenactivitiesatnationallevel,thisinternationalinstitu-inthefieldsofanimalhealthandnutrition,accesstotionalframeworkservestopromotewiderandmorewaterandaccesstomarkets.effectiveglobal,regionalandbilateralcooperation.Sources:AdaptedfromthecountryreportsofGuinea,MaliandSenegal.ManycountryreportsprovideinformationoninternationalcollaborativeactivitiesinBFAman-agement(e.g.Box8.9).Asatnationallevel,manyoftheseactivitiestargetbroaderareasofnaturalresources,biodiversityorenvironmentalman-agementratherthanBFAasadistinctcategory.398thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.10AppointmentofnationalfocalpointsandparticipationinthepreparationofTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureOverrecentyearsanddecades,FAOhasinvitedcountriesInthecaseoftheTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversitytoestablishnationalfocalpointstoberesponsibleforforFoodandAgriculture,135countrieshavenominatedacoordinatingreportingactivitiesforthevariousglobalnationalfocalpoint1and92officiallysubmittedacountryassessmentsofgeneticresourcesandbiodiversitypreparedreport2(seemapbelow).AfulllistofreportingcountriescanundertheauspicesoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesbefoundinthe“Aboutthispublication”sectionamongtheforFoodandAgriculture.Tovaryingdegrees,thesepreliminarypagesofthereport.nationalfocalpointshavetakenonabroaderroleintheirrespectivesectorsintermsofcoordinatinggeneticresources1AsofOctober2018.managementactivitiesatnationallevel,promotingregional2SelectedinformationfromthecountryreportofJapan,submittedin2018,andinternationalcollaborationinthisfieldandservingaspermanentpointsofcontactwithFAO.ispresented.NationalfocalpointsandcountryreportingforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureNFPnominatedandNFPnotnominatedandNFPnominatedandNFPnotnominatedandcountryreportsubmittedcountryreportsubmittedcountryreportnotsubmittedcountryreportnotsubmittedExamplesincludethejointmanagementoftrans-forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).Someareded-boundaryhabitatsandwildlifecorridors,exsituicatedtogeneticresourcesmanagement,broadlyconservationnetworksforparticularspecies,coop-defined,acrossthewholeoftherespectivesector,22erationincombatingwildlifecrime,illegalloggingwhileothersaddressspecificspeciesorspecificandillegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishing,aspectsofmanagement.Numerousinternationalcertificationschemesforsustainablepracticesandjointresearchprojects,programmesandnetworks.22BodiesofthistypeareprobablymostactiveinEurope,hometotheEuropeanCooperativeProgrammeforPlantGeneticInthecrop,livestock,forestandaquaticsectorsResources(http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org),theEuropeanForestanumberofregionalandinternationalnetworksGeneticResourcesProgramme(http://www.euforgen.org)contributetothesustainableuse,developmentandtheEuropeanRegionalFocalPointforAnimalGeneticandconservationofgeneticresources(FAO,Resources(https://www.rfp-europe.org).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE399EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.11TransfrontierconservationareasinSouthernAfricaSeveraltransfrontierconservationareas(TFCAs)andfivewetlandslistedintheRamsarConvention’sListofhavebeenestablishedbytheSouthernAfricanWetlandsofInternationalImportance.DevelopmentCommunity(SADC)supportedbythenon-profitPeaceParksFoundation.1TheobjectiveistoTheLubomboTFCA’scoreobjectivesaretoensurethatdevelopafunctionalandintegratednetworkoftransfrontiernaturalresourcesareutilizedinasustainablemannerandareaswheresharednaturalresourcesaresustainablytopromotethedevelopmentoftransboundaryecotourism.co-managedandconservedtofostersocio-economicCommunitiesthathaveallocatedtheirlandforconservationdevelopmentforthebenefitoflocalpeople.Theprogrammeandnatural-resourcemanagementbenefitfromoutreachincludesactionsaimedatenhancinglocallivelihoods,programmesthatcontributetoincomegeneration,forinstancebypromotingtourism,andreducingtheforexamplebyinitiatingbeekeepingandchilli-peppervulnerabilityofecosystemsandpeopletotheeffectsofproductionorsupportingthemaintenanceofcommunityclimatechange.ecolodges,campsitesandtrailnetworks.Otherprojectsincludetheimplementationofpermaculture,climate-smartTheLubomboTransfrontierConservationArea,foragricultureandconservationagriculture.Thespreadofinstance,isaTFCAestablishedin2014andco-managedbeekeepingthroughthecommunityoutreachprogrammesbyEswatini,MozambiqueandSouthAfrica.ItlinkshasreportedlyledtoadeclineinpoachingandillegalhoneytheLubomboMountainstothecoastalwetlandsandharvestinginthenaturereserves.incorporatesvariousnatureandgamereserves,forestparksandotherconservationsanctuaries,thusformingaSources:AdaptedfromthecountryreportsofAngola,Eswatiniandcontinuouscorridorofprotectednaturalresources.Zimbabwe.AdditionalinformationprovidedbyThembinkosiGumedze.Theareacovers10029km2andincludesfourdistinctTFCAs1http://www.peaceparks.org/governmentalandnon-governmentalorganiza-EcologyandtheAfricanUnionInterafricanBureautionsandforacontributetocollaborativeactiv-forAnimalResources,supportedbytheEuropeanitiesingeneticresourcesmanagementatglobalUnion,isinNairobi,Kenya,andhassatellitesta-andregionallevels.FAOcoordinatesglobalnet-tionsinCameroon,EthiopiaandLiberia,aswellworksofgovernment-nominatednationalfocalasinBurkinaFaso.JamaicamentionsC-Fish(thepointsforgeneticresourcesinthevarioussectorsCaribbeanFishSanctuaryPartnershipInitiative),aoffoodandagriculture(Box8.10).projectestablishedbythenot-for-profitCARIBSAVEPartnership,whichaimstostrengthencommunity-RelativelyfewcountryreportsprovidedetailsbasedfishsanctuariesandmarineprotectedareasofinternationalorregionalcollaborativeactivitiesinfivecountriesacrosstheCaribbean.Anumberofinvolvingpartnersthatspecificallytargetcompo-Africancountriesprovideinformationontransfron-nentsofassociatedbiodiversityortheirrolesinthetierconservationareas(Box8.11).Furtherexamplesprovisionofecosystemservicestofoodandagri-ofcooperationinspecificfieldsofBFAmanagementculture.BurkinaFasonotesthecountry’sinvolve-canbefoundinChapters5and7.mentwiththeAfricanReferenceLaboratoryforBeeHealth23andtheAfricanBeeHealthProject.24ManyofthereportssubmittedbyinternationalThereferencelaboratory,aninitiativeoftheorganizationsascontributionstotheSoW-BFAInternationalCentreofInsectPhysiologyandprocess25mentionarangeofglobalandregional23http://bees.icipe.org/index.php25SeeSection8.2andthe“Aboutthispublication”section24http://bees.icipe.org/index.php/project/programme-objectivesamongthepreliminarypages.400thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8cooperationinitiativesinfieldssuchasresearchAnumberoforganizationsindicatethattheyandeducationonBFA,largelywithafocusoncroparecollaboratingonBFA-relatedpolicydevelop-andtoalesserextentlivestockgeneticresources.26ment.Forexample,theInter-AmericanInstituteForexample,theWorldAgroforestryCentrenotesforCooperationonAgriculture,theTropicalitsroleasaprimarypartnerintheAfricanOrphanAgriculturalResearchandHigherEducationCropConsortiumInitiative,whichaimstoenhanceCenterandBioversityInternationalcooperatedresearchonneglectedspecies.TheInternationalwithtechnicalrepresentativesfromMexicoandallAtomicEnergyAgencymentionsaregionalthecountriesofCentralAmericatodeveloptheprojectoperatedinconjunctionwithFAOthatisStrategicActionPlantoStrengthenConservationaimingtoimprovetheresistanceofindigenousandUseofMesoamericanPlantGeneticResourcessheepbreedsinLatinAmericatogastro-intestinalinAdaptingtoClimateChange2014–2024,aparasites.Someinternationalorganizationsroadmapforregionalcollaborationandcooper-mentionthattheyareinvolvedincoordinatingationonconservationanduseof,andaccessto,regionalorglobalgeneticresourcesnetworksthatPGRFA.TheSecretariatoftheCBDreportsitspartic-aimtoshareknowledgeandensurethelong-termipationinBFA-relatedcooperativeinitiativessuchconservationofPGRFA.astheLiaisonGroupoftheBiodiversity-relatedConventions,32theCollaborativePartnershipSeveralinternationalorganizationsmentiononForests,33theInter-AgencyLiaisonGroupthattheycontributetoprogrammesthatassistonInvasiveAlienSpecies34andtheSustainablecountriesinthedevelopmentofinformationOceanInitiative.35systemsrelatedtoBFA.TheCGIAR27researchcentresplayanimportantroleincoordinatingInitsworkoncropandlivestockproduction,activitiesrelatedtoBFA,inparticularthroughforestry,fisheriesandaquaculture,FAOcollabo-theGenebankPlatform,28apartnershipbetweenrateswithcountries,regionsandotherpartnersintheelevenCGIARgenebanksandtheCropTrust.promotingtheuseandconservationofBFAintheThePlatformprovidessupporttonational,contextofsustainabledevelopment.Forexample,regionalandinternationalgenebanksintheareaFAOincollaborationwiththeSecretariatoftheofdatamanagement,forinstancethroughtheCBDhaspreparedtechnicalguidesformainstream-GRIN-Global29genebankdatabasemanagementingecosystemservicesintoagriculturalproductionsystem,andGenesys,30aglobalportalforaccesstoandmanagementinEastAfricaandinthePacificinformationonPGRFAaccessions.TheCentreforIslands(FAOandCBD,2016;FAOetal.,2016).InAgricultureandBiosciencesInternationalreportscollaborationwiththeInternationalNetworkofthatithoststhesecretariatoftheGlobalOpenFoodDataSystems(INFOODS),itdevelopedtheDataforAgricultureandNutrition31initiative,FAO/INFOODSfoodcompositiondatabase36(seewhichseekstosupportglobaleffortstomakeSection6.4).Itisamajorpartnerintheimplemen-agriculturalandnutritionallyrelevantdataacces-tationoftheCBDand,incollaborationwithothersibleforuseinimprovingglobalfoodsecurityandpartnerssuchastheUnitedNationsEnvironmenthumanhealth.Programme,theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeandtheUnitedNationsEducational,26Fewexamplesrelatedtoassociatedbiodiversityarereported.ScientificandCulturalOrganization,contributesSomeexceptions(e.g.theAfricanReferenceLaboratoryfortotheimplementationoftheCBD’sStrategicPlanBeeHealthandAfricanBeeHealthProgramme)arelistedinTable8.1.32https://www.cbd.int/blg/33http://www.cpfweb.org/en/27OriginallyanabbreviationofConsultativeGroupon34https://www.cbd.int/invasive/lgInternationalAgriculturalResearch:https://www.cgiar.org35https://www.cbd.int/soi/36http://www.fao.org/infoods/infoods/tables-and-databases/28https://www.genebanks.org/29https://www.grin-global.org/faoinfoods-databases/en30https://www.genesys-pgr.org/content/about/about31http://www.godan.info/thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE401EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.12Resolution4/2017.TheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureanditscontributiontotheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsIn2017,theFortiethFAOConferenceadoptedthefollowingGlobalPlansofAction,asappropriate,amongtheirresolutiononthecontributionoftheCommissiontotheprioritiesintheirnationaleffortstoachieveSDG2,achievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.particularlyTarget2.5,aswellasotherrelevantSDGs;•ConsiderdevelopingfundingproposalsongeneticTHECONFERENCE,resourcesforfoodandagriculture,consistentwithHavingconsideredthereportoftheSixteenthRegulartheirnationalpriorities,asappropriate,whenseekingSessionoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodfundingfromvarioussources,includingtheGreenandAgriculture(Commission);ClimateFund,GlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF),Horizon2020andotherfundingmechanismsandStressingtheimportantlinkagesbetweenbiodiversitymodalities;andforfoodandagricultureandrelevantglobalinstruments•Mainstreambiodiversityforfoodandagricultureintoandframeworks,especiallythe2030AgendaforSustainablepolicies,programmesandnationalandregionalplansDevelopment,theParisAgreementandtheAddisAbabaofactiononagriculture,climatechange,foodsecurityActionAgendaoftheThirdInternationalConferenceonandnutritionandotherrelevantsectors.FinancingforDevelopment;RequeststheOrganizationto:•Continuetopursueextra-budgetaryfunds,includingRecognizingtheimportantworkoftheCommissioninfromtheprivatesector,asappropriate,tosupportthethepreparationofreportsonthestateoftheworld’splant,implementationoftheCommission’sGlobalPlansofanimal,forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandAction,andtoencouragedonorstoprovidesupportagricultureandtheirrespectivefollow-upprocesses;totheirimplementationaspartoftheglobalefforttoachievetheSDGs,particularlyTarget2.5ongeneticFurtherrecognizingtheimportanceofthediversity;Commission’sGlobalPlansofActionasframeworksfor•Furtherintegrategeneticresourcesforfoodandnationalactiontoenhancethemanagementofplant,agricultureandbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureanimal,andforestgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricultureintoitsStrategicFrameworkinordertoreflectatnational,regionalandgloballevels;theircontributionstoendinghunger,achievingfoodsecurity,improvingnutritionandpromotingWelcomingthepreparationofthereportonTheStatesustainableagriculture;oftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgricultureand•Supportcapacity-developmenteffortswithregardtoitsfollow-up;theconservationandthesustainableuseofgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricultureindevelopingAcknowledgingtheimportantworkoftheCommissioncountries,includingthroughSouth–Southandinthedevelopmentoftargetsandindicatorsongenetictriangularcooperation;resourcesforfoodandagricultureinthecontextofthe•SupportitsMembersinthedevelopmentandimplementationoftheCommission’sGlobalPlansofAction;implementationofcountry-led,regionalorinternationalprojectsongeneticresourcesforfoodFurtheracknowledgingthecompetenceoftheandagriculture,includingwithresourcesfromtheCommissionandFAOtechnicalcapacityinthefieldofGreenClimateFund,GEFandothersourcesandgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture,andthereforefundingmechanisms,includingfromtheprivatesector,recognizingtheCommissionasanimportantpartnerinasappropriate;effortstoachievetheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs),particularlyTarget2.5,relatedtogeneticdiversity;(Cont.)Finallyrecallingtherolegeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculturecanplayforclimatechangeadaptationandmitigation;InvitesMembersto:•IncludetheimplementationoftheCommission’s402thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.12(Cont.)Resolution4/2017.TheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureanditscontributiontotheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals•Mainstreambiodiversitythroughthepromotion•Encouragesynergiesbetweenrelevantstakeholdersofecosystemservicesprovidedbyagriculture,whoseworkcontributestoachievingtheSDGsrelatedagro-ecologicalpracticesandsustainableuseoftofoodsecurityandnutrition,sustainableagriculturebiodiversityforfoodandagricultureinitsprogrammesandbiodiversity.andprojects;and(Adoptedon7July2017)forBiodiversity37anditsAichiTargets.FAOhostsagro-environmentalpoliciesincountriesofLatinthesecretariatsoftheCollaborativePartnershipAmericaandtheCaribbeanthroughdialogueandonSustainableWildlifeManagement38andexchangeofnationalexperiences”46conductedtheGlobalSoilPartnership39andcoordinatesundertheBrazil–FAOProgramforInternationaltheactionplanoftheInternationalPollinatorCooperation.47AsdiscussedinChapter1,FAOInitiative.40TheBiodiversityMainstreamingis“custodian”agencyforseveralSustainablePlatform41wasestablishedin2017withtheaimDevelopmentGoalindicatorsthataredirectlyofbuildingbridgesbetweensectors,identifyingrelevanttothesustainableuseandconservationsynergies,aligninggoalsanddevelopinginte-ofBFA.In2017,theFAOConferenceadoptedagratedcross-sectoralapproachestomainstream-resolutionrecognizingtheimportantroleoftheingbiodiversityintheagriculture,forestandfish-CommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodanderiessectors.TheGloballyImportantAgriculturalAgricultureineffortstoachievetheSustainableHeritageProgramme42aims,incollaborationwithDevelopmentGoals,particularlyTarget2.5,arangeofstakeholders,toidentifyandsafeguardrelatedtogeneticdiversity(seeBox8.12).outstandinglandscapesofaestheticbeautythatcombineagriculturalbiodiversity,resilientecosys-8.3.3Needsandprioritiestemsandvaluableculturalheritage(FAO,2018c)(seeBox7.19).FAOalsohoststheSecretariatsImprovingcooperationamongstakeholdersisoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforwidelyrecognizedinthecountryreportsasanFoodandAgriculture,43theInternationalPlantimportantpriority.SomecountriesparticularlyProtectionConvention44andtheInternationalemphasizetheneedtoenhancesynergiesbetweenTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandthefoodandagricultureandenvironmentsectors.Agriculture45(seeSection8.8.1).ExamplesatWhereconstraintsarenoted,theyoftenrelatetoregionallevelincludetheproject“Strengtheningalackofmechanismsforexchanginginforma-tion(e.g.amongresearchinstitutionsorbetween37https://www.cbd.int/spresearchinstitutionsandpolicy-makers,devel-38http://www.fao.org/forestry/wildlife-partnership/enopmentpractitionersorproducers)oralackof39http://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/enparticipatorydecision-makingprocesses.Specific40http://www.fao.org/pollination/en/optionsmentionedincludeestablishingincen-41http://www.fao.org/about/meetings/multi-stakeholder-tivesthatrecognizeandrewardtheengagementdialogue-on-biodiversity/about-the-platform/enen46http://www.fao.org/in-action/program-brazil-fao/projects/42http://www.fao.org/giahs/enagro-environmental-policies/en43http://www.fao.org/cgrfa/en44https://www.ippc.int/en47http://www.fao.org/in-action/program-brazil-fao/en45http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/enthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE403EnablingframeworksPartDofuniversityresearchersindecision-makingpro-Lackofknowledgeandshortagesofwell-trainedcesses.AsdiscussedinSection8.2,theneedtopersonnelcanseriouslyconstrainthesustainablestrengthenmechanismsforinvolvingsmall-scalemanagementofBFA.Improvingtheskillsandproducers,andwomeninparticular,indeci-knowledgeofscientistsandtechnicians,develop-sion-making,includingtheirparticipationinmul-mentworkers,NGOs,producersandpolicy-makerstistakeholderbodiesinthefieldofBFAmanage-isthusessential.Itisalsovitalthateducationalment,iswidelynoted.andtrainingprogrammesareaccessibleto–andaddresstheneedsof–allrelevantstakeholders,forSomecountriesmentiontheneedtopaygreaterexamplethattheydonotexcludewomen(Agarwal,attentiontothespecificcapacities(strengths2015;FAO,2011e).Thissectionpresentsanover-andweaknesses)ofindividualinstitutionswhenviewofthestateofBFA-relatededucationandplanningBFA-relatedcollaborativeinitiatives.trainingprogrammes,beginningwithshortsubsec-Somealsonotetheneedtoovercomefinancialtionsonmeasuresaddressingplant,animal,forestconstraintstocollaboration,althoughgreaterandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricul-cooperationbetweensectors(e.g.agricultureandture(drawingontherespectiveglobalassessments)environment)isalsoseenasawayofincreasingandthenlookinginmoredetailateducationandefficiencyorasameansofsecuringresourcesfortrainingrelatedtoassociatedbiodiversity.BFA-relatedworkfrombiodiversitybudgetsthatarechannelledthroughtheenvironmentsector.8.4.1Plant,animal,forestandFinally,theneedfortrainingandawarenessaquaticgeneticresourcesforraisingontheorganizationofcollaborativeiniti-foodandagricultureativesismentionedinsomereports.8.4Education,trainingPlantgeneticresourcesforfoodandandawarenessraisingagricultureTheSecondReportontheStateoftheWorld’s•Althougheducationandtraining,atalllevels,arePlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculturewidelyrecognizedaskeymeansofpromotingthe(FAO,2010a)48statesthattheyearsprecedingitssustainablemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandpublicationsawanumberofimprovementsintheagriculture(BFA),gapsinprovisionremainwidespread,stateofeducationandtrainingonPGRFA-relatedparticularlywithregardtoassociatedbiodiversitytopics,includinganexpansionofopportunitiesfor(speciessuchpollinators,soilorganismsandpestnaturalcollaborationatregionalandinternationallevels.enemiesfoundinandaroundproductionsystems).Donor-fundedresearchprojectswithhuman-resourcescomponentsplayedasignificantrole.•PrioritiesforimprovingthestateofeducationandMoreshort-terminformalcoursesandMScandtrainingonBFAinclude:PhDprogrammeswerebeingofferedbyuniver-––betterintegratingbiodiversityissuesintoeducationalsities,andtrainingmaterialsandlaboratoryfacil-coursesonfoodandagricultureandotheraspectsofitiesfortraininghadbeenimprovedinanumberlandandwaterusesoastopromoteinterdisciplinaryofcountries,incorporatingrecentadvancesinbio-skillsamongpractitioners;technologyandininformationandcommunication––expandingtheprovisionoftrainingforproducerstechnologies.However,therewasstillaneedtoonthesustainableuseofBFA,includingviafarmerstrengthencapacityineducationandtrainingtofieldschools,farmergroupextensionprogrammesormeetexpandingdemandforwell-trainedprofes-community-basedorganizations;andsionalsandtoupgradetheskillsandexpertiseof––strengtheningawareness-raisingeffortsamongpolicy-makersandthegeneralpubliconthe48UnlessotherwiseindicatedtheinformationinthissubsectionisimportanceofBFA.basedonthissource.404thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8currentpersonnel,includingontheinsituandexeducationonanimalbreedingandotheraspectssitumanagementofcropwildrelativesandwild-ofthemanagementofanimalgeneticresourcesfoodplantsandtheiruseinbasebroadeningandforfoodandagriculture(AnGR)remainwide-geneticimprovement.Mostnationalprogrammesspread,particularlyinthedevelopingregionsofconcernedwithon-farmmanagementofPGRFAtheworld.Countryreports50indicatedthatedu-wereaimingtobuildboththeirownprofessionalcationalprogrammesdevotedtoAnGRmanage-capacityandthatofthefarmerstheywereworkingmentasadistincttopicwerenotcommonandwith.Despitethesegenerallypositivedevelop-wererestrictedlargelytoEurope.Majorgapsments,trainingandeducationcapacityremainedwerealsoreportedintrainingandtechnicallimitedinsomepartsoftheworld,particularlysupportprogrammesforthebreeding(genetic-inAfrica.ManyNGOsanddevelopmentagenciesimprovement)activitiesoflivestock-keepinglackedsufficientqualifiedpersonneltoimpartthecommunities,althoughmanycountriesreportedtrainingneededbyfarmingcommunities.thatprogresshadbeenmadeinthisfield.Trainingandawareness-raisingactivitieswereWithregardtotheperiodafter2010,thereportrelativelywidelyreportedelementsofconserva-assessingtheimplementationoftheSecondtionprogrammes,althoughcountriesindicatedGlobalPlanofActionforPlantGeneticResourcesthattherewasstillmuchscopeforimprovementforFoodandAgriculturefortheperiod2012tointhisregard.2014(FAO,2016m)referstoanumberoffurtherpositivedevelopments,notingforexamplethatForestgeneticresourcesTheStateoftheWorld’sForestGeneticResourcescapacity-buildingoverthepasttenyears(FAO,2014a)51indicatesthatalthoughforestryisorsohasimproved,resultinginstrongerwidelytaughtinuniversitiesaroundtheworld,collaborationintrainingamongnational,forestgeneticresources(FGR)managementisregionalandinternationalorganizations.rarelyrecognizedasadistinctdiscipline.InmanyTrainingcoursesaremorefrequentandnewcases,issuessuchasFGRconservation,treebreed-trainingmaterialsandfacilitieshavebeeningandmanagementofnon-woodforestprod-developed.Highereducationopportunitiesuctsareinadequatelycovered.Worldwide,therehavealsoexpandedandtherearenowhasbeenadeclineinenrolmentinforestryedu-moreuniversitiesofferingawiderrangeofcationprogrammesandmanyuniversitieshavecoursesinareasrelatedtoPGRFA,especiallyhadtoreviseandrepackagetheircoursesinintheapplicationofbiotechnologytoordertoattractstudents.Mostcountriesdonotconservationandcropimprovement.havespecificprogrammesdedicatedtoraisingFiguresreportedbycountriesontheupgradingpublicawarenessofFGRandthesignificanceofoftheskillsofscientificstaffthroughformaledu-theirconservationandsustainableuse.However,cationandadhocin-servicetrainingarealsocon-awareness-raisingactivitiesareundertakenbyasideredencouraging.Thereportnotes,however,rangeofdifferentstakeholdergroups,includingthat“human-resourcecapacityisstillfarfromgovernments,botanicalgardens,smallwoodlotbeingadequateatvirtuallyalllevelsandinalldis-partnershipprogrammes,environmentalNGOsciplinesrelatedtoPGRFAconservationanduse.”andforestortree-specificconservationgroups.Insomecountries,provincialorcentralfor-AnimalgeneticresourcesforfoodestryauthoritiesorganizeFGR-relatedtrainingandagricultureAccordingtoTheSecondReportontheStateof50ThisreferstothecountryreportspreparedforTheSecondtheWorld’sAnimalGeneticResourcesforFoodReportontheStateoftheWorld’sAnimalGeneticResourcesandAgriculture(FAO,2015a)49weaknessesinforFoodandAgriculture(FAO,2015a).49Theinformationinthissubsectionisbasedonthissource.51Theinformationinthissubsectionisbasedonthissource.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE405EnablingframeworksPartDworkshops.Trainingonrelevantlaws,regulationsanddisasterriskreduction.Somecountries,mostlyandpolicieshasincreasedunderstandingoftheinEurope,mentioncoursetitlesthatemphasizeimportanceofFGRandhelpedtopromotetheirsustainabilityorthatcombineagriculturalwithprotectionandsustainableuse.environmentalelements.Afewmentioncoursesonagroecology.FewcountriesmentioncoursesAquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodthatspecificallyfocusontheuseandconservationandagricultureofbiodiversityorgeneticresourcesinthecontextTheforthcomingreportonTheStateofAquaticoffoodandagricultureorthatexplicitlyaddressGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureparticularcomponentsofassociatedbiodiversity.forFoodandAquaculture(FAO,forthcoming)ExceptionsincludeCostaRica,whichmentionsstatesthatallreportingcountriesindicatethecoursesonagrobiodiversityandfoodsecurityandpresenceofatleastoneinstitutioninvolvedinontheconservationanduseofagrobiodiversity,aseducationandtraininginthefieldofaquaticwellasacourseontropicalapiculture.geneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture(AqGR).GeneralAqGRmanagementisthemostfrequentlyManycountryreportsprovideinformationreportedtopicfortrainingcourses,followedbyonextensionandtrainingactivitiesforfarmerscharacterizationandmonitoring,conservation,andotherproducers.Somementiontherolesgeneticimprovementandeconomicvaluation.offarmerfieldschools,farmergroupextensionCountries,onaverage,rankincreasingthetech-programmesorcommunity-basedorganizations.nicalcapacities(humanresourcesandequipment/Somereferspecificallytotrainingontheimpor-facilities)ofinstitutionsastheirtoppriorityfortanceofassociatedbiodiversity.Thereportfromimprovingeducationandtraininginthissector,Bangladesh,forexample,mentionsfarmerfieldnotingthatthisrequires(interalia)infrastructuralschoolsthatprovidetrainingonintegratedpestimprovementssuchastheinstallationofmodernmanagementandontheneedtomaintainsoilequipmentandfacilitiesforgeneticresearch.biodiversity.ExperienceswithfarmerfieldschoolsOtherprioritiesincluderaisingawarenessoftheonintegratedpestmanagementinNepalareimportanceofAqGRandimprovinginformationdescribedinBox8.13.AsillustratedinBox8.14sharingbetweeninstitutions.thisapproach,whichemergedinSoutheastAsiainthelate1980swithaninitialfocusoninte-8.4.2Associatedbiodiversitygratedpestmanagementmethodsinricepro-duction,hasspreadtomanypartsoftheworldAssociatedbiodiversityanditsmanagementfallandbeenappliedtoanexpandingrangeofman-withinthescopeofawiderangeofacademicdis-agementpracticesandproductionsystems.Someciplines.Manycountryreportsmentiontherele-countriesmentionparticipatoryworkshopswithvanceofhigher-educationcoursesinsciencessuchfarmers(seeBox8.15forexample).Anumberasbiology,ecology,zoology,entomology,botany,refertotrainingactivitiesthatwhilenotexplic-evolutionarybiology,microbiology,genetics,bio-itlyfocusedonassociatedbiodiversityaddresschemistry,soilscienceandoceanographyandthoserelatedtopicssuchasthesustainablemanage-onmoreappliedtopicssuchasagriculture,agron-mentofsoils.Severalmentiontrainingonwild-omy,horticulture,plantbreeding,forestry,agrofor-life-friendlyorenvironmentallyfriendlyfarmingestry,animalscience,veterinarymedicine,range-oronorganicproduction.landmanagement,seedscience,foodscience,fisheriesandaquaculture.SomecountriesmentionThecountryreportsalsoprovideinformationcoursesfocusingonlanduseandthemanagementontrainingactivitiesforarangeofotherstake-ofnaturalresourcessuchaswaterandwatersheds,holdersworkinginagriculture,fisheries,forestryonbiodiversityandwildlifemanagement,onruralandotherfieldsrelatedtofoodandagriculture,developmentandontopicssuchasclimatechangeaswellasforthoseworkinginwildlifeconser-vation.Explicitreferencestotrainingonthe406thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8useandconservationofassociatedbiodiversitycurriculumhasbeendevelopedbyXiengarenotfrequent.TheNetherlandsmentionsKhouangEducationDepartmentandapprovedthatundertheEuropeanUnion’sLocalSkillsforforusethroughouttheprovinceandforfutureBiodiversityProject,trainingmaterialsontheimplementationinotherprovinces.useofanecosystemapproachinlocalplanninghavebeendevelopedforthestaffoflocalandBox8.13regionaladministrations,inparticularplanners,Farmerfieldschoolsonintegratedpestandthatwithintheframeworkofthisprojectmanagement–experiencesfromNepaltrainingworkshopshavebeenconductedintheNetherlandsandinseveralothercountries.ItNepalintroducedfarmerfieldschoolsonintegratedfurthernotesthat“BiodiversityinAction”train-pestmanagement(IPM-FFS)in1998inresponsetoaningeventsareorganizedforlocalorganizationsoutbreakofthericepestNilaparvatalugens(brownandgovernmentofficialsandthatthecountry’splanthopper)thathadoccurredthepreviousyearintheLouisBolkInstitute52offerstrainingforfarmers,Chitwandistrict.Theapproachhassincebeenmodifiedpolicy-makersandcommercialbusinessesonandappliedinotherproductionsystems(vegetables,topicssuchassustainablesoilmanagement.cotton,potato,maize,teaandcoffee)andtoaddressotherWheresurveyingandmonitoringisconcerned,aspectsofmanagement.FarmerfieldschoolsnowoperateIrelandnotesthatitsNationalBiodiversityDatainallthe75districtsofNepal.Centre53runsanextensiveannualprogrammeoftrainingandidentificationworkshops,manyStudieshavefoundthatmostIPM-FFS-trainedfarmersofwhichareruninconjunctionwithnationalchangetheircultivationpractices,forexampleadoptingorganizations,tohelpbuildcapacityinbiologicalimprovedseeds,usingamixtureoforganicandinorganicrecording.Over20workshopscoveringarangefertilizers,reducingtheuseofchemicalpesticides,oftaxonomicgroupsareheldeachyear.Specificintroducingcroprotations,improvingthetimingofworkshopsonmonitoringandtheidentificationirrigationorfertilizerapplication,orintroducingtheuseofbumblebeesandbutterfliesareprovidedasofbiopesticides.Farmersbecomemoreknowledgeablepartofthecentre’snationalmonitoringschemesaboutthenegativeeffectsofpesticidesonbeneficialforthesegroupsofinsects.organismswithintheagroecosystem.AnumberofcountriesreportinitiativesthatManyfarmerswhohaveparticipatedinIPM-FFSraiseawarenessamongthewiderpubliconissueshaveimprovedtheirincomes.ManyalsostatethattheyrelatedtoBFA.ForexampletheLaoPeople’sfeelmoreempoweredandthattheyhavedevelopedDemocraticRepublic’sNationalAgro-Biodiversityleadershipcapacity.TheIPM-FFSinvolvefarmersinProgrammeandActionPlanII54mentionsthatregulardiscussions,discovery-basedlearningandundertheAgro-BiodiversityInitiative,along-makingpresentations.Theseactivitieshelptodeveloptermprojectthataimstoconserve,enhanceself-confidenceandimprovedecision-makingabilities.andmanagebiodiversityfoundinagriculturalManyparticipantshavejoinedlocalfarmergroupsandsystems,villageschoolagrobiodiversitypro-cooperatives.Womenfarmersreportthattheirself-grammeshavebeensuccessfullypromotedinconfidencehasgreatlyincreased.Womenhavebecomethecountry’sXiengKhouangandLuangPrabangactiveintheplanning,implementationandmanagementprovincesandhaveledtothedevelopmentofoflocaldevelopmentprogrammes.Thesechangeshavesmallgardens,arboretaandherbariainsometransformedtheroleofruralwomenwithinthehouseholdschools.Itfurthernotesthatanagrobiodiversityandhelpedtoreduceanumberofsocialproblems.52http://www.louisbolk.orgSource:AdaptedfromthecountryreportofNepal.53http://www.biodiversityireland.ieNote:Forfurtherinformation,seeJha(2008),Bhandari(2012)and54Thisdocumentwassubmittedasacountryreport.Esseretal.(2012).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE407EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.14theirfindings,andtakedecisionsforthecomingweeks.ThefarmerfieldschoolapproachArangeofdifferenttopicscanbeinvestigatedinthisThefarmerfieldschoolapproachaimstoempowerkindofsetting,includingsoilfertilityandwaterresources,smallholderfarmersthroughpracticallearning.Itwaslocalvarietalselection,seedquality,pesticidesuse,nutrition,developedbyFAOandpartnersinSoutheastAsiainthemarketinganddiversificationoffarmingsystems.Locallate1980sasaparticipatoryalternativetotheprevailingknowledgeandscientificinsightsaretested,validatedtop-downextensionmethodoftheGreenRevolution.Theandintegratedinthelocalecologicalandsocio-economicinitialfocuswasonintegratedpestmanagementmethodscontext,andparticipantsareempoweredtodeveloptheintroducedinresponsetotheneedtotacklepestoutbreaksskillsrequiredforinformeddecision-making.relatedtothemisuseofpesticidesinricefields.Overtheyears,farmerfieldschoolshavespreadtoover90countriesFarmerfieldschoolsareusuallyspearheadedbyandbeenusedtoaddressagrowingrangeofmanagementministriesorinstitutionsworkingincollaborationwithpracticesandproductionsystems(seefigurebelow).them.Insomecases,theyhavebeeninitiatedbyFAOcountryofficesanddeliveredthroughimplementingInatypicalfarmerfieldschool,agroupof20topartners.FAOactivelysupportsthecontinueddevelopment25farmers,pastoralistsorfisherfolkmeetonceaweekandspreadofthefarmerfieldschoolapproachbyundertheguidanceofatrainedfacilitator.Overthecoursefacilitatingthesharingofknowledgeonbestpracticesandofanentireproductioncycle(usuallyforatleasttwoprovidingtechnicalandpolicyadvicetoministries,nationalyears),theycompareanddiscusstheeffectsoftwoormoreextensionservices,farmerorganizations,NGOs,researchalternativepractices,onefollowingaprevalentpracticeandinstitutionsandtheprivatesector.anotherfollowingaproposedbestpractice.ParticipantsobservekeyelementsoftheagroecosystembymeasuringSources:FAOwebpagesonthefarmerfieldschoolapproach(http://www.fao.plantoranimalgrowthorproduction,takingsamplesoforg/agriculture/ippm/programme/ffs-approach/en/)andFAO,2016p.pestsorcomparingthecharacteristicsofdifferentsoils.Attheendoftheweeklymeeting,theypresentanddiscussEvolutionofthefarmerfieldschoolapproach201690+countriesAgropastoral/pastoralEASTERN&ClimateﬁeldSemi-aridCENTRALschoolsRainfedEUROPECONTEXTNEAREAST&WaterFSNORTHAFRICAPastoralistFSLATINAgro-AMERICAbiodiversityFSinpostFisheriesdisasterHighyieldAFRICAIPPMPoultryFlowersirrigatedVegetablesPerennialsBeekeepingJuniorﬁeldIPMCottonSoil/waterLivestock&lifeschoolsASIARiceMultiplecropsFarmforestryFS1989FarmerbusinessschoolsTOPICNotes:IPM=integratedpestmanagement;IPPM=integratedproductionandpestmanagement;FS=farmerschool.Source:FAO,2016p.408thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.15ParticipatoryworkshopswithlocalcommunitiesinthedevelopmentofaGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSysteminChileIndigenouscommunitiesinthearchipelagoofChiloéineducationalmethodology.AmongthediverseactivitiessouthernChilehavebeencultivatinganarrayoflocalorganizedwereseedexchanges,fieldvisits,establishmentpotatovarietiesforhundredsofyears.Traditionally,theofcommunityseedbedsandseedbanks,andparticipatorygeneticdiversityofpotatoeswasconservedbyruralwomenbreedingprogrammesbasedontraditionalpractices.throughcultivationintheirhomegardens,andknowledgeTrainingonagroecologyandsustainabletourismwasalsowastransferredorallytothenextgenerationratherthanprovidedtostakeholdersoutsidetheagriculturalsectorsuchbeingrecordedinwriting.Changestoproductionsystemsasentrepreneurs,employeesinthetourismindustryandandlivelihoodsandtheincreaseduseofcommercialpotatopublicofficials.TheCenterforEducationandTechnology,varietieshaveledtogeneticerosionandtothelossofalocalnon-profitorganization,hasworkedwiththetraditionalknowledge.However,about200localpotatoAustralUniversityofChiletoholdtalksandworkshopsvarietiesthatarehighlyadaptedtotheenvironmentalonagroecologyandthedevelopmentmodelpromotedconditionsofChiloéarestillcultivated.byGIAHSforstudentsofagronomicsciences,ruraldevelopmentandrelatedacademicdisciplines.In2011,ChiloéagriculturewasdesignatedasaGloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageSystem(GIAHS)Thecultivationoflocalvarietiesintheparticipatingsite(seeSection7.5formoreinformationonGIAHS).communitieshasbeenstrengthenedandrevitalized,therebyAgroecologicalprinciplesandpracticesareakeyaspectensuringtheirmaintenanceinsitu.GIAHSChiloéhasactivelyofthedevelopmentofGIAHSsites.Duringthefirstyearscontributedtostopping,andevenreversing,theprocessesofofimplementation,multipleparticipatoryworkshopsongeneticerosionandlossoftraditionalknowledge.In2013,agroecologicalmanagementandbiodiversityconservationSIPAM1Chiloéwasregisteredasacertificationlabelforwereorganizedwiththeaim,interalia,ofinformingfarmingproductsoriginatingfromChiloéagriculture.Thelabelhelpstocommunitiesabouttheimplementationoftheproject,raiseawarenessamongthewiderpublicoftheimportanceofensuringtheparticipationofallfarmers,andidentifyingknowledgeassociatedwithfamilyfarmingandbiodiversityfortraditionalproductionsystems,localknowledgeassociatedfoodandagriculture.withthemandexternalandinternaldriversaffectingtheirevolution.TheworkshopsalsoaimedtostrengthentheSource:SubmittedbyChile,withadditionalinformationfromtheGIAHSorganizationalcapacityofthecommunitiesandpromotewebsite(http://www.fao.org/giahs/giahsaroundtheworld/designated-sites/entrepreneurship,forinstancecollaborationwithtourismlatin-america-and-the-caribbean/chiloe-agriculture/en).agencies.Duringtheprocess,farmersplayedanactiveroleNote:Seethewebsitehttp://www.fao.org/giahs/enforfurtherinformationonasteachersandinstructorsanddevelopedasuccessfultheGIAHSinitiative.1SIPAM(SistemasImportantesdelPatrimonioAgrícolaMundial)istheSpanishnameofGIAHS.8.4.3Needsandpriorities55requirementsvaryfromcountrytocountry,butthereportsindicateawidespreadneedforagreaterManycountryreportsnotethatthereisaneedfocusonassociatedbiodiversity(andBFAingeneral)tostrengtheneducation,trainingandawarenessineducationatalllevels.Severalcountriesnotethatraisingrelatedtoassociatedbiodiversityanditsbiodiversity-relatedissuesarenotwellintegratedroleinthesupplyofecosystemservices.Specificintohigher-educationcoursesonfoodandagri-cultureorotheraspectsoflanduse.Insomecases,55Theseneedsandprioritiesrefertoassociatedbiodiversity.countriesreportthatcoursesrelatedtobiodiver-NeedsandprioritiesforPGRFA,AnGR,FGRandAqGRaresityconservationaredisconnectedfromthosebrieflycoveredintherespectivesubsectionsaboveandrelatedtotheuseofbiodiversity(i.e.oncropandaddressedingreaterdetailintherespectiveglobalassessments(FAO,forthcoming,2010a,2014a,2015a).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE409EnablingframeworksPartDlivestockproduction,forestry,fisheries,etc.)and––enhancingcooperationandsynergiesinresearchthatthiscanleadtoalackofinterdisciplinaryskillsanddevelopmentandrelatedtrainingactivities;amongprofessionals.Somecountriesnotetheneedtoimprovethesupplyofgraduatestrained––strengtheningrelevantpolicyframeworks,includinginspecificskillsrelevanttothemanagementtoensuresupportforlong-termresearchactivities;ofBFAsuchastaxonomy,surveying,documenta-tion,economicvaluationandtheuseoftechnol-––investingininformationmanagement;andogiessuchascryoconservation.Asnotedabove––improvingthetransferofresearchoutputstoinSection8.2,somecountrieshighlighttheneedtoincreasetheparticipationofwomeninproducers,consumersandpolicy-makers.BFA-relatededucationandtheneedforexten-sionandtrainingprogrammesthataretailoredTherespectivesectoralglobalassessmentsprovidetowomen’sneeds.informationonthestateofresearchrelevanttoAnGR(FAO,2007a,2015a),FGR(FAO,2014a),AqGRContinuedcapacitydevelopmentamongpro-(FAO,forthcoming)andPGRFA(FAO,2010a).Thefessionalsandtechniciansisalsowidelynotedasfocushereisthereforeonthestateofresearchonapriority.Somecountriesalsomentiontheneedassociatedbiodiversityandtheecosystemservicesforbettertrainingandextensionamongfarmerstheysupply.GapsinknowledgerelatedtospecificandotherusersofBFA.ThereisalsowidespreadaspectsofthesustainableuseandconservationofrecognitionoftheneedforawarenessraisingBFAarediscussedelsewhereinthereport,particu-amongthegeneralpublic(includinginschools)larlyinChapters5and7andinSection2.4.The–andinsomecasesalsoamongpolicy-makers–onstateofknowledgeofthestatusandtrendsoftheimportanceofassociatedbiodiversityandBFABFAandneedsandprioritiesforimprovingmon-ingeneral.ManycountryreportsrecognizethatitoringprogrammesarediscussedinChapter4.aswellasorganizingtrainingactivitiesthereisaThissectionthereforeaimstopresentanoverviewneedtoimproveaccesstoinformation(e.g.viaoftheoverallstateofBFA-relatedresearchandpublicationsandinformationsystems)andcreateresearchcapacityandoptionsforimprovingthem.opportunitiesforstakeholderstointeractandexchangeknowledgeandideas.ReviewsofresearchprogrammesrelevanttoBFAhaveidentifiedvariousimbalancesintermsofReportedconstraintstoimprovingthestatetheirgeographicalandsubjectfocus.Forexample,ofeducationandtrainingincludeshortfallsinVelascoetal.(2015)assessed966scientificpublica-fundingandalackofcooperationandexchangetionsonbiodiversityconservation(notspecificallyofinformationamongeducationalinstitutionsBFAconservation)andconcludedthatresearchandotherstakeholders.targetingNorthAmericaandEuropestillpredom-inated,thatamongtaxonomicgroupstherewas8.5Researchabiastowardsmammals,birdsandotherverte-brates,andthattherewasalackofresearchon•Muchoftheassociatedbiodiversitypresentinanddiversityatthegeneticlevel.Whereecosystemaroundproductionsystems–inparticularmicro-focusisconcerned,thefindingsindicatedthataorganismsandinvertebrates–isunder-researchedpreviouslyidentifiedbiastowardsforestbiodi-despiteitsvitalcontributionstofoodandagriculture.versityhaddeclined(ibid.).Thestudyalsoiden-tifiedalackofresearchonthesocialaspectsof•Prioritiesforstrengtheningresearchonassociatedconservation,andwhereresearchondriversofbiodiversityandothercomponentsofbiodiversityforbiodiversitylosswasconcerned,notedthatland-foodandagricultureinclude:usechangeandoverexploitationofresources––increasingtheavailabilityofhuman,physicalandreceivedmoreattentionthanotherdrivers,suchfinancialresources;asclimatechange(ibid.).Evenwithintheregionsthataremorefavouredintermsofresearchatten-tion,theretendtobesomegeographicalareas410thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8orproductionsystemsthatarelesswelladdressedKenyareportsthattheKenyaResourceCenterthanothers.Sutcliffeetal.(2015),forexample,forIndigenousKnowledge(KENRIK)isresearch-inareviewofstudiesonfarmlandbiodiversityingtraditionalknowledgeandtechnologiesinintheEuropeanUnion,identifiedabiastowardscollaborationwithnativecommunitiesandthenorthernandwesternEurope.Someauthorshaveprivatesector.Somecountriesmentionresearchidentifiedgapsintermsofappliedresearch.Foronthestatusandtrendsofparticularcomponentsexample,Duruetal.(2015)concludethatalackofofbiodiversity(seethe“Stateofknowledge”sub-knowledgeofhowagroecologicalprinciplescansectionsofChapter4formoreinformationonthebeappliedinpracticeisaconstrainttotheimple-stateofmonitoringprogrammes).mentationof“biodiversity-basedagriculture”.Anumberofcountriesrefertoresearchprojects8.5.1Institutionsinvolvedinresearchthataimtosupportspecificaspectsofpolicydevel-onassociatedbiodiversityopment.Forexample,ChinamentionsaprojectontheimplementationofecologicalcompensationThecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcoun-measuresandthedevelopmentofincentivestotriestoprovideinformationonmajorinstitutionspromotestakeholderparticipationinbiodiversitydirectlyinvolvedinresearchontheconservationconservation.Othersnotethatresearchformsanandsustainableuseofassociatedbiodiversityandintegralpartoftheirbiodiversityconservationontheirresearchprogrammes.Themajorityoftheprogrammes,forexamplefeaturinginnationalcountryreportsprovideinformationofthiskind.biodiversitystrategiesandactionplans.Mostoftheanswersfocusonresearchinstitutionsrelatedtobiodiversityoragricultureingeneral8.5.2Needsandprioritiesanddonothighlightresearchrelatedtoassoci-atedbiodiversityinparticular.Inseveralcases,aAsdiscussedinSection3.5,countriesgenerallyverydetailedlistofallnationalresearchinstitutionsviewadvancesinscienceandtechnologyaskeyrelatedtobiodiversityoragricultureisprovided.elementsofeffortstoimprovethesustainableuseSomecountriesprovidedetailedinformationonandconservationofBFA.However,theyalsorec-relevantresearchprojects,researchprogrammesognizethatmuchneedstobedonetostrengthenorworkinggroupsforeachofthelistedresearchresearchonBFAanditsmanagement.Themostinstitutions.Apartfrompublicandprivateuniver-frequentlyhighlightedgapinthisrespectisasities,countriesmentionarangeofgovernmentalgenerallackofresearchonassociatedbiodiversity.researchinstitutes,agenciesandassociations.Addressingthisgapiswidelyreportedtobecon-strainedbyashortageofspecialistsinfieldssuchWithrespecttoresearchfocus,countriesreportastaxonomy–andstrengtheningrelevantedu-institutionalcapacityandspecificactivitiestar-cationalcurriculaandprogrammesisfrequentlygetingarangeofcomponentsofassociatedbio-mentionedasapriority.Improvementstoeduca-diversityandecosystemservicesdirectlyrelevanttionandtrainingare,inturn,oftenreportedtobetofoodandagriculture,mostfrequentlyinsectconstrainedbyfundingshortages,asareeffortstopollinators,biologicalcontrolagents(mainlyimproveresearchfacilitiesandthedisseminationmicro-organismsandinvertebrates)andfood-andofresearchresults.agriculture-relatedmicro-organismsingeneral.SomecountriesrefertoresearchprogrammesManycountriesreportthatresearchisconstrainedforbroadcategoriessuchasforestorgrasslandbyalackofcoordinationbetweenresearchinstitu-biodiversityorspecifictaxonomicgroupswithintionsorbetweenresearchersworkingindifferentsuchecosystems.Anumberofcountriesmentiondisciplinesorindifferentsectors(bothwithinandresearchintotraditionalknowledge.Forexample,beyondfoodandagriculture).Improvingcoordi-theUnitedRepublicofTanzaniareferstoethno-nationandlinkagesbetweeninstitutesnation-medicinalstudiesonendemicplantspecies.allyandatregionalandinternationallevelsisregardedasameansbothofstrengtheningthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE411EnablingframeworksPartDinterdisciplinaryworkandofmakingmoreefficientandculturaldifferencesinhowbiodiversityandtheuseofresourcesandinformation.Strengtheningbenefitsitprovidesareperceived.research-relatedinformationsystemsiswidely•Prioritiesforenhancingworkonthevaluationofregardedasapriority,bothasameansofdissemi-biodiversityforfoodandagricultureinclude:natingresearchoutputsandasameansofmaking––strengtheningpolicyandinstitutionalframeworksrelevantinformationavailabletoresearchers.Countriesmention,forexample,theneedtoestab-forintegratingvaluationstudiesintoconservationlishsystemsformonitoringthestatusandtrendsofstrategies;variouscomponentsofbiodiversityorformanag-––standardizingvaluationmethodologiesandtools;andingrelevantgeographicaldata.––ensuringsufficientresourcesaremadeavailabletosupportvaluationstudies.Inmanycountries,policyframeworksforresearcharereportedtobeweak,absentorpoorlyIneconomicterms,manyoftheecosystemser-implemented.Forexample,ensuringsupportforvicessuppliedbybiodiversity(particularlymanylong-termactivitiessuchasmonitoringcanbeasupporting,regulatingandculturalservices)arechallenge.Somecountriesindicatethatweak-publicgoodsorcommonpoolresources.56Innessesstemfromalackofinterestorawarenessotherwords,peoplecannotbeexcludedfromatpoliticallevelandsuggestthatadvocacyeffortsaccessingthemandarethereforenotobligedinthisregardneedtobestrengthened.Manytopayfordoingso.Thismeansthattheretendsalsonotetheneedtoimprovethemechanismstobelittleprofittobemadefromincreasingthroughwhichresearchonassociatedbiodiversityormaintainingtheirsupply.Moreover,asser-informspolicy-making.vicesofthiskindare,innormalcircumstances,nottraded,theyhavenomarketprices,whichLinksbetweenresearchandpracticalactivitiesmeansthattheyarelesseasytointegrateintoatproductionsystemlevelarealsoreportedtoassessmentsofthecostsandbenefitsofpolicyneedstrengthening.Concreteproposalsinthisinterventions.Thisinturnmaycontributetotheirregardincludeinvolvingrelevantstakeholdersbeingneglectednotonlybytheprivatesectorthroughoutthewholeresearch-projectcyclebutalsointheformulationofpublicpoliciesandfromplanningtomonitoring,improvinglinkstolegislation(CBDSecretariat,2007).extensionservicesandtoproducersthemselves,andintegratingmeasuresofpracticalimpactintoVariouseconomicvaluationtoolscanhelptoevaluationmechanismsforresearchprojects.makethehiddenbenefitsandcostsofbiodiver-sityandbiodiversitylossmorevisibleandmaythus8.6Valuationhelpbothinincreasingawarenessoftheneedforconservationandintheformulationofmore•Economicvaluationtoolscanhelptomakethehiddeneffectiveconservationpolicies(FAO,2007a;TEEB,benefitsandcostsofbiodiversityandbiodiversityloss2018).Interestinapplyingtechniquesofthiskindmorevisible,increasingawarenessoftheneedforhasbeenincreasinginrecentyears.Forexample,conservationanddrivingmoreeffectiveconservationSustainableDevelopmentGoal15includesthepolicies,includingincentiveschemes.target:“By2020,integrateecosystemandbio-diversityvaluesintonationalandlocalplan-•Anumberofcountrieshighlighttheimportanceofning,developmentprocesses,povertyreductionvaluationstudies,butnotethatmajorknowledgestrategiesandaccounts.”gapsremain.56Publicgoodsaregoodsthatnon-excludable(i.e.everybodycan•Quantifyingthevaluesofecosystemservicesandaccessthem)andnon-rivalrous(i.e.peoplecanusethemwithoutbiodiversityisoftenchallengingbecauseofthereducingtheiravailabilitytoothers).Commonpoolresourcesaredifficultyandcostofdatacollection,thecomplexitygoodsthatarenon-excludable,butarerivalrous(i.e.theycannotoftheecologicalprocessesinvolved,andgeographicalbeusedwithoutreducingtheiravailabilitytoothers).412thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Evidencefromglobalassessmentsinthefisheriesetal.,2009),andithasbeenarguedthatsustain-andforestsectorsshowsthatthebenefitsthatcon-ingsuchfunctionsandservicesshouldnotbeservationmeasuresdeliverintermsofecosystemser-tradedagainstothereconomicbenefits.vicescansignificantlyoutweightheinvestmentcostsinvolvedinimplementingthem(CBDSecretariat,Althougheffortsaresometimesmadetoestimate2014b).However,conservationoftenrequiressignif-thefullvalueofagivenecosystem(seefurtherdis-icantfinancialorotherinvestments,involvessomecussionbelow),ithasbeenarguedthatforpracticaleconomicrisktothosedoingtheinvestingandmaydecision-makingpurposesitmaybemoreusefultoleadtoshort-termdeclinesintheflowofbene-estimatethemarginalchangesthatparticularinter-fitseveniftheyincreaseoverthelongerterm.AsventionswillbringaboutinthevalueofecosystemdiscussedinSection8.7,variouskindsofincentiveservices(MEA,2005b;CBDSecretariat,2007).measurescanhelptoovercomeconstraintsofthiskindandpromoteactionsthatincreasethesupply8.6.1Overviewofvaluationapproachesofecosystemservices.ValuationoftheresourcesandservicestargetedplaysanimportantroleintheAttemptstovaluenaturalresourcesareoftendevelopmentofeffectiveincentiveschemes(FAO,basedontheso-calledtotaleconomicvalue(TEV)2007a;CBDSecretariat,2007).framework(e.g.FAO,2007a;MEA,2005b;Pearce,1993;CBDSecretariat,2007).TheTEVofagivenMeasuringandquantifyingthevaluederivedecosystemorcomponentofbiodiversitycanbefromecosystemservicesandbiodiversityareoftendescribedasthesumofitsdirectusevalues,indi-difficult(andalsocostlyintermsoftheresourcesrectusevalues,optionvalues,bequestvaluesandneededfordatacollectionandanalysis).Benefitsexistencevalues(PearceandMoran,1994).tohumansemergefromcomplexinteractionsandinterlinkagesbetweendifferentecologicalpro-Asthenamesuggests,directusevaluesarecessesandcomponentsofbiodiversity(Gómez-valuesthatarisefromtheactualuseofresources,BaggethunandRuiz-Pérez,2011).Moreover,thewhetherintheformoftangibleproducts,suchvaluespeopleassigntoecosystemservicesandasfood,waterortimber,orintheformofrec-biodiversityvarygeographicallyandculturallyreationalactivities,suchasanglingorphotogra-(Atkinson,BatemanandMourato,2012).Differentphy.Indirectusevalues,incontrast,arisenotvaluationtechniques(seebelow)arebasedondif-fromtheuseoftheresourcesthemselvesbutferentunderlyingassumptionsandsimplifications,fromtheirrolesinunderpinningflowsofbenefitsandeachhasitsownsourcesofbias(MEA,2005b;(orinpreventinglosses)–forexamplethevalueCBDSecretariat,2007).Moreover,thewholeofpollination,floodprevention,carbonseques-conceptofassigningmonetaryvaluestonaturaltrationorpestcontrolprovidedbyecosystemsassetsandecosystemserviceshasbeencriticizedandcomponentsofbiodiversity.Optionvaluesbysomeonthegroundsthatitfacilitatesthecom-arevaluesderivedfromthemaintenanceofamodificationofnature,whichitisarguedinturnresourcefortheoptionofusingitinanuncer-mayleadtoadistortedoroversimplifiedunder-tainfuture,forexampleadrought-tolerantcropstandingoftheecologicalandsocialprocessesforpossibleuseinfutureclimatechange-affectedinvolvedandtoincreasinginequalitiesinaccessproductionsystems.Existencevaluesarebenefitstothebenefitsofecosystemservices(e.g.Gómez-derivedfromthemereknowledgethatparticularBaggethunandRuiz-Pérez,2011).Servicespro-resources(e.g.particularspeciesorecosystems)videdbybiodiversityarecrucialtothesurvivalofexist,eveniftheyareneverused.Bequestvaluescomplexecologicalsystemsthataffectfood,waterarederivedfromtheknowledgethatresourcesandotheraspectsofhumansecurity.Theso-calledarebeingmaintainedforfuturegenerations.planetaryboundariesforseveraloftheseservicesarenowindangerofbeingbreached(RockströmAmongthevariouscomponentsofTEV,directusevaluesarethemostfrequentlyquantified,asinmanycasestheycanbetradedonmarketsforcash.ThedifficultyinvolvedincomprehensivelythestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE413EnablingframeworksPartDvaluingbiodiversitythereforeoftenrelatestotheThemainlimitationofdirectmarketvaluationothercomponentsoftheframework,althoughisitsdependenceontheexistenceofrealmarketvaluingsomeusevalues(e.g.leisureactivitiesfordata:formanyecosystemservices,marketsarewhichthereisnocharge)canalsobechallenging.distortedordonotexistatall.InterlinkagesDirectandindirectusevaluesoftenhavemoreandinterdependenciesbetweendifferenteco-immediateinfluenceongovernmentsandcom-systemservicesmakeitdifficulttoderiverelia-paniesthanoptionandexistencevalues.bleestimatesbyusingcost-basedorproductionfunction-basedapproaches(TEEB,2010a).Manymethodscancontributetothevaluationofnaturalresourcesandecosystemservices.TheRevealed-preferenceapproachesapplicabilityofaparticulartechniquedependsRevealed-preferenceapproachesestimatevaluesononthecircumstances,forinstanceonthetypethebasisofobservedbehaviouronrealorsurrogateofvalueunderconsiderationandontheavail-markets.Theconceptsunderpinningseveraloftheseabilityofmarketsfor–anddataon–relevantmethodologiesarewillingnesstopay(WTP)forproductsandservices(MEA,2005b).Threemainobtainingorconservingparticularassetsandservicescategoriesofvaluationtechniquescanbedistin-orwillingnesstoaccept(WTA)theirdegradationorguishedbasedontheavailabilityofmarketinfor-loss(CBDSecretariat,2007;MEA,2005b;TEEB,2010).mation:i)directmarketvaluationapproaches;ii)Twopopulartechniquesinthiscategoryarethetrav-revealed-preferenceapproaches;andiii)stated-el-costapproachandhedonicpricing.preferenceapproaches(e.g.Chee,2004;TEEB,2010).Eachoftheseisbrieflydescribedbelow.Thetravel-costapproachisamethodusedtoInformationonothermethodscanbefoundinderivethevaluespeopleassigntocomponentsoftheValuESMethodsDatabase.57biodiversity,landscapefeatures,etc.byanalysingmonetaryexpenditureontraveltositeswhereDirectmarketvaluationapproachestheycanbeexperienced.ItismainlyusedtoassessDirectmarketvaluationapproachesusedataonrecreationalvalues.prices,costsandquantitiesderivedfromexistingrealmarkets.Kumar(2010)distinguishesthreeThehedonic-pricingapproachcanbeusedtotypesofdirectmarketvaluationtechnique:marketestimatethevaluesofparticularenvironmentalprice-basedapproaches;cost-basedapproaches;factors(cleanair,beautifulviews,etc.)bycom-andproductionfunction-basedapproaches.paringthepricesofgoodsandservicesthataretradedonrealmarketsandwhosevaluesareMarketprice-basedapproachesareoftenusedaffectedbythefactorsunderconsideration,fortoobtainusevaluesforprovisioningservicessoldexamplereal-estatevaluesindifferentenviron-onactualmarkets(e.g.foodandotherproducts).mentalsettings(e.g.MEA,2005b;TEEB,2010).Cost-basedapproachesestimatethecostthatwouldbeincurredifecosystemserviceswereAdisadvantageofrevealedpreferenceabsent(avoided-costmethod),thecostofreplac-approachesisthattheyarerelativelycostlyandingecosystemserviceswithartificialsubstitutestimeconsuming,astheyrequiregood-qualitydata(replacement-costmethod)orthecostofrestoringandinvolvecomplexanalysis.Theyalsorelyonecosystemservicesiftheywerelost(restoration-assumptionsregardingtherelationshipsbetweencostmethod).Productionfunction-basedtheitemsundervaluationandthesurrogatesusedapproachescanbeusedtoestimatethecontri-(TEEB,2010a).Theyalsodonotsolvetheproblembutionofaservicethatisnotsoldindependentlyofhowtoquantifynon-usevalues(i.e.existenceonamarket(e.g.aregulatingservice)toanotherandbequestvalues)(ibid.).servicethatis(e.g.aprovisioningservice).Stated-preferenceapproaches57http://www.aboutvalues.net/method_databaseStated-preferencemethodsinferWTPorWTAbasedonwhatpeoplestateabouttheirpreferences414thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8inhypotheticalsituations(e.g.CBDSecretariat,Understandingofvaluationapproachesisincreas-2007;MEA,2005b;TEEB,2010).Suchapproachesing,withawidevarietyoftoolsandmethodologieshavetheadvantagethattheycanbeusedtonowavailable,rangingfromsoftwarepackagestoassessnotonlyusevaluesbutalsonon-usevalues.bottom-upparticipatoryapproaches(NeugartenCommonlyusedstated-preferencemethodsincludeetal.,2018).Agrowingrangeofservicesarebeingcontingentvaluationandchoicemodelling.targetedunderpaymentforecosystemserviceschemes(seeSection8.7).DetailsofanumberofContingentvaluationinvolvesdirectlyaskinginitiativesinthefieldofvaluationcanbefoundviarespondentstostatetheirWTPforagivenecosys-FAO’sIncentivesforEcosystemServiceswebpage.58temserviceorcomponentofbiodiversityortheirThefollowingparagraphsprovideshortoverviewsWTAitslossordecline.Choicemodellingisusedtoofanumberofmajorrecentandongoinginterna-estimateWTPorWTAwithoutaskingrespondentstionalinitiativesaddressingvaluationofecosystemdirectly.Respondentsareinsteadaskedtochooseservicesandbiodiversity.betweenagivensetofpredefinedproductsorser-vicesthatvaryintermsofthelevelsofanumberTheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(MEA)59ofdifferentattributes.Ifoneoftheattributesiswasinitiatedin2000byUnitedNationsSecretary-measuredinmonetaryterms(e.g.priceorcost),itisGeneralKofiAnnanasaglobalefforttoassesspossibletoderiveWTPorWTAforotherattributes.humanimpactsontheenvironmentandtheben-efitshumansreceivefromecosystems.OutputsAmajorweaknessofstatedpreferencemethodsincludedareviewofthemeritsanddeficienciesofistheso-calledhypotheticalbias:statementsaboutvaluationparadigmsandtheirpotentialcontribu-hypotheticalbehaviouronimaginarymarketsmaytionstodecision-makingandpolicyformulationnotcorrespondtohowpeoplewouldbehaveintosupportthesustainablemanagementandusereallife.Otherlimitationsincludethedifficultyofecosystems(MEA,2005b).involvedindesigningadequatequestionnairesandanalyticalmodels(e.g.HarrisonandRutström,TheEconomicsofEcosystemsandBiodiversity2008;MEA,2005b;TEEB,2010).(TEEB),60launchedasaglobalinitiativein2007undertheauspicesoftheUnitedNations8.6.2StateofimplementationEnvironmentProgramme,aimstoassesstheeco-nomicvaluesofbiodiversityandecosystemser-Overviewvicesandraiseawarenessofthecostsofbiodiver-Recentyearshaveseenagrowingnumberofinitia-sityloss.TheTEEBapproachconsistsofthreesteps:tivesinthefieldofvaluationofecosystemservices.(i)recognizingthevalueofecosystemservicesandThesehaveincludedassessmentsofthevaluesofbiodiversity;(ii)demonstratingvalueineconomicspecificecosystemservices,suchasbiologicalpestterms;and(iii)capturingvalueinpolicydecisionscontrol(Danielsetal.,2017;Waage,2007)and(TEEB,2010a).pollination(Calderone,2012;Gallaietal.,2009),andattemptstoestimatethetotalvalueofwholeTEEBforAgricultureandFood(TEEBAgFood)61ecosystemcategoriessuchasforests,rangelandswasinitiatedin2014asaprojectfocusingexplicitlyandcoralreefs(e.g.Costanzaetal.,1997,2014).onthevaluationoftheexternalitiesofso-calledeco-agri-foodsystems.ThetermisintendedtoTheextenttowhichtheoutcomesofvaluationemphasizetheinter-relationsanddependenciesstudieshavehadapracticalimpactonpolicy-betweenagricultureandfoodsystems,biodiversitymakingisdifficulttodetermine(Lauransetal.,andecosystemsandhuman(socialandeconomic)2013),althoughitisclearthatvaluationstudiesofparticularbenefits,suchastourismrevenueor58http://www.fao.org/in-action/incentives-for-ecosystem-services/floodprevention,doinfluencepolicy-making,fortoolkit/assessment-and-valuation/tools-and-models/enexampleinhelpingbuildconfidenceininvestmentinnature-basedtourism(Balmfordetal.,2009).59http://www.millenniumassessment.org60http://www.teebweb.org61http://www.teebweb.org/agriculture-and-foodthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE415416thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREFigure8.1ElementsoftheTEEBAgriFoodEvaluationFrameworkIMPACTSCONTRIBUTIONSTOHUMANWELL-BEINGPartDContributiontohumanwell-being=“valueadditions”EnvironmentalimpactsEconomicimpactsHealthimpactsSocialimpactsAnalysisOUTCOMESNATURALCAPITALPRODUCEDCAPITALHUMANCAPITALSOCIALCAPITALEnablingframeworksChangesinthecapitalbase•Increasedaccesstofood•Ecosystemrestoration•Depreciation/invesmentin•Improvedlivelihoods•Increasedemployment•Increaseinhabitatqualityﬁxedassetssuchasroads,•Increasedskills•Deforestationandhabitatlossequipmentandmachinery•Improvednutritionopportunities•HigherGHGconcentrations•Reducedoccupational•Landdisplacement•Soilandwaterpollution•ChangesinﬁnancialcapitalhealthAGRI-FOODVALUECHAINAgriculturalManufacturingDistribution,marketingHouseholdproductionandprocessingandretailconsumptionFLOWSAGRICULTURALANDFOODOUTPUTSECOSYSTEMSERVICESDescriptionThroughthevaluechainProvisioning(biomassgrowth,freshwater),Agriculturalandfoodproducts,income(valueadded,regulating(pollination,pestcontrol,nutrientcycling)“visibleandinvisible”operatingsurplus),andsubsidies,taxesandinterestandcultural(landscapeamenity)“Dependencies”PURCHASEDINPUTSRESIDUALSSTOCKSLabourinputs(incl.skills),andintermediateconsumptionCapitalbaseforproduction(producedinputssuchaswater,energy,fertilizers,Agriculturalandfoodwaste,GHGemissions,pesticides,animalhealthandveterinaryinputs)otheremissionstoair,soilandwater,wastewater,andsolidwasteandotherresidualsNATURALCAPITALPRODUCEDCAPITALHUMANCAPITALSOCIALCAPITALWater,soil,air,vegetationBuildings,machineryandEducation/skills,health,Landaccess/tenure,foodcoverandhabitatquality,equipment,infrastructure,workingconditions,etc.security,opportunitiesforresearchanddevelopment,biodiversity,etc.empowerment,socialﬁnance,etc.cooperation,institutionalstrength,lawsandregulations,etc.Note:GHG=greenhousegas.Source:TEEB,2018.THESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8systems.TEEBAgFoodaimsto“makevisible”theWealthAccountingandtheValuationofhiddenimpactsandexternalitiesassociatedwithEcosystemServices(WAVES),64aglobalpartnershipthesesystemsandtoprovidepolicyrecommenda-linkedtoSEEA,waslaunchedatthetenthmeetingtionsthatwillpromotesustainabilityinagricultureoftheConferenceofthePartiestotheCBDin2010.andfoodproduction.IthasdevelopedauniversalWAVESaimstomainstreamnaturalresourcesintovaluationframeworkspecificallyfortheagrifooddevelopmentplanningandnationalaccountssector,coveringthewholevaluechainfrompro-throughanapproachreferredtoasnaturalcapitalductiontoconsumption,andassessingtheflowsaccounting.ofabroadrangeofbenefitsanddisbenefits,manyofwhicharenormallyinvisibleineconomictermsTheNaturalCapitalProject,65apartnership(TEEB,2018).Themaincomponentsoftheframe-betweentheUniversitiesofStanfordandworkareshowninFigure8.1.Minnesota,theNatureConservancy66andWWF,67hasdevelopedInVest(IntegratedValuationofTheIntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformEcosystemServicesandTradeoffs),68asuiteofonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES),open-sourcesoftwaremodelsformappingandunderitsDeliverable3(d):“Policysupporttoolsvaluingecosystemservices.andmethodologiesregardingthediverseconcep-tualizationofvaluesofbiodiversityandnature’sCountry-reportanalysisbenefitstopeopleincludingecosystemservices”,Theguidelinesforthepreparationofcountryisassessingmethodologiesrelatedtothevaluesreportsdidnotcontainspecificquestionsontheofbiodiversitytohumansocietiesandevaluatingvaluationofbiodiversityandecosystemservices.theirpolicyrelevance(IPBES,2014).Asubstantialnumberofcountryreports,none-theless,eitherprovideinformationontheimple-TheSystemofEnvironmentalEconomicmentationofvaluationstudiesornoteneedsandAccounting(SEEA)62isaframeworkdevelopedprioritiesinthisfield.bytheUnitedNationsStatisticsDivisiontointe-grateenvironmentalandeconomicdataintheSeveralcountriesrefertopublishedstudiesinterestofbetter-informeddecision-making.Theorongoingresearchprojectsaddressingtheval-SEEACentralFramework(UNetal.,2014a)wasuationofecosystemservicesandbiodiversity,endorsedastheinternationalstatisticalstandardalthoughnotalloftheseareexplicitlyrelatedforenvironmental–economicaccountingbythetoBFA.Whiletheinformationprovidedisfrag-UnitedNationsStatisticalCommissionin2012.mentaryandthestudiesmentionedaremostlyinTheobjectiveistoenabletheintegrationoftheearlystagesofimplementation,thegeneralenvironmentalinformationintonationalmacro-impressionconveyedbythecountryreportsisthateconomicaccountingsystemssothatnationalthereisanoverallpositivetrendintheimplemen-incomeaccountsreflectenvironmentalexternal-tationofvaluationstudiesonBFAandintheuseitiesandultimatelythattheseexternalitiescanbeoftheoutcomesofsuchstudiesinmanagementbetteraccountedforindecision-making.Whileandpolicy-making.Thedifficultiesinvolvedare,theCentralFrameworktakesaneconomicper-however,illustratedbythefactthatsomereportsspective,thecomplementarySEEAExperimentalmentionvaluationstudiesthateitherwerenotEcosystemAccountingstartsfromanenviron-completedorfailedtogetofftheground.mentalpointofview(UNetal.,2014b).Asectoralsubsystem,theSystemofEnvironmental-EconomicThereportedstudiesgenerallytargeteitherAccountingforAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries,specificgeographicalareasorspecifictypesofhasalsobeendeveloped.6364https://www.wavespartnership.org62https://seea.un.org65https://www.naturalcapitalproject.org63http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/environment/methodology/en66https://www.nature.org67https://www.worldwildlife.org68http://www.naturalcapitalproject.org/investthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE417EnablingframeworksPartDecosystematlocalornationalscale.Theformerprotection(seealsoSection8.7).Severalcoun-include,forexample,astudyreportedbythetriesspecificallymentiontheinclusionofval-Netherlands(Hein,2011)thatanalysedthevalueuation-relatedtargetsintheirnationalbio-ofecosystemservicesprovidedbytheHogediversitystrategiesandactionplans.Forexample,Veluweforest(aprotectedareaconsistingofSwitzerlandnotesthatoneofthestrategicgoalswoodland,heathandgrassland),includingwoodoftheSwissBiodiversityStrategy(Governmentproduction,meatfromhunting,groundwaterofSwitzerland,2012)istoquantitativelyassessinfiltration,carbonsequestration,air-pollutionecosystemservicesby2020andtodevelopremoval,recreationandbiodiversity.BelgiumwelfareindicatorstocomplementgrossdomesticreferstotheprojectValuationofTerrestrialproduct.EthiopiamentionsthatresearchaimedEcosystemServicesinaMultifunctionalPeri-urbanataddressinggapsinknowledgeinthefieldofSpace,whichtargetedamulti-ecosystemareainvaluationisincludedinitsNationalBiodiversitythecentralpartofthecountry,deployinginte-StrategyandActionPlan2015–2020(Governmentgratedsocial,biophysicalandeconomicvaluationofEthiopia,2015)andthatvaluationisregardedapproacheswiththeaimofinformingdecision-asakeymeansofpromotingconservation,sus-makinginlandscapeplanning.69Countriesreport-tainableuseandaccessandbenefit-sharing.inganapproachbasedonecosystemcategoriesReportsofinstitutionsestablishedtosupportincludeYemen,whichmentionsvaluationexer-valuationeffortscomemainlyfromdevelopedcisesfortheenvironmentalgoodsandservicescountries.Forexample,IrelandmentionstheIrishprovidedinrangelands,forestsandmangroves.ForumonNaturalCapital,70abodysupportedbyInthecaseofrangelands,itnotesthatthemainpublicandprivateagenciesthataimstoprioritizeserviceistheprovisionoffodderforlivestock,theintegrationofnaturalcapitalintonationalbutthatothervaluablebenefitsincludetheaccounting.TheUnitedKingdomreferstothesupplyofpollinationservicestocropproduction,NaturalCapitalCommittee,71abodyformedtothesupplyofhoneyandmedicinalplants,andprovideexpertadvicetothegovernmentonthethepreventionofsoilerosion.stateofnaturalcapital.Afewcountriesrefertovaluationstudiestar-8.6.3Needsandprioritiesgetingparticularregulatingorsupportingecosys-temservicesatnationallevel.Forexample,FinlandTheimportanceofvaluationofbiodiversityandmentionsTEEBNordicandTEEBFinlandstudiesecosystemservicesisemphasizedinanumberthat,interalia,estimatedthevalueofpollinationofcountryreports.72SeveralmentiontheneedbyhoneybeesatEUR18millionforselectedcrops,tointegratethevalueoftheseresourcesintoEUR39millionforproducefromhomegardensnationalaccountingsystemsorintobroaderandEUR3.9millionforwildberries.measuresofsocialwelfare,aswellastousetheoutputsofvaluationstudiestoguidenationalAnumberofcountriesreporttheintegrationpoliciesandresearchprogrammes.Severalnoteofvaluationeffortsintonationalstrategies,theimportanceofvaluationdataineffortstopoliciesorprogrammestargetingbiodiversitydevelopfinancialincentivemechanismsforbio-andecosystemservicesordescribeinstitutionaldiversityconservation.arrangementsforworkinthisfield.VietNammentionsthatseveralecosystemservice-valu-Countriesthatmentionvaluationeffortsforationstudiesareplannedinthecontextofthenaturalresourcesandecosystemservicesgenerallydevelopmentofapolicyonpaymentsforeco-indicatethatmajorknowledgegapsremaintobesystemservicesrelatedtobiodiversityprotection,ecotourism,carbonsequestrationandwatershed70http://www.naturalcapitalireland.com71http://www.naturalcapitalcommittee.org69SeeFontaineetal.(2013)forfurtherinformation.72Asnotedabove,countrieswerenotspecificallyinvitedtoreportonthistopicortolistneedsandprioritiesinthisregard.418thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8filled.Somecountriesnotespecificgapsorprior-BFA-friendlymanagementpracticesisoftencon-ities(e.g.microbialgeneticresourcesinEthiopia,strainedbyvariousbarriers,includingriskaver-wildpollinatorsintheUnitedStatesofAmericasion,technologicalandknowledgegaps,andtheandwildmedicinalplantsinJordan).needtoinvestmoney,timeoreffort(evenifben-efitsexceedcostsoverthelongterm).IncentiveAnumberofcountriesidentifytheneedtomeasurescanbeameansofovercomingsuchbar-strengtheninstitutionsandpoliciesthataddressriers.Incentivescantakeawiderangeofdifferenttheintegrationoftheresultsofvaluationstudiesformsandoriginatefrompublicprogrammesorintoconservationstrategiesandotherpolicies.fromprivate-sectorinvestment(seeFigure8.2).Specificprioritiesmentionedincludefosteringcross-sectoralandinterinstitutionalcooperationSingleincentivemeasuresimplementediniso-invaluationefforts.Severalcountriesmentionthelationareunlikelytobesufficienttoaddresstheneedforstandardizedvaluationmethodologiesmultiplethreatsfacingparticularcomponentsofandtoolsforuseinvaluationexercises.TheneedBFAandovercomeallthebarrierstotheircon-foradditionalfinancialresourcestosupportvalu-servationandsustainableuse.Mechanismsthatationeffortsisalsonoted.combinemultipleincentiveshavebeenencour-agedbytheCBDforoveradecade(CBD,2008b).8.7IncentivesIn2016,theConferenceofthePartiestotheCBDcalledagainforcountriesto•Incentivesfortheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture(BFA)cantakeauseanappropriatemixofregulatoryrangeofformsandoriginatefrompublicprogrammes,andincentivemeasures…includingtheprivate-sectorinvestmentsorcivil-societyinitiatives.elimination,phasingoutandreformofincentivesharmfultobiodiversityinorder,•Incentivemeasuresarestilloftenabsent,and…toincreasetheefficiencyofuseofwheretheydoexistalackofcoordinationintheirwater,fertilizerandpesticides,andtoavoidimplementationoftenhamperssuccess.theirinappropriateuse,andtoencouragepublicandprivatesourcesoffinancetobe•Combiningarangeofincentivemeasuresintoanchannelledintopracticesthatimprovetheintegratedpackagecanhelpproduceagreatersustainabilityofproductionwhilereducingimpactintermsofpromotingthesustainableuseandbiodiversityloss,andtopromoteandsupportconservationofBFA.therestorationofecosystems(CBD,2016c).Combiningincentivesintoanintegrated•Prioritiesforstrengtheningincentivemeasuresinclude:packagenotonlysupportstransitiontopractices––betterdocumenting,mappingandcoordinatingthatarebiodiversityfriendlyonalocalscalebutexistingschemes;alsoenablesimprovementsinproductivityand––improvingcoordinationbetweenthepublic,foodsecuritythatreducepressuresonbiodiver-non-governmentalandprivatesectors;andsity(andothernaturalresources)moregenerally.––strengtheninglinksbetweentheenvironmentalandFAO’sIncentivesforEcosystemServicesprojectfoodandagriculturesectors.(FAO,2018v)isworkingtopromotethedevel-––Stepsalsoneedtobetakentoremoveperverseopmentofefficientpackagesofincentivestoincentives.supportthesustainableuseandconservationofBFA.Activitiesincludecase-studyanalysis,regional8.7.1OverviewpolicydialoguestohelpmembercountriesdevelopenablingpolicyframeworksforlocallyAsdescribedelsewhereinthischapter,andinadaptedpackagesofincentives,andaweb-basedChapters5and7,arangeofdifferentmanage-toolkittoguidedecision-makersandpractitionersmentpractices,programmes,policiesandlegalinmappingandcombiningincentives.instrumentscancontributetotheconservationandsustainableuseofBFA.However,adoptionofthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE419EnablingframeworksPartDFigure8.2ExamplesofsourcesofincentivestosupportsustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityINCENTIVES:AWIDERANGEOFSOURCESPOLICY-DRIVENSubsidiesGreenpublicprocurementVOLUNTARYINVESTMENTSConservationeasementsINVESTMENTSProhibitionofuseVoluntaryfarmset-asidesPropertyuserightsPermitsandquotasRewardsforecosystemConservationconcessionsservices(RES)Taxes/chargesDirectpaymentforMarketinglabelsMandatoryfarmset-asidesecosystemservices(PES)(withoutcertiﬁcatesorstandards)CulturalandsocialnormsMarketinglabels(certiﬁcates/standards)OffsetsResponsiblesourcingofagricultureproductsandservicesCorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)FarmersandcompaniesPre-complianceVoluntaryactionVoluntaryactionfulﬁllinggovernmenttosavecostsorpositionwithdirectreturnonunlinkedfromprivateactorsonanewregulationsinvestment:environmentaloutcomesemergingmarket•InsettingSource:FAO,2018v.•ImpactmarketingThissectionfocuseslargelyonincentivemeas-Alargemajorityoftheincentivemeasuresmen-uresthatpromotetheconservationandsustaina-tionedinthecountryreportsareoperatinginbleuseofassociatedbiodiversity.Furtherinforma-EuropeorinNorthAmerica.74Forexample,countrytiononincentivesrelatedtothemanagementofreportsfromEuropeanUnion(EU)membersgeneticresourcesinthecrop,livestockandforestrefertoarangeofincentivemeasureslinkedtosectorsisprovidedintherespectiveglobalassess-EU-levelpoliciesandprogrammessuchastheEUments(FAO,2010a,2014a,2014c).BiodiversityStrategy.MostmentiontheimportanceofdirectsupportschemesundertheEU’sCommon8.7.2StateofadoptionAgriculturalPolicy,includingpaymentsforagricul-turalpracticesthatareclimatefriendlyandbene-Thecountryreportsmentionadiverserangeofficialtotheenvironment.EUpaymentsinsupportincentivemeasuresaimedatpromotingthecon-ofsustainableforestmanagementpracticesarealsoservationandsustainableuseofBFA.73Table8.3mentioned.However,indiscussingsuchschemeslistsexamplesofpracticesreportedtobepromotedthecountryreportsmakefewreferencestoprovi-throughtheprovisionofincentives.sionsthatspecificallytargettheconservationand73Countrieswereinvitedto“Describeanyincentivesorbenefits74Tosomeextent,thismayrelatetohowcountriesinterpretedtosupportactivitiesfortheconservationandsustainableuseofthecountry-reportingguidelines,astherearemanydonor-biodiversityforfoodandagricultureorassociatedbiodiversitydrivenincentiveschemesoperatinginotherregions.(suchaspayments,provisionofinputs,subsidiesorotherformsofincentives/benefits).”420thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Table8.3ExamplesofpracticesreportedtobepromotedthroughtheprovisionofincentivesSectorsPracticesforwhichincentivesareprovidedReducedfertilizerandpesticideuseReducedtillageandpreventionofnutrientrunofffromcropfieldsCropproductionRetentionoflandscapefeaturessuchastrees,fieldmargins,ditchesandterracesConservationorenhancementoffieldmarginsforpollinatorsImprovedconnectivitythroughhabitatcorridorsProtectionofplantgeneticresourcesIncreasedagroforestryandreforestationForestConversionofnon-nativeforesttonativewoodlandsConservationandrestorationofmangroveforestsEstablishmentofforestgenebanksMaintenanceofgrasslandsLivestockGrasslandnutrientmanagementProtectionofindigenousbreedsTemporarysuspensionoffishingactivitiesforoverexploitedstockRe-orientationtowardsmoresustainablefishingpracticesFisheriesandaquacultureRestorationoffishhabitatsandmigrationroutesConversiontoorganic,low-impactaquacultureWetlandconservationProtectionofendangeredspeciesinsideoroutsideprotectedareasCross-sectoralControlandmanagementofinvasivespeciesSupportforcertificationschemesOrganicfarmingorconversiontoorganicfarmingSource:CountryreportspreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.sustainableuseofcomponentsofassociatedbio-pollinators,althoughitnotesthattheseschemesarediversitywithwell-definedrolesintheprovisionnotintendedspecificallyasameansofpromotingofecosystemservicestofoodandagriculturethesupplyofpollinationservicesincropsystems.(pollinators,soil-dwellingorganisms,biologicalSloveniamentionsthatthebenefitsofagri-environ-controlagents,etc.).ThereportfromtheUnitedmentalschemesincropproductionsystemsincludeKingdomnotesthatthepracticestargetedbyagri-theprovisionoffoodsourcesforbeesandincreasingenvironmentalschemesinclude“establishingpollenmicrobiologicalactivityinthesoil.andnectarmixesontheedgesofarablefieldstoincreasetheavailabilityofessentialfoodsourcesforCountriesmentionvariousotherEU-levelinitia-insects,includingthosethatcontributetothepolli-tivesthatsupportlocalfoodproductionandshortnationofagriculturalcrops”and“creationofflowersupplychains.Slovenia,forexample,notesthatrichmarginsthatprovidehabitatforbeneficialpred-theSchoolFruitScheme,75whichprovidesfreeators.”Itfurthermentionsthatinthewidercountry-fruitandvegetablestoschoolchildren,ishelpingsidesuchschemesincentivizepracticesthatbenefit75http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sfs_enthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE421EnablingframeworksPartDtoincreasetheuseoflocalfoodineducational•theyoftentargetthemaintenanceofgeneticinstitutions.Alsomentionedareprojectsfinancedresourcesandlocalvarietiestopromotefoodorco-financedbytheEU’sLIFE76programmetar-security;getingtheconservationofbiodiversityinareasthatfallwithintheNatura2000network.77•theytendtoinvolvepublic-fundedimprove-mentstotheenvironmentalperformanceofAmongdevelopedcountriesoutsidetheEU,localfoodproductionforlocaluseratherNorwaymentionsthatpartofitsprotectedforestthaneco-labellingandincreasedmarketzonefallsunderthefrivilligvern(voluntaryprotec-opportunities;andtion)scheme,78throughwhichforestownersvolun-tarilyproposeforestareasthatwillnotbelogged.•theytendnottoinvolvetheintegrationofOwnersreceivefinancialcompensationbasedindividualincentivesintoa“package”withonopportunity-costvalue.TheUnitedStatesofotherincentives.Americadescribesanumberofincentiveschemessupportingthemaintenanceofhabitats.ExamplesThereportfromRwandadocumentsseveralpro-includeaprojectaimedatreducingtheconversiongrammesthatuseincentivemeasurestopromoteofwetlandsandgrasslandsintocropland.Italsolandscapeapproachesaimedatimprovingthementionsseveralprogrammesunderwhichfarmersmanagement,conservationanduseofBFAandandrancherscanreceivesupportforincreasingandecosystemservices.Forexample,theLandscapeimprovingpollinatorhabitats.Forexample,underApproachtoForestRestorationandConservation80theConservationStewardshipProgram,79whichprogramme,operatingwithfinancingfromtheprovideslong-termpaymentsforadvancedconser-GlobalEnvironmentFund,providesfinancialvationsystems,nearly3000contractholdersareincentivestoencouragefarmerstoconservepro-reportedtohavetakenactiontoestablishpolli-tectedforestsandestablishdiverseagroforestrynatorhabitatinnon-croppedareasontheirlands.plotsandwoodlots.Participantshaveseededover11000acres(approx-imately4450hectares)ofnectar-andpollen-Afewdevelopingcountriesreportrelativelyproducingplantsinfieldborders,vegetativebarri-long-standingnational-levelincentiveschemes,inersandbufferstrips,andalongwaterways.somecasesalsomentioninglegalframeworksputinplacetosupportandregulatethem.Forexample,Asnotedabove,incentiveschemessupportingCostaRicanotesthatitsForestLawNo.7575ofthesustainableuseandconservationofBFAare199681providestheregulatorybasisforsmallhold-relativelyrarelymentionedinthereportsfromersandownersofnaturalforestsandforestplanta-developingregions.Manyoftheschemesthataretionstoreceivedirectpaymentsfortheecosystemdescribedshareseveralcommoncharacteristics:servicesandbiodiversityconservationbenefitsthattheirforestsprovide.82Between1995and2015,•theytendtobeimplementedatlocal/sub-paymentsfortheprotectionandrecoveryofforestnationalscaleratherthanatnationalscale;habitatsunderthisregulationarereportedtohaveamountedtoaboutUSD320million.Asof2015,•theyincludesupportforthecreationofcooper-approximately14500contractshadbeensigned,atives,associationsandcommunity-basedinitia-coveringmorethan1millionhaandtheplantingtivesratherthantargetingindividualproducers;ofabout6milliontreesinagroforestrysystems.•theyofteninvolvetheestablishmentofalter-80https://www.thegef.org/project/nativeincome-generatingactivities;landscape-approach-forest-restoration-and-conservation-lafrec76http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life81LeyForestalNo.7575(available,inSpanish,athttp://faolex.77http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/fao.org/cgi-bin/faolex.exe?rec_id=004894&database=faolex&search_type=link&table=result&lang=eng&format_index_en.htmname=@ERALL)78http://frivilligvern.no79https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/82FurtherinformationonpaymentsforenvironmentalservicesschemesinCostaRicacanbefoundinPagiola(2006).programs/financial/csp/422thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8CostaRicafurthernotesthatitsBiodiversity“incentivesaregrantedonlyafterpartialortotalLawNo.778883establishesincentivesintheformimplementationofpreviouslycontractedconser-ofpublicrecognitionschemessuchasEcologicalvationactionsandpracticesandtheamountstoBlueFlag84andnationalandlocalprizesforout-bepaidarecalculatedaccordingtotheresults:standingactionspromotingtheconservationandreductionoferosionandsedimentation,reduc-sustainableuseofbiodiversity.Thelawalsofore-tionofdiffusepollutionandincreaseofinfiltra-seestaxexemptionsonequipmentandmaterialstionofwaterinthesoil.”thatareregardedasindispensableforthedevel-opment,researchandtransferofappropriateVietNamreportsanationalprogramme87oftechnologyfortheconservationandsustainablepaymentsforenvironmentalservicesfromfor-useofbiodiversity.ests,88targetinginparticulartheprotectionofwatersheds,protectionoflandscapesandbiodi-EcuadormentionsSocioBosque(Forestversityfortouristicpurposes,carbonsequestra-Partners),85amajornationalprogramme,inplacetion,andprovisionofspawninggrounds,feeds,since2008,underwhichconservationagreementsseedsandwaterforaquaculture.ItfurthernotesaresignedwithlandownerstoprotectnativethatitsNationalBiodiversityStrategy(MNRE,forests.Onceanagreementissigned,payments2015)includestheobjectivesofimprovingpol-(varyingaccordingtosizeofforestareacovered)iciesandinstitutionalcapacityrelatedtopay-aremadeannuallyforaperiodof20years.Thementsforforestecosystemservicesatnationalschemetargetsareaswherethereisrapidland-scaleandpilotingapaymentforecosystemser-usechange,thosethatarecriticalforthemain-vicespolicyformarineandwetlandecosystems.tenanceofecosystemprocessesandthosewithCivil-societyandprivate-sectorincentiveschemeshighlevelsofpoverty.Ecuadorfurthernotesthat,targetingtheshrimp-aquaculturesectorinVietsince2013,SocioBosquehasbeencomplementedNamaredescribedinBox8.16.bytheSocioManglarprogramme,whichsupportstheconservationandrestorationofmangroves.CountriesfromvariousregionsmentionSocioManglar,inturn,hasacomponentrelatedexamplesofincentiveschemesthatsupportthetolivelihoodsandthesustainableuseofnaturalcertificationofproductionpractices.Bodiesmen-resources.BeneficiarieswhosignaconservationtionedincludetheInternationalFoundationforagreementacquire“userights”tosustainablyOrganicAgriculture,89InternationalOrganicextractresourcessuchasshells,crabsandfishAccreditationService,90InternationalProgramme(respectingtimeandarearestrictionsspecificallyfortheEndorsementofForestCertification,91thedesignedtopromotetheconservationofeachForestStewardshipCouncil,92GLOBALG.A.P93andspeciestargeted).theMarineStewardshipCouncil.94Alsoreportedarefarmaccreditationschemes,forexamplethoseBrazilmentionstheWaterProducerProgram,86whichaswellasprovidingtechnicalandfinan-87Theschemeinitially(beginningin2008)targetedtwocialsupportfortheimplementationofwaterprovinces.In2010anationalschemewasmandatedbyDecreeandsoilconservationactionssuchasthecon-No.99/2010/ND-CPonthePolicyonPaymentforForeststructionofterracesandinfiltrationbasins,pro-EnvironmentServices(availableathttp://www.ecolex.org/videsforincentivepaymentstoproducerswhodetails/legislation/decree-no-992010nd-cp-on-the-policy-on-haveproventocontributetotheprotectionpayment-for-forest-environment-services-lex-faoc100744).andrecoveryofsprings.Itfurthernotesthat88ThereportcitesPhametal.(2013),whichcanbeconsultedfor83LeydeBiodiversidadN°7788de23Abril1998(availableatfurtherinformationonpaymentsforenvironmentalserviceshttp://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=20869).schemesinVietNam.84https://banderaazulecologica.org89https://www.ifoam.bio85http://sociobosque.ambiente.gob.ec90http://www.ioas.org86http://produtordeagua.ana.gov.br91https://www.pefc.org92https://ic.fsc.org/en93http://www.globalgap.org94https://www.msc.orgthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE423EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.16IncentiveschemespromotingsustainableshrimpaquacultureinVietNamDrivenbyhighprofitsinshrimpaquaculture,largeareasofdeforestmangroves.TrainingisprovidedonintegratedmangrovehabitatintheMekongDeltahavebeenconvertedorganicmangrove–shrimpmanagement(e.g.byUN-REDD)intoshrimpfarmsandricepaddies.Variousstepshavebeenandhouseholdwastemanagement(e.g.byMangrovesandtakentotacklemangrovelossbyincentivizingsustainableMarkets).Long-termimplementationismadeattractiveproductionpractices,includingbyestablishinglinkstothroughaprivatesector-supportedcertificationschemeforhigher-valuemarkets.organicallyproducedshrimp(SelvaShrimp®),2whichsecuresa10percentpricepremiumfromtheMinhPhuSeafoodAregulationintroducedtoprotectexistingcoastalCooperation,andmarketingbyNaturland3topromotemangrovehabitatsrequiresthemaintenanceof60percentproductsfromintegratedmangrove–shrimpsystems.forestcoveronprivateland,withnon-complianceleadingIncentivesareusedalongthevaluechaintopromotetotheremovalofaquacultureleases.Civil-societyinitiativessustainability.TheAquacultureStewardshipCouncil4(acivilsuchasMangrovesandMarkets1providefinanceforthesocietyorganization)educatesconsumerstoencouragereforestationofmangrovehabitatonprivatelandtosupportthemtopurchaseecologicallyproducedshrimp.compliance.Aprivate-sectororganization,MinhPhuSeafoodCooperation,alsoprovidesfinancialbonuses(USD30/ha)Source:FAO,2018v.forthemaintenanceofmangroveareaswithinaquaculture1https://www.iucn.org/regions/asia/our-work/regional-projects/mangroves-farmstoensuretheenvironmentalsustainabilityofitsshrimpsupplyforexport.and-markets-mam2https://selvashrimp.com/sustainable/sustainable-zero-inputIncentivesarealsousedtosupporttransitionto3https://www.naturland.de/en/naturland/what-we-do/naturland-seafood.integratedmangrove–shrimpfarming,whichismoreefficientandthereforereducesfarmers’needtofurtherhtml4https://www.asc-aqua.orgpromotedbyLEAF(LinkingEnvironmentandspellouttheneedforamoreholisticapproach,Farming)95andConservationGrade.96severalnotetheneedforgreatercoordinationbetweenschemes.Widerexperienceindicates988.7.3Needsandprioritiesthatwhileindividualpublicprogrammes,pri-vate-sectorinvestmentsorcivilsocietyinitiativesAsidefrominsomecasesnotingtheneedtomayprovideincentivesthathelptoaddresstheirintroduceorexpandtheuseofincentivemeas-ownparticularconcerns,acoordinated“packageures,thecountryreportsoutlinefewspecificofactions”cancreateamuchlargerimpactinneedsandprioritiesinthisfield.97CountriestermsofimprovingoutcomesforBFA.Anena-generallyreportindividualincentiveschemesblingpolicyframeworkcanhelppromotecoor-ratherthanapproachesbasedonmultipleincen-dinationofthiskind.Long-termplanningandtivemeasuresasrecommendedintheCBDdeci-cross-sectoralandinterinstitutionalcollabora-sionnotedintheintroductiontothissection.tionwillhelpimprovethecoordinationofmul-Althoughthecountryreportsdonotspecificallytipleincentivesatfarmandlandscapelevels.AsillustratedinBox8.17andBox8.18,integrated95http://www.leafuk.org/leaf/home.ebapproachesarealreadyinoperationinsome96www.conservationgrade.org97Countries’responsesregardingincentivesgenerallydonotspan98ForfurtherinformationonincentivemeasuresseeFAO’sincentivesforecosystemserviceswebpage:http://www.fao.thefullrangeofoptionsshowninFigure8.2–eventhoughinorg/in-action/incentives-for-ecosystem-services/enmanycasessuchmeasuresmaybeinplace–whichalsomeansthattheneedsandprioritiestheymentionedinthiscontextdonotcoverallcategoriesofincentives.424thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.17IntegratedincentivepackagesformicrowatersheddevelopmentinBrazilInBrazil,theRioRural1programmeoftheSecretariatofTechnologiesandServicesforaSustainableRuralRioAgricultureofRiodeJaneiroStatecoordinatespublicdeJaneiro–INTECRALProject,7BrazilianMicroandprogrammessuchastheWaterProducerProgramme2andSmallEnterprisesSupportService–SEBRAE);8andtheNationalPlanforLowCarbonEmissioninAgriculture•conservationNGOsfacilitatingthecreationofon-farm(ABCPlan)3withprivateinvestmentstoprovidediverseforestreserves(e.g.CriticalEcosystemPartnershipfinancialandtechnicalincentivesinmicrowatershed-Fund–CEPF).9developmentprojects.Together,thevariousinitiativesprovidemultipleincentivesthatmakeiteasierforfamilyfarmerstoovercomeInitiativesintegratedundertheprogrammeinclude:barrierstotheadoptionofagriculturalpracticesthatsupport•publicprogrammesinvestinginimprovedlivestockbiodiversityandecosystemserviceswithinmicrowatersheds.Theyfacilitatefarmers’compliancewithforestandwaterbreeds,pasturemanagementandimprovedfodderprotectionlaws,whilealsoimprovingproductionefficiencyproduction,technicalassistance(e.g.AgriculturalandyieldsandthushelpingtomakesustainablepracticesResearchEnterpriseoftheStateofRiodeJaneiroprofitableinthelongterm.–PESAGRO-RIO),4accesstomarkets(e.g.FoodAcquisitionProgramme–PAA)5andruralcreditSource:FAO,2018v.(e.g.NationalProgrammeforStrengtheningFamily1http://www.rj.gov.br/web/informacaopublica/exibeconteudo?article-Farming–PRONAF);6•privatecompaniescontributingtoforestconservationid=1041246andrehabilitationtocompensatefor,andoffset,2ProgramaProdutordeÁgua(http://produtordeagua.ana.gov.br).theirenvironmentalimpacts(e.g.electriccompany3AgriculturadeBaixoCarbono(http://redd.mma.gov.br/en/legal-and-FURNAS);•wateruserfeesusedtofinancewastewater-public-policy-framework/national-plan-for-low-carbon-emission-in-managementtechnologiesandsoil-conservationagriculture-abc-plan).measures(e.g.WaterProducerProgramme);4EmpresadePesquisaAgropecuáriadoEstadodoRiodeJaneiro•stateandmunicipalgovernmentsimplementinga(http://www.pesagro.rj.gov.br).paymentsforecosystemservicesmechanismbasedon5ProgramadeAquisiçãodeAlimentos(http://www.mda.gov.br/sitemda/transferringfundsfromstatetaxonthecirculationofsecretaria/saf-paa/sobre-o-programa).goodsandservicesdirectlytosmallholderfarmersthat6ProgramaNacionaldeFortalecimentodaAgriculturaFamiliar(http://www.operateprivateforestreserves;mda.gov.br/sitemda/secretaria/saf-creditorural/sobre-o-programa).•privatecompaniesandNGOsfinancingcapacity-7http://intecral-project.web.th-koeln.de/wordpressbuildinginsustainablepractices(e.g.IntegratedEco8ServiçoBrasileirodeApoioàsMicroePequenasEmpresas(http://www.sebrae.com.br/sites/PortalSebrae/canais_adicionais/sebrae_english).9https://www.cepf.netcountries.Thereisalsooftenaneedtobetter8.8Policyandlegalframeworksdocumentandmapexistingincentiveschemes(takingalltypesofinitiatives–public,privateand•Appropriatelegalandpolicyframeworksareessentialcivilsociety–intoconsideration).Thiscanhelpforeffectivemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandimprovesynergiesandidentifywhetherperverseagriculture(BFA),butoftenremainunderdevelopedorincentivesneedtoberemoved.Effectiveevalu-poorlyimplemented.ationoftheoutcomesofimplementedschemesisalsoessential.Furtherdiscussionofneedsand•WeaknessesinlegalandpolicyframeworksprioritiesinthisfieldcanbefoundinanumberareparticularlywidespreadwithregardtotheofFAOpublications(FAO,2015a,2018v).managementofassociatedbiodiversity(speciessuchpollinators,soilorganismsandpestnaturalenemiesthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE425EnablingframeworksPartDfoundinandaroundproductionsystems).Contributing––strengtheningtheinvolvementofmultiplefactorsinclude:stakeholdersacrosssectorsinpolicydevelopment;––alackofadequatecoordinationbetweenthefood––raisingawarenessamongdecision-makersontheandagricultureandnature-conservationsectors;andimportanceofsustainablymanagingBFA;––alackofawarenessamongpolicy-makersofthe––makingavailabletheresourcesneededforpolicysignificanceofassociatedbiodiversitytoresilientimplementation;andsustainablefoodsystems.•Accessandbenefit-sharing(ABS)measuresinmost––buildingcapacitytodevelopandimplementABScountriesareeitherstillindevelopmentorintheearlymeasures;andstagesofimplementation.Theyincreasinglyreflecttheneedtotakeintoaccounttheimportanceofand––improvingcoordinationbetweenagenciesdistinctivefeaturesofthedifferentsubsectorsofresponsibleforABSandthoseresponsibleforthegeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.varioussubsectorsoffoodandagriculture.•PrioritiesforimprovinglegalandpolicyframeworksforBFAinclude:Thissectionfocusesmainlyonlegalandpolicyframe-worksatnationallevel.However,itbeginswithashortoverviewofframeworksatinternationalBox8.18ModernizationofTraditionalAgriculture–MasAgro,6IntegratedincentivepackagesinMexicoProgrammefortheAcquisitionofProductiveAssets–InMexico,theBiodiversityCommission,CONABIO,1PAAP).7Italsopromotescertificationforsustainablecoffeecoordinatesco-financingfrompublicandprivatesourcesproduction(e.g.CertificationforAgri-FoodProductivity)8toprovidefarmerswithincentivesthathelptoensurethattraditionalfarmingsystemsremainproductiveandtoincreaseaccesstohigher-valuemarkets.TheintegrationhencetoavoidfurtherslashandburnintheMesoamericanBiologicalCorridor(amulticountryefforttoretainecologicalofinvestmentsfromtheagriculturalandenvironmentalconnectivitythroughCentralAmericaonthebasisofacombinationofprotectedareasandsustainableuse).sectorshasenabledalandscape-levelapproachthatpoolsCashandseedlingsfinancedthroughnationalpaymentsforenvironmentalservicesschemes(e.g.NationalpublicandprivateinitiativestoassistfarmerstoraisetheirForestProgramme–PRONAFOR)2helpenablefarmerstorehabilitateandreforesttheirlandtocomplywithforestlaws.productivityandhencereducedeforestationandbiodiversityOncetheirlandhasbeenrehabilitated,farmersarelossandimproveruralwell-being.assistedbyCONABIOtoaccessfurtherincentivesfrompublicprogrammesandprivate-sectorinvestmenttoSource:FAO,2018v.improveproductivity–forexamplethroughtraining1https://www.gob.mx/conabio(e.g.StrategicProjectforFoodSecurity–PESA,32ProgramaNacionalForestal(http://www.conafor.gob.mx/web/apoyos/ConservationandSustainableUseofSoilandWater–COUSSA),4useofimprovedcropvarietiesandlivestockpronafor).breeds(e.g.ProjectofSupportfortheProductiveChainof3ProyectoEstratégicoparalaSeguridadAlimentaria(http://www.sagarpa.gob.CornandBeanProducers–PROMAF,SustainableLivestockProductionandManagementforLivestockandBeekeepingmx/desarrolloRural/AsistenciaCapacitacion/Paginas/pesa.aspx).–PROGAN),5improvementstosoilfertility(e.g.Sustainable4ComponentedeConservaciónyUsoSustentabledeSueloyAgua(http://UseofNaturalResourcesProgramme–PURSN,COUSSA)–andpost-harvestprocessing(e.g.PROMAF,Sustainablewww.sagarpa.gob.mx/desarrolloRural/Paginas/tecnologiasatualcance.aspx).5ProgramadeProducciónPecuariaSustentableyOrdenamientoGanaderoyApícola(http://www.sagarpa.gob.mx/ganaderia/Programas/Paginas/PROGRAM.aspx).6ModernizaciónSustentabledelaAgriculturaTradicional(http://masagro.mx/en).7ProgramaparalaAdquisicióndeActivosProductivos(https://www.sagarpa.gob.mx/evaluaciones-especificas-de-desempeno-eed/programa-para-la-adquisicion-de-activos-productivos).8CertificacionparalaProductividadAgroalimentaria(http://www.sagarpa.gob.mx/ProgramasSAGARPA/2015/Productividad_y_competitividad_agroalimentaria/Certificacion_para_la_productividad_agroalimentaria/Paginas/Descripci%C3%B3n.aspx).426thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8level.Asintheothersectionsofthischapter,frame-Box8.19worksrelevantspecificallytoplant(crop),animalBindingandsoft-lawinstruments(livestock),forestandaquaticgeneticresourcesarerelatedtoportstatemeasuresaddressedrelativelybriefly,astheyarediscussedinthecapture-fisheriessectorinpreviouslypublishedglobalassessmentsfortherespectivesectors.MeasuresaddressingassociatedIllegal,unreportedandunregulated(IUU)fishingisbiodiversityarediscussedingreaterdetail,drawingaglobalthreattosustainablefisheriesandtothelargelyonmaterialprovidedinthecountryreports.managementandconservationoffisheriesresourcesShortoverviewsofthestateofframeworksinrel-andmarinebiodiversity.Theimportanceofenhancedevantcross-cuttingfields(climatechange,accessportstatecontrolasatooltocombatIUUfishinghasandbenefit-sharingandtraditionalknowledge)gainedincreasingprominenceoverthelastdecade.Portarealsopresented,againhighlightinginformationstatemeasures(PSMs)arerequirementsestablished,fromthecountryreports.orinterventionsundertaken,byportstateswithwhichforeignfishingvesselsmustcomply,ortowhichthey8.8.1Frameworksatinternationallevelmustbesubjected,asaconditionfortheuseofportswithintheportstate.Sincetheadoption,in1982,oftheAsnotedinChapter1,BFAandbiodiversitymoreUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea,theregenerallyaregraduallyacquiringahigherprofilehasbeenaprogressivedevelopmentofinternationallawoninternationalpolicyagendas,includingthe2030inthefieldoffisheries-relatedPSM,includingthroughSustainableDevelopmentAgenda(seeBox1.1).AtheadoptionoftheAgreementtoPromoteCompliancewiderangeofinternationalagreements,includ-withInternationalConservationandManagementinganincreasingnumberoflegallybindingMeasuresbyFishingVesselsontheHighSeas(1993)instrumentsandaplethoraofdeclarations,action(FAOComplianceAgreement)andtheAgreementfortheplansandothernon-bindinginstrumentsaddress-ImplementationoftheprovisionsoftheUnitedNationsingbiodiversity,insomecasesspecificallyintheConventionontheLawoftheSeaof10December1982contextoffoodandagriculture,havebeenputRelatingtotheConservationandtheManagementofinplace.SomeotherinternationalinstrumentsStraddlingFishStocksandHighlyMigratoryFishStocksaddressingaspectsofthefoodandagriculture(1995)(UNFishStocksAgreement).Voluntaryinstrumentssectoraresometimesconsideredtoaffectbiodiver-suchastheFAOCodeofConductforResponsiblesity(oftennegatively).Theseinclude,forexample,FisheriesandtheInternationalPlanofActiontoPrevent,instrumentsthatsetoutspecificrequirementsDeterandEliminateIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulatedforthecommercializationofgeneticresourcesFishing(IPOA-IUU)alsoencourageimplementation(e.g.cropseedsorbreedinganimals)orfacilitateofPSMsastoolstocombatIUUfishing.ThebindingglobaltradeinsubstancesthatmayhaveadverseAgreementonPortStateMeasurestoPrevent,Deterandeffectsonbiodiversity.WhilethissecondgroupofEliminateIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulatedFishinginstrumentsmayoffersomepotentialforbiodi-wasapprovedbytheFAOConferenceatitsThirty-sixthversitymainstreaming,thissectiondealsprimarilySessionin2009andrevisedin2016.withthefirstgroup,i.e.frameworks,agreementsandinstrumentsspecificallyestablishedtocon-Note:ForfurtherinformationseeFAO’sPortStateMeasureswebpage:servebiodiversityandpromoteitssustainableuse.http://www.fao.org/fishery/psm/enBox8.19presentsanexampleofthedevelopmentofinternationalbindingandsoft-lawinstrumentsWetlands(1971),theWorldHeritageConventioninthecapture-fisheriessector.(1972),theConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals,theConventionSeveralinternationalconventionsconcludedonInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofoverthelastsevendecadesfocusonbiodiversityissues,includingtheInternationalPlantProtectionConvention(1952),theRamsarConventiononthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE427EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.20BiodiversityandinternationallawConventiononBiologicalDiversity1speciesthroughouttheirranges.CMSbringstogethertheTheobjectivesoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversitystatesthroughwhichgivenspeciesmigrateandlaysthe(CBD)aretheconservationofbiologicaldiversity,thelegalfoundationforinternationallycoordinatedconservationsustainableuseofitscomponents,andthefairandequitablemeasuresthroughoutmigratoryranges.sharingofthebenefitsarisingfromtheutilizationofgeneticresources.TheCBDcoversallecosystems,speciesandgeneticTheInternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesresources,includingthoseusedforfoodandagriculture.TheforFoodandAgriculture4ConferenceofthePartiestotheCBDadoptedaprogrammeTheobjectivesoftheTreatyaretheconservationandofworkonagriculturalbiodiversityin2000(CBD,2000b).Thesustainableuseofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandprogrammeconsistsoffourelements(assessment,adaptiveagricultureandthefairandequitablesharingofthemanagement,capacity-buildingandmainstreaming)andbenefitsarisingoutoftheiruse,inharmonywiththeCBD,threecross-cuttinginitiatives(onpollinators,soilbiodiversityforsustainableagricultureandfoodsecurity.Itcoversallandbiodiversityforfoodandnutrition),tobeimplementedplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture,whileitsusingtheecosystemapproach.OtherrelevantprogrammesofMultilateralSystemofAccessandBenefit-sharingcoversworkincludethoseonforestbiodiversity,dryandsubhumidaspecificlistof64cropsandforages.Italsoincludeslandbiodiversity,inlandwaterecosystemsandmarineandprovisionsonFarmers’Rights.coastalbiodiversity.Atistenthmeeting,theConferenceofthePartiesexplicitlyrecognizedtheimportanceofConventiononWetlands5the“processesledbyFAO…whichcontributedirectlyTheConventiononWetlands,alsoknownastheRamsartoachievingthethreeobjectivesoftheConventiononConvention,providestheframeworkfornationalactionBiologicalDiversity,incropandlivestocksectors.”andinternationalcooperationontheconservationandwiseuseofwetlandsandtheirresources.ItcoversallaspectsofConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredwetlandconservationandwiseuse,recognizingwetlandsSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora2asecosystemsthatareextremelyimportantforbiodiversityTheConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredconservationingeneralandforthewell-beingofhumanSpeciesofWildFaunaandFlora(CITES)aimstoensurethatcommunities.SignatorystatesareobligedtoidentifyatleastinternationaltradeinspecimensofwildanimalandplantoneWetlandofInternationalImportance(RamsarSite).speciesdoesnotthreatentheirsurvival.ThroughitsthreeManycountrieshavemultiplesites.appendices,CITESaccordsvaryingdegreesofprotectiontomorethan30000plantandanimalspecies.CITESWorldHeritageConvention6andFAOhavebeencollaboratingcloselysince1997onTheprimarymissionoftheWorldHeritageConventionissuesraisedbytheharvestingandtradeofcommercially(WHC)istoidentifyandconservetheworld’sculturalexploitedaquaticspecieslistedintheCITESappendices.andnaturalheritage.ThisincludesdrawingupalistofFAOhoststheExpertAdvisoryPanelfortheAssessmentofsiteswhoseoutstandingvaluesshouldbepreservedforProposalstoAmendAppendicesIandIIofCITESConcerningallhumanityandensuringtheirprotectionthroughcloserCommercially-exploitedAquaticSpecies.cooperationamongnations.TheWHCrecognizessomeWorldHeritagesitesspecificallyfortheiroutstandingConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals31https://www.cbd.int(Cont.)TheConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesof2https://www.cites.orgWildAnimals(CMS),alsoknownastheBonnConvention,3https://www.cms.intaimstoconserveterrestrial,marineandavianmigratory4http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/en5https://www.ramsar.org6http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext428thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.20(Cont.)andplantproductsundertheWorldTradeOrganization.ItBiodiversityandinternationallawprovidesaninternationalframeworkforplantprotectionthatincludesdevelopinginternationalstandardsforbiodiversityvalues.Theso-callednaturalselectionphytosanitarymeasurestosafeguardplantresources.Thecriteria,asdefinedintheOperationalGuidelinesfortheIPPCextendsbeyondtheprotectionofcultivatedplantstoImplementationoftheWHC,refer,interalia,tositesthattheprotectionofnaturalfloraandplantproducts.are“outstandingexamplesrepresentingsignificanton-goingecologicalandbiologicalprocessesintheevolutionInternationalConventionfortheRegulationofWhaling8anddevelopmentofterrestrial,freshwater,coastalAsstatedinitspreamble,thepurposeoftheInternationalandmarineecosystemsandcommunitiesofplantsandConventionfortheRegulationofWhalingistoprovideforanimals”andtosites“whichcontainthemostimportanttheproperconservationofwhalestocksandthusmakeandsignificantnaturalhabitatsforin-situconservationofpossibletheorderlydevelopmentofthewhalingindustry.biologicaldiversity,includingthosecontainingthreatenedAnintegralpartoftheConventionisitslegallybindingspeciesofoutstandinguniversalvaluefromthepointof“Schedule”.TheSchedulesetsoutspecificmeasuresthatviewofscienceorconservation.”Somesites,includingtheInternationalWhalingCommission,establishedunderparticularlysomemixedculturalandnaturalsites,puttheConvention,hascollectivelydecidedarenecessaryinparticularemphasisonmaintainingtraditionalagriculturalordertoregulatewhalingandconservewhalestocks.orpastoralistpractices.7https://www.ippc.int/enInternationalPlantProtectionConvention78https://iwc.int/conventionTheInternationalPlantProtectionConvention(IPPC)aimstosecurecoordinatedandeffectiveactiontopreventandcontroltheintroductionandspreadofpestsofplantsWildFaunaandFlora(1975),theConventiononin1994)andtheConventionfortheProtectionBiologicalDiversity(1993)andtheInternationalandDevelopmentoftheMarineEnvironmentofTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandtheWiderCaribbeanRegion(1986).Severalbio-Agriculture(2004)(Box8.20).Thesesevencon-diversityconventionshavedevelopedsubsidiaryventionsarecurrentlyconnectedthroughtheinstruments,forexampletheCartagenaProtocolso-calledBiodiversityLiaisonGroup,99aplatformonBiosafetyandtheNagoyaProtocolonAccessestablishedjointlybytheheadsofthesecretariatstoGeneticResourcesandtheFairandEquitableoftherespectiveconventions.TheliaisongroupSharingofBenefitsArisingfromtheirUtilization,aimstoexchangeinformationandtoenhancebothadoptedundertheCBD.national-levelimplementationoftheobjec-tivesofeachconvention,includingbypromot-Amongthesoft-law(non-binding)instru-ingsynergiesandreducingduplicationofwork.mentsspecificallyaddressinggeneticresourcesOtherinternationalconventionsthataddressforfoodandagriculturearetheCommissionontheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodi-GeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture’sversity,includingBFA,includetheInternationalglobalplansofactionforplant,animalandforestConventionfortheRegulationofWhaling(1946)geneticresources(FAO,2007b,2011b,2014b).The(Box8.20),theUnitedNationsConventionontheCommissionnegotiatedtheseactionplanswithLawoftheSea(adoptedin1982,cameintoforcetheaimofcreatinganefficientglobalsystemfortheconservationandsustainableuseof99https://www.cbd.int/blg/geneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.TheyareintendedtobecomprehensiveframeworksthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE429EnablingframeworksPartDthatguideandcatalyseactionatcommunity,SecondReportontheStateoftheWorld’sPlantnational,regionalandgloballevelsthroughbetterGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculturecooperation,coordinationandplanningandby(SoW-PGRFA-2)(FAO,2010a)notedthreemainstrengtheningcapacities.Eachincludesasetofrec-trendsinthisfield:emergenceofvoluntaryommendationsandpriorityactivitiesthatrespondarrangementsregardingseedcertificationandtotheneedsidentifiedinglobalassessmentsofvarietyrelease;growinguseofaccreditationprin-geneticresourcesintherespectivesectors(FAO,cipleswithinofficialnationalrulesandstandards;1997,2007a,2010a,2014a).Whilemanysoft-lawandregionalharmonizationofseedlaws.Theseinstrumentslackmechanismstomonitortheirconclusionsremainvalidasof2018.Anumberimplementation,theCommission’sglobalplansofcountrieshavedevelopednewnationalseedofactionhavefullyoperationalmonitoringandpoliciesinrecentyearsorareintheprocessofreportingmechanismsbasedonindicatorsestab-doingso(e.g.FAO,2017q;SEPSA,2017).In2015,lishedbytheCommission.CountryreportsareusedtheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodtoprepareregularstatusreportsandfeedintotheandAgricultureendorsedavoluntaryguideforpreparationofupdatedglobalassessments.Thenationalseedpolicyformulation(FAO,2015f).Commissionoversees,monitorsandevaluatestheimplementationoftheglobalplansofaction,andInthefieldofintellectualpropertyrights,thehasoverseenthedevelopmentofarangeofguide-SoW-PGRFA-2notedthatthenumberofcoun-linesintendedtofacilitateimplementation.100triesprovidinglegalprotectiontoplantvarietiesthroughplantbreeders’rightshadbeenincreas-8.8.2Frameworksatnationallevelingovertheprecedingdecade,withincreasingnumbersofcountriesinAfrica,Asia,LatinAmericaPlantgeneticresourcesforfoodandtheCaribbean,theNearEastandeasternpartsandagricultureofEuropehavingenactedlegislationofthiskind.TheimportanceofacoherentnationalapproachDebatesovertheissueofpatentinginthePGRFAtoPGRFAmanagementiswidelyrecognized,sectorhadalsobecomeincreasinglyprominent,andmanycountrieshaveestablishednationalwithvariouscountrieshavingamendedlegisla-programmesofonekindoranotherinthisfield,tioninthisfield.Atthetime(2010),67countriesbackeduptovaryingdegreesbynationallegis-andtheEuropeanUnionweremembersofthelationandpolicyinitiatives.AsofOctober2018,InternationalUnionfortheProtectionofNew144countries(plustheEuropeanUnion)werecon-VarietiesofPlants(UPOV).AsofOctober2017,tractingpartiestotheInternationalTreatyonPlant73countries,theAfricanIntellectualPropertyGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.FAOOrganizationandtheEuropeanUnionwereUPOVhasdevelopedguidelinestosupportcountriesinmembers(UPOV,2017).thedevelopmentofnationalstrategiesforPGRFA(FAO,2015f).ThefollowingparagraphspresentTheSoW-PGRFA-2furthernotedthatthequestionshortdescriptionsofthestateoflegislationandofFarmers’Rights101hadbeenattractingincreasingpoliciesinvariousfieldsofPGRFAmanagement.101Article9oftheInternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesInmostcountries,theseedsystemishighlyforFoodandAgriculturestatesthat“Inaccordancewithregulated–fromthereleaseofnewvarietiestheirneedsandpriorities,eachContractingPartyshould,andqualitycontrolofseedstothelegalstatusasappropriate,andsubjecttoitsnationallegislation,takeoforganizationsthatimplementseedcontroltomeasurestoprotectandpromoteFarmers’Rights,including:certificationandvariety-releaseprocedures.Thea)protectionoftraditionalknowledgerelevanttoplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture;b)therighttoequitably100Forfurtherinformation,seehttp://www.fao.org/cgrfa/policies/participateinsharingbenefitsarisingfromtheutilizationofglobal-instruments/codes-standards-and-guidelines/enplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture;andc)therighttoparticipateinmakingdecisions,atthenationallevel,onmattersrelatedtotheconservationandsustainableuseofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.”430thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8attention.Manycountrieshaddeveloped,oraddressAnGRmanagementactivitiessuchaswereintheprocessofdeveloping,legislativeconservationandgeneticimprovementinarel-andothermeasuresaddressingthisissue.Concernsatively“joined-up”wayarealsobecomingmoreoverbiosafety102hadalsobeengrowingandwerewidespread.increasinglybeingaddressedinnationallegisla-tion.ManycountrieshadintroducedorupdatedManycountrieshavealsodevelopedlegalandphytosanitarylegislation,inlargepartinresponsepolicyinstrumentsaddressingindividualcom-totheadoptionoftherevisedInternationalPlantponentsofAnGRmanagement,includingsur-ProtectionConventionin1997.veyingandmonitoring,officialrecognitionofbreeds,genetic-improvementprogrammes,thePotentialmeansofstrengtheninglegalanduseofreproductivebiotechnologies,conserva-policyframeworksforPGRFAmanagementtionprogrammes,importationofgeneticmate-include:theestablishmentofnationallyendorsedrial,researchprogrammes,useoftransgenicstrategiesandplansfortheconservationandusetechnologies,andaccessandbenefit-sharing(seeofPGRFAthatsetpriorities,distributerolesandSection8.8.5).Althoughthenumberofcountriesallocateresourcesformanagementactionsinthathaveputsuchinstrumentsinplacehasbeenthesector;raisingawarenessandstrengtheningincreasinginrecentyears,manystillreportgapscapacityamongpolicy-makerswithregardtotheandweaknessesthatneedtobeaddressed.Itcomplexitiesofthelegalandpolicyissuesaffect-should,however,benotedthatcountriesdonotingtheconservation,useandexchangeofPGRFA;necessarilyconsidertheabsenceoflegislationtoandpromotinggreaterstakeholderinvolvementbeaweakness.Somereportthattheyarewellinthedevelopmentoflegalandpolicyinstru-servedbyrelativelyunregulatedapproachestoments.EffortsneedtobemadetoensurethatmostaspectsofAnGRmanagement.AnGRissuesnationallegalandpolicyinstrumentscomplementarealso,toadegree,gainingafootholdinbroadereachothercoherentlyandareappropriatetothepolicyandlegalinstrumentsinthelivestock,agri-needsandcapacitiesoftherespectivecountry.cultureandenvironmentalsectors.Forexample,mostnationalbiodiversitystrategiesandactionAnimalgeneticresourcesforfoodplansincludesomeAnGR-relatedprovisions.andagricultureAccordingtoTheSecondReportontheStateAlthoughthelivestocksectorhasnoequiv-oftheWorld’sAnimalGeneticResourcesforalenttotheFarmers’Rightsofthecropsector,FoodandAgriculture(FAO,2015a),103agrowingcivilsocietyorganizationshaveoverrecentyearsnumberofcountrieshaverespondedtotheformulatedasetofLivestockKeepers’Rights,104adoptionoftheGlobalPlanofActionforAnimalwhichitisarguedwould,ifimplemented,enableGeneticResources(FAO,2007a)bydevelopingandencouragelivestockkeeperstocontinuenationalpolicyinstruments,generallyreferredmakingalivingfromtheirbreedsandtherebytoasnationalstrategiesandactionplans,asahelpbothtoconservediversityandimproveruralmeansofputtingglobalrecommendationsintolivelihoodopportunities.Anotherinitiativehaspracticeatnationallevel.Legalinstrumentsthatbeenthedevelopmentofbioculturalcommu-nityprotocolsinlivestock-keepingcommunities,102“TheavoidanceofrisktohumanhealthandsafetyandtotheaconceptdevelopedinresponsetotheNagoyaconservationoftheenvironment,asaresultoftheuseforProtocolonAccessandBenefit-Sharing(seeresearchandcommerceofinfectiousorgeneticallymodifiedSection8.8.5),whichmandatesgovernmentstoorganisms(GMOs)”(FAOGlossaryofBiotechnologyforFoodsupportindigenousandlocalcommunitiesintheandAgriculture.Availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/004/developmentof“communityprotocolsinrelationY2775E/y2775e07.htm).toaccesstotraditionalknowledgeassociated103Unlessindicatedotherwise,thematerialpresentedinthis104ForfurtherinformationseeKöhler-Rollefsonetal.,2010.subsectionisbasedonthisreport.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE431EnablingframeworksPartDwithgeneticresourcesandthefairandequitableAquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodsharingofbenefitsarisingoutoftheutilizationofandagriculturesuchknowledge.”105AsnotedinSection8.8.1,themainglobalnon-bindingpolicydocumentaddressingAqGRAlthough,asnotedabove,countrieshavebeenistheFAOCodeofConductforResponsiblequiteactiveinrecentyearsindevelopingnewFisheries(FAO,1995a).ManygovernmentshaveAnGR-relatedlegalandpolicymeasures,manyincorporatedelementsofthisinstrumentintoreportconstraintstoimplementation.Thesenationallegislationandpolicy.TheStateoftheincludeshortagesofhumanandfinancialWorld’sAquaticGeneticResourcesforFoodandresources,logisticalproblems,insufficientcoor-Agriculture(FAO,forthcoming)107indicatesthatdinationbetweendifferentgovernmentdepart-AqGRareaddressedbyarangeofnationalinstru-ments,excessivebureaucracy,alackofawarenessments,includinginthefieldsofconservation,onthepartofstakeholdersandalackofclarityfisheries,aquacultureandtrade.Nationallegisla-intheformulationoflegalandpolicytexts.tionoftenrestrictstheimportationofnon-nativeIdentifyingthemostappropriatewayforwardinaquaticspeciesinordertoprotectlocalbiodiver-termsofupdatingnationallegalandpolicyframe-sityorlocalbusiness.ManycountrieshavefisheryworksforAnGRcanbechallengingandneedstomanagementplansthatregulatethetimingandbebasedonthoroughanalysisofgaps,needsandquantityoffishingactivitiesandthespeciesthatcapacitytoimplementdifferentpolicyandreg-canbeharvested.Inmanycases,aquaticspeciesulatoryoptions.Stakeholderinvolvementinthearecoveredundergenerallawsprotectingendan-developmentofpolicyandlegalframeworksoftengeredspecies.Aquaticspeciesarealsoaddressedinneedstobestrengthened.manyconservation-relatedpolicyinstrumentssuchasnationalbiodiversitystrategyandactionplans.ForestgeneticresourcesTheStateoftheWorld’sForestGeneticResourcesParticularlynotableintheaquaticsectoristhe(FAO,2014a)106notesthatmanycountrieshavenoabsenceofprovisionssimilartothoserelatedtospecificlawsorpoliciesonforestgeneticresourcesfarmers’rightsandbreeders’rightsintheterrestrial(FGR)orhaveinstrumentsthatareoutdated.Acropsector.Thisisaconsequenceoftherelativelynumber,however,havelawsandpoliciesofrele-recentdomesticationofaquaticspecies.UnlikevancetoFGR,mostcommonlyinstrumentstarget-manyterrestrialfarmingandlivestock-keepingingtheconservationandprotectionofnationalcommunities,aquaculturefarmershavenotspentforests,someofwhichincludespecificFGR-millenniadevelopingthespeciestheyutilize.focusedprovisions(seeSection5.3.2).PotentialGeneticimprovementoffarmedaquaticspecieshasstepstowardsstrengtheningpolicyandlegaloftenbeendonebylargecompaniesorresearchframeworksforFGRincludedevelopingnationalinstitutionswithmodernbreedingfacilitiesandatpolicies,plansorprogrammesforFGRmanage-locationsoutsidethecentresoforiginoftherespec-mentandensuringthatFGR-relatedconcernsaretivespecies(Bartleyetal.,2009).Insuchcases,nobetteraccountedforinnationalforestrypoliciesindigenousgroupwasresponsibleforthegeneticandlaws.AnyeffortstodeveloporupdatepolicyimprovementofthespeciesandtherewouldbeandlegalframeworksforFGRwillneedtoinvolvenobasisforaclaimforfarmers’orbreeders’rights.multiplestakeholders.Policiesrelatingtoexsituconservation(i.e.genebanks)arealsonotaswelldevelopedasinthecrop105Forfurtherinformation,seeUNEnvironmentandNaturalandlivestocksectorsduetothedifficultyofstoringJustice(2009)andtheCommunityProtocolswebsitefrozeneggsandembryosfromaquaticspecies.maintainedbyNaturalJustice(http://www.community-protocols.org).107Unlessindicatedotherwise,thematerialpresentedinthissubsectionisbasedonthisreport.106Unlessindicatedotherwise,thematerialpresentedinthissubsectionisbasedonthisreport.432thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Keyreportedconstraintstotheimplementa-example,notesthatthisisdoneviathecountry’stionofAqGR-relatedpoliciesincludealackofBiodiversityConservationActionPlan.Itfurtherawareness,alackoftechnicalcapacityandalacknotesthatbiodiversityisconsideredtobeade-ofresources.ManycountrieshaveadequateAqGRquatelyintegratedintosomesectoralpoliciespoliciesinplace,especiallyatthespecieslevel,but(e.g.thoseaddressingforests,wetlands,coastallacktheresourcestoimplementandenforcethem.andmarinehabitats,fisheriesandagriculture)Oneofthemoresignificantpolicygapsconcernsbutnotinothers(e.g.thoseaddressingindustrialthecross-sectoraldevelopmentandmanagementandservicesectors,includingurbandevelopment,offreshwatersandinlandaquaticecosystems.harbours,tourism,mining,energy,roadsandtel-Thereisstrongcompetitionamongusersoffresh-ecommunications).Mostcountrieshavepreparedwater(e.g.industry,agriculture,hydroelectricnationalbiodiversitystrategiesandactionplansgeneration,municipaldrinkingwater,navigation,asabasisfortheimplementationoftheCBDataquacultureandfisheries),eachhavingtheirownnationallevel.Theextenttowhichtheseinstru-setofrequirementsastohowwatershouldbementsspecificallyaddressBFA,associatedbiodi-usedandmanaged.However,thefisherysectorversityandtheecosystemservicestheydeliverisoftenleftoutofpolicydiscussionsontheusevariesfromcountrytocountry(FAOandCBD,offreshwater,andasaresultwater-management2016;FAOetal.,2016).policiesoftenfavourothersectorstothedetri-mentoffisheries(Bartleyetal.,2016).Anumberofreports,particularlyfromEurope,notethesignificanceofagri-environmentalAssociatedbiodiversityschemesunderwhichfarmersareincentivizedThecountryreportsindicatethatassociatedbiodi-tomanagetheirlandinenvironmentallyfriendlyversityisgenerallynottargetedasadistinctcate-ways.Someoftheseschemestargetspeciesorgoryinpolicypurposes,fallinginsteadwithinthehabitatsthathavewell-recognizedbeneficialscopeofbroaderinstrumentstargetingbiodiver-rolesinagriculture(seeSection8.7).Ingeneral,sity,theenvironment,sustainabledevelopmentorhowever,schemesoftenfocusmoreonprotectingagriculturalpractices.Nationalpoliciesaddressingbiodiversityfromtheeffectsofenvironmentallybiodiversityorenvironmentalprotectiongenerallyunfriendlymanagementpracticesthanspecificallyincludemeasuresthatdirectlyorindirectlyaffectonmaintainingandenhancingthebenefitsthatthemaintenanceofhabitatsinandaroundproduc-biodiversityprovidestofoodandagriculture.tionsystems.Thesameistrueforthoseaddressingmorespecificissuessuchasclimatechange,disasterThecountryreportsgenerallyincludelittleriskreduction,invasivespeciesordesertification,informationonpoliciesdevotedtospecificcate-andthosetargetingspecifictypesofecosystemgoriesofassociatedbiodiversity.Pollinatorsaresuchasforests,mountains,lakesorcoastalzones.themostfrequentexception.Forexample,theWhetherdirectlytargetedornot,associatedbiodi-reportfromBelgiummentionsafederalbeeplanversitywilloftenbenefitfrompoliciesthatreducetargetingthepreservationofpollinators,particu-pollutionoflandandwater,strengthendisasterlarlybees.Theplanincludesabout30actionsandriskreductionmeasures,preventdestructiveland-measuresdealingwithsixmainissues:riskassess-usechangesorrestrictenvironmentallyunfriendlyment(includingpesticideriskanalysis);integra-practicesincroporlivestockproduction,forestry,tionofpollinatormanagementintootherpoliciesfisheriesoraquaculture.andmeasures(includingeconomicmeasures);ori-entationofmarketsinfavourofpollinators;moni-Somecountryreportsmentioneffortstointe-toringofhoneybeesandwildbees;animal-healthgratebiodiversityintonationalplanningandpolicy;andthetraceabilityofhives(forhoneypolicydevelopmentacrossavarietyofdifferentbeesonly).ThereportfromtheUnitedKingdomeconomicsectors.ThereportfromSriLanka,formentionstheNationalPollinatorStrategy(DEFRA,2014),whichaimstosafeguardinsectpollinatorsthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE433EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.21Brazil’sexperienceinmainstreamingbiodiversityintoitsFoodandNutritionSecurityPolicyBrazilachievedboththeMillenniumDevelopmentGoalotherpublicinstitutionsandfamiliesinneed.In2009,thetargetofhalvingtheproportionofitspeoplesufferingfromgovernmentbuiltonthePAAbylinkingthewell-establishedhungerandthemorestringentWorldFoodSummittargetnationalschoolfeedingprogrammetosmallholder-ofreducingbyhalftheabsolutenumberofhungrypeopleagriculturepolicies.States,municipalitiesandfederalbeforethedeadlineof2015.Successfulreductionofhungerschoolsarerequiredtopurchaseatleast30percentoffoodandextremepovertyinbothruralandurbanareashasbeenforschoolmealsdirectlyfromsmallholderproducers.achievedthroughawell-coordinatedarrayofcross-sectoralpoliciesledbythegovernmentwithstrongengagementTheseprogrammesarecomplementedbythePNANfromcivilsociety,ratherthanthroughanyindividualaction.andincentivesfororganicagricultureandagroecologicalJointinterministerialstrategieshavebecomeincreasinglyproductionfromfamilyfarms,theaimbeingtomakecommon,includingthemainstreamingofbiodiversityintonutritious,diverseandsustainablyproducedfoodsfood-securityandnutritionpolicies.accessibletothewholepopulation.PLANAPOI(2013–2015)benefitedthousandsofsmallholderfarmersthroughtheTheZeroHungerProgram,launchedin2003,wastheprovisionofcreditandcropinsuranceforagroecologicalfirststepintranslatingthedecisiontoendhungerintofoodproduction,specificsupporttoruralwomen,capacity-action,andintroducedanewapproachthatplacedfooddevelopment,ruralextensionandtechnicalassistance.securityandnutritionandsocialinclusionatthecentreofPLANAPOII(2016–2019)prioritizestheaccessoffamilythegovernment’sagendaandlinkedmacroeconomic,socialfarmerstomarkets,inlinewiththeprovisionsofPAAandandsustainableagriculturalanddevelopmentpolicies.ThePNAE.Theaimistohave1millionfamilyfarmersproducingfightagainsthungerandpovertyhasremainedatthecentrefoodusingagroecologicaltechniquesby2019.ofthepoliticalagendaeversince,andwasreinforcedafter2011withthelaunchoftheBrazilwithoutExtremePovertyThevariousfederalpoliciesdescribedaboveprovideentryStrategy.Thisnewsetofintersectoralpoliciesbuiltonthepointsforconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity.successofZeroHunger,withtheboldgoalofeliminatingThePLANAPO,forinstance,recognizestheimportanceofextremepovertyinBrazil.“sociobiodiversity”productsandthevalorizationoflocalexperiencesofuseandconservationofplantandanimalTheunderlyingassumptionoftheZeroHungerProgramisgeneticresources,especiallythoseinvolvingthemanagementthatpovertyreduction,foodsecurityandsupportforfamilyoflocalbreedsandtraditionalandCreolevarieties.farmersareintimatelyconnected.Besidessocialprotectionprogrammes,theotherkeypillarsofthestrategyaretheTheimplementationofPLANAPOIinvolvedawideFoodAcquisitionProgramme(PAA),theNationalSchoolrangeofactionsonthepartofvariousministriesandMealsProgramme(PNAE),theNationalFoodandNutritionnationalinstitutions,includingtheBrazilianAgriculturalPolicy(PNAN)andtheNationalPlanforAgroecologyandResearchCorporation(Embrapa),aimedatimprovingtheOrganicProduction(PLANAPOI/II).production,management,conservation,acquisitionanddistributionofgeneticresourcesofinteresttoagroecologyIn2003,Brazilwasoneofthefirstcountriestoestablishandorganicproduction.Measuresincludedtheidentificationaninstitutionalfoodprocurementprogrammeconnectingoforganizationsandnetworksinvolvedintheconservationinstitutionaldemandforagriculturalproductstoafood-ofsuchgeneticresources,supportforthedevelopmentofsecuritystrategyandsupportforfamilyfarmers.ThePAAhasagroecologynetworkstointensifythesustainableuseofthreemainobjectives:(i)toassistfamilyfarmersandfamilyagrobiodiversity,andestablishmentofcommunityseedbanksruralentrepreneurswithproductionandaccesstomarkets;andothermeasurestoincreasefamilyfarmers’accessto(ii)todistributefoodtopeoplesufferingfromfoodandCreoleandorganicseeds.Researchanddevelopment,ruralnutritionalinsecurity;and(iii)tobuildupstrategicstocks.Itextensionandtechnicalassistancewerealsopromoted.buysfooddirectlyfromsmallholder-farmers’organizationsatmarketpricesanddistributesittohospitals,schools,(Cont.)434thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Box8.21(Cont.)Brazil’sexperienceinmainstreamingbiodiversityintoitsFoodandNutritionSecurityPolicyAnotherfederalinitiativethatwasintegratedwithsomeselectedbiodiversityproducts.“Sociobiodiversity”PLANAPOIandrelatestobiodiversitymainstreamingistheconsiderationswereincludedasoneoftheaxesofPlantsfortheFutureProject,whichaimstosurvey,documentPLANAPOIIandaccounteddirectlyforatleastsevenofitsandpromotetheconservationandsustainableutilizationoftargetsand27ofitsinitiatives.Inthiscontext,theneglected/underutilizedplantspecieswithnutritionalvalueMinistriesofSocialDevelopmentandtheEnvironmentoreconomicpotential.ThisinitiativeisrelatedtotheGEF-jointlyreleasedalistofnativebiodiversityproductstofundedBiodiversityforFoodandNutritionProject(BFN),1beconsideredininstitutionalprocurementprogrammeswhichinBrazilisworkingwiththeministriesresponsiblefor(OrdinanceMMA/MDS163/2016).PLANAPOIIrecognizestheimplementationoffood-securityandnutritionpoliciestheopportunitytoexpandthepurchaseofsuchproductstopromotetheinclusionoffoodsfromBrazilianbiodiversityinthePAAandPNAE,whileimprovingthediversificationinthePAA,PNAEandnutrition-educationstrategies(seeofdiets,supportingfamilyfarmingandstrengtheningBox2.4).ActivitiesledbyBFNincludenutritional-compositionbiodiversityconservation.analysisof65nativefruitspecies,whichisbeingcarriedoutinpartnershipwithpublicuniversitiesandresearchinstitutesSource:BrazilianInstituteofGeographyandStatistics(IBGE),NationalacrossthecountryandwillprovideevidencethatcanbeusedHouseholdSampleSurvey(PNAD).ElaboratedbytheSecretariatfortopromotegreatermainstreamingofbiodiversityintoalltheEvaluationandInformationManagement(SAGI),MinistryofSocialabove-mentionedfederalinitiatives.DevelopmentandHungerAlleviation(MDS).1TheMainstreamingBiodiversityConservationandSustainableUseforPLANAPOIIbuildsonexperiencegainedunderPLANAPOI,aswellasontheMinimumPriceGuaranteeImprovedNutritionandWell-BeingProject,orBiodiversityforFoodPolicyforBiodiversityProducts,whichpromotesbiodiversityandNutritionProjectforshort,isledbyBrazil,Kenya,SriLankaandconservation,foodsecurityandincomegenerationinlocalTurkey.TheinitiativeiscoordinatedbyBioversityInternational,withextractivecommunitiesbyestablishingminimumpricesforimplementationsupportfromUNEnvironmentandFAO,andcontributestotheimplementationoftheCBD’sCross-CuttingInitiativeonBiodiversityforFoodandNutrition.bytakingactionacrossfivekeyareas:supportingforpoliciesthataddresslinksbetweenbiodiversitypollinatorsonfarms;supportingpollinatorsacrossandproductivityinfoodandagriculturalsystems.towns,citiesandthecountryside;enhancingForexample,thereportfromtheBahamasnotesresponsetopestanddiseaserisks;raisingaware-theneedtodevelopanationalfisheriesdevelop-nessofwhatpollinatorsneedtosurviveandthrive;mentplanthat,interalia,addressesthe“con-andimprovingevidenceonthestatusofpollinatorsservationandrestorationofcoastalhabitatsandandtheservicestheyprovide.TheUnitedStatesofwetlandsimportanttofisheriesrecruitmentandAmerica’sNationalStrategytoPromotetheHealthtothehealthoffringingreefs.”ofHoneyBeesandOtherPollinators(PollinatorHealthTaskForce,2015),whichaimstoimproveAswithothercategoriesofbiodiversity,legalpollinatorhabitatandreducestressorsaffectinginstrumentscanhaveasignificantinfluenceonpollinators,isanotherreportedexample.sustainableuseandconservationofassociatedbio-diversity.Theycan,forexample,servetoenforceInadditiontoinstrumentsfocusedonbiodiver-restrictionsonbiodiversity-unfriendlypracticessityorenvironmentalprotection,manycountryinfoodandagriculturalproductionandinotherreportslistpoliciesthataimtopromoteeconomicindustries,torestrictoverharvestingofwildprod-andsocialgoalssuchaslivelihooddevelopment,ucts,tosetcriteriaforsupportmeasuresforben-foodsecurityandpovertyreduction(seeBox8.21eficialpracticesandtoassignresponsibilitiestoforexample).SomereportsexplicitlynotetheneedinstitutionsandstakeholdergroupsinvolvedinthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE435EnablingframeworksPartDconservationandsustainableuse.ManycountryAnumberofdifferentconstraintstothedevel-reportslistlawsdedicatedtotheprotectionofopmentoflegislationaddressingtheconservationbiodiversity,alongwiththoseinarangeofotherandsustainableuseofassociatedbiodiversityandfieldsthatincludebiodiversity-relatedprovisions.wildfoodsarealsonoted.Insomecases,thedevel-However,littleinformationspecificallyrelatedtoopmentoflegislationisreportedlyhamperedbyaassociatedbiodiversityasacategoryortoparticu-lackoflegalspecialistsinthisfield.Somecountrylargroupsoforganismssuchaspollinatorsorsoilreportsindicatethatalackofawarenessofthefloraandfaunaisprovided.ExceptionsincludethesignificanceofassociatedbiodiversitymeansreportfromZimbabwe,whichmentionsthecoun-thatlegislationinthisfieldisnotprioritized.try’sBeesAct[Chapter19:02]of1973(amendedSomerefertoperceivedconflictswiththeneed2002),108whichprovidesfortheconservationoftoincreasetheoutputoffoodandagriculturalhoneybees(Apismellifera)inthewildandalsosystemsorwithothereconomicactivities.Someregulatesbeekeepingthroughregistrationofbee-mentionoppositionfromproducersandotherkeepersandcontrolofthemovementofbeesandstakeholderswhofearthatlegalrestrictionswillhoneywithinandacrossthecountry’sborders.Theaffecttheirlivelihoods.reportfurthernotesthattheactalsoprovidesforthecontrolofbeediseasesthroughregularsur-Lackofknowledgeofassociatedbiodiversity,veillanceandmonitoring.theproductionsystemsinandaroundwhichitisfoundandthebenefitsitsuppliesisnotedinThecountryreportsgenerallydonotpresentsomecountryreportsasaconstrainttothedevel-detailedassessmentsofgapsinpoliciesandleg-opmentofeffectivelegalandpolicyinstruments.islationandtheireffectsonthemanagementofThepotentialimpactsofdifferentmeasuresmayassociatedbiodiversity(orBFAmoregenerally).notbewellunderstood,particularlygiventheThismay,inpart,relatetoalackofinformationtimescalesoverwhichtheymayplayoutandontheeffectsofexistingprovisions.Thereporttheinteractionsthatmayoccurbetweendiffer-fromSriLanka,forexample,notesthatalthoughentecosystemsandacrosssectors,withinandpoliciesandprogrammesareconsideredtohavebeyondfoodandagriculture.Theseinteractionsplayedakeyroleinpromotingandsafeguardingunderlinetheimportanceofintersectoralandbiodiversity,specificoutcomesintermsoftheinterministerialcollaborationintheformulationstateofbiodiversityandthesupplyofecosystemsoflawsandpolicies.Thecountryreportsindicateserviceshavenotbeenassessed.Somespecificthatcooperationatthisleveloftenremainsinsuf-weaknessesare,however,noted.Forexample,ficient.Somereportsnotethatimprovinginfor-Ecuadormentionstheabsenceofanappropriatemationsystemsandtheexchangeofinformationlegalframeworkdefiningtherolesandcompe-betweendifferentstakeholdersandstakeholdertencesofinstitutionsinvolvedinmanagingbio-groupswouldhelptostrengthenpolicy-makingdiversity.Somecountriesnoteamoregeneralandlaw-making.needtostrengthenpoliciestargetingassociatedbiodiversity.Nicaragua,forexample,mentionsWhereimplementationoflawsandpoliciesisthatwhileithasmadesignificantprogressoverconcerned,thecountryreportsagainrefertoarecentyearswithregardtopoliciestargetingrangeofconstraints.Cameroon,forexample,domesticatedbiodiversity,itstilllacksaneffectivereferringtotheimplementationoflegislationmedium-tolong-termstrategyforthemanage-ontheuseofwildfoods,notesthatconstraintsmentofassociatedbiodiversity,aswellasforwildincludealackofawarenessonthepartofruralfoodsandgenerallyforecosystemservices.dwellers:peoplemaybeunawareoftherules(aproblemexacerbatedbyalackoftranslationsinto108BeesAct[Chapter19:02](availableathttp://www.fao.org/locallanguages)ornotunderstandwhytheyhavefaolex/results/details/en/?details=LEX-FAOC060551).beenintroduced.Italsonotesthatpoortrans-portinfrastructureconstrainstheactivitiesoflaw436thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8enforcers.Somereportsmentionthatimplemen-Box8.22tationisaffectedbyalackoffundingorbyalackVoluntaryGuidelinestoSupporttheofsecurityinruralareasbecauseofarmedcon-IntegrationofGeneticDiversityintoNationalflicts,etc.OthersnotethatproblemsarecausedClimateChangeAdaptationPlanningbycontradictorylegislation,theexistenceofloop-holesorbyalackofcooperationbetweendiffer-TheVoluntaryGuidelinesentagenciesorlackofclarityastotheirmandates.toSupporttheIntegrationofGeneticDiversityinto8.8.3ClimatechangepolicyNationalClimateChangeandprogrammesAdaptationPlanning(FAO,2015g)werepreparedTheimportanceofintegratingBFA-relatedmeas-undertheguidanceoftheuresintoclimatechangemitigationandadap-CommissiononGenetictationplansandstrategiesisincreasinglyrecog-ResourcesforFoodandnizedinternationally.Forexample,in2015,theAgricultureandadoptedCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandatitsFifteenthRegularSession,in2015.TheywereAgricultureadoptedVoluntaryGuidelinestosubsequentlyapprovedbythe2015FAOConference.SupporttheIntegrationofGeneticDiversityintoTheguidelinesseektoenablecountriestoensuretheNationalClimateChangeAdaptationPlanningrelevanceofgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture(Box8.22).Evidencesuggests,however,thattooverallnationaladaptationplanningprocessesbyconcreteprogressinthisregardhasbeenfairlyidentifyingcleargoalsandmaximizingstakeholderlimited.Forexample,astudyofthe50nationalinvolvement.Theyfollowthestructureandapproachadaptationprogrammesofaction(NAPAs)devel-ofthetechnicalguidelinesforthenationaladaptationopedbyJanuary2015(Villanueva,HalewoodplanprocesspreparedbytheLeastDevelopedCountriesandNoriega,2017)concludedthattheydonotExpertGroupoftheUnitedNationsFrameworkeffectivelyintegrateagrobiodiversity,notingforConventiononClimateChange.TheprocessoutlinedexamplethatalthoughNAPAsoftenstresstheintheguidelinesinvolvesfourmainelements:“layimportanceoffoodsecurityandnutrition,fewthegroundworkandaddressgaps”;“developthetargettheimprovementanduseoflocal,indig-preparatoryframework”;“developtheimplementationenousortraditionalcropvarietiesandanimalstrategy”;and“monitor,review,reportandcommunicatebreedsandnoneofthosereviewedaddressprogress”.Anumberofstepsareproposedfortheunderutilizedspecies.Thestudyalsoconcludedimplementationofeachelement.thattheNAPAsreviewedareoverlycompartmen-talizedatgovernmentallevelandthatthereisaNote:Thevoluntaryguidelinescanbeviewedathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-lackofdialoguebetweenministriesofagriculturei4940e.pdfandtheenvironmentontheprotectionanduseofagrobiodiversity(ibid.).AstudyofallintendedThecountry-reportingguidelinesinvitedcoun-nationaldeterminedcontributions(INDCs)109triestolistuptotenpolicies,programmesorena-foundthatonlyaminorityincludereferencestoblingframeworksthatembedtheuseofBFAintotheuseofcroporlivestockbiodiversityinclimateclimatechangeadaptationstrategiesandplans.changeadaptationandmitigation(StrohmaierNAPAs,nationallyappropriatemitigationactions,etal.,2016).REDD+(reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradation)andnationaladapta-109IntendedNationalDeterminedContributionsareoutlinesoftionplanswerelistedasexamples(seeBox8.23howcountriesintendtoadapttoandmitigatetheeffectsofclimatechangethatwerepreparedforthetwenty-secondConferenceofthePartiestotheUNFCCC(UNFCCC,2018).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE437EnablingframeworksPartDBox8.23varietiesinbreedingprogrammestoproduceTheUNFCCCadaptationclimatechange-adaptedcrops.MitigationpoliciesandmitigationinstrumentsandframeworksinvolvingBFAarementionedby14countries(about24percentofrespondentstoNationaladaptationprogrammesofactionthisquestion).Inmostcases,mitigationpracticesThenationaladaptationprogrammesofactionprocessarementionedinconjunctionwiththeadaptationprovidesameansforleastdevelopedcountriestopractices.Referencesaremainlytocarbonseques-identifypriorityactivitiesthatrespondtotheirurgenttrationthroughafforestationorthroughsoil-andimmediateneedswithrespecttoclimatechangerestorationorsoil-improvementmeasures.adaptation,i.e.situationsinwhichanyfurtherdelaywouldincreasevulnerabilityand/orthecostofAnumberofresponsesrefertopoliciesaimedadaptationatalaterstage(UNFCCC,2017b).atconservingBFAintheinterestsofpromotingresiliencetoclimatechangeatproduction-systemNationallyappropriatemitigationactionslevel.Bothinsitu(includingon-farm)andexsituNationallyappropriatemitigationactionsareactionsthatconservationarementioned.Finland,forexample,reducegreenhouse-gasemissionsindevelopingcountriesreportsthatallitsconservationprogrammesandundergovernment-ledinitiatives(UNFCCC,2017c).strategiesexplicitlyaddressclimatechangeissuesandactions.Manycountriesnotethatthemain-Reducingemissionsfromdeforestationtenanceorexpansionofecologicallydiversehab-andforestdegradationitatscanincreasethesupplyofrelevantecosys-Reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforesttemservicessuchasfloodprotectionandcarbondegradation(REDD+)processessupportscountries’effortssequestration.Gabon,forexample,emphasizestoenhancetheforestrysector’sroleinclimatechangethesignificanceofits13nationalparksintermsmitigation.Itworkswithstakeholderstoensurethatofcarbonsequestrationandthesupplyofarangeindividualprojectsreflecttheneedsofforest-dependentofecosystemservicesthatcontributetoclimatecommunitieswhiledevelopingtheforestrysectorinachangeadaptation.Somecountrieshighlightsustainablemanner(UN-REDDProgramme,2018).thesignificanceofpoliciesthatpromoteaware-nessraisingamongstakeholdersandthewiderNationaladaptationplanspublicofthelinksbetweenbiodiversity,climateNationaladaptationplansidentifymedium-andlong-change-relatedecosystemservicesandresiliencetermclimatechangeadaptationneedsalongwithinthecontextoffoodandagriculture.strategiesandprogrammesforaddressingthem.8.8.4Frameworkssupportingforexplanations).Intotal,59countriesprovidedthemaintenanceoftraditionalanswerstothisquestion,withresponsesvaryingknowledgeintheirlevelsofdetailandtheextenttowhichtheinstrumentsmentionedfocusexplicitlyonBFAManycountryreportsprovideinformationonpol-ratherthanonfoodandagricultureorbiodiver-iciesandprogrammesthatcontributetothemain-sitymoregenerally.tenanceoftraditionalknowledge.SomecountriesnotethattraditionalknowledgeisaddressedinThirtycountries(approximatelyhalfofthosenationalinstrumentssuchasnationalbiodiver-thatrespondedtothisquestion)mentionpoliciessitystrategiesandactionplansorinpoliciesandandframeworksthataddresstheuseofbiodiver-legislationrelatedtointangibleculturalheritage,sityinadaptationplanninginfoodandagricul-agri-environmentalschemes,protectedgeograph-ture.Referencesaremainlytotheuseoflandraceicalindicationsorintellectualproperty.Severalnotethattraditionalknowledgeisaddressedininternationalagreementstheyhaveratified,forexampletheCBDandtheNagoyaProtocol.438thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Afewcountriesmentionnationalpoliciesaccessconditionaluponagreementregardingandprogrammesspecificallyaddressingthebenefit-sharing.TheCBDandtheNagoyaProtocolmaintenanceanduseoftraditionalknowledge.(seeSection8.8.1)confirmandarebasedonthisForexample,Iraqreportsthatitisdevelopingasovereignrightofcountries.TheInternationallawthatwilladdresstheconservation,mainte-TreatyonPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandnanceandexchangeofanimalandplantgeneticAgriculture,whichwasestablishedinharmonyresourcesandassociatedtraditionalknowledge.withtheCBD,recognizesthissovereignright,butOthersnote,inmoregeneralterms,thatpoliciesincludesamultilateralsystemofaccessandbenefit-promotingconservationandsustainableuseofsharing(ABS)forfacilitatedaccesstoanegotiatedBFAalsocontributetothemaintenanceofrelatedselectionofPGRFA.traditionalknowledge.Severalcountriesmentionpolicyframeworksaddressingtheroleofindige-ABSusuallyreferstothewaysinwhichgeneticnouspeoplesinmaintainingbiodiversityandtheresourcesmaybeaccessedandhowbenefitsthattraditionalknowledgeassociatedwithit.Afewresultfromspecificusesofgeneticresourcesarementionlegalframeworksaimedatrecordingtra-sharedbetweenprovidersandusers.ABSmeas-ditionalknowledgeandprotectingtherightsofureswillusuallystatethataccesstothegeneticindigenousknowledgeholders.Peru,forinstance,resourcesofthecountryrequirespriorinformedmentionsalegalframework110fortherecordingconsent(PIC)andanagreementonthesharingofofcollectivetraditionalknowledgelinkedtobio-benefitsunder“mutuallyagreedterms”(MAT).logicalresourcesthatprovidestheopportunitytoInlinewiththeNagoyaProtocol,ABSmeasureschoosebetweenapubliclyaccessibleandacon-oftenspecifythatPICandMATarerequiredfidentialnationalregistry.Severalcountriesthatforaccesstogeneticresourcesforresearchandlackpoliciesandlegislationinthisfieldnotethedevelopmentontheirgeneticand/orbiochemicalneedtodeveloprelevantinstruments.However,composition,includingthroughtheapplicationsomeofthosethathaveinstrumentsinplacenoteofbiotechnology.OtherABSlawsarebroaderthatlittleisbeingdonetoimplementthem.inscopeinthattheyrequirePICandMATalsoforusesnotcoveredbytheNagoyaProtocol,for8.8.5Accessandbenefit-sharingexampletheuseofgeneticresourcesasbiologicalresourcesorcommodities.GiventhatasignificantproportionoftheBFAusedwithinanygivencountryoriginatedbeyondFollowingtheadoptionoftheNagoyaProtocol,itsborders,andthateffortstodiversifyandadaptanditsentryintoforcein2014,manycountriesproductionsystemsrequireongoingcrossborderhavebeendevelopingABSlegislationorrevis-exchangesofgeneticresources,itisclearthatingtheirexistinglegislation.EvenincountriescountriesareinterdependentintheuseofBFA.thathavefinalizedtheirABSframeworks,expe-Atthesametime,countrieshave–inaccordancerienceswithimplementationmayleadtofurtherwiththeCharteroftheUnitedNationsandthechangesandadjustmentsofABSrulesintherel-principlesofinternationalenvironmentallaw–ativelynearfuture.ABSpolicyframeworksare,“thesovereignrighttoexploittheirownresourcesthus,inaprocessoftransformation,evolutionpursuanttotheirownenvironmentalpolicies.”111andadjustment.ThissovereignrightincludestherightofcountriestorestrictaccesstotheirbiodiversityandtomakeMeasuresforregulatingaccessandforensuringcompliance110LawNo.27811ofJuly242002,ontheIntroductionoftheABSmeasurescanberoughlydistinguishedintoProtectionRegimefortheCollectiveKnowledgeofIndigenousmeasuresthroughwhichcountriesregulateaccessPeoplesderivedfromBiologicalResources(availableattotheirgeneticresourcesandmeasuresensuringhttp://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/details.jsp?id=3420).compliancewiththeABSlawsofothercountries.Todate,farfewercountrieshaveadoptedmeasures111ConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Article3.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE439EnablingframeworksPartDofthelattertype,i.e.measuresthatrequirethatNationalABSmeasuresforbiodiversitygeneticresourcesusedwithintheirjurisdictionsforfoodandagricultureandassociatedhavebeenaccessedinaccordancewithPICandtraditionalknowledgethatMAThavebeenestablishedinlinewiththeABSmeasuresoftendonotdistinguishbetweenrequirementsoftheABSmeasuresoftheotherdifferentcategoriesofgeneticresources.However,country.TheEuropeanUnionhasadoptedlegisla-theABSmeasuresofcountriesthatarePartiestion(Regulation[EU]No511/2014)112thatrequirestotheInternationalTreatyonPlantGeneticusersofgeneticresourcestoResourcesforFoodandAgricultureoftencontainprovisionsonplantgeneticresourcesaligningtheexerciseduediligencetoascertainthatmeasureswiththeprovisionsoftheTreatyandgeneticresourcesandtraditionalknowledgethemodalitiesofitsMultilateralSystemofAccessassociatedwithgeneticresourceswhichandBenefit-Sharing.Moreover,ABSmeasuresintheyutilisehavebeenaccessedinanumberofcountriesdistinguishdifferentpur-accordancewithapplicableaccessandposesforwhichgeneticresourcesmaybeusedandbenefit-sharinglegislationorregulatoryprovidefordifferentauthorizationrequirementsrequirements,andthatbenefitsarefairlyandproceduresforaccesstogeneticresourcesandequitablyshareduponmutuallyagreeddependingontheirintendeduse.terms,inaccordancewithanyapplicablelegislationorregulatoryrequirements.IndevelopingandimplementingABSlegisla-TheNagoyaProtocoldoesnotrequirecountriestion,PartiestotheNagoyaProtocolareobligedtoregulateaccesstogeneticresourceswithintheirtoconsider“theimportanceofgeneticresourcesjurisdiction.Thenationalsovereigntyofcountriesforfoodandagricultureandtheirspecialroleforovergeneticresourceswithintheirjurisdictionfoodsecurity.”113Morethantwo-thirdsofPartiesincludestherighttomakethemfreelyavailablereportingin2017/2018ontheirimplementationasmuchastherighttoregulateaccesstothem.oftheNagoyaProtocolconfirmedthattheyhadWhileanumberof(mostlyNorthern)countriesconsideredtheimportanceofgeneticresourcesforhavedecidednottomakeaccesstogeneticfoodandagricultureinthedevelopmentoftheirresourceswithintheirjurisdictionsubjecttoben-ABSframeworks(CBD,2018).efit-sharing,othercountrieshavemadeaccesstotheirgeneticresourcesconditionalupontheirPIC,AlthoughABSlawsareconsidered“anexpres-whichtheywillusuallyonlygrantiftherecipientsionofnationalsovereignty”overgeneticagreestosharethebenefits,eitherup-frontorresources(Morgera,BuckandTsioumani,2013),oncetheyaccrue.theyoftenalsoserve,inlinewiththeNagoyaProtocol,theadditionalpurposeofensuringthat112Regulation(EU)No511/2014oftheEuropeanParliamentgeneticresourcesheldbyindigenouspeoplesorandoftheCouncilof16April2014oncompliancelocalcommunities(IPLCs)areaccessedwiththeirmeasuresforusersfromtheNagoyaProtocolonAccessagreement.ThelawsofsomecountriesexplicitlytoGeneticResourcesandtheFairandEquitableSharingprovideforthedevelopmentofbioculturalproto-ofBenefitsArisingfromtheirUtilizationintheUnionTextcolsthataimtoensurethatPICisobtainedfromwithEEArelevance(availableathttps://eur-lex.europa.eu/IPLCsforaccesstogeneticresourcesheldbythem,legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014R0511).SeealsoandthatbenefitsfromtheutilizationofsuchGuidancedocumentonthescopeofapplicationandcoregeneticresourcesaresharedwiththem.obligationsofRegulation(EU)No511/2014oftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilonthecompliancemeasuresEvenbeforetheadoptionoftheNagoyaforusersfromtheNagoyaProtocolonAccesstoGeneticProtocol,manycountrieshadstartedtoregulateResourcesandtheFairandEquitableSharingofBenefitsaccesstotraditionalknowledgeassociatedwithArisingfromtheirUtilisationintheUnionC/2016/5337geneticresources(Bardi,Gutiérrez-Oppeand(availableathttps://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52016XC0827%2801%29).113NagoyaProtocol,Article8(c).440thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETHESTATEOFPOLICIES,INSTITUTIONSANDCAPACITIES8Politano,2011).TherelevantlawsusuallystatethatDistinctivefeaturesofbiologicaldiversitysuchknowledgeheldbyIPLCsshouldonlybeforfoodandagricultureaccessedwiththePICoftherelevantIPLCandInlinewiththeNagoyaProtocolrequirementtoonlyifMAThavebeenestablished.Somecountryconsiderinthedevelopmentandimplementationreports,however,indicatethattheimplementa-ofABSlegislation“theimportanceofgenetictionoftheseprovisionsisstilloftenchallengingresourcesforfoodandagricultureandtheirbecausecommunitiesoftendonotyethaveclearspecialroleforfoodsecurity”,countriesmayindecision-makingstructuresandproceduresinthefuturedeveloptailoredproceduresforABSplaceandthereforePICwithoneIPLCmaybeforgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.questionedbyanotherIPLC.TheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture’sElementstoFacilitateDomesticThereisconsensusamongPartiestotheNagoyaImplementationofAccessandBenefit-sharingProtocolontheneedforcapacity-buildingandforDifferentSubsectorsofGeneticResourcesforothersupportmeasurescriticaltothedevelop-FoodandAgriculture(FAO,2016q)aimtoassistmentandimplementationofABSmeasures.114governmentstotakeintoaccounttheimpor-DevelopingandimplementingABSmeasuresiscon-tanceofgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricul-sideredachallengeasgeneticresourcesareusedbyture,theirspecialroleforfoodsecurityandthearangeofdifferentcommunitiesofpractice,manydistinctivefeaturesofthedifferentsubsectorsofofwhichhavedevelopedtheirownexchangeprac-geneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture,whiletices(e.g.Nijar,2013).Legislatorsandcompetentcomplying,asapplicable,withtheinternationalauthoritiesarethereforeconfrontedwithwidelyABSinstruments.differingexpectationsandarangeofexistingprac-ticesandstakeholderrequirements.114SeeArticle22oftheNagoyaProtocolandrelevantdecisionsoftheMeetingofthePartiestotheNagoyaProtocol:https://www.cbd.int/abs/capacitybuilding-relevant.shtmlthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE441PartECONCLUSIONsChapter9Needsandchallenges9.1Introduction9.2DriversofchangeChapters1to8ofthisreportidentifyandassessBFAisaffectedbyavarietyofinteractingdriversthemultiplecontributionsthatbiodiversityofchange:globaleffects,suchasclimatechangemakestofoodandagriculture,tothelivelihoodsandtheoperationsofinternationalmarkets,giveoffarmers,livestockkeepers,fishers,fishfarmersrisetomoreimmediatedriverssuchasland-useandforestdwellers,andtofoodsecurityandchange,pollution,overuseofexternalinputs,nutrition.Theydocumentwhatisknownaboutoverharvestingandtheproliferationofinvasivethestatusandtrendsofbiodiversityforfoodandspecies.Whiletherearemanypotentialmeansagriculture(BFA),thedriversofchangeaffectingofaddressingimmediatethreatsthroughtheit,levelsofadoptionofmanagementpracticesadoptionofvarioussustainablemanagementandstrategiesthatpromoteitssustainableusepracticesandtheimplementationofconserva-andcontributetoitsconservation,andthestatetionmeasures,thesemaybeneglectedorover-ofpolicies,institutionsandcapacitiesrelatedwhelmedunlesspoliticalwillisfoundtoaddresstoitsmanagement.Thisfinalchapterdrawshigher-leveldrivers.ItisalsoessentialtobuildontogetherthevariousthreadsoftheanalysistotheopportunitiesthatareemergingasaresultidentifythemainchallengestothesustainableoftrendssuchasgrowingconsumerdemandformanagementofBFA.1biodiversity-friendlyproducts.SecuringandenhancingthemultiplerolesofAtminimum,thereisaneedto:(i)betterBFAwillrequiresustainableuseandconservationunderstandtheeffectsofdriversofchangeonoftheecosystems,speciesandgeneticdiversityBFAandtakeurgentactiontoaddressthosethatthatcomposeit.Forthistohappen,knowledgeofareunderminingthesustainabilityoffoodandtherolesofbiodiversityintheecologicalprocessesagriculturalproduction;(ii)improvethemon-thatunderpinfoodandagriculturalproductionitoringofrecognizedthreatstoBFA,suchasneedstobestrengthened,andusedtodevelophabitatdestruction,pollution,inappropriateusemanagementstrategiesthatprotect,restoreandofagriculturalinputs,overharvesting,pests,dis-enhancetheseprocessesacrossarangeofscales.easesandinvasivealienspecies,andstrengthenEstablishingeffectivepolicyandoutreachmeas-effortstoreducethemormitigatetheireffects;ureswillbeneededtosupporttheuptakeof(iii)promotetheuseoftechnologiesandman-managementpracticesthatsustainablyusebio-agementpracticesthathavepositiveeffectsdiversitytopromotefoodandlivelihoodsecurityonBFAandthesupplyofecosystemservices;andresilience.(iv)implementpoliciesthathelptoprotectbio-diversityfromtheeffectsofnegativedrivers1Needsandchallengesrelatedtothesustainableuseandandsupportitssustainableuse;(v)removeorconservationofplant,animal,forestandaquaticgeneticrevisepoliciesthathaveharmfuleffects;andresourcesarediscussedindetailintherespectiveglobal(vi)promotetheuseofBFAinclimatechangeassessments(FAO,2010a,2014a,2015a,forthcoming).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE445ConclusionsPartEadaptationandmitigation,indisaster-riskreduc-taxonomistswiththeskillsneededtoworkwithcur-tionandinaddressingotherdriversthatnega-rentlyneglectedtaxonomicgroups.Strengtheningtivelyaffectproductionsystemsandthesupplyresearch,educationandcapacity-buildingpro-ofecosystemservices.grammeswillbeessential.Cooperationneedstobeimproved,includingbetweenthepublicsector9.3Statusandtrendsandotherstakeholders.Inanumberofcountries,certaintypesofassociatedbiodiversityaremoni-ManykeycomponentsofBFAatgenetic,speciestoredthroughcitizen-scienceprojects,andthereandecosystemlevelsareindecline.Whilethemaybepotentialtoexpandactivitiesofthiskindgeneraldecliningtrend–andhencetheneedandintroducethemmorewidely.foraction–isclear,lackofdataoftenconstrainstheplanningandprioritizationofeffectivereme-Effectivemonitoringrequiressystematicanddialmeasures.long-termcommitment.Therolesandrespon-sibilitiesofkeystakeholdersneedtobeclearlyTheextentandnatureofknowledgegapsdefined.Wheretheydonotcurrentlyexist,itmayvaryacrossthecomponentsofBFA.Inthecaseofbenecessarytoestablishnationalbodiestoorgan-domesticatedspeciesandthosethatarewidelyizeoroverseemonitoringactivities.harvestedfromthewild,speciesinventoriesarelargelycompleteandtherangeofwithin-species9.4Managementpopulations(breeds,varieties,etc.)isoftenalsowelldocumented,althoughtovaryingdegrees9.4.1Stateofuseacrosstheregionsoftheworld.Incontrast,manyassociated-biodiversityspecies(speciesthatliveinArangeofmanagementpracticesandproduc-andaroundproductionsystemsandprovidereg-tionapproachesthatcanpotentiallycontributeulatingandsupportingecosystemservices),par-totheconservationandsustainableuseofBFAticularlymicro-organismsandinvertebrates,haveareincreasinglybeingimplementedaroundtheneverbeendocumented.world.Detailedinformationontrendsinsuchpracticesis,however,oftenlimited,asisdetailedPopulationtrendsarerelativelywellmonitoredinformationontheirimpactsonBFAandtheforsometaxonomicgroups(e.g.vertebrates).Forsupplyofecosystemservices.Uptakeisconstrainedmanyothers,however,knowledgeisverylimited,byavarietyoffactors.evenatspecieslevel,andalmostnon-existentatwithin-specieslevel.Moreover,wheremonitor-Overall,oneofthemajorconstraintstotheingprogrammesforassociatedbiodiversityaredevelopment,adoptionandimplementationofinplace,populationdataareoftennotlinkedmanagementpracticesandapproachesthatcon-tospatialdataonthedistributionofproductiontributetothesustainablemanagementofBFAissystemsandhencepotentialimpactsonproduc-alackofdataonthecharacteristicsofrelevanttioncanbedifficulttoevaluate.Inmanycases,theecosystemsandlimitedunderstandingofeco-contributionsofspecificcomponentsofBFAtothesystemfunctionsandservices,includingspecifi-supplyofecosystemservicesarepoorlyunderstood.callyontherolesofdifferentcomponentsofBFA.ActionneedstobetakentoaddressknowledgeThereisanurgentneedtoimprovetheavail-gapsofthiskind.abilityofdatainalltheabovefields.Doingthiswillrequire,interalia,improvingmethodolo-ManyBFA-focusedpracticesarerelativelygiesforrecording,storingandanalysingdatacomplexandrequiregoodunderstandingoftheonchangesintheabundanceanddistributionoflocalecosystem.Theycanbeknowledgeintensive,species(includingimprovinggeographicinforma-contextspecificandprovidebenefitsonlyinthetionsystemfacilities)andincreasingthesupplyofrelativelylongterm.Manycountriesnotemajor446thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURENEEDSANDCHALLENGES9challengesinup-scalingsuchpracticesandiden-oftheseapproachesandthemultitudeoftermstifytheneedtopromotethemthroughcapacityusedtodescribethem.Effortsmayberequiredtodevelopmentandbystrengtheningincentivesandpromotecommonunderstandinginthisregard,aspolicyframeworks.wellastoincreaseanddisseminateknowledgeonthepotentialbenefitsofsuchapproaches.Althoughcircumstancesvarygreatlyfromcountrytocountryandacrossproductionsystems,Developingeffectiveintegratedapproachesanumberofbroadprioritieswithwidespreadrequiresresearchon:(i)thefunctionalrolesofrelevancecanbeidentified.OntheinstitutionalvariouscomponentsofBFAinkeyecosystempro-side,policyandregulatoryframeworksmayneedcesseswithinproductionsystemsandinwidertobereviewedtoassesswhethertheyprovidethelandscapesorseascapes;and(ii)theeffectsthatnecessarysupporttotheintroductionorupscal-adoptingsuchapproacheshaveoncomponentsofingofmoresustainableandbiodiversity-friendlyBFA.Thelatterwillrequirebettersurveyingandpracticesandtoidentifyanywaysinwhichtheymonitoringinrelevantecosystemsandthedevel-mayoperateasconstraints.Fullerconsultationopmentofappropriateindicators.betweenpolicy-makersandarangeofstakehold-ers,includingproducers,canpotentiallyhelptoInformationontheapplicationofecosys-overcomedisconnectionsbetweenpoliticalandtem,landscapeandseascapeapproachesandoperationallevels.otherinnovativestrategiesthatmaybebene-ficialtoBFAoftenfailstoreachproducersandWheresupportiveframeworksareinplace,otherlandorwaterusers,oronlydoessoafteranyconstraintstotheirimplementation,includ-substantialdelays.Prioritiesinthisfieldthere-ingfinancialconstraints,needtobeidentifiedforeincludebettercapturinganddisseminatingandaddressed.Educationandtrainingonsus-lessons-learnedfromtheimplementationofsuchtainablemanagementpracticesoftenneedtoapproaches,includingsuccessstories.beimproved,bothtoincreaseskillsandknowl-edgeatproducerlevelandtoincreasethesupplyEcosystem,landscapeandseascapeapproachesoftrainedandqualifiedtechnicalandscientificrequirecross-sectoralthinkingandcollaboration.personnel(bothspecialistsandexpertswithcross-Thiscreatessignificantchallengestotheiradop-disciplinaryknowledge).Insomeplaces,con-tion,giventhatinstitutionalframeworks(poli-straintsrelatedtoweaknessesintransportandcies,laws,organizationalstructures,etc.)arestillcommunicationsinfrastructurewillneedtobeverymuchcompartmentalizedandthatthereisaaddressed.Everywhere,effortswillbeneededtolackofholisticandmultidisciplinaryapproachesincreaseknowledgeofhoweffectiveparticularbothatpolicylevelandatthelevelofpracticalpracticesandapproachesareinpromotingtheimplementation.sustainableuseandconservationofBFA.RestorationpracticesThefollowingparagraphsdescribekeyneedsRestorationpracticeshaveacquiredaprominentandchallengesrelatedtospecificmanagementplaceontheglobalenvironmentalagendainpracticesandapproaches.recentdecades.Ifwellplanned,theycanprovidesimultaneousbenefitsforagriculturalproductiv-Ecosystem,landscapeandseascapeity,biodiversityconservationandthesupplyofapproachesecosystemservices.Amongecosystemsofimpor-Whileavailableevidencesuggeststhattherearetancetofoodandagriculture,forestsandgrass-positivetrendsintheadoptionandimplemen-lands,aswellasofarangeoffreshwater,marinetationofecosystem,landscapeandseascapeandcoastalecosystems,arewidelyrecognizedasapproachesinthecontextoffoodandagriculture,prioritiesforrestoration.Dependingontheloca-assessmentofdevelopmentsinthisfieldiscon-tion,keyforestrestorationactivitiesarelikelystrainedbyalackofclarityregardingthenaturetoincluderestoringconnectivitybetweenforestthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE447ConclusionsPartEfragmentsandrestoringforestcoverinareasthatappearstobethecase,forexample,fororganicareimportanttothesupplyofhydrologicalandagriculture,lowexternalinputagriculture,man-erosion-controlecosystemservices.Whereaquaticagementpracticesimplementedwiththeaimecosystemsareconcerned,mangroves,seagrassofpreservingandenhancingsoilbiodiversity,beds,coralreefs,coastalsanddunes,lakeshoresconservationagriculture,integratedplantnutri-andriverbanksareamongthekeytargetsforres-entmanagement,integratedpestmanagement,toration.Prioritieswilloftenincludeimprovingpollinationmanagementandsustainableforestconnectivitywithinandbetweenaquaticeco-managementpractices.Nevertheless,theavail-systemsandenhancingsignificanthabitatssuchasabilityofglobaldataonthelevelsofimple-fishspawningsites.Attentionwillneedtobepaidmentationofmanyofthesepracticesremainstothethreatsposedbyclimatechange.limited,andknowledgeoftheirimpactsonBFAandthesupplyofecosystemservicesneedstoDiversificationandmanagementpracticesbeimproved.atproductionlevelTheuseofanumberofdiversificationstrategiesBiodiversity-basedandbiodiversity-friendlyinfoodandagriculturalproductionsystemsseemsmanagementpracticesgenerallyrequiredetailedtobeincreasing.Evidenceindicatesthatagrofor-knowledgeoflocalproductionsystemsandeco-estryisbecomingmorewidespreadinallregionssystemsandareoftenrelativelylabourinten-oftheworld.Prioritiesintermsofstrengtheningsive.Consequently,theirimplementationtendsthecontributionsofagroforestrytosustainabletorequiretheactiveparticipationofproducersdevelopmentincludeaddressingproblemsinandtheirorganizations,aswellasthepresencegermplasmsupply,improvingtheprovisionofofeffectiveextensionservices.Managementmarketingadviceanddevelopingabetterunder-interventionsoftenneedtoextendbeyondfarmstandingofgender-relatedimplications.Homeboundariesintothebroaderlandscapeorsea-gardensaremajorreservoirsofBFAinmanyscape.Attentionneedstobepaidtomaintainingpartsoftheworld.However,knowledgeoftheorrestoringecosystemsthatdeliverservicestostatusandtrendsofthesesystemsislimited.Infoodandagricultureandconservingthespeciesthecaseofdiversificationinaquaculture,whileandgeneticdiversitythatwillallowadaptationtraditionalextensivediversifiedsystemsaretochangingconditions.tendingtodeclineasaconsequenceofresourceconstraints,innovativepolycultureapproachesareTheuseofmicro-organismsinfoodcreatingopportunitiestoincreaseefficiencyandprocessingandagro-industrialprocessestackleproblemsrelatedtofishhealthandeffluentMicro-organismsmakemultiplecontributionsdischarge.Integratedcrop–livestocksystemstofoodprocessingandagro-industrialpro-remainwidespreadglobally.Thereisneedforcesses,andthereisgreaterpotentialtoexpandresearchintohowcomplementaritiesbetweentheserolesstillfurther.Potentialthreatscropandlivestockproductioncanbeenhancedincludethelossofknowledgeassociatedwithinthecontextoflimitedavailabilityoflandandtraditionalfood-processingpracticesthatareotherresources,includingresearchintothesignif-indeclineandtheeffectsofclimatechangeicanceofwithin-speciesgeneticdiversity.onmicrobialcommunities.KeytasksincludeimprovingframeworksforqualitycontrolofTheuseofmanymanagementpracticesmicrobialproductsandforevaluatingpotentialbelievedtohelppromotetheconservationofriskstohumanhealthortotheenvironment,BFA,orthatutilizeBFAinasustainableway,isimprovingregistrationpoliciesformicrobialreportedlyincreasing,asisawarenessoftheben-products,improvingeducationandawareness-efitsofsuchpracticesamongconsumers,produc-raising,andstrengtheningresearchandconser-ers,governmentsandinternationalagencies.Thisvationnetworks.448thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURENEEDSANDCHALLENGES9Rumenmicrobialdiversityatalllevelsfromproducerstopolicy-makersGiventheirvitalcontributionstolivestockproduc-needtobestrengthened.ImprovingconservationtionandtheirroleintheproductionofgreenhousemethodsandstrategiesforBFAandstrengthen-gases,thereisanurgentneedtoimproveknowl-ingtheirimplementationwillalsorequireamoreedgeofrumenmicro-organismsandtheirfunc-interdisciplinaryapproach.Asandwhererelevant,tions.Considerableprogresshasbeenmadeinthisthecontributionsthattraditionalproductionprac-regardinrecentyears,butfundamentalknowl-ticesandresource-managementstrategiesassoci-edgegapsremaintobeaddressed.atedwithlocalorindigenouscommunitiesmaketotheconservationofBFAneedtobegivendueGenetic-improvementactivitiesrecognitionandbuilton,withtheparticipationGenetic-improvementprogrammesfordomes-ofthecommunitiesconcerned.Maintenanceandticatedcropsandlivestockarewellestablishedtransferofrelevanttraditionalknowledgeshouldglobally,althoughmanyspeciesandwithin-speciesbesupportedandfacilitated.populationsareneglected.ProgrammesfortreesandspeciesusedinaquaculturearebecomingWhiletherewilloftenbeaneedtotargetindi-morewidespread.Genetic-improvementactivitiesvidualspeciesorpopulationsthatareatparticularforothercomponentsofBFAaregenerallyuncom-risk,componentsofBFAshouldnotbeconsideredmon,withtheexceptionofsilkwormsandhoneyinisolationfromeachotherorfromwidereco-bees.Therecouldbebenefitsinextendingdomes-systems,landscapesandseascapes.Potentialsyn-ticationandgenetic-improvementactivitiestoergiesneedtobeexplored,whetherintermsofotherinvertebratespeciesthatcontributetofoodmanagementstrategiesatproduction-systemorandagriculture,includingstinglessbees,whichlandscapelevelthatcreateopportunitiestodiver-havebeenfoundtobemoreeffectivepollinatorssifymorethanonecategoryofBFAorintermsofthanhoneybeesforcertaincrops,andinsectsthatmoreefficientuseofresources.Productiveland-canberaisedforhumanconsumptionorasanimalscapesandseascapesneedtoincludethehabitatfeed.Activitiesofthiskindarealreadyunderwayfeaturesnecessarytosupporttheassociated-inseveralcountries.Effortsarealsobeingmadetobiodiversityspeciesthatunderpinfoodandagri-developmethodsforassistedevolutionofclimateculturalproduction.Ensuringthatthisisthecaseresilienceincorals.will,inplaces,requiretherestorationofdegradedhabitatsandmaintainingorrecreatingwildlife9.4.2Stateofconservationcorridorslinkingpatchesofhabitat.GiventheirfocusonintegratedactionacrossmultiplescalesMethodsandstrategiesforinsitu(includingandonaccountingfortheinterestsandconcernson-farmandinotherproductionsystems)andexofawiderangeofstakeholders,ecosystem,land-situconservationofBFA,inparticularofassoci-scapeorseascapeapproaches(seeabove)mayatedbiodiversity,needtobeimprovedandinfor-provideusefulframeworks.mationonthemmademorewidelyavailable.Especiallywithrespecttoexsituconservation,Conservationmeasuresforwildfoodsshouldtherearestilltechnicalbarrierstothelong-termalsonotbeneglected.Aswithothercomponentsconservationofsomespecies.OvercomingtheseofBFA,conservationstrategiesneedtobebasedgapsandconstraintswilloftenrequireincreasedonasoundunderstandingoftherangeofspeciesfunding,bettertrainingofrelevantpersonnelandinvolved,theirdistribution,characteristics,usesbetterprovisionoftechnicalresources.Whereandriskstatus.Inventoryandcharacterizationskillsareconcerned,improvingcapacityintheeffortsforthiscategoryofBFAgenerallyneedfieldsoftaxonomyandsystematicsisawidespreadtobestrengthened.Strategiesneedtobeputinpriority.Conservation-relatededucation,trainingplacethatallownutritionalbenefitstoberealizedandawareness-raisingactivitiesforstakeholdersinasustainablewayandthreatssuchasoverhar-vestingtobeidentifiedandaddressed.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE449ConclusionsPartE9.5Policies,capacitiesandbeyondfoodandagriculture).Improvingandinstitutionscoordinationandlinkagesbetweeninstitutesnationally,andatregionalandinternationalCooperationlevels,potentiallyprovidesopportunitiesbothtoEnsuringthesustainableuseofBFArequiresstrengtheninterdisciplinaryworkandtoallowimprovedcollaborationamongarangestake-moreefficientuseofresourcesandinformation.holdersatlocalnationalandregionallevels.Linksbetweenresearchandpracticalmanage-Synergiesbetweenthefoodandagricultureandmentatproduction-systemlevelalsoneedtobeenvironmentalsectors,inparticular,needtobeimproved.Thiscouldinvolve,interalia,improv-strengthened.Constraintstocooperationofteningresearchers’linkstoproducers,extensionser-relatetoalackofmechanismsforexchangingvicesandotherrelevantstakeholders,includinginformationamongandbetweenstakeholderbypromotinggreaterparticipationthroughoutgroupsoralackofparticipatorydecision-makingresearch-projectcyclesfromplanningtomonitor-processes.Mechanismsforinvolvingsmall-scaleing,andintegratingindicatorsofpracticalimpactproducers,andwomenandyouthinparticular,inintoevaluationmechanismsforresearchprojects.decision-makingprocessesneedtobeimproved.GreatercooperationbetweensectorsprovidesEducation,trainingandawareness-raisingopportunitiestoincreaseefficiencyandcanbeaEducationandtrainingonthemanagementofmeansofsecuringresourcesforBFA-relatedwork.BFAatalllevelsneedtobestrengthened,asTrainingandawareness-raisingontheorganiza-doesawarenessraisingontheimportanceofBFAtionofcollaborativeinitiativesisalsoneeded.amongarangeofstakeholders,includingpolicy-makersandthegeneralpublic.Biodiversity-ResearchrelatedissuestendnottobewellintegratedAsdiscussedabove,thesustainablemanage-intohigher-educationcoursesonfoodandagri-mentofBFA,inparticularassociatedbiodiver-cultureoronotheraspectsoflanduse.Coursessity,isconstrainedbynumerousknowledgegaps.relatedtobiodiversityconservationareoftenResearchprogrammesneedtobestrengtheneddisconnectedfromthoserelatedtotheuseofandthenecessaryresearchinfrastructureputinbiodiversity(i.e.onagriculture,forestry,fisheries,place,includingbyaddressingshortagesofspe-etc.),potentiallyleadingtoalackofinterdisci-cialistsinrelevantfields.Thisinturncreatestheplinaryskillsamongprofessionals.Thereisoftenneedtostrengtheneducationalcurriculaandalsoaneedtoimprovethesupplyofgraduatesimprovetraining(seenextsubsection).Allthesetrainedinspecificfieldssuchastaxonomy,eco-measureswillrequireadequatefunding,aswillnomicvaluationandcryoconservation.Ongoingimprovingthedisseminationofresearchresults.capacitydevelopmentamongprofessionalsandStrengtheningresearch-relatedinformationsystems,techniciansisalsoessential.suchassystemsformonitoringthestatusandtrendsofcomponentsofbiodiversityorforman-Whiletrainingforproducersonthesustainableagingrelevantgeographicaldata,isawidespreaduseofBFAisofteninadequate,countriesreportapriority,bothasameansofdisseminatingresearchvarietyofsuccessstoriesinthisregard(forexampleoutputsandasameansofmakingrelevantinfor-withfarmerfieldschools)andtherearelikelytobemationavailabletoresearchers.opportunitiestoexpand,adaptandbuilduponsomeofthese.ConstraintstotheparticipationofwomenResearchisalsooftenconstrainedbyalackinBFA-relatededucationneedtobeaddressed,andofcoordinationbetweenresearchinstitutionsrelevantextensionandtrainingprogrammesneedorbetweenresearchersworkingindifferenttobebettertailoredtowomen’sneeds.disciplinesorindifferentsectors(bothwithinAswellasorganizingtrainingactivities,thereisaneedtoimproveaccesstoinformation450thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURENEEDSANDCHALLENGES9(e.g.viapublicationsandinformationsystems)andfosteringcross-sectoralandinterinstitutionalcreateopportunitiesforstakeholderstointeractcooperationinvaluationefforts,standardizingandexchangeknowledgeandideas.Improvingmethodologiesandtools,andmobilizingfinan-thestateofeducationandtrainingwillrequirecialresources.addressingshortfallsinfundingandimprov-ingcooperationandexchangeofinformationIncentivesbetweeneducationalinstitutionsandbetweenAlthoughincentiveprogrammessupportingthethemandotherstakeholdergroups.sustainablemanagementofBFAarebecomingmorewidespread,suchschemesareoftenisolatedPolicyandlegalframeworksmeasurestargetingtheparticularconcernsofindi-Appropriatelegalandpolicyframeworksarevidualpublicprogrammes,private-sectoropera-essentialtotheeffectivemanagementofBFA.tionsorcivil-societyinitiatives,andinmanycasesHowever,theyoftenremainunderdevelopedorareverylocalized.Evidencesuggeststhatacoordi-poorlyimplemented.Shortcomingsofthiskindnatedpackageofmeasurescancreatemoreimpactcan,forexample,meanthatitisdifficulttoensureintermsofimprovingoutcomesforBFA.Otherpri-supportforlong-termactivitiessuchasmonitoring.oritiesincludebetterdocumentingandmappingSuchproblemscanpartlybeattributedtoalackofexistingschemes,takingalonger-termperspectiveadequatecoordinationbetweenthefoodandagri-inplanning,andimprovingcross-sectoralcoop-cultureandnatureconservationsectorsandtoaerationandinstitutionalcollaborationsoastolackofawarenessofthesignificanceofBFAamongimprovethecoordinationofmultipleincentives.policy-makers.Overcomingtheseconstraintswillrequire,inadditiontoawareness-raisingefforts,9.6Towardsamorediversegreaterinvolvementofmultiplestakeholdersinandsustainablefuturepolicy-development.Linksbetweenresearchandpolicy-makingalsooftenneedtobeimproved.BFAandtheecosystemservicesitsupportsarefundamentaltoeffortstoincreasetheresilience,Forpoliciestohaveanimpact,theresourcessustainabilityandproductivityoffoodandagri-neededtoimplementthemwillneedtobefound.culturalsystems,sustainlivelihoodsandenhancefoodsecurityandnutritionaroundtheworld.Whereaccessandbenefit-sharing(ABS)arecon-Yet,muchoftheplanet’sBFA–ecosystems,cerned,themainprioritiesthatcanbeidentifiedspeciesandwithin-speciesgeneticdiversity–isarecapacity-buildingonthedevelopmentandbeingeroded,oftenatanalarmingrate.UrgentimplementationofABSmeasures,andimprovingactionandlong-termcommitmentareneeded,coordinationbetweenministries,agenciesandbothtoenhancethemultiplecontributionsthatstakeholdersresponsibleforABSinthevariousBFAmakestosustainabledevelopmentandtosectorsoffoodandagriculture.tacklethemultiplethreatscurrentlydrivingitsloss.Thiswillrequiretheinvolvementofstake-Valuationholdersatalllevels,nationallyandinternation-Valuationstudiesarewidelyregardedasapoten-ally.Governmentswillneedtotakeconcretestepstialmeansofdrawingattentiontotheimportanttoensuretheirresponsibilitiesinthisfieldarecontributionsthatbiodiversityandecosystemser-fulfilled,particularlyinlightofthesignificancevicesmaketohumanwell-beingandasameansofBFAtoeffortstomeetthe2030Sustainableofguidingthedevelopmentofpolicies,researchDevelopmentGoals.programmesandincentiveschemes.Thereare,however,manygapsintermsofthecoverageofPositiveglobaldevelopmentsinclude,onthesuchstudies,forexamplewithrespecttomicrobialonehand,growingawarenessinternationallyofgeneticresourcesandwildpollinators.PotentialmeansofstrengtheningworkinthisfieldincludethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE451ConclusionsPartEthreatstothesustainabilityoffoodandagricul-Agriculturehasledtotheidentificationofture,includingthoserelatedtothelossofbiodi-numerousgaps,needsandpotentialactionsinversity,andontheother,upwardtrendsinlevelsthemanagementofBFA.Thenextstepistotakeofadoptionofvariousmanagementpracticesaction.Overtheyears,theCommissiononGeneticthatpotentiallycontributetotheconservationResourcesforFoodandAgriculturehasoverseenandsustainableuseofBFA.Thesedevelopmentsthedevelopmentofglobalplansofactionforneedtobebuiltuponbytheglobalcommunity.geneticresourcesintheplant,animalandforestKnowledgegapsneedtobefilled,cooperationsectors.Implementationoftheseinstrumentsstrengthened,includingcross-sectorallyandneedstobesteppedup.Considerationalsoneedsinternationally,andfinancial,humanandtechni-tobegiventohowtheinternationalcommunitycalresourcesmobilized.Effectivelegalandpolicycanmoreeffectivelypromotesynergiesintheframeworksneedtobeputinplace.managementofallcomponentsofbiodiversity,acrossthesesectorsandothers,intheinterestsofThecountry-drivenprocessofpreparingTheamoresustainablefoodandagriculture.StateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodand452thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREReferencesAbizaid,C.,Coomes,O.T.&Perrault-Archambault,M.Ahrends,A.,Hollingsworth,P.M.,Ziegler,A.D.,2016.SeedsharinginAmazonianindigenousrainFox,J.M.,Chen,H.,Su,Y.&Xu,J.2015.Currentforestcommunities:asocialnetworkanalysisinthreetrendsofrubberplantationexpansionmaythreatenAchuarvillages,Peru.HumanEcology,44(5):577–594.biodiversityandlivelihoods.GlobalEnvironmentalChange,34:48–58.Acreman,M.2004.Waterandecology.SeriesonWaterandEthics,Essay8.Paris,UNESCO.Aitken,S.N.&Whitlock,M.C.2013.AssistedgeneflowtofacilitatelocaladaptationtoclimateAcreman,M.C.,Arthington,A.H.,Colloff,M.J.,Couch,change.AnnualReviewofEcology,Evolution,andC.A.,Crossman,N.D.,Dyer,F.,Overton,I.C.,Systematics,44:367–388.Pollino,C.,Stewardson,M.H.&Young,W.J.2014.Environmentalflowsfornatural,hybridandnovelAizen,M.A.&Harder,L.D.2009.Theglobalstockofriverineecosystemsinachangingworld.FrontiersindomesticatedhoneybeesisgrowingslowerthanEcologyandtheEnvironment,12:466–473.agriculturaldemandforpollination.CurrentBiology,19(11):915–918.Adams,J.2012.Determinationandimplementationofenvironmentalwaterrequirementsforestuaries.Aizen,M.A.,Garibaldi,L.A.,Cunningham,S.A.&RamsarTechnicalReportNo.9/CBDTechnicalSeriesKlein,A.M.2008.Long-termglobaltrendsincropNo.69.Gland,Switzerland,RamsarConventionyieldandproductionrevealnocurrentpollinationSecretariat,andMontreal,Canada,Secretariatoftheshortagebutincreasingpollinatordependency.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.CurrentBiology,18:1572–1575.Addis,G.2009.Wildandsemi-wildedibleplantsofHamarAizen,M.A.,Garibaldi,L.A.,Cunningham,S.A.&Klein,andXonso(SouthEthiopia)withemphasisontheirA.M.2009.Howmuchdoesagriculturedependonethnobotanyandnutritionalcompositionofselectedpollinators?Lessonsfromlong-termtrendsincropspecies.AddisAbabaUniversity.(PhDdissertation)production.AnnalsofBotany,103:1579–1588.Addy,S.,Cooksley,S.,Dodd,N.,Waylen,K.,Stockan,Akasaka,M.,Kadoya,T.,Ishihama,F.,Fujita,T.&J.,Byg,A.&Holstead,K.2016.RiverrestorationFuller,R.2017.Smartprotectedareaplacementandbiodiversity:nature-basedsolutionsforrestoringdeceleratesbiodiversityloss:arepresentation-riversintheUKandRepublicofIreland.Aberdeen,extinctionfeedbackleadsrarespeciestoextinction.UK,Scotland’sCentreofExpertiseforWaters.ConservationLetters,10:539–546.Adhikari,B.,DiFalco,S.&Lovett,J.C.2004.HouseholdAlagely,A.,Krediet,C.J.,Ritchie,K.B.&Teplitski,characteristicsandforestdependency:evidencefromM.2011.Signaling-mediatedcross-talkmodulatescommonpropertyforestmanagementinNepal.swarmingandbiofilmformationinacoralpathogenEcologicalEconomics,48(2):245–257.Serratiamarcescens.ISMEJournal,5:1609–1620.AfricanUnionCommision.2015.11OverviewofAlexander,S.J.&Mclain,R.J.2001.AnoverviewofAgenda2063.AddisAbaba.(availableathttps://non-timberforestproductsintheUnitedStatestoday.au.int/sites/default/files/documents/33126-doc-11_JournalofSustainableForestry,13(3–4):95–103.an_overview_of_agenda.pdf)Alexandraki,V.,Tsakalidou,E.,Papadimitriou,K.,Agarwal,B.2015.Foodsecurity,productivityandHolzapfel,W.2013.Statusandtrendsofthegenderinequality.InR.J.Herring,ed.TheOxfordconservationandsustainableuseofmicro-organismshandbookoffood,politicsandsociety,infoodprocesses.CommissiononGeneticpp.273–301.Oxford,UK,OxfordUniversityPress.ResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.65.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://Ahmed,N.,Ward,J.D.&Saint,C.P.2014.Canwww.fao.org/docrep/meeting/028/mg309e.pdf).integratedaquaculture-agriculture(IAA)produce“morecropperdrop”?FoodSecurity,6(6):767–779.Alkama,R.&Cescatti,A.2016.Biophysicalclimateimpactsofrecentchangesinglobalforestcover.Ahmed,N.,Thompson,S.&Glaser,M.2018.Science,351(6273):600–604.Integratedmangrove-shrimpcultivation:potentialforbluecarbonsequestration.Ambio,47(4):441–452.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE453Alkema,W.,Boekhorst,J.,Wels,M.&VanHijum,&Gemmill-Herren,B.2015b.Crops,weedsandS.A.F.T.2016.Microbialbioinformaticsforfoodpollinators.Understandingecologicalinteractionforsafetyandproduction.BriefingsinBioinformatics,bettermanagement.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://17(2):283–292.www.fao.org/3/a-i3821e.pdf).Anderson,P.K.,Cunningham,A.A.,Patel,N.G.,Alkemade,R.,Reid,R.S.,vandenBerg,M.,deLeeuw,Morales,F.J.,Epstein,P.R.&Daszak,P.2004.J.&Jeuken,M.2013.AssessingtheimpactsofEmerginginfectiousdiseasesofplants:pathogenlivestockproductiononbiodiversityinrangelandpollution,climatechangeandagrotechnologydrivers.ecosystems.PNAS,110(52):20900–20905.TrendsinEcologyandEvolution,19(10):535–544.Anderson,O.R.J.,Small,C.J.,Croxall,J.P.,Dunn,E.K.,Allen,D.J.,Molur,S.&Daniel,B.A.2010.ThestatusSullivan,B.J.,Yates,O.&Black,A.2011a.Globalanddistributionoffreshwaterbiodiversityintheseabirdbycatchinlonglinefisheries.EndangeredEasternHimalaya.Cambridge,UK,andGland,SpeciesResearch,14(2):91–106.Switzerland,IUCN,andCoimbatore,India,ZooAnderson,S.H.,Kelly,D.,Ladley,J.J.,Molloy,S.&OutreachOrganisation.Terry,J.2011b.Cascadingeffectsofbirdfunctionalextinctionreducepollinationandplantdensity.Allen,D.J.,Smith,K.G.&Darwall,W.R.T.2012.TheScience,331(6020):1068–1071.statusanddistributionoffreshwaterbiodiversityAngelini,J.,Silvina,G.,Taurian,T.,Ibáñez,F.,inIndo-Burma.Cambridge,UK,andGland,Tonelli,M.L.,Valetti,L.,Anzuay,M.S.,Ludueña,Switzerland,IUCN.L.,Muñoz,V.&Fabra,A.2013.Theeffectsofpesticidesonbacterialnitrogenfixersinpeanut-Alloway,B.J.2013.Sourcesofheavymetalsandgrowingarea.ArchivesofMicrobiology,195(10–11):metalloidsinsoils.InB.Alloway,ed.Heavymetalsin683–692.soils.Environmentalpollution,Vol.22,pp.11–50.Angelopoulos,N.V.,Cowx,I.G.&Buijse,A.D.2017.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.Integratedplanningframeworkforsuccessfulriverrestorationprojects:upscalinglessonslearntfromAlongi,D.M.,Murdiyarso,D.,Fourqurean,J.W.,Europeancasestudies.EnvironmentalScienceandKauffman,J.B.,Hutahaean,A.,Crooks,S.,Policy,76:12–22.Lovelock,C.E.etal.2016.Indonesia’sbluecarbon:Angers,D.A.&Caron,J.1998.Plant-inducedagloballysignificantandvulnerablesinkforseagrasschangesinsoilstructure:processesandfeedbacks.andmangrovecarbon.WetlandsEcologyandBiogeochemistry,42:55–72.Management,24(1):3–13.AOCC.2018TheAfricanOrphanCropsConsortium.[Cited26June2018].http://africanorphancrops.org/Alston,D.G.2011.Pestmanagementdecision-making:Aravanopoulos,F.A.,Tollefsrud,M.M.,Graudal,L.,theeconomic-injurylevelconcept.UtahPestsFactKoskela,J.,Kätzel,R.,Soto,A.,Nagy,L.etal.Sheet(IPM-016-11).Logan,USA.UtahStateUniversity2015.DevelopmentofgeneticmonitoringmethodsExtensionandUtahPlantPestDiagnosticLaborato.forgeneticconservationunitsofforesttreesinEurope.Rome,EuropeanForestGeneticResourcesAltieri,M.A.1995.Agroecology:thescienceofProgramme(EUFORGEN),BioversityInternational.sustainableagriculture.Boulder,USA,WestviewPress.ARC(AustralianResearchCouncil).2018.ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies.[CitedAltieri,M.A.1999.Theecologicalroleofbiodiversity7November2018].https://www.coralcoe.org.au/inagroecosystems.Agriculture,EcosystemsandArcher,S.R.,Andersen,E.M.,Predick,K.I.,Environment,74(1–3):19–31.Schwinning,S.,Steidl,R.J.&Woods,S.R.2017.Woodyplantencroachment:causesandAltieri,M.A.2002.Agroecology:thescienceofconsequences.InD.D.Briske,ed.Rangelandnaturalresourcemanagementforpoorfarmersinmarginalenvironments.Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,93:1–24.Altieri,M.A.,Nicholls,C.I.,Henao,A.&Lana,M.A.2015a.Agroecologyandthedesignofclimatechange-resilientfarmingsystems.AgronomyforSustainableDevelopment,35(3):869–890.Altieri,M.A.,Nicholson,C.I.,Gillespie,M.,Waterhouse,B.,Wratten,S.,Gbehounou,G.454thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREsystems.Processes,managementandchallenges,Attwood,S.J.,Ranieri,J.,Park,S.E.,Kennedy,pp.25–84.Cham,Switzerland,Springer.G.&Smith,P.2016.TheriseofsustainableAronson,J.&Alexander,S.2013.Ecosystemrestorationintensification,limitationsofitsfocus,andtheisnowaglobalpriority:timetorollupoursleeves.needforevidence.ConferenceProceedingsRestorationEcologyJournal,21:293–296.oftheEcoSummitConference.(availableatArora,D.K.,Saikia,R.,Dwievdi,R.&Smith,D.2005.https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/event/conference/Currentstatus,strategyandfutureprospectsofecosummit-2016).microbialresourcecollections.CurrentScience,89(3):488–495.Attwood,S.,Carmona,N.E.,Declerck,F.,Wood,S.Arslan,A.,Cavatassi,R.,Alfani,F.,Mccarthy,N.,&Beggi,F.2017a.UsingbiodiversitytoprovideLipper,L.&Kokwe,M.2018.Diversificationundermultipleservicesinsustainablefarmingsystems.climatevariabilityaspartofaCSAstrategyinruralInBioversityInternational,ed.MainstreamingZambia.TheJournalofDevelopmentStudies,54(3):agrobiodiversityinsustainablefoodsystems:457–480.scientificfoundationsforanAgrobiodiversityIndex,Ascott,M.J.,Gooddy,D.C.,Wang,L.,Stuart,M.E.,pp.53–80.Rome,BioversityInternational.Lewis,M.A.,Ward,R.S.&Binley,A.M.2017.GlobalpatternsofnitratestorageinthevadoseAttwood,S.J.,Park,S.,Loos,J.,Phillips,M.,Mills,zone.NatureCommunications,8:1416.D.&McDougall,C.2017b.DoessustainableAsfaw,T.Y.2009.Gender,justiceandlivelihoodsintheintensificationofferapathwaytoimprovedfoodcreationanddemiseofforestsinnorthwesternsecurityforaquaticagriculturalsystem-dependentEthiopia’sZeghiePeninsula.TheFacultyofGraduatecommunities?InI.Oborn,B.Vanlauwe,M.Phillips,Studies(ResourceManagementandEnvironmentalR.Thomas,W.Brooijmans&K.Atta-Krah,eds.Studies),UniversityofBritishColumbia.(PhDSustainableintensificationinsmallholderagriculture:dissertation)anintegratedsystemsresearchapproach,Asfaw,S.&Lipper,L.2012.Economicsofplantgeneticpp.71–87.London,Routledge.resourcemanagementforadaptationtoclimatechange:areviewofselectedliterature.ESAWorkingAusubel,J.H.,Crist,D.&Waggoner,P.E.2010.FirstPaperNo.12-02.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://CensusofMarineLife2010–Highlightsofadecadewww.fao.org/3/a-an649e.pdf).ofdiscovery.Washington,DC,CensusofMarineLifeAtangana,A.,Khasa,D.,Chang,S.&Degrande,InternationalSecretariat.A.2014.Majoragroforestrysystemsofthehumidtropics.InA.Atangana,D.Khasa,S.Chang&A.Ayalew,W.,King,J.M.,Bruns,E.&Rischkowsky,Degrande,eds.Tropicalagroforestry,pp.49–93.B.2003.EconomicevaluationofsmallholderDordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.subsistencelivestockproduction:lessonsfromanAtkinson,G.,Bateman,I.&Mourato,S.2012.RecentEthiopiangoatdevelopmentprogram.EcologicaladvancesinthevaluationofecosystemservicesEconomics,45(3):473–485.andbiodiversity.OxfordReviewofEconomicPolicy,28(1):22–47.Azim,M.E.&Little,D.C.2006.IntensifyingAtkinson,R.,Thomas,E.,Cornelius,J.,Zamora,aquacultureproductionthroughnewapproachesR.&Franco,M.2017.Fitforpurposeseedtomanipulatingnaturalfood.CABReviews:supplysystemsfortheimplementationofPerspectivesinAgriculture,VeterinaryScience,landscaperestorationunderInitiative20x20:NutritionandNaturalResources,1(62).ananalysisofnationalseedsystemsinMexico,Guatemala,CostaRica,Colombia,Peru,ChileandBacha,K.,Mehari,T.&Ashenafi,M.1998.TheArgentina.Washington,DC,WRI,Rome,Bioversitymicrobialdynamicsof‘borde’fermentation,aInternational,andNairobi,ICRAF.traditionalEthiopianfermentedbeverage.EthiopianJournalofScience,21(5):195–205.Badola,R.&Hussain,S.A.2005.ValuingecosystemsfunctionsandempiricalstudyonthestormprotectionfunctionofBhitorkanikamangroveecosystem,India.EnviromentalConservation,32(1):85–92.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE455Bailey,K.L.&Lazarovits,G.2003.Suppressingsoil-Barbier,E.B.,Hacker,S.D.,Kennedy,C.,Koch,E.W.,bornediseaseswithresiduemanagementandStier,A.C.&Silliman,B.R.2011.Thevalueoforganicamendments.SoilandTillageResearch,estuarineandcoastalecosystemservices.Ecological72(2):169–180.Monographs,81(2):169–193.Bailey,R.T.,Jenson,J.W.&Olsen,A.W.2009.Barbraud,C.&Weimerskirch,H.2001.EmperorNumericalmodelingofatollislandhydrogeology.penguinsandclimatechange.Nature,411:183–186.GroundWater,47(2):184–196.Bardgett,R.D.&VanDerPutten,W.H.2014.Bakos,J.&Gorda,S.2001.GeneticresourcesofBelowgroundbiodiversityandecosystemcommoncarpattheFishCultureResearchInstitutefunctioning.Nature,515(7528):505–511.Szarvas,Hungary.FAOFisheriesTechnicalPaperNo.417.Rome,FAO.Bardi,M.A.G.,Gutiérrez-Oppe,E.&Politano,R.2011.TraditionalknowledgeproductsinLatinBalian,E.V.,Segers,H.,Martens,K.&Lévéque,C.Americaandtheirmisappropriation.Journalof2007.TheFreshwaterAnimalDiversityAssessment:IntellectualPropertyLaw&Practice,6(1):34–42.anoverviewoftheresults.FreshwaterAnimalDiversityAssessment,pp.627–637.Dordrecht,Baró,F.,Chaparro,L.,Gómez-Baggethun,E.,Netherlands,Springer.Langemeyer,J.,Nowak,D.J.&Terradas,J.2014.ContributionofecosystemservicestoairqualityandBalmford,A.,Beresford,J.,Green,J.,Naidoo,climatechangemitigationpolicies:thecaseofurbanR.,Walpole,M.&Manica,A.2009.AglobalforestsinBarcelona,Spain.Ambio,43(4):466–479.perspectiveontrendsinnature-basedtourism.PLoSBiology,7(6):e1000144.Barrington,K.,Chopin,T.&Robinson,S.2009.Integratedmulti-trophicaquaculture(IMTA)inBalon,E.K.1995.Originanddomesticationofthewildmarinetemperatewaters.InD.Soto,ed.Integratedcarp,Cyprinuscarpio:fromRomangourmetstothemariculture.Aglobalreview,pp.7–46.FAOFisheriesswimmingflowers.Aquaculture,129:3–48.andAquacultureTechnicalPaperNo.529.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/012/Balvanera,P.,Quijas,S.,Martín-López,B.,Barrios,E.,i1092e/i1092e00.htm).Dee,L.,Isbell,F.,Durance,I.,White,P.,Blanchard,R.&deGroot,R.2016.ThelinksbetweenBarrios,E.2007.Soilbiota,ecosystemservicesandlandbiodiversityandecosystemservices.InM.Potschin,R.productivity.EcologicalEconomics,64(2):269–285.Haines-Young,R.Fish&R.K.Turner,eds.Handbookofecosystemservices,pp.45–49.London,Routledge.Barrios,E.,Valencia,V.,Jonsson,M.,Brauman,A.,Hairiah,K.,Mortimer,P.E.&Okubo,S.2018.Balzer,P.,Balzer,T.,Bartley,D.,Choulamany,X.,ContributionoftreestotheconservationofbiodiversityFunge-Smith,S.,Guttman,H.,Halwart,M.etal.andecosystemservicesinagriculturallandscapes.2006.UseandavailabilityofaquaticbiodiversityinInternationalJournalofBiodiversityScience,Ecosystemrice-basedecosystemsofSoutheastAsia.JournalofServices&Management,14(1):1–16.FoodCompositionandAnalysis,19(6–7):765–766.Bartley,D.M.,Nguyen,T.T.T.,Halwart,M.&DeSilva,Banda,H.J.&Paxton,R.J.1991.PollinationofS.S.2009.Useandexchangeofaquaticgeneticgreenhousetomatoesbybees.ActaHorticulturae,resourcesinaquaculture:informationrelevantto288:194–198.accessandbenefitsharing.ReviewsinAquaculture,1(3–4):157–162.Barak,P.,Jobe,B.O.,Krueger,A.R.,Peterson,L.A.&Laird,D.A.1997.Effectsoflong-termsoilBartley,D.M.,DeGraaf,G.J.,Valbo-Jørgensen,J.&acidificationduetonitrogenfertilizerinputsinMarmulla,G.2015.Inlandcapturefisheries:statusWisconsin.PlantandSoil,197(1):61–69.anddataissues.FisheriesManagementandEcology,22:71–77.Barbero,R.,Abatzoglou,J.T.,Larkin,N.K.,Kolden,C.A.&Stocks,B.2015.ClimatechangepresentsBartley,D.M.,Leonard,N.J.,Youn,S.,Taylor,increasedpotentialforverylargefiresintheW.W.,Baigún,C.,Barlow,C.,Fazio,J.etal.contiguousUnitedStates.InternationalJournalof2016.MovingtowardseffectivegovernanceofWildlandFire,24(7):892–899.fisheriesandfreshwaterresources.InW.W.Taylor,456thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURED.M.Bartley,C.I.Goddard,N.L.Leonard&R.L.FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/Welcomme,eds.Freshwater,fishandthefuture,meeting/022/mb392e.pdf).pp.251–280.Rome,FAO,andEastLansing,Beed,F.,Dubois,T.,Coyne,D.,Lesueur,D.&USA,MichiganStateUniversity.(availableatRamasamy,S.2017.Soilbiodiversity.InD.Hunter,http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5711e.pdf).L.Guarino,C.Spillane&P.C.McKeown,eds.Bartomeus,I.,Park,M.G.,Gibbs,J.,Danforth,B.N.,Routledgehandbookofagriculturalbiodiversity,pp.Lakso,A.N.&Winfree,R.2013.Biodiversity127–144.London,Routledge.ensuresplant-pollinatorphenologicalsynchronyBein,E.,Habte,B.,Jaber,A.,Birnie,A.&Tegnas,againstclimatechange.EcologyLetters,16(11):B.1996.UsefultreesandshrubsinEritrea.1331–1338.Identification,propagationandmanagementforBattcock,M.&Azam-Ali,S.1998.Fermentedagriculturalandpastoralcommunities.Nairobi,fruitsandvegetables:aglobalperspective.FAORegionalSoilConservationUnit.AgriculturalServicesBulletinNo.134.Rome,FAO.Bekkevold,D.,Hansen,M.M.&Nielsen,E.E.2006.Baulcombe,D.,Crute,I.,Davies,B.,Dunwell,J.,GeneticimpactofgadoidcultureonwildfishGale,M.,Jones,J.,Pretty,J.,Sutherland,W.&populations:predictions,lessonsfromsalmonids,Toulmin,C.2009.Reapingthebenefits:scienceandandpossibilitiesforminimizingadverseeffects.ICESthesustainableintensificationofglobalagriculture.JournalofMarineScience,63(2):198–208.London,TheRoyalSociety.Bellard,C.,Bertelsmeier,C.,Leadley,P.,Thuiller,W.Baum,J.K.&Worm,B.2009.Cascadingtop-down&Courchamp,F.2012.Impactsofclimatechangeeffectsofchangingoceanicpredatorabundances.onthefutureofbiodiversity.EcologyLetters,15(4):JournalofAnimalEcology,78(4):699–714.365–377.Bay,R.A.&Palumbi,S.R.2014.MultilocusadaptationBellingham,P.J.,Kardol,P.,Bonner,K.I.,Buxton,R.P.,associatedwithheatresistanceinreef-buildingMorse,C.W.&Wardle,D.A.2016.Browsingbyancorals.CurrentBiology,24:2952–2956.invasiveherbivorepromotesdevelopmentofplantBayala,J.,Kalinganire,A.,Tchoundjeu,Z.,Sinclair,F.andsoilcommunitiesduringprimarysuccession.&Garrity,D.2011a.ConservationagriculturewithJournalofEcology,104(6):1505–1517.trees(CAWT)intheWestAfricanSahel:areview.Benbrook,C.M.2012.ImpactsofgeneticallyengineeredOccasionalPaperNo.14.Nairobi,ICRAF.cropsonpesticideuseintheU.S.–thefirstsixteenBayala,J.,Kindt,R.,Belem,M.&Kalinganire,A.years.EnvironmentalSciencesEurope,24(1):24.2011b.FactorsaffectingthedynamicsoftreeBender,M.A.,Knutson,T.R.,Tuleya,R.E.,Sirutis,diversityinagroforestryparklandsforcerealandJ.J.,Vecchi,G.A.,Garner,S.T.&Held,A.M.2010.cottonfarmingsysteminBurkinaFaso.NewForest,Modeledimpactofanthropogenicwarmingonthe41(3):281–296.frequencyofintenseAtlantichurricanes.Science,Bedford,F.E.,Whittaker,R.J.&Kerr,J.T.2012.327(5964):454–458.SystemicrangeshiftlagsamongapollinatorspeciesBene,J.G.,Beall,H.W.&Côte,A.1977.Trees,foodassemblagefollowingrapidclimatechange.Botany,andpeople.Ottawa,InternationalDevelopment90(7):587–597.ResearchCentre(IDRC).Beech,E.,Rivers,M.,Oldfield,S.&Smith,P.P.2017.Béné,C.,Steel,E.,Luadia,B.K.&Gordon,A.2009.GlobalTreeSearch:thefirstcompleteglobaldatabaseFishasthe“bankinthewater”–Evidencefromoftreespeciesandcountrydistributions.Journalofchronic-poorcommunitiesinCongo.FoodPolicy,SustainableForestry,36(5):454–489.34(1):108–118.Beed,F.,Benedetti,A.,Cardinali,G.,Chakraborty,Bengtsson,J.,Ahnström,J.&Weibull,A.-C.2005.S.,Dubois,T.,Garrett,K.&Halewood,M.Theeffectsoforganicagricultureonbiodiversity2011.Climatechangeandmicro-organismandabundance:ameta-analysis.JournalofAppliedgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture:stateEcology,42(2):261–269.ofknowledge,risksandopportunities.Rome,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE457Berg,H.2002.Ricemonocultureandintegratedrice-fishTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalfarmingintheMekongDelta,Vietnam–economicSciences,365(1554):2913–2926.andecologicalconsiderations.EcologicalEconomics,Bianchi,F.J.J.,Booij,C.J.H.&Tscharntke,T.2006.41(1):95–107.Sustainablepestregulationinagriculturallandscapes:areviewonlandscapecomposition,BergMiller,M.E.,Yeoman,C.J.,Chia,N.,Tringe,S.G.,biodiversityandnaturalpestcontrol.ProceedingsofAngly,F.E.,Edwards,R.A.,Flint,H.J.,Lamed,R.,theRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,273(1595):Bayer,E.A.&White,B.A.2012.Phage-bacteria1715–1727.relationshipsandCRISPRelementsrevealedbyaBienefeld,K.2016.Breedingsuccessorgeneticdiversitymetagenomicsurveyoftherumenmicrobiome.inhoneybees?BeeWorld,93:40–44.EnvironmentalMicrobiology,14(1):207–227.Bienefeld,K.,Ehrhardt,K.,&Reinhardt,F.2007.GeneticevaluationinthehoneybeeconsideringBerkes,F.2012.Sacredecology.NewYork,USA,queenandworkereffects–ABLUP-AnimalModelRoutledge.approach.Apidologie,38(1):77–85.Billard,R.1986.SymbioticintegrationofaquacultureBerkes,F.,Folke,C.&Gadgil,M.1995.Traditionalandagriculture.Fisheries,11(4):14–19.ecologicalknowledge,biodiversity,resilienceandBinam,J.N.,Place,F.,Kalinganire,A.,Hamade,S.,sustainability.InC.A.Perrings,K.G.Mäler,C.Boureima,M.,Tougiani,A.,Dakouo,J.etal.2015.Folke,C.S.Holling&B.O.Jansson,eds.BiodiversityEffectsoffarmermanagednaturalregenerationonconservation,ecology,economy&environment,livelihoodsinsemi-aridWestAfrica.EnvironmentalVol4.pp.281–299.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.EconomicsandPolicyStudies,17(4):543–575.BIOIntelligenceService.2014.SoilandwaterinaBerti,P.R.&Jones,A.D.2013.Biodiversity’schangingenvironment.Finalreportpreparedforcontributiontodietarydiversity:magnitude,EuropeanCommission(DGENV).Paris.meaningandmeasurement.InJ.Fanzo,D.Hunter,T.BioversityInternational.2017.MainstreamingBorelli&F.Mattei,eds.Diversifyingfoodanddiets:agrobiodiversityinsustainablefoodsystems:usingagriculturalbiodiversitytoimprovenutritionscientificfoundationsforanAgrobiodiversityandhealth,pp.186–206.Oxford,UK,andNewIndex.Rome.York,USA,Routledge.BirdLifeInternational.2009.Seabirdsarekeyindicatorsoftheimpactofclimatechangeontheworld’sBerza,B.&Wolde,A.2014.Foodprocessing&oceans.[Cited11April2018].http://datazone.technologyfermentertechnologymodificationbirdlife.org/sowb/casestudy/seabirds-are-key-changesmicrobiologicalandphysico-chemicalindicators-of-the-impact-of-climate-change-on-the-parameters,improvessensorycharacteristicsinworld’s-oceansthefermentationoftella,anEthiopiantraditionalBirdLifeInternational.2013.Cropexpansionisafermentedalcoholicbeverage.JournalofFoodmajorthreattobiodiversityintropicalcountries.Processing&Technology,5:316.[Cited30April2018].http://datazone.birdlife.org/crop-expansion-is-a-major-threat-to-biodiversity-in-BGCI(BotanicGardensConservationInternational).tropical-countries2013.Restoringdamagedecosystems:theroleofBirdLifeInternational.2015.BirdscontrolinsectpestsbotanicgardensandtheEcologicalRestorationinfarmlandsandforests.[Cited3May2018].http://Alliance.BGJournal.JournalofBotanicGardensdatazone.birdlife.org/sowb/casestudy/birds-control-ConservationInternational,13(2).insect-pests-in-farmlands-and-forestsBirdLifeInternational.2018.Stateoftheworld’sbirds:BGCI.2018.GardenSearch.[Cited15June2018].takingthepulseoftheplanet.Cambridge,UK,https://www.bgci.org/garden_search.phpBirdLifeInternational.41pp.Bhandari,P.S.2012.Farmersperceptionaboutgainsfromintegratedpestmanagementfarmerfieldschool.InternationalJournalofAgriculturalScience,ResearchandTechnologyinExtensionandEducationSystems,2(3):137–142.Bharucha,Z.&Pretty,J.2010.Therolesandvaluesofwildfoodsinagriculturalsystems.Philosophical458thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREBlankespoor,B.,Dasgupta,S.&Lange,G.M.2017.Bosch,J.&Kemp,W.P.2000.DevelopmentalbiologyMangrovesasaprotectionfromstormsurgesinaandrearingmethodsforOsmiabeesusedascropchangingclimate.Ambio,46(7):478–491.pollinators.InM.J.Sommeijer&A.Ruijter,eds.Insectpollinationingreenhouses,pp.119–126.TheBlare,T.&Donovan,J.2016.BuildingvaluechainsforHague,CIP-DATAKoninklijkeBibliotheek.indigenousfruits:lessonsfromcamu-camuinPeru.RenewableAgricultureandFoodSystems,33(1):6–18.Bosch,J.&Kemp,W.P.2002.Developingandestablishingbeespeciesascroppollinators:theexampleofOsmiaBlitzer,E.J.,Dormann,C.F.,Holzschuh,A.,Klein,spp.(Hymenoptera:Megachilidae)andfruittrees.A.M.,Rand,T.A.&Tscharntke,T.2012.SpilloverBulletinofEntomologicalResearch,92:3–16.offunctionallyimportantorganismsbetweenmanagedandnaturalhabitats.Agriculture,Bosch,J.&Vicens,N.2000.PollinatingefficacyofEcosystemsandEnvironment,146(1):34–43.OsmiacornutaandApismellifera(Hymenoptera:Megachilidae,Apidae)on‘RedDelicious’apple.Blüthgen,N.&Klein,A.M.2011.FunctionalEnvironmentalEntomology,29(2):235–240.complementarityandspecialisation:theroleofbiodiversityinplant-pollinatorinteractions.BasicandBosch,J.,Kemp,W.P.&Peterson,S.S.2000.AppliedEcology,12(4):282–291.ManagementofOsmialignaria(Hymenoptera:Megachilidae)populationsforalmondpollination:Boa,E.2004.Wildediblefungi.Aglobaloverviewofmethodstoadvancebeeemergence.Environmentaltheiruseandimportancetopeople.Non-woodEntomology,29(5):874–883.ForestProducts17.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-y5489e.pdf).Bosch,J.,Kemp,W.P.&Trostle,G.E.2006.BeepopulationreturnsandcherryyieldsinanorchardBodmer,R.,Fang,T.G.,Puertas,P.E.,Antúnez,M.,pollinatedwithOsmialignaria(Hymenoptera:Chota,K.&Bodmer,W.E.2014.CambioclimáticoMegachilidae).JournalofEconomicEntomology,yfaunasilvestreenlaAmazoníaPeruana.Impacto99(2):408–413.delasequíaeinundacionesintensasenlaReservaNacionalPacayaSamiria,FundAmazonia/Sernanp.Boserup,E.1965.Theconditionsofagriculturalgrowth:Lima,WustEdiciones.theeconomicsofagrarianchangeunderpopulationpressure.London,Routledge.BogneSadeu,C.,Mikolasek,O.,Pouomogne,V.&TomediEyangoTabi,M.2013.TheuseofwildBottrell,D.&Schoenly,K.2012.Resurrectingtheghostcatfish(Clariasspp.)incombinationwithNiletilapiaofgreenrevolutionspast:thebrownplanthopper(OreochromisniloticusL.)inwesternCameroon:asarecurringthreattohigh-yieldingriceproductiontechnicalperformances,interests,andlimitations.intropicalAsia.JournalofAsia-PacificEntomolgy,JournalofAppliedAquaculture,25(4):359–368.15(1):122–140.Bokulich,N.A.,Lewis,Z.T.,Boundy-Mills,K.&Boucher,J.&Friot,D.2017.PrimarymicroplasticsMills,D.A.2016.Anewperspectiveonmicrobialintheoceans:aglobalevaluationofsources.landscapeswithinfoodproduction.CurrentOpinionCambridge,UK,andGland,Switzerland,IUCN.inBiotechnology,37:182–189.Bouletreau,M.1986.ThegeneticandcoevolutionaryBolfe,L.E.&Batistella,M.2011.Análiseflorísticaeinteractionsbetweenparasitoidsandtheirhosts.InestruturaldesistemassilviagrícolasemTomé-Açu,Pará.J.Wagge&D.Greathead,eds.Insectparasitoids,PesquisaAgropecuáriaBrasileira,46(10):1139–1147.pp.169–200.London,AcademicPress.Bommarco,R.,Kleijn,D.&Potts,S.G.2013.EcologicalBoulton,A.J.,Ekebom,J.&Gislason,G.M.2016.intensification:harnessingecosystemservicesforIntegratingecosystemservicesintoconservationfoodsecurity.TrendsinEcologyandEvolution,strategiesforfreshwaterandmarinehabitats:28(4):230–238.areview.AquaticConservation:MarineandFreshwaterEcosystems,26:963–985.Borrini-Feyerabend,G.,Dudley,N.,Jaeger,T.,Lassen,B.,PathakBroome,N.,Phillips,A.&Sandwith,Bourke,R.M.&Harwood,T.,eds.2009.FoodandT.2013.Governanceofprotectedareas:fromagricultureinPapuaNewGuinea.Canberra,Theunderstandingtoaction.Gland,Switzerland,IUCN.AustralianNationalUniversityPress.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE459Boyd,P.W.&Hutchins,D.A.2012.UnderstandingtheBroadhurst,L.,Jones,T.A.,Smith,F.S.,North,T.&Guja,responsesofoceanbiotatoacomplexmatrixofL.2016.Maximizingseedresourcesforrestorationincumulativeanthropogenicchange.MarineEcologyanuncertainfuture.BioScience,66:73–79.ProgressSeries,470:125–135.Brodeur,J.C.&VeraCandioti,J.2017.ImpactsofBradbear,N.2009.Beesandtheirroleinforestagricultureandpesticidesonamphibianterrestriallivelihoods–Aguidetotheservicesprovidedbylifestages:potentialbiomonitor/bioindicatorspeciesbeesandthesustainableharvesting,processingandforthePampaRegionofArgentina.Ecotoxicologymarketingoftheirproducts.Rome,FAO.(availableandgenotoxicology:non-traditionalterrestrialathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i0842e.pdf).models,pp.163–194.Cambridge,UK,RoyalSocietyofChemistry.Brandt,M.,Rasmussen,K.,Hiernaux,P.,Herrmann,S.,Tucker,C.J.,Tong,X.,Tian,F.etal.2018.Brodeur,J.C.,Poliserpi,M.B.,D’Andrea,M.F.&ReductionoftreecoverinWestAfricanwoodlandsSánchez,M.2014.Synergybetweenglyphosate-andandpromotioninsemi-aridfarmlands.Naturecypermethrin-basedpesticidesduringacuteexposuresGeoscience,11:328–333.intadpolesofthecommonSouthAmericantoadRhinellaarenarum.Chemosphere,112:70–76.Bravington,M.V.,Grewe,P.M.&Davies,C.R.2016.AbsoluteabundanceofsouthernbluefintunaBroegaard,R.B.,Rasmussen,L.V.,Dawson,N.,Mertz,estimatedbyclose-kinmark-recapture.NatureO.,Vongvisouk,T.&Grogan,K.2017.WildfoodCommunications,7:13162.collectionandnutritionundercommercialagricultureexpansioninagriculture-forestlandscapes.ForestBravodeGuenni,L.,Cardoso,M.,Goldammer,J.,PolicyandEconomics,84:92–101.Hurtt,G.,Mata,L.J.,Ebi,K.&Valdes,J.2005.Regulationofnaturalhazards:floodsandfires.InBrooker,R.W.,Bennett,A.E.,Cong,W.F.,Daniell,T.J.,R.Hassan,R.Scholes&N.Ash,eds.EcosystemsandGeorge,T.S.,Hallett,P.D.,Hawes,C.etal.2015.humanwell-being:currentstateandtrends,VolumeImprovingintercropping:asynthesisofresearch1,pp.441–453.Washington,DC,Coveloandinagronomy,plantphysiologyandecology.NewLondon,IslandPress.Phytologist,206(1):107–117.Briassoulis,D.,Mistriotis,A.&Eleftherakis,D.2007.Brookfield,H.2002.AgriculturalbiodiversityattheMechanicalbehaviourandpropertiesofagriculturallandscapelevel.ExpertreviewfortheELCI/UNEPnets–PartI:Testingmethodsforagriculturalnets.BPSPinitiativeon:ManagingAgriculturalResourcesPolymerTesting,26(6):822–832.forBiodiversityConservation:AGuidetoBestPractices.Montreal,Canada,SecretariatoftheBricker,S.B.,Getchis,T.L.,Chadwick,C.B.,Rose,ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.C.M.&Rose,J.M.2016.Integrationofecosystem-basedmodelsintoanexistinginteractiveweb-basedBrown,M.J.F.&Paxton,R.J.2009.Theconservationoftoolforimprovedaquaculturedecision-making.bees:aglobalperspective.Apidologie,40(3):410–416.Aquaculture,453:135–146.Bruijnzeel,L.A.1990.HydrologyofmoisttropicalBriones,M.J.I.&Schmidt,O.2017.Conventionalforestsandeffectsofconversion:astateoftillagedecreasestheabundanceandbiomassofknowledgereview.Paris,UNESCOInternationalearthwormsandalterstheircommunitystructureHydrologicalHumidTropicsProgramme.inaglobalmeta-analysis.GlobalChangeBiology,23(10):4396–4419.Brunori,G.,Rossi,A.&Guidi,F.2012.Onthenewsocialrelationsaroundandbeyondfood.AnalysingBriske,D.D.,ed.2017.Rangelandsystems.Processes,consumers’roleandactioninGruppidiAcquistomanagementandchallenges.Cham,Switzerland,Solidali(SolidarityPurchasingGroups).SociologiaSpringer.Ruralis,52(1).BritishEcologicalSociety.2016.Soilhealth:aBüchler,R.,Costa,C.,Hatjina,F.,Andonov,S.,responsefromtheBritishEcologicalSocietytotheMeixner,M.D.,LeConte,Y.,Uzunov,A.etEnvironmentalAuditCommittee.London.al.2014.Theinfluenceofgeneticoriginanditsinteractionwithenvironmentaleffectsonthe460thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREsurvivalofApismelliferaL.coloniesinEurope.Bush,M.2018.ClimatechangeadaptationinsmallislandJournalofApiculturalResearch,53(2):205–214.developingstates.Oxford,UK,WileyBlackwell.Buchmann,C.2009.Cubanhomegardensandtheirroleinsocial–ecologicalresilience.HumanEcology,Butchart,S.H.M.,Collar,N.J.,Stattersfield,A.J.&37(6):705.Bennun,L.A.2010.Conservationoftheworld’sbirds:Buckles,D.,Triomphe,B.&Sain,G.1998.Covertheviewfrom2010.Foreword.InJ.DelHoyo,A.Elliottcropsinhillsideagriculture:farmerinnovationwith&D.Christie,eds.Handbookoftheworld’sbirds.Mucuna.Ottawa,InternationalMaizeandWheatVolume15,pp.13–60.Barcelona,Spain,LynxEdicions.ImprovementCentre.Buddemeier,R.W.,Kleypas,J.A.&Aranson,R.B.Butchart,S.H.M.,Clarke,M.,Smith,R.J.,Sykes,R.E.,2004.Coralreefsandglobalclimatechange.Scharlemann,J.P.W.,Harfoot,M.,Buchanan,PotentialcontributionsofclimatechangetostressesG.M.etal.2015.Shortfallsandsolutionsforoncoralreefecosystems.Arlington,USA,PewmeetingnationalandglobalconservationareaCenteronGlobalClimateChange.targets.ConservationLetters,8(5):329–337.Bunce,R.G.H.,Metzger,M.J.,Jongman,R.H.G.,Brandt,J.,DeBlust,G.,Elena-Rossello,R.,Groom,G.B.etButcher,K.,Wick,A.F.,Desutter,T.,Chatterjee,A.&al.2008.AstandardizedprocedureforsurveillanceHarmon,J.2016.Soilsalinity:athreattoglobalfoodandmonitoringEuropeanhabitatsandprovisionofsecurity.AgronomyJournal,108(6):2189–2210.spatialdata.LandscapeEcology,23(1):11–25.Bunch,R.1999.MoreproductivitywithfewerBuytaert,W.,Célleri,R.,DeBièvre,B.,Cisneros,F.,externalinputs:CentralAmericancasestudiesofWyseure,G.,Deckers,J.&Hofstede,R.2006.agroecologicaldevelopmentandtheirbroaderHumanimpactonthehydrologyoftheAndeanimplications.Environment,Developmentandpáramos.Earth-ScienceReviews,79:53–72.Sustainability,1(3):219–233.Bundy,A.,Chuenpagdee,R.,Boldt,J.L.,deFatimaCabel,J.F.&Oelofse,M.2012.AnindicatorframeworkBorges,M.,Camara,M.L.,Coll,M.,Diallo,I.forassessingagroecosystemresilience.Ecologyandetal.2017.StrongfisheriesmanagementandSociety,17(1):1–18.governancepositivelyimpactecosystemstatus.FishandFisheries,18:412–439.CABI(CentreforAgricultureandBioscienceBunting,P.,Rosenqvist,A.,Lucas,R.M.,Rebelo,International).2018.Eichhorniacrassipes.[CitedL.-M.,Hilarides,L.,Thomas,N.,Hardy,A.et6July2018].www.cabi.org/iscal.2018.TheGlobalMangroveWatch—anew2010globalbaselineofmangroveextent.RemoteCalderone,N.W.2012.Insectpollinatedcrops,Sensing,10(10):1669.insectpollinatorsandUSagriculture:trendanalysisBurek,P.,Satoh,Y.,Fischer,G.,Kahil,M.T.,Scherzer,ofaggregatedatafortheperiod1992-2009.A.,Tramberend,S.,Nava,L.F.etal.2016.WaterPLoSONE,7(5).futuresandsolution–fasttrackinitiative(FinalReport).IIASAWorkingPaperWP-16-006.Laxenburg,Austria,CaliforniaRiceCommission.2015.Wildlife.[CitedInternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis.22April2018].http://calrice.org/wildlife/Burke,L.,Reyta,K.,Spalding,M.&Perry,A.2011.Reefatriskrevisited.Washington,DC,WorldCalle,Z.,Murgueito,E.,Chará,J.,Molina,C.H.,ResourcesInstitute.Zuluaga,A.F.&Calle,A.2013.AstrategyforBurlingame,B.,Charrondiere,R.&Mouille,B.2009.scaling-upintensivesilvopastoralsystemsinColombia.Foodcompositionisfundamentaltothecross-cuttingJournalofSustainableForestry,32:677–693.initiativeonbiodiversityforfoodandnutrition.JournalofFoodCompositionandAnalysis,22(5):361–365.Calvo,F.J.,Knapp,M.,vanHouten,Y.M.,Hoogerbrugge,H.&Belda,J.E.2015.Amblyseiusswirskii:whatmadethispredatorymitesuchasuccessfulbiocontrolagent?ExperimentalandAppliedAcarology,65(4):419–433.Cameron,S.A.,Lozier,J.D.,Strange,J.P.,Koch,J.B.,Cordes,N.,Solter,L.F.&Griswold,T.L.2011.RecentwidespreaddeclineofsomeNorthAmericanbumblebees:currentstatusandcausalfactors.PNAS,108:662–667.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE461Campbell-Platt,G.1987.Fermentedfoodsoftheworldandgapanalysis.JournalofAppliedEcology,54:–adictionaryandguide.London,Butterworths.1209–1218.Carvalheiro,L.G.,Seymour,C.L.,Veldtman,R.Cane,J.H.2002.Pollinatingbees(Hymenoptera:&Nicolson,S.W.2010.PollinationservicesApiformes)ofU.S.alfalfacomparedforratesofdeclinewithdistancefromnaturalhabitateveninpodandseedset.JournalofEconomicEntomology,biodiversity-richareas.JournalofAppliedEcology,95(1):22–27.47:810–820.Carvalheiro,L.G.,Veldtman,R.,Shenkute,A.G.,Cane,J.H.2008.Anativeground-nestingbee(NomiaTesfay,G.B.,Pirk,C.W.W.,Donaldson,J.S.&melanderi)sustainablymanagedtopollinateNicolson,S.W.2011.Naturalandwithin-farmlandalfalfaacrossanintensivelyagriculturallandscape.biodiversityenhancescropproductivity.EcologyApidologie,39:315–323.Letters,14(3):251–259.Cattermoul,B.,Brown,D.&Poulain,F.,eds.2014.Cannon,R.J.C.1998.TheimplicationsofpredictingFisheriesandaquacultureemergencyresponseclimatechangeforinsectspestsintheUK,withguidance.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.emphasisonnon-indigenousspecies.GlobalChangeorg/3/a-i3432e.pdf).Biology,4(7):785–796.Cauich,O.,Quezada-Euán,J.J.G.,Macias-Macias,J.O.,Reyes-Oregel,V.,Medina-Peralta,S.&Cardinale,B.2011.BiodiversityimproveswaterqualityParra-Tabla,V.2004.Behaviorandpollinationthroughnichepartitioning.Nature,472:86–89.efficiencyofNannotrigonaperilampoides(HymenopteraMeliponini)ongreenhousetomatoesCarney,D.,ed.1998.Sustainablerurallivelihoods:what(Lycopersiconesculentum)insubtropicalMéxico.contributioncanwemake?London,DepartmentforJournalofEconomicalEntomology,97:475–481.InternationalDevelopment.Cavendish,W.2000.Empiricalregularitiesinthepoverty-environmentrelationshipofruralCarney,D.,Drinkwater,M.,Rusinow,T.,Neefjes,households:evidencefromZimbabwe.WorldK.,Wanmali,S.&Singh,N.1999.LivelihoodsDevelopment,28(11):1979–2003.approachescompared.AbriefcomparisonoftheCaveness,F.A.&Kurtz,W.B.1993.AgroforestrylivelihoodsapproachesoftheUKDepartmentforadoptionandriskperceptionbyfarmersinSénégal.InternationalDevelopment(DFID),CARE,OxfamAgroforestrySystems,21(1):11–25.andtheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeCBD(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity).1992.(UNDP).London,DepartmentforInternationalArticle2.Useofterms.Montreal,Canada.(availableDevelopment.athttps://www.cbd.int/convention/text/default.shtml).CBD.2000a.COP5DecisionV/6.Ecosystemapproach.Carpenter,A.S.R.,Caraco,N.F.,Correll,D.L.,FifthMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestotheHowarth,R.W.,Sharpley,A.N.&Smith,V.H.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Nairobi,15–261998.NonpointpollutionofsurfacewaterswithMay2000.UNEP/CBD/COP/5/23.phosphorusandnitrogen.EcologicalApplications,CBD.2000b.COP5DecisionV/5.Agriculturalbiological8(3):559–568.diversity:reviewofphaseIoftheprogrammeofworkandadoptionofamulti-yearworkCarré,G.,Roche,P.,Chifflet,R.,Morison,N.,programme.FifthMeetingoftheConferenceoftheBommarco,R.,Harrison-Cripps,J.,Krewenka,K.etPartiestotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,al.2009.LandscapecontextandhabitattypeasdriversNairobi,15–26May2000.UNEP/CBD/COP/5/23.ofbeediversityinEuropeanannualcrops.Agriculture,CBD.2002.Alienspeciesthatthreatenecosystems,EcosystemsandEnvironment,133(1–2):40–47.habitatsorspecies.COP6DecisionVI/23.SixthMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestotheCarrizo,F.,Smith,K.G.&Darwall,W.R.T.2013.Progresstowardsaglobalassessmentofthestatusoffreshwaterfishes(Pisces)fortheIUCNRedList:applicationtoconservationprogrammesinzoosandaquariums.InternationalZooYearbook,47(1):46–64.Carrizo,S.F.,Lengyel,S.,Kapusi,F.,Szabolcs,M.,Kasperidus,H.D.,Scholz,M.,Markovic,D.etal.2017.CriticalcatchmentsforfreshwaterbiodiversityconservationinEurope:identification,prioritisation462thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREConventiononBiologicalDiversity,TheHague,thePartiestotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Netherlands7–19April2002.UNEP/CBD/COP/6/20.ThirteenthMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiesCBD.2006.COP8DecisionVIII/23.Agriculturalbiodiversity.totheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Cancun,EighthMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestoMexico,4–17December2016.UNEP/CBD/COP/theConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Curitiba,Brazil,13/INF/12.20–31March2006.UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VIII/23.CBD.2016c.COP13DecisionXIII/3.StrategicactionstoCBD.2007a.In-depthreviewoftheapplicationoftheenhancetheimplementationoftheStrategicPlanecosystemapproach.SubsidiaryBodyonScientific,forBiodiversity2011-2020andtheachievementofTechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice.TwelfthMeeting,theAichiBiodiversityTargets,includingwithrespectParis,2–6July2007.UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/12/2.tomainstreamingandtheintegrationofbiodiversity(availableathttps://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/withinandacrosssectors.ThirteenthMeetingofsbstta-12/official/sbstta-12-02-en.pdf).theConferenceofthePartiestotheConventiononCBD.2007b.In-depthreviewoftheapplicationofBiologicalDiversity,Cancun,Mexico,4–17Decembertheecosystemapproach.Reviewofinformation2016.CBD/COP/DEC/XIII/3.inthethirdnationalreports.SubsidiaryBodyonCBD.2018.AnalysisofinformationcontainedintheScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice.interimnationalreportsandinformationpublishedTwelfthMeeting,Paris,2–6July2007.UNEP/CBD/intheaccessandbenefit-sharingclearinghouse.SBSTTA/12/INF/1.SubsidiaryBodyonImplementation,SecondMeeting,CBD.2008a.COP9DecisionIX/7.Ecosystemapproach.Montreal,Canada,9–13July2018.CBD/SBI/2/INF/3.NinthMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestothe(availableathttps://www.cbd.int/doc/c/767b/a3b0/ConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Bonn,Germany,e4934613a1a3fd1116b1c89a/sbi-02-inf-03-en.pdf).19–30May2008.UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/IX/7.CBS,PBL&WUR.2016.CompendiumvoordeCBD.2008b.COP9DecisionIX/6.Incentivemeasuresleefomgeving.TheHague,Netherlands,Centraal(Article11).NinthMeetingoftheConferenceoftheBureauvoordeStatistiek,TheHague,Netherlands,PartiestotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Bonn,PlambureauvoordeLeefomgeving,andWageningen,Germany,19–30May2008.UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/IX/6.Netherlands,WageningenUniversity&Research.CBD.2010a.TheStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011-2020CBDSecretariat.2006.GlobalBiodiversityOutlook2.andtheAichiBiodiversityTargets.ConferenceofMontreal,Canada.thePartiestotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.CBDSecretariat.2007.AnexplorationoftoolsandTenthMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestothemethodologiesforvaluationofbiodiversityandConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Nagoya,Japan,biodiversityresourcesandfunctions.TechnicalSeries18–29October2010.UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2.No.28.Montreal,Canada.CBD.2010b.COP10DecisionX/31.Protectedareas.CBDSecretariat.2009.ScientificsynthesisoftheTenthMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiestoimpactsofoceanacidificationonmarinebiodiversity.theConventiononBiologicalDiversity,Nagoya,TechnicalSeriesNo.46.Montreal,Canada.Japan,18–29October2010.UNEP/CBD/COP/CBDSecretariat.2010.GlobalBiodiversityOutlook3.DEC/X/31.(availableathttps://www.cbd.int/doc/Montreal,Canada.decisions/cop-10/cop-10-dec-31-en.pdf).CBDSecretariat.2014a.GlobalBiodiversityOutlook4.CBD.2016a.TheCancunDeclarationonMainstreamingMontreal,Canada.theConservationandSustainableUseofCBDSecretariat.2014b.ResourcingtheAichiBiodiversityBiodiversityforWell-Being.ThirteenthMeetingofTargets:anassessmentofbenefits,investmentsandtheConferenceofthePartiestotheConventionresourceneedsforimplementingtheStrategicPlanonBiologicalDiversity,Cancun,Mexico,4−17forBiodiversity2011-2020.SecondReportoftheDecember2016.UNEP/CBD/COP/13/24.High-LevelPanelonGlobalAssessmentofResourcesCBD.2016b.UpdatedassessmentofprogresstowardsforImplementingtheStrategicPlanforBiodiversityAichiBiodiversityTargets5and15.Conferenceof2011-2020.Montreal,Canada.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE463Cesar,H.J.S.,Burke,L.&Pet-Soede,L.2003.TheChambers,P.A.,Lacoul,P.,Murphy,K.J.&Thomaz,economicsofworldwidecoralreefdegradation.S.M.2008.GlobaldiversityofaquaticmacrophytesArnhem,Netherlands,CesarEnvironmentalConsulting,infreshwater.Hydrobiologia,595(1):9–26.andZeist,Netherlands,WWF-Netherlands.Chan,W.Y.,Peplow,L.M.,Menendez,P.,Hoffmann,Ceulemans,T.,Stevens,C.J.,Duchateau,L.,A.A.&vanOppen,M.J.H.2018.InterspecificJacquemyn,H.,Gowing,D.J.G.,Merckx,R.,hybridizationprovidesnovelopportunitiesforcoralWallace,H.etal.2014.Soilphosphorusconstrainsreefrestoration.FrontiersinMarineScience,5(May):biodiversityacrossEuropeangrasslands.Globalarticle160.ChangeBiology,20(12):3814–3822.Chandler,D.,Bailey,A.S.,Tatchell,G.M.,Davidson,Cezar,R.M.,Vezzani,F.M.,Schwiderke,D.K.,Gaiad,G.,Greaves,J.&Grant,W.P.2011.TheS.,Brown,G.G.,SícoliSeoane,C.E.&Maranhãodevelopment,regulationanduseofbiopesticidesFroufe,L.C.2015.Soilbiologicalpropertiesinforintegratedpestmanagement.PhilosophicalmultistratasuccessionalagroforestrysystemsandinTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:Biologicalnaturalregeneration.AgroforestrySystems,Sciences,366(1573):1987–1998.89(6):1035–1047.Chandler,M.,See,L.,Copas,K.,Bonde,A.M.Z.,CGIAR.2016.Climate-smartagricultureguide.[CitedLópez,B.C.,Danielsen,F.,Legind,J.K.etal.14May2018].https://csa.guide/2017.Contributionofcitizensciencetowardsinternationalbiodiversitymonitoring.BiologicalChabi-Olaye,A.,Nolte,C.,Schulthess,F.&Conservation,213:280–294.Borgemeister,C.2007.Short-termeffectsofcovercropsonstemborersandmaizeyieldintheChapman,A.D.2009.NumbersoflivingspeciesinhumidforestofsouthernCameroon.InA.Bationo,Australiaandtheworld.2ndedition.Canberra,B.Waswa,J.Kihara&J.Kimetu,eds.AdvancesinAustralianBiologicalResourcesStudy.integratedsoilfertilitymanagementinsub-SaharanAfrica:challengesandopportunities,pp.195–200.Chará,J.,Reyes,E.,Peri,P.,Otte,J.,Arce,E.&Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.Schneider,F.2018.SilvopastoralsystemsandtheircontributiontoimprovedresourceuseandsustainableChae,Y.&An,Y.J.2018.Currentresearchtrendsondevelopmentgoals:evidencefromLatinAmerica.plasticpollutionandecologicalimpactsonthesoilCali,Colombia,CentreforResearchonSustainableecosystem:areview.EnvironmentalPollution,Agriculture(CIPAV),agribenchmarkandFAO.240:387–395.Charles,A.,Westlund,L.,Bartley,D.M.,Fletcher,Chagnon,M.,Kreutzweiser,D.,Mitchell,E.A.D.,W.J.,Garcia,S.,Govan,H.&Sanders,J.2016.Morrissey,C.A.,Noome,D.A.&VanDerSluijs,J.P.Fishinglivelihoodsaskeytomarineprotectedareas:2015.Risksoflarge-scaleuseofsystemicinsecticidesinsightsfromtheWorldParksCongress.Aquatictoecosystemfunctioningandservices.EnvironmentalConservation:MarineandFreshwaterEcosystems,ScienceandPollutionResearch,22(1):119–134.26(February):165–184.Chakravarti,L.J.,Beltran,V.H.&vanOppen,M.J.H.Chatzipavlidis,I.,Kefalogianni,I.,Venieraki,A.2017.Rapidthermaladaptationinphotosymbionts&Holzapfel,W.2013.Statusandtrendsoftheofreef-buildingcorals.GlobalChangeBiology,23:conservationandsustainableuseofmicroorganisms4675–4688.inagroindustrialprocesses.CommissiononGeneticResourceforFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundChama,L.&Siachoono,S.2015.Effectivenessofbirds,StudyPaperNo.64.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://butterflies,dragonflies,damselfliesandinvertebrateswww.fao.org/docrep/meeting/028/mg339e.pdf).asindicatorsoffreshwaterecologicalintegrity.GeophysicalResearch,17:2015EGUGA..1713383C.Chavan,S.B.,Keerthika,A.,Dhyani,S.K.,Handa,A.K.,Newaj,R.&Rajarajan,K.2015.NationalChambers,R.&Conway,G.1991.SustainableruralAgroforestryPolicyinIndia:alowhangingfruit.livelihoods:practicalconceptsforthe21stcentury.CurrentScience,108(10):1826–1834.IDSDiscussionPaper,296.Brighton,UK,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies.464thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREChazdon,R.L.,Brancalion,P.H.,Laestadius,L.,Christenhusz,M.J.M.&Byng,J.W.2016.ThenumberBennett-Curry,A.,Buckingham,K.,Kumar,ofknownplantsspeciesintheworldanditsannualC.,Moll-Rocek,J.,Vieira,I.C.G.&Wilson,S.J.increase.Phytotaxa,261(3):201–217.2016.Whenisaforestaforest?ForestconceptsanddefinitionsintheeraofforestandlandscapeChristmann,S.&Aw-Hassan,A.A.2012.Farmingwithrestoration.Ambio,45:538–550.alternativepollinators(FAP)–anoverlookedwin-win-strategyforclimatechangeadaptation.Agriculture,Chee,Y.2004.AnecologicalperspectiveontheEcosystems&Environment,161:161–164.valuationofecosystemservices.BiologicalConservation,120(4):549–565.Chytrý,M.,Maskell,L.C.,Pino,J.,Pyšek,P.,Vilà,M.,Font,X.&Smart,S.M.2008.HabitatinvasionsChen,H.&Yada,R.2011.Nanotechnologiesinbyalienplants:aquantitativecomparisonamongagriculture:newtoolsforsustainabledevelopment.Mediterranean,subcontinentalandoceanicregionsofTrendsinFoodScience&Technology,22(11):Europe.JournalofAppliedEcology,45(2):448–458.585–594.Cilas,C.,Goebel,F.R.,Babin,R.&Avelino,J.2016.Chen,R.,Ye,C.,Cai,Y.,Xing,X.&Chen,Q.2014.TheTropicalcroppestsanddiseasesinaclimatechangeimpactofruralout-migrationonlandusetransitionsetting–Afewexamples.InE.Torquebiau,ed.inChina:past,presentandtrend.LandUsePolicy,Climatechangeandagricultureworldwide,pp.40:101–110.73–82.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.Chen,S.,Wang,W.,Xu,W.,Wang,Y.,Wan,H.,Chen,Civitello,D.J.,Cohen,J.,Fatima,H.,Halstead,N.T.,D.,Tang,Z.etal.2018.PlantdiversityenhancesLiriano,J.,McMahon,T.A.,Ortega,C.N.etal.productivityandsoilcarbonstorage.Proceedings2015.Biodiversityinhibitsparasites:broadevidenceoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedforthedilutioneffect.ProceedingsoftheNationalStatesofAmerica,115(16):4027–4032.AcademyofSciences,112(28):8667–8671.Chin,A.,LisonDeLoma,T.,Reytar,K.,Planes,S.,Clapperton,M.J.,Chan,K.Y.&Larney,F.J.2007.Gerhardt,K.,Clua,E.,Burke,L.&Wilkinson,ManagingthesoilhabitatforenhancedbiologicalC.2011.StatusofcoralreefsofthePacificandfertility.InL.K.Abbott&D.VMurphy,eds.Soiloutlook:2011.GlobalCoralReefMonitoringbiologicalfertility.AkeytosustainablelanduseinNetwork.PublishersGlobalCoralReefMonitoringagriculture,pp.203–224.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Network.260P.(availableathttps://www.icriforum.SpringerNetherlands.org/sites/default/files/Pacific-Coral-Reefs-2011.pdf).Cleveland,D.A.,Phares,N.,Nightingale,K.D.,Chopin,T.&Robinson,S.M.C.2004.DefiningtheWeatherby,R.L.,Radis,W.,Ballard,J.,appropriateregulatoryandpolicyframeworkCampagna,M.etal.2017.Thepotentialforurbanforthedevelopmentofintegratedmulti-trophichouseholdvegetablegardenstoreducegreenhouseaquaculturepractices:introductiontotheworkshopgasemissions.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,157:andpositioningoftheissues.Bulletin-Aquaculture365–374.AssociationofCanada,104(3):4–10.Cline,H.2005.SacramentoVallelyricegrowerswinterChopin,T.,Buschmann,A.H.,Halling,C.,Troell,flood,duckskeepcoming.[Cited22April2018].M.,Kautsky,N.,Neori,A.,Kraemer,G.P.etal.http://www.westernfarmpress.com/sacramento-2001.Integratingseaweedsintomarineaquaculturevallely-rice-growers-winter-flood-ducks-keep-comingsystems:akeytowardsustainability.JournalofPhycology,37(6):975-986.Coad,L.,Fa,J.E.,VanVliet,N.,Abernethy,K.,Santamaria,C.,Wilkie,D.,Cawthorn,D.&Nasi,Chornesky,E.A.,Bartuska,A.M.,Aplet,G.H.,Britton,R.2017.Towardsasustainable,participatoryandK.O.,Cummings-Carlson,J.,Davis,F.W.,Eskow,inclusivewildmeatsector.DraftTechnicalReport.J.etal.2005.ScienceprioritiesforreducingtheTwenty-firstmeetingoftheSubsidiaryBodyonthreatofinvasivespeciestosustainableforestry.Scientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalAdvice.Bioscience,55(4):335–348.Montreal,Canada,11–14December2017.UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/21/INF/6.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE465Cochrane,K.,DeYoung,C.,Soto,D.&Bahri,T.,Colfer,C.J.P.,Catacutan,D.,Naz,F.&Pottinger,eds.2009.ClimatechangeimplicationsforfisheriesA.J.2016.Genderinagroforestry[SpecialIssue].andaquaculture.OverviewofcurrentscientificInternationalForestryReviewonGenderinknowledge.FAOFisheriesandAquacultureTechnicalAgroforestry,17(4).PaperNo.530.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i0994e/i0994e00.htm).Colfer,C.J.P.,Sheil,D.&Kishi,M.2006.Forestsandhumanhealth:assessingtheevidence.CIFORCock,M.J.W.,vanLanteren,J.C.,Brodeur,J.,Barrat,OccasionalPaperNo.45.Bogor,Indonesia,CenterB.I.P.,Bigler,F.,Blockmans,K.,Cônsoli,A.,Haas,forInternationalForestryResearch.F.,Mason,P.G.&Parra,J.R.P.2009.TheuseandexchangeofbiologicalcontrolagentsforfoodandColla,S.R.,Otterstatter,M.C.,Gegear,R.J.&Thomson,agriculture.CommissiononGeneticResourcesforJ.D.2006.Plightofthebumblebee:pathogenspilloverFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.fromcommercialtowildpopulations.Biological47.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/Conservation,129(4):461–467.tempref/docrep/fao/meeting/017/ak569e.pdf).Collen,B.,Böhm,M.,Kemp,R.&Baillie,J.E.M.Cock,M.J.W.,Biesmeijer,J.C.,Cannon,R.J.C.,Gerard,2012.Spineless:statusandtrendsoftheworld’sP.J.,Gillespie,D.,Jiménez,J.J.,Lavelle,P.M.&invertebrates.London,ZoologicalSocietyofLondon.Raina,S.K.2011.Climatechangeandinvertebrategeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture:ComitéAsesorNacionalsobreEspeciesInvasoras.stateofknowledge,risksandopportunities.2010.EstrategianacionalsobreespeciesinvasorasCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandenMéxico,prevención,controlyerradicación.Agriculure.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.54.Rome,MexicoCity,ComisiónNacionalparaelFAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/ConocimientoyUsodelaBiodiversidad,Comisiónmeeting/022/mb390e.pdf).NacionaldeÁreasProtegidas,SecretaríadeMedioAmbienteyRecursosNaturales.Cock,M.J.W.,Biesmeijer,J.C.,Cannon,R.J.C.,Gerard,P.J.,Gillespie,D.,Jimeez,J.J.,Lavelle,P.M.&CommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterSpace.2015.Raina,S.K.2012.ThepositivecontributionofSpacetechnologiesformonitoringandprotectinginvertebratestosustainableagricultureandfoodbiodiversityandecosystems.Aproposednewthematicsecurity.CABReviews,7(043):1–27.priorityfortheUnitedNationsProgrammeonSpaceApplications.CommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterCoe,R.,Sinclair,F.&Barrios,E.2014.ScalingupSpace.Fifty-eighthSession,Vienna,Austria,agroforestryrequiresresearch“in”ratherthan“for”10–19June2015.A/AC.105/2015/CRP.10.development.CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,6(1):73–77.Compant,S.,Clément,C.&Sessitsch,A.2010.Plantgrowth-promotingbacteriaintherhizo-andCoe,R.,Hughes,K.,Sola,P.&Sinclair,F.2017.endosphereofplants:theirrole,colonization,Plannedcomparisonsdemystified.ICRAFWorkingmechanismsinvolvedandprospectsforutilization.PaperNo.263.Nairobi,ICRAF.SoilBiologyandBiochemistry,42:669–678.Cole,L.,Bradford,M.A.,Shaw,P.J.A.&Bardgett,R.D.Concenço,G.,Marques,R.F.,Santos,S.A.,Correia,2006.Theabundance,richnessandfunctionalroleofI.V.T.,Palharini,W.G.,Alves,M.S.,Melo,T.S.,soilmeso-andmacrofaunaintemperategrassland-AXavier,L.B.&Linhares,L.T.2015.Integrationcrop-casestudy.AppliedSoilEcology,33(2):186–198.livestock:isitefficientinsuppressingtroublesomeweeds?Acasestudy.AfricanJournalofAgriculturalColes,R.G.,McKenzie,L.J.,Rasheed,M.A.,Mellors,Research,10(16):1882–1890.J.E.,Taylor,H.,Dew,K.,McKenna,S.,Sankey,T.L.,Carter,A.B.&Grech,A.2007.StatusandConde,D.A.,Flesness,N.,Colchero,F.,Jones,O.R.&trendsofseagrasshabitatsintheGreatBarrierReefScheuerlein,A.2011.AnemergingroleofzoostoWorldHeritageArea.Cairns,Australia,Departmentconservebiodiversity.Science,331(6023):1390–1391.ofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries.Coomes,O.T.,Barham,B.L.&Takasaki,Y.2004.Targetingconservation-developmentinitiativesintropicalforests:insightsfromanalysesofrainforest466thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREuseandeconomicrelianceamongAmazonianCreevey,C.J.,Kelly,W.J.,Henderson,G.&Leahy,peasants.EcologicalEconomics,51(1–2):47–64.S.C.2014.DeterminingtheculturabilityofCordillot,F.&Klaus,G.2011.Threatenedspeciesintherumenbacterialmicrobiome.MicrobialSwitzerland.RedListSynthesisReport,Status2010.Biotechnology,7:467–479.Bern,FederalOfficefortheEnvironment.Cornelius,J.P.&Miccolis,A.2018.Canmarket-basedCronk,Q.&Ojeda,I.2008.Bird-pollinatedflowersinagroforestrygermplasmsupplysystemsmeettheanevolutionaryandmolecularcontext.Journalofneedsofforestlandscaperestoration?NewForests:ExperimentalBotany,59(5):715–727.49(4):457–469.Cortopassi-Laurino,M.,Imperatriz-Fonseca,V.L.,Croxall,J.P.,Prince,P.A.,Rothery,P.&Wood,A.G.Roubik,W.,Dollin,A.,Heard,T.,Aguilar,I.,1998.PopulationchangesinalbatrossesatSouthVenturieri,G.C.,Eardley,C.&Nogueira-Neto,Georgia.InG.Robertson&R.Gales,eds.AlbatrossP.2006.Globalmeliponiculture:challengesandbiologyandconservation,pp.69–83.Chippingopportunities.Apidologie,37:275–292.Norton,Australia,SurreyBeatty&Sons.Costanza,R.,D’Arge,R.,DeGroot,R.,Farber,S.,Grasso,M.,Hannon,B.,Limburg,K.etal.1997.Crush,J.2014.ApproachingfoodsecurityincitiesofThevalueoftheworld’secosystemservicesandtheglobalsouth.InS.Parnell&S.Oldfield,eds.Thenaturalcapital.Nature,387(6630):253–260.Routledgehandbookoncitiesoftheglobalsouth,Costanza,R.,deGroot,R.,Sutton,P.,vanderPloeg,pp.543–555.London,TaylorandFrancis.S.,Anderson,S.J.,Kubiszewski,I.,Farber,S.&Turner,R.K.2014.ChangesintheglobalvalueofCunningham,S.A.,Attwood,S.J.,Bawa,K.S.,ecosystemservices.GlobalEnvironmentalChange,Benton,T.G.,Broadhurst,L.M.,Didham,R.K.,26(1):152–158.McIntyre,S.etal.2013.Toclosetheyield-gapCostanzo,A.&Bàrberi,P.2013.Functionalwhilesavingbiodiversitywillrequiremultiplelocallyagrobiodiversityandagroecosystemservicesinrelevantstrategies.Agriculture,Ecosystemsandsustainablewheatproduction.Areview.AgronomyEnvironment,173:20–27.forSustainableDevelopment,34(2):327–348.Cotta,J.N.2017.RevisitingBorafallowagroforestryCuttelod,A.,Seddon,M.&Neubert,E.2011.inthePeruvianAmazon:enrichingethnobotanicalEuropeanRedListofnon-marinemolluscs.appraisalsofnon-timberproductsthroughLuxembourg,EuropeanCommission,Publicationshouseholdincomequantification.AgroforestryOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion.Systems,9(1):17–36.Coulibaly-Lingani,P.,Tigabu,M.,Savadogo,P.,Dabbadie,L.1996.Étudedelaviabilitéd’unepiscicultureOden,P.C.&Ouadba,J.M.2009.Determinantsofruraleàfaibleniveaud’intrantdansleCentre-OuestaccesstoforestproductsinsouthernBurkinaFaso.delaCôted’Ivoire:approcheduréseautrophique.ForestPolicyandEconomics,11(7):516–524.UniversityPierreetMarieCurie-ParisVI.Crane,E.1983.Thearchaeologyofbeekeeping.Ithaca,USA,CornellUniversityPress.Dabbadie,L.&Mikolasek,O.2015.AquacultureCrane,E.1999.Theworldhistoryofbeekeepingandsystems&farmingsystems:inside,outsideorside-by-honeyhunting.London,Duckworth.side?The5thInternationalSymposiumforFarmingCreamer,R.E.,Hannula,S.E.,Leeuwen,J.P.V.,Stone,SystemsDesign“Multi-functionalfarmingsystemsinD.,Rutgers,M.,Schmelz,R.M.,deRuiter,P.C.achangingworld”,7–10September2015,LeCorumetal.2016.EcologicalnetworkanalysisrevealsConferenceCenter,Montpellier,France.theinter-connectionbetweensoilbiodiversityandecosystemfunctionasaffectedbylanduseacrossDalgaard,T.,Hutchings,N.J.&Porter,J.R.2003.Europe.AppliedSoilEcology,97:112–124.Agroecology,scalingandinterdisciplinarity.Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,100:39–51.Damgaard,C.,Strandberg,B.,Dupont,Y.,Holmstrup,M.&Krogh,P.H.2016.Theeffectofglyphosateandnitrogenonplantcommunitiesandthesoilfaunainterrestrialbiotopesatfieldmargins.PesticideResearchNo.163.Copenhagen,TheDanishEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE467Damjanovic,K.,Blackall,L.L.,Webster,N.S.&vanDavies,J.,Poulsen,L.,Schulte-Herbrüggen,B.,Oppen,M.J.H.2017.ThecontributionofmicrobialMackinnon,K.,Crawhall,N.,Henwood,W.D.,biotechnologytomitigatingcoralreefdegradation.Dudley,N.,Smith,J.&Gudka,M.2012.ConservingMicrobialBiotechnology,10:1236–1243.drylandbiodiversity.Nairobi,DrylandsInitiative,IUCN.Daniels,S.,Witters,N.,Beliën,T.,Vrancken,K.,Davis,J.R.2006.HowcanthepoorbenefitfromVangronsveld,J.&VanPassel,S.2017.Monetarythegrowingmarketsforhighvalueagriculturalvaluationofnaturalpredatorsforbiologicalpestproducts?Chatham,UK,NaturalResourcescontrolinpearproduction.EcologicalEconomics,Institute.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docs/eims/134:160–173.upload/210971/global_issues_paper.pdf).Darnhofer,I.2014.ResilienceandwhyitmattersforDavis,A.S.,Hill,J.D.,Chase,C.A.,Johanns,A.M.&farmmanagement.EuropeanReviewofAgriculturalLiebman,M.2012.IncreasingcroppingsystemEconomics,41(3):461–484.diversitybalancesproductivity,profitabilityandenvironmentalhealth.PLoSONE,7(10):1–8.Darnhofer,I.,Bellon,S.,Dedieu,B.&Milestad,R.2010.AdaptivenesstoenhancethesustainabilityofDawson,I.K.,Carsan,S.,Franzel,S.,Kindt,R.,farmingsystems:areview.AgronomyforSustainableGraudal,L.,Orwa,C.&Jamnadass,R.2014.Development,30(3):545–555.Agroforestry,livestock,fodderproductionandclimatechangeadaptationandmitigationinEastDaru,B.H.,Yessoufou,K.,Mankga,L.T.&Davies,Africa:issuesandoptions.ICRAFWorkingPaperNo.T.J.2013.Aglobaltrendtowardsthelossof178.Nairobi,TheWorldAgroforestryCentre.evolutionarilyuniquespeciesinmangroveecosystems.PLoSONE,8(6):e66686.Dawson,I.K.,Attwood,S.J.,Park,S.E.,Jamnadass,R.,Powell,W.,Sunderland,T.,Kindt,R.etDarwall,W.R.T.,Smith,K.G.,Allen,D.J.,Holland,al.2018a.ContributionsofbiodiversitytotheR.A.,Harrison,I.J.&Brooks,E.G.E.2011.Thesustainableintensificationoffoodproduction.diversityoflifeinAfricanfreshwaters:underThematicstudypreparedforTheStateoftheWorld’swater,underthreat.AnanalysisofthestatusandBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Rome.distributionoffreshwaterspeciesthroughoutmainlandAfrica.Cambridge,UK,andGland,Dawson,I.K.,Hendre,P.,Powell,W.,Sila,D.,Switzerland,IUCN.McMullin,S.,Revoredo-Giha,C.,Odeny,D.A.etal.2018b.SupportinghumannutritioninAfricaDastager,S.G.2009.Aromacompounds.InP.Singhthroughtheintegrationofnewandorphancropsintonee’Nigam&A.Pandey,eds.Biotechnologyforfoodsystems:placingtheworkoftheAfricanOrphanagroindustrialresiduesutilisation,pp.105–127.CropsConsortiumincontext.ICRAFWorkingPaperDordrecht,Netherlands,Springer&BusinessMediaB.V.No.276.Nairobi,WorldAgroforestryCentre.Davidson,N.C.2014.HowmuchwetlandhastheworlddeBoer,I.J.M.,Cederberg,C.,Eady,S.,Gollnow,lost?Long-termandrecenttrendsinglobalwetlandS.,Kristensen,T.,Macleod,M.,Meul,M.etarea.MarineandFreshwaterResearch,65(10):al.2011.Greenhousegasmitigationinanimal934–941.production:towardsanintegratedlifecyclesustainabilityassessment.CurrentOpinioninDavidson,N.C.&Finlayson,C.M.2018.Extent,EnvironmentalSustainability,3(5):423–431.regionaldistributionandchangesinareaofdifferentclassesofwetland.MarineandFreshwaterResearch,DeClercq,P.,Mason,P.G.&Babendreier,D.2011.69(10):1525–1533.Benefitsandrisksofexoticbiologicalcontrolagents.BioControl,56(4):681–698.Davies,J.,Niamir-Fuller,M.,Kerven,C.,Bauer,K.,Steinfeld,H.,Mooney,H.A.,Schneider,F.&DEFRA(DepartmentforEnvironment,Food&RuralNeville,L.E.2010.ExtensivelivestockproductionAffairs).2014.TheNationalPollinatorStrategy:forintransition:thefutureofsustainablepastoralism.beesandotherpollinatorsinEngland.Bristol,UK.Livestockinachanginglandscape,Volume1:Drivers,consequencesandresponses,pp.285–308.DEFRA.2017.WildbirdpopulationsintheUK,1970toWashington,DC,IslandPress.2016.York,UK.468thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDegrande,A.,Tchoundjeu,Z.,Kwidja,A.&FongangInternationalSymposiumofSilvopastoralSystems,Fouepe,G.2015.Ruralresourcecentres:aUniversidadAutónomadeYucatán,Mérida.pp.8–22.communityapproachtoextension.GFRASGooddeVries,F.T.&Bardgett,R.D.2012.Plant–microbialPracticeNotesforExtensionandAdvisoryServices.linkagesandecosystemnitrogenretention:lessonsLindan,Switzerland,GFRAS.forsustainableagriculture.FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment,10(8):425–432.DeGroot,M.2014.Thenaturalwayforward.deVries,S.M.G.,Alan,M.,Bozzano,M.,Burianek,V.,Governmentvision2014.TheHague,Netherlands,Collin,E.,Cottrell,J.,Ivankovic,M.etal.2015.MinistryofEconomicAffairs.Pan-EuropeanstrategyforgeneticconservationofforesttreesandestablishmentofacorenetworkDelaplane,K.S.&Mayer,D.R.2000.Croppollinationofdynamicconservationunits.Bonn,Germany,bybees.Wallingford,UK,CABI.EuropeanForestGeneticResourcesProgramme(EUFORGEN),andRome,BioversityInternational.DelMonaco,C.,Narciso,S.,Frank,A.,Gimenez,E.&DGEC(DirectorGeneralofEstateCrops).2012.Bustillos,F.2010.EvaluacióndelascomunidadesCommoditiesdata.Jakarta,DirectorGeneraldecoralesypecesdealgunosarrecifesdelaislaofEstateCrops,DepartmentofAgriculture,LaTortugaycayosadyacentes,Venezuela.BoletinGovernmentofIndonesia.delCentrodeInvestigacionesBiológicas,44(3):D’Hose,T.,Molendijk,L.,Vooren,L.Van,vanden353–376.Berg,W.,Hoek,H.,Runia,W.,vanEvert,F.etal.2018.Responsesofsoilbiotatonon-inversiontillagedenHerder,M.,Burgess,P.,Mosquera-Losada,M.R.,andorganicamendments:ananalysisonEuropeanHerzog,F.,Hartel,T.,Upson,M.,Viholainen,multiyearfieldexperiments.Pedobiologia,66:18–28.I.&Rosati,A.2015.PreliminarystratificationDiallo,A.1998.Integratedfarming:anewapproachandquantificationofagroforestryinEurope.inBasseCasamanche,Senegal.InJ.A.Mathias,MilestoneReport1.1forEUFP7AGFORWARDA.T.Charles&B.T.Hu,eds.Integratedfishfarming.ResearchProject(613520).55pp.(availableatProceedingsofWorkshoponIntegratedFishhttps://agforward.eu/index.php/en/preliminary-Farming,11-15October1994,Wuxi,Jiangsustratification-and-quantification-of-agroforestry-Province,P.R.China,pp.257–264.BocaRaton,in-europe.html?file=files/agforward/documents/USA,CRCPress.M1_Stratificationofagroforestry.pdf).Diaz,S.,Quetier,F.,Caceres,D.M.,Trainor,S.F.,Perez-Harguindeguy,N.,Bret-Harte,M.S.,DepartmentofStandardsMalaysia.2017.KelulutFinegan,B.,Pena-Claros,M.&Poorter,L.2011.(Stinglessbee)honey–Specification.MalaysianLinkingfunctionaldiversityandsocialactorstrategiesStandardMS2683:2017.SelangorDarulEhsan,inaframeworkforinterdisciplinaryanalysisofMalaysia,DepartmentofStandardsMalaysia.nature’sbenefitstosociety.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,108(3):895–902.DeSouzaMachado,A.A.,Lau,C.W.,Till,J.,Kloas,DiBella,C.E.,Jacobo,E.,Golluscio,R.A.&W.,Lehmann,A.,Becker,R.&Rillig,M.C.2018.Rodríguez,A.M.2014.EffectofcattlegrazingonImpactsofmicroplasticsonthesoilbiophysicalsoilsalinityandvegetationcompositionalonganenvironment.EnvironmentalScience&Technology,elevationgradientinatemperatecoastalsaltmarsh52(17):9656–9665.ofSamborombónBay(Argentina).WetlandsEcologyandManagement,22(1):1–13.DeSy,V.,Herold,M.,Achard,F.,Beuchle,R.,Clevers,DiFalco,S.&Chavas,J.P.2009.Oncropbiodiversity,J.G.P.W.,Lindquist,E.&Verchot,L.2015.Landriskexposure,andfoodsecurityinthehighlandsusepatternsandrelatedcarbonlossesfollowingofEthiopia.AmericanJournalofAgriculturaldeforestationinSouthAmerica.EnvironmentalEconomics,91(3):599–611.ResearchLetters,10(12).Devendra,C.&Ibrahim,M.2004.Silvopastoralsystemsasastrategyfordiversificationandproductivityenhancementfromlivestockinthetropics.InC.L.Mannet,M.Ramirez,M.Ibrahim,C.Sandoval&J.Ku,eds.Theimportaceofsilvopastoralsystemsinrurallivelihoodstoprovideecosystemservices.SecondthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE469Dijkstra,J.,Oenema,O.&Bannink,A.2011.Dietarybioremediationusingprobioticmicrobiota.ScientificstrategiestoreducingNexcretionfromcattle:Reports,5:18268.implicationsformethaneemissions.CurrentOpinionDoswald,N.&Estrella,M.2015.PromotinginEnvironmentalSustainability,3(5):414–422.ecosystemsfordisasterriskreductionandclimatechangeadaptation:opportunitiesforintegration.Dixon,G.B.,Davies,S.W.,Aglyamova,G.A.,Meyer,DiscussionPaperUNEnvironment.Geneva,E.,Bay,L.K.&Matz,M.V.2015.GenomicSwitzerland,UNEnvironmentPost-conflictanddeterminantsofcoralheattoleranceacrosslatitudes.DisasterManagementBranch.Science,348:1460–1462.Dreisigacker,S.,Kishii,M.,Lage,J.&Warburton,M.2008.UseofsynthetichexaploidwheattoincreaseDolan,C.&Humphrey,J.2000.GovernanceandtradediversityforCIMMYTbreadwheatimprovement.infreshvegetables:theimpactofUKsupermarketsAustralianJournalofAgriculturalResearch,59(5):ontheAfricanhorticultureindustry.Journalof413–420.DevelopmentStudies,37(2).Duarte,C.M.2017.Reviewsandsyntheses:hiddenforests,theroleofvegetatedcoastalhabitatsintheDominik,C.,Seppelt,R.,Horgan,F.G.,Marquez,oceancarbonbudget,Biogeosciences,14:301–310.L.,Settele,J.&Václavík,T.2017.Regional-scaleDuarte,C.M.,Marbà,N.&Holmer,M.2007.Rapideffectsoverridetheinfluenceoffine-scaledomesticationofmarinespecies.Science,316:landscapeheterogeneityonricearthropod382–383.communities.AgricultureEcosystemsandDuarte,C.M.,Borum,J.,Short,F.T.&Walker,D.I.2008.Environment,246:269–278.Seagrassecosystems:theirglobalstatusandprospects.InN.Polunin,ed.Aquaticecosystems,pp.281–306.Donald,P.F.,Green,R.E.&Heath,M.F.2001.Cambridge,UK,CambridgeUniversityPress.AgriculturalintensificationandthecollapseofDubinsky,Z.&Stambler,N.,eds.2011.Coralreefs:Europe’sfarmlandbirdpopulations.Proceedingsofandecosystemintransition.Dordrecht,Netherlands,theRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,268:25–29.Springer.Dudgeon,D.2012.ThreatstofreshwaterbiodiversityDonald,P.F.,Sanderson,F.J.,Burfield,I.J.&vangloballyandintheIndo-Burmabiodiversityhotspot.Bommel,F.P.J.2006.Furtherevidenceofcontinent-InD.J.Allen,K.G.Smith&W.R.T.Darwall,eds.ThewideimpactsofagriculturalintensificationonStatusanddistributionoffreshwaterbiodiversityinEuropeanfarmlandbirds,1990–2000.AgricultureIndo-Burma,pp.1–28.Cambridge,UK,andGland,EcosystemsandEnvironment,116:189–196.Switzerland,IUCN.Dudley,N.,ed.2008.GuidelinesforapplyingProtectedDonato,D.C.,Kauffman,J.B.,Murdiyarso,D.,AreaManagementCategories.Gland,Switzerland,Kurnianto,S.,Stidham,M.&Kanninen,M.2011b.IUCN.Mangrovesamongthemostcarbon-richforestsintheDudley,N.&Maginnis,S.2018.Stepwiseapproachtotropics.NatureGeoscience,4(5):293–297.increasingecologicalcomplexityinforestlandscaperestoration.EcologicalRestoration,36(3):174–176.Donovan,J.,Blare,T.&Poole,N.2017.Stuckinarut:Dudley,N.&Stolton,S.2003.Runningpure:theemergingcocoacooperativesinPeruandthefactorsimportanceofforestprotectedareastodrinkingthatinfluencetheirperformance.InternationalJournalwater.Gland,Switzerland,WorldBank/WWFAllianceofAgriculturalSustainability,15(2):169–184.forForestConservationandSustainableUse.Dudley,N.,MacKinnon,K.&Stolton,S.2014.TheDöring,T.F.,Annicchiarico,P.,Clarke,S.,Haigh,roleofprotectedareasinsupplyingtencriticalZ.,Jones,H.E.,Pearce,H.,Snape,J.,Zhan,J.ecosystemservicesindrylands:areview.Biodiversity,&Wolfe,M.S.2015.Comparativeanalysisof15(2–3):178–184.performanceandstabilityamongcompositecrosspopulations,varietymixturesandpurelinesofwinterwheatinorganicandconventionalcroppingsystems.FieldCropsResearch,183:235–245.dosSantos,H.F.,Duarte,G.A.S.,DaCostaRachid,C.T.,MoreiraChaloub,R.,Calderon,E.N.,DeBarrosMarangoni,L.F.,Bianchini,A.etal.2015.Impactofoilspillsoncoralreefscanbereducedby470thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREDudley,N.,Ali,N.,Kettunen,M.&MacKinnon,Duval,A.,Mijatovic,D.&Hodgkin,T.2018.TheK.2017.Editorialessay:protectedareasandthecontributionofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculturesustainabledevelopmentgoals.Parks,23(2):9–12.toresilienceofproductionsystemstoenvironmentalchangeanduncertainty.ThematicstudypreparedDuhan,J.S.,Kumar,R.,Kumar,N.,Kaur,P.,Nehra,forTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodK.&Duhan,S.2017.Nanotechnology:thenewandAgriculture.Rome,FAO.perspectiveinprecisionagriculture.BiotechnologyReports,15(May):11–23.Dwyer,J.T.2012.Dietarystandardsandguidelines:similaritiesanddifferencesamongcountries.Duis,K.&Coors,A.2016.MicroplasticsintheaquaticInJ.W.Erdman,I.A.Macdonald&S.H.Zeisel,eds.andterrestrialenvironment:sources(withaspecificPresentknowledgeinnutrition.10thEdition,focusonpersonalcareproducts),fateandeffects.pp.1110–1134.Hoboken,USA,Wiley-Blackwell.EnvironmentalSciencesEurope,28(1):2.Dykstra,D.P.2002.Reducedimpactlogging:conceptsDulloo,M.E.,Rege,J.E.O.,Ramirez,M.,Drucker,andissues.InT.Enters,P.B.Durst,G.B.Applegate,A.G.,Padulosi,S.,Maxted,N.,Sthapit,B.etP.C.S.Kho&G.Man,eds.Applyingreducedimpactal.2017.Conservingagriculturalbiodiversityloggingtoadvancesustainableforestmanagement.foruseinsustainablefoodsystems.InBioversityBangkok,FAORegionalOfficeforAsiaandtheInternational,ed.MainstreamingagrobiodiversityPacific.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/005/insustainablefoodsystems:scientificfoundationsac805e/ac805e04.htm).foranAgrobiodiversityIndex,pp.103–140.Rome,BioversityInternational.Dykstra,D.P.&Heinrich,R.1996.FAOmodelcodeofforestharvestingpractice.Rome,FAO.85pp.Dulvy,N.K.,Rogers,S.I.,Jennings,S.,Stelzenmüller,V.,Dye,S.R.&Skjoldal,H.R.2008.ClimateEadie,J.M.1962.Inter-relationshipsbetweencertainchangeanddeepeningoftheNorthSeafishrumenciliateprotozoa.JournalofGeneralassemblage:abioticindicatorofwarmingseas.Microbiology,29:579–588.JournalofAppliedEcology,45:1029–1039.EASAC(EuropeanAcademiesScienceAdvisoryDumanski,J.,Peiretti,R.,Benetis,J.,McGarry,D.&Council).2015.Ecosystemservices,agriculturePieri,C.2006.Theparadigmofconservationtillage.andneonicotinoids.EASACPolicyReport26.Halle,ProceedingsofWorldAssociationofSoilandWaterGermany,GermanNationalAcademyofSciences.Conservation,P1:58–64.EBCC(EuropeanBirdCensusCouncil).2018WhatisDumont,A.M.,Vanloqueren,G.,Stassart,P.M.&Pan-EuropeanCommonBirdMonitoringScheme?Baret,P.V.2016.Clarifyingthesocioeconomic[Cited30April2018].http://www.ebcc.info/pan-dimensionsofagroecology:betweenprincipleseuropean-common-bird-monitoring-scheme-pecbms/andpractices.AgroecologyandSustainableFoodSystems,40(1):24–47.Eckard,S.,Ansari,M.,Bacher,S.,Butt,T.,Enkerli,J.&Grabenweger,G.2014.VirulenceofinvivoandDunham,R.A.2011.AquacultureandfisheriesinvitroproducedconidiaofMetarhiziumbrunneumbiotechnology:geneticapproaches.Wallingford,strainsforcontrolofwireworms.CropProtection,UK,CABI.64:137–142.Duru,M.,Fares,M.&Therond,O.2014.AconceptualEdwards,P.1980.Areviewofrecyclingorganicwastesframeworkforthinkingnow(andorganisingintofish,withemphasisontheTropics.Aquaculture,tomorrow)theagroecologicaltransitionatthelevel21(3):261–279.oftheterritory.CahiersAgricultures,23(2):84–95.Edwards,P.2015.AquacultureenvironmentDuru,M.,Therond,O.,Martin,G.,Martin-Clouaire,interactions:past,presentandlikelyfuturetrends.R.,Magne,M.A.,Justes,E.,Journet,E.P.etAquaculture,447:2–14.al.2015.Howtoimplementbiodiversity-basedagriculturetoenhanceecosystemservices:areview.Edwards,P.,Little,D.&Demaine,H.2002.RuralAgronomyforSustainableDevelopment,35(4):aquaculture.Wallingford,UK,CABI.1259–1281.Edwards,D.P.,Hodgson,J.A.,Hamer,K.C.,Mitchell,S.L.,Ahmad,A.H.,Cornell,S.J.&Wilcove,D.S.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE4712010.Wildlife-friendlyoilpalmplantationsfailtohttps://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2017-06/protectbiodiversityeffectively.ConservationLetters,A931058.pdf).3(4):236–242.Elmqvist,T.,Folke,C.,Nystrom,M.,Peterson,G.,Edwards,D.P.,Woodcock,P.,Edwards,F.A.,Larsen,Bengtsson,J.,Walker,B.&Norberg,J.2003.T.H.,Hsu,W.W.,Benedick,S.&Wilcove,D.S.Responsediversity,ecosystemchange,andresilience.2012.Reduced-impactloggingandbiodiversityFrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment,1(9):conservation:acasestudyfromBorneo.Ecological488–494.Applications,22(2):561–571.Elmqvist,T.,Fragkias,M.,Goodness,J.,Güneralp,B.,Edwards,J.E.,Forster,R.J.,Callaghan,T.M.,Marcotullio,P.J.,McDonald,R.I.,Parnell,S.etal.Dollhofer,V.,Dagar,S.S.,Cheng,Y.,Chang,J.eteds.2013.Urbanization,biodiversityandecosystemal.2017.PCRandomicsbasedtechniquestostudyservices:challengesandopportunities.Aglobalthediversity,ecologyandbiologyofanaerobicfungi:assessment.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.insights,challengesandopportunities.FrontiersinElNagar,G.2007.EfficiencyofAfricancatfishClariasMicrobiology,25(8):1657.gariepinusincontrollingunwantedreproductionEEA(EuropeanEnvironmentAgency).2015a.ofNiletilapiaOreochromisniloticusinlowinputEcosystemservicesintheEU–Ecosystemservicesproductionsystem.EgyptianJournalofAquaticstilldegrading.[Cited21March2018].https://www.BiologyandFisheries,11(3):105–113.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/where-we-stand/Epple,C.,GarcíaRangel,S.,Jenkins,M.&Guth,ecosystem-services-in-the-euM.2016.ManagingecosystemsinthecontextEEA.2016.Agriculture–Organicfarming.[Cited26ofclimatechangemitigation:areviewofcurrentApril2018].https://www.eea.europa.eu/soer-2015/knowledgeandrecommendationstosupportcountries-comparison/agricultureecosystem-basedmitigationactionsthatlookEgan,J.F.&Mortensen,D.A.2012.Quantifyingvaporbeyondterrestrialforests.CBDTechnicalSeriesdriftofdicambaherbicidesappliedtosoybean.No.86.Montreal,Canada,SecretariatoftheEnvironmentalToxicologyandChemistry,31(5):ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.1023–1031.Eriksson,G.,Namkoong,G.&Roberds,J.H.1993.Eilers,E.J.,Kremen,C.,Greenleaf,S.S.,Garber,A.K.Dynamicgeneconservationforuncertainfutures.&Klein,A.M.2011.Contributionofpollinator-ForestEcologyandManagement,62(1–4):15–37.mediatedcropstonutrientsinthehumanfoodErickson,D.J.,Sulzberger,B.,Zepp,R.G.&Austin,A.T.supply.PLoSONE,6(6):e21363.2015.Effectsofstratosphericozonedepletion,solarEisler,M.C.,Lee,M.R.F.,Tarlton,J.F.&Martin,UVradiation,andclimatechangeonbiogeochemicalG.B.2014.Stepstosustainablelivestock.Nature,cycling:Interactionsandfeedbacks.Photochemical507(7490):32–34.andPhotobiologicalSciences,10(2):261–279.Ejlertsen,M.,Poole,J.&Marshall,K.2012.TraditionalEsser,K.B.,Sæthre,M.G.,Pradhananga,N.&Ojha,breedingobjectivesandpracticesofgoat,sheepandH.2012.MidtermreviewoftheNationalIntegratedcattlesmallholdersinTheGambiaandimplicationsPestManagementProgrammeinNepal,Phaseinrelationtothedesignofbreedinginterventions.II.NoragricReportNo.67.Aas,DepartmentofTropicalAnimalHealthandProduction,45(1):InternationalEnvironmentandDevelopmentStudies,219–229.Noragric,NorwegianUniversityofLifeSciences.El-Kassaby,Y.,Cappa,E.P.,Liewlaksaneeyanawin,C.,EuropeanCommission.2015.ThestateofnatureinKlápš,J.&Lstiburek,M.2011.BreedingwithouttheEU–ReportingundertheEUHabitatsandBirdsbreeding:isacompletepedigreenecessaryforDirectives2007-2012.Luxembourg:OfficeforOffi-efficientbreeding?PLoSONE,6(10):e25737.cialPublicationsoftheEuropeanUnion.(availableatElliott,J.,Firbank,L.G.,Drake,B.,Cao,Y.&Gooday,http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/pdf/state_R.2013.Exploringtheconceptofsustainableof_nature_en.pdf).intensification.LandUsePolicyGroup.(availableat472thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREEurostat.2011.Datarequirements,availabilityandgapsworkersinSoutheastAsia.Rome.(availableathttp://inagri-environmentindicators(AEIs)inEurope.www.fao.org/docrep/v5290e/v5290e00.htm).Luxembourg,PublicationofficeoftheEuropeanUnion.FAO.1996a.RomeDeclarationonWorldFoodSecurity.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/003/Eurostat.2016.Agri-environmentalindicator–w3613e/w3613e00.HTM).specialisation.[Cited20November2018].https://FAO.1996b.Precautionaryapproachtocapturefisheriesec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/andspeciesintroductions.FAOTechnicalGuidelinesAgri-environmental_indicator_-_specialisationforResponsibleFisheries.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-w3592e.pdf).Eurostat.2018.Agri-environmentalindicators.FAO.1997.TheStateoftheWorld’sPlantGenetic[Cited26April2018].http://ec.europa.eu/ResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.Rome.(availableeurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Agri-athttp://www.fao.org/3/a-w7324e.pdf).environmental%7B_%7DindicatorsFAO.1998.Guidelinesforthemanagementoftropicalforests.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/Evans,B.R.1999.EdiblenuttreesinSolomonIslands:docrep/w8212e/w8212e00.HTM).avarietycollectionofCanarium,TerminaliaandFAO.1999a.TheglobalstrategyforthemanagementofBarringtonia.ACIARTechnicalReportNo.44.farmanimalgeneticresources:executivebrief.Rome.Canberra,AustralianCentreforInternationalFAO.1999b.Women:users,preserversandmanagersofAgriculturalResearch.agrobiodiversity.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/x0171e/x0171e03.htm).Evenson,R.E.&Gollin,D.2003.AssessingtheimpactFAO.2000.WorldwatchlistfordomesticanimaloftheGreenRevolution,1960to2000.Science,diversity.B.D.Scherf,ed.Rome.(availableathttp://300:758–762.www.fao.org/docrep/009/x8750e/x8750e00.htm).FAO.2003a.BiologicalmanagementofsoilecosystemsEwald,J.A.,Wheatley,C.J.,Aebischer,N.J.,Moreby,forsustainableagriculture.ReportoftheS.J.,Duffield,S.J.,Crick,H.Q.P.&Morecroft,M.B.InternationalTechnicalWorkshoporganizedby2015.Influencesofextremeweather,climateandEMBRAPA-SoybeanandFAO,Londrina,Brazil,24–27pesticideuseoninvertebratesincerealfieldsover42June2002.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/years.GlobalChangeBiology,21(11):3931–3950.docrep/006/y4810e/y4810e00.htm).FAO.2003b.StatusandtrendsinmangroveareaextentEzcurra,E.,Aburto,O.&Rosenzweig,L.2009.Losworldwide.M.L.Wilkie&S.Fortuna,eds.Forestriñonesdelmundo:porquédebemosprotegerResourcesAssessmentWorkingPaperNo.63.ForestlosmanglaresdeMéxico.InvestigaciónambientalResourcesDivision.Rome,FAOInternaldocument.cienciaypolíticapública,1(2):202–206.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/007/j1533e/J1533E00.htm).Fabre,P.,Guérin,G.&Bouquet,P.M.2010.TheFAO.2003c.Cross-sectoralpolicyimpactsbetweenmanagementofnaturalareasbypastoralism–aforestryandothersectors.ForestryPaperNo.142.FrenchMediterraneanexample:theMerinosRome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/006/D’Arlesintranshumance.PaperpresentedattheY4653E/y4653e00.htm).EighthWorldMerinoConference,3–5May2010,FAO.2003d.Theecosystemapproachtofisheries.Issues,Rambouillet,France.terminology,principles,institutionalfoundations,implementationandoutlook.FAOFisheriesTechnicalFalk,D.A.,Knapp,E.E.&Guerrant,E.O.2001.AnPaperNo.443.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.introductiontorestorationgenetics.Washington,org/3/a-y4773e.pdf).DC,SocietyforEcologicalRestoration.FAO.2003e.Fisheriesmanagement.2.Theecosystemapproachtofisheries.FAOTechnicalGuidelinesforFAO.1993.ForestResourcesAssessment1990:tropicalcountries.FAOForestryPaper112.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/007/t0830e/t0830e00.htm).FAO.1995a.CodeofConductforResponsibleFisheries.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-v9878e.pdf).FAO.1995b.Improvingnutritionthroughhomegardening–AtrainingpackageforpreparingfieldthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE473ResponsibleFisheries4.Suppl.2.Rome.(availableatFAO.2008b.ExpertConsultationonNutritionIndicatorshttp://www.fao.org/3/a-y4470e.pdf).forBiodiversity:1.FoodComposition.Rome.FAO.2005a.Grasslandsoftheworld.J.M.Suttie,S.G.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-a1582e.pdf).Reynolds&C.Batello,eds.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y8344e/y8344e00.htm).FAO.2009a.TheStateofFoodandAgriculture.FAO.2005b.PuttingintopracticetheecosystemapproachLivestockinthebalance.Rome.(availableathttp://tofisheries.Rome.(availableathttps://www.cbd.www.fao.org/docrep/012/i0680e/i0680e.pdf).int/doc/meetings/mar/cbwsoi-seasi-01/other/cbwsoi-seasi-01-putting-into-practice-eaf-en.pdf).FAO.2009b.DeclarationoftheWorldSummitonFAO.2006a.Foodsecurity.PolicyBriefNo.2.Rome.FoodSecurity.WorldSummitonFoodSecurity,(availableathttp://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/Rome,16–18November2009.WSFS2009/2.faoitaly/documents/pdf/).(availableathttp://www.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/FAO.2006b.Livestock’slongshadow–EnvironmentalMeeting/018/k6050e.pdf).issuesandoptions.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM).FAO.2009c.TheuseandexchangeofanimalgeneticFAO.2007a.TheStateoftheWorld’sAnimalGeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.CommissionResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.B.RichkowskyonGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.&D.Pilling,eds.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.43.Rome.(availableorg/3/a-a1260e.pdf).athttp://www.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/FAO.2007b.TheGlobalPlanofActionforAnimalGeneticmeeting/017/ak222e.pdf).ResourcesandtheInterlakenDeclaration.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-a1404e.pdf).FAO.2010a.TheSecondReportontheStateoftheFAO.2007c.ReportoftheEleventhRegularSessionofWorld’sPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandtheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/Agriculture.Rome,11–15June2007.docrep/013/i1500e/i1500e.pdf).CGRFA-11/07/Report.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/meeting/014/k0385e.pdf).FAO.2010b.Developingeffectiveforestpolicy.FAOFAO.2007d.Forestsandwater.UnasylvaNo.229,ForestryPaperNo.161.Rome.(availableathttp://Vol.58.Rome.(availableatftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/www.fao.org/docrep/013/am007e/am007e00.pdf).fao/010/a1598e/a1598e00.pdf).FAO.2007e.Theworld’smangroves1980-2005.FAOFAO.2010c.GlobalForestResourcesAssessment2010.ForestryPaperNo.153.Rome.(availableathttp://MainReport.FAOForestryPaperNo.163,Rome.www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1427e/a1427e00.htm).(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/FAO.2007f.Theecosystemapproachappliedtofoodi1757e.pdf).andagriculture:statusandneeds.CommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.FAO.2010d.Aquaculturedevelopment.4.EcosystemEleventhRegularSession,Rome,11–15June2007.approachtoaquaculture.FAOTechnicalGuidelinesforCGRFA-11/07/15.4Rev.1.(availableathttp://ResponsibleFisheries5.Suppl.4.Rome.(availableatwww.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/meeting/014/http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1750e/i1750e00.htm).j9731e.pdf).FAO.2008a.Rapidassessmentofpollinators’status:aFAO.2010e.Aninternationalconsultationonintegratedcontributiontotheinternationalinitiativeforthecrop-livestocksystemsfordevelopment.Thewayconservationandsustainableuseofpollinators.forwardforsustainableproduction.IntegratedCropRome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/uploads/ManagementVol.13-2010.Rome.(availableathttp://media/raps%7B_%7D2.pdf).www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/images/iclsd/documents/crop_livestock_proceedings.pdf).FAO.2011a.Thestateoftheworld’slandandwaterresourcesforfoodandagriculture.Managingsystemsatrisk.Rome,FAO,andLondon,Earthscan.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i1688e/i1688e.pdf).FAO.2011b.SecondGlobalPlanofActionforPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2624e/i2624e00.pdf).474thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREFAO.2011c.Saveandgrow.ApolicymakersguidetotheFAO.2013c.Ourpriorities:theFAOStrategicObjectives.sustainableintensificationofsmallholderagriculture.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/018/Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mi317e/mi317e.pdf).i1951e/i1951e.pdf).FAO.2013d.Climate-smartagriculturesourcebook.FAO.2011d.ExpertConsultationonNutritionIndicatorsRome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/018/forBiodiversity:2.FoodConsumption.Rome.i3325e/i3325e.pdf).(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1951e/i1951e.pdf).FAO.2013e.Resilientlivelihoods:disasterreductionforfoodandnutritionsecurity.Rome.(availableatFAO.2011e.TheStateofFoodandAgriculture2010-11.http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3270e.pdf).Womeninagriculture:closingthegendergapfordevelopment.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.FAO.2013f.Reviewofkeyissuesonbiodiversityandorg/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf).nutrition.CommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.FourteenthRegularSession,Rome,FAO.2011f.Surveyingandmonitoringofanimalgenetic15–19April2013.CGRFA-14/13/8.(availableathttp://resources.FAOAnimalProductionandHealthwww.fao.org/docrep/meeting/027/mf917e.pdf).Guidelines.No.7.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/014/ba0055e/ba0055e00.pdf).FAO.2013g.Invivoconservationofanimalgeneticresources.FAOAnimalProductionandHealthFAO.2012a.Invisibleguardians:womenmanageGuidelines.No.14.Rome.(availableathttp://www.livestockdiversity.FAOAnimalProductionandfao.org/docrep/018/i3327e/i3327e.pdf).HealthPaperNo.174.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3018e/i3018e00.pdf).FAO.2013h.PolicysupportguidelinesforthepromotionofsustainableproductionintensificationandFAO.2012b.TheStateofWorldFisheriesandecosystemservices.IntegratedCropManagementAquaculture.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.Vol.19-2013.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i2727e.pdf).org/ag/ca/ca-publications/icm19.pdf).FAO.2012c.FRA2015.Termsanddefinitions.ForestFAO.2014a.TheStateoftheWorld’sForestGeneticResourcesAssessmentWorkingPaperNo.180.Resources.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/017/org/3/a-i3825e.pdf).ap862e/ap862e00.pdf).FAO.2014b.GlobalPlanofActionfortheConservation,FAO.2012d.PhenotypiccharacterizationofanimalSustainableUseandDevelopmentofForestGeneticgeneticresources.FAOAnimalProductionandResources.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.HealthGuidelinesNo.11.Rome.(availableathttp://org/3/a-i3849e.pdf).www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2686e/i2686e00.pdf).FAO.2014c.EcosystemservicesbylivestockspeciesandFAO.2012e.Cryoconservationofanimalgeneticbreeds,withspecialconsiderationtothecontributionresources.FAOAnimalProductionandHealthofsmall-scalelivestockkeepersandpastoralists.I.GuidelinesNo.12.Rome.(availableathttp://www.Hoffmann,T.From&D.Boerma,eds.Commissionfao.org/docrep/016/i3017e/i3017e00.pdf).onGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.66Rev.1.Rome.FAO.2013a.ReportoftheFourteenthRegularSession(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-at598e.pdf).oftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.CommissiononGeneticResourcesFAO.2014d.StateoftheWorld’sForests:EnhancingforFoodandAgriculture.Rome,15–19April2013.thesocioeconomicbenefitsfromforests.Rome.CGRFA-14/13/Report.(availableathttp://www.fao.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i3710e.pdf).org/docrep/meeting/028/mg538e.pdf).FAO.2014e.FAOGlobalLandCover(GLC-SHARE)Beta-FAO.2013b.GuidelinesforthepreparationoftheRelease1.0Database.J.Latham,R.Cumani,I.RosatiCountryReportsforTheStateoftheWorld’s&M.Bloise,eds.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.BiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Rome.org/uploads/media/glc-share-doc.pdf).(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-as644e.pdf).FAO.2014f.Genebankstandardsforplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.Revisededition.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE475Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/Bangkok.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-a-i3704e.pdf).i5362e.pdf).FAO.2014g.SynthesisprogressreportontheFAO.2016c.RegionalstrategyandactionplanforimplementationoftheglobalplanofactionforsustainableintensificationofaquacultureintheAsia-animalgeneticresources–2014.CommissiononPacificregion.Bangkok.(availableathttp://www.GeneticResourceforFoodandAgriculture.Fifteenthfao.org/3/a-i5466e.pdf).RegularSession,Rome,19–23January2015.FAO.2016d.VoluntaryGuidelinesforMainstreamingCGRFA-15/15/Inf.19.Rome.(availableathttp://BiodiversityintoPolicies,ProgrammesandNationalwww.fao.org/3/a-mm282e.pdf).andRegionalPlansofActiononNutrition.Rome.FAO.2014h.Protectedareas,peopleandfoodsecurity.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5248e.pdf).AFAOcontributiontoWorldParkCongress,Sydney,FAO.2016e.StateoftheWorld’sForests2016.12–19November2014.Rome.(availableathttp://Forestsandagriculture:land-usechallengesandwww.fao.org/3/a-i4198e.pdf).opportunities.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.FAO.2015a.TheSecondReportontheStateofWorld’sorg/3/a-i5588e.pdf).AnimalGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.FAO.2016f.ThecontributionsoflivestockspeciesandB.D.Scherf&D.Pilling,eds.Rome.(availableatbreedstoecosystemservices.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i4787e.pdf).http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6482e.pdf).FAO.2015b.Copingwithclimatechange–therolesofFAO.2016g.GlobalForestResourcesAssessment2015.geneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.Rome.Howaretheworld’sforestschanging?Second(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i3866e.pdf).edition.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-FAO.2015c.TheStateofFoodInsecurityintheWorld.i4793e.pdf).Meetingthe2015internationalhungertargets:FAO.2016h.Reportofthe32ndSessionofthetakingstockofunevenprogress.Rome.(availableatCommitteeonFisheries(Rome,11-15July2016).http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4646e.pdf).CommitteeonFisheries.FortiethSession,Rome,FAO.2015d.GlobalForestResourcesAssessments–3–8July2017.C2017/23.(availableathttp://www.Mapsandfigures.[online].Rome.http://www.fao.fao.org/3/a-mr484e.pdf).org/forest-resources-assessment/current-assessment/FAO.2016i.CountryStat.[Cited24November2016].maps-and-figures/en/Rome.http://countrystat.org/home.aspx?c=FORFAO.2015e.RevisedWorldSoilCharter.Rome.(availableFAO.2016j.AQUASTATMainDatabase.[Citedathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i4965e.pdf).23October2018].Rome.http://www.fao.org/nr/FAO.2015f.GuidelinesfordevelopingaNationalStrategywater/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en%0A;forPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.http://www.fao.org/nr/aquastatRome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i4917e.pdf).FAO.2016k.TheStateofWorldFisheriesandFAO.2015g.VoluntaryGuidelinestoSupporttheAquaculture.ContributingtofoodsecurityandIntegrationofGeneticDiversityintoNationalClimatenutritionforall.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.ChangeAdaptationPlanning.Rome.(availableatorg/3/a-i5555e.pdf).http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4940e.pdf).FAO.2016l.SaveandGrowinpractice:maize,rice,wheatFAO.2016a.Fisheriesinthedrylandsofsub-Saharan–Aguidetosustainablecerealproduction.Rome.Africa–“Fishcomewiththerains”.Buildingresilience(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i4009e.pdf).forfisheries-dependentlivelihoodstoenhancefoodFAO.2016m.Assessmentoftheimplementationofsecurityandnutritioninthedrylands.J.Kolding,P.theSecondGlobalPlanofActionforPlantGeneticvanZwieten,F.Marttin&F.Poulain,eds.FisheriesandResourcesforFoodandAgriculture2012–2014.AquacultureCircularNo.1118.Rome,FAO.(availableCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5616e.pdf).Agriculture.SixteenthRegularSession,Rome,FAO.2016b.Sustainableintensificationofaquaculture30January–03February2017.CGRFA-16/17/Inf.17.2.intheAsia-Pacificregion.W.Miao&K.K.Lal,eds.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-mr796e.pdf).476thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREFAO.2016n.ReportoftheExpertWorkshoponFAO.2017j.FAOSTAT.[Cited6September2017].Rome.IncorporatingGeneticDiversityandIndicatorsintohttp://www.fao.org/faostat/en/StatisticsandMonitoringofFarmedAquaticSpeciesandtheirWildRelatives.Rome,4–6April2016.FAO.2017k.KeepinganeyeonSDG15.Rome.FisheriesandAquacultureReportNo.1173.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i7334e.pdf).(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i6373e.pdf).FAO.2017l.VoluntaryGuidelinesforSustainableSoilFAO.2016o.Meetingourgoals:FAO’sprogrammeforManagement.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.genderequalityinagricultureandruraldevelopment.org/3/a-bl813e.pdf).Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i6618e.pdf).FAO.2017m.Soilorganiccarbon:thehiddenpotential.FAO.2016p.Farmerfieldschoolguidancedocument:Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i6937e.pdf).planningforqualityprogrammes.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5296e.pdf).FAO.2017n.Genome-basedbiotechnologiesinaquaculture.ThematicBackgroundStudyNo.3.Sub-FAO.2016q.ABSElements.ElementstofacilitateCommitteeonAquaculture.NinthSession,Rome,domesticimplementationofaccessandbenefit-24–27October2017.COFI:AQ/IX/2017/SBD.5.sharingfordifferentsubsectorsofgeneticresourcesRome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/cofi/46055-forfoodandagriculture.Rome.(availableathttp://0e1ecdb708ffdf3609b3c2aa4dc46bc8a.pdf).www.fao.org/3/a-i5033e.pdf).FAO.2017o.VoluntaryGuidelinesfortheConservationFAO.2017a.FAO’sworkonclimatechange.UnitedandSustainableUseofCropWildRelativesandWildNationsClimateChangeConference2017.Rome.FoodPlants.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i8037e.pdf).org/3/a-i7788e.pdf).FAO.2017b.FAOandtheSDGs.Indicators:FAO.2017p.Bigroles,littlepowers:therealityofmeasuringuptothe2030AgendaforSustainablewomeninagricultureinECOWASregion.Rome.Development.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i7005e.pdf).org/3/a-i6919e.pdf).FAO.2017q.Nationalseedpolicytakesroot.[Cited4FAO.2017c.Climate-smartagriculturesourcebook.March2018].Rome.http://www.fao.org/laos/news/[Cited10March2018].Rome.http://www.fao.org/detail-events/en/c/1039592/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/en/FAO.2018a.TheStateofWorldFisheriesandAquacultureFAO.2017d.StrategicworkofFAOtoincreasethe2018–Meetingthesustainabledevelopmentgoals.resilienceoflivelihoods.Rome.(availableathttp://Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/www.fao.org/3/a-i6463e.pdf).I9540EN.pdf).FAO.2017e.Thefutureoffoodandagriculture–TrendsFAO.2018b.TheStateoftheWorld’sForests2018–andchallenges.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.Forestpathwaystosustainabledevelopment.Rome.org/3/a-i6583e.pdf).(availableathttp://www.fao.org/state-of-forests/en/).FAO.2017f.StrategicworkofFAOforsustainablefoodFAO.2018c.GloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageandagriculture.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.Systems(GIAHS).Combiningagriculturalbiodiversity,org/3/a-i6488e.pdf).resilientecosystems,traditionalfarmingpracticesandculturalidentity.Rome.(availableathttp://www.FAO.2017g.Nutrition-sensitiveagricultureandfoodfao.org/3/i9187en/I9187EN.pdf).systemsinpractice.Optionsforintervention.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i7848e.pdf).FAO.2018d.Resilience.[Cited28November2016].Rome.http://www.fao.org/emergencies/how-we-FAO.2017h.FAO/INFOODSFoodCompositionDatabasework/resilience/en/forBiodiversityVersion4.0–BioFoodComp4.0.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i7364e.pdf).FAO.2018e.Theimpactofdisastersandcrisesonagricultureandfoodsecurity.Rome.(availableatFAO.2017i.TheStateofFoodandAgriculture2017.http://www.fao.org/3/I8656EN/i8656en.pdf).Leveragingfoodsystemsforinclusiveruralltransformation.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.FAO.2018f.Nitrogeninputstoagriculturalsoilsfromorg/3/a-I7658e.pdf).livestockmanure.Newstatistics.IntegratedCropthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE477ManagementVol.24.Rome.(availableathttp://FAO.2018r.Regulatingservices.[online].Rome.http://www.fao.org/3/i8153en/I8153EN.pdf).www.fao.org/ecosystem-services-biodiversity/FAO.2018g.Statusandtrendsofanimalgeneticbackground/regulating-services/en/resources.CGRFA/WG-AnGR-10/18/Inf.3.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/CA0121EN/FAO.2018s.SDGIndicator2.5.1–Conservationofca0121en.pdf).geneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.[online].FAO.2018h.Fisheryandaquaculturestatistics.Rome.http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-FishstatJ–Globalproductionbyproductionsourcegoals/indicators/251/en/1950–2016.Rome.FAO.2018i.FAO’sglobalactiononpollinationservicesFAO.2018t.WIEWS–WorldInformationandEarlyforsustainableagriculture.[Cited13March2018].WarningSystemonPlantGeneticResourcesforRome.http://www.fao.org/pollination/en/FoodandAgriculture.[online].Rome.http://www.FAO.2018j.GlobalForestResourcesAssessment2020.fao.org/wiews/en/Termsanddefinitions.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/I8661EN/i8661en.pdf).FAO.2018u.GloballyImportantAgriculturalHeritageFAO.2018k.ProgressintheimplementationoftheCodeSystems(GIAHS).[Cited22April2018].Rome.ofConductforResponsibleFisheriesandrelatedhttp://www.fao.org/giahs/en/instruments.CommitteeonFisheries.Thirty-thirdSession,Rome,9–13July2018.COFI/2018/Inf.7.FAO.2018v.Incentivesforecosystemservices.[CitedRome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/MX233EN/5April2018].Rome.http://www.fao.org/in-action/mx233en.pdf).incentives-for-ecosystem-services/en/FAO.2018l.The10elementsofagroecology.GuidingthetransitiontosustainablefoodandagriculturalFAO.2019.Biodiversityforfoodandagricultureandsystems.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/ecosystemservices.ThematicstudypreparedfortheI9037EN/i9037en.pdf).SoW-BFA.Rome.FAO.2018m.Land-useplanning.[Cited10May2018].Rome.http://www.fao.org/sustainable-forest-FAO.forthcoming.TheStateoftheWorld’sAquaticmanagement/toolbox/modules/land-use-planning/GeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.Rome.basic-knowledge/en/FAO.2018n.GlobalLivestockEnvironmentalAssessmentFAO&BioversityInternational.2017.GuidelinesonModel(GLEAM).[Cited23September2018].Rome.assessingbiodiversefoodsindietaryintakesurveys.http://www.fao.org/gleam/en.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-FAO.2018o.Livestockandagroecology–Howtheycani6717e.pdf).supportthetransitiontowardssustainablefoodandagriculture.Rome(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/FAO&FHI360.2016.MinimumdietarydiversityforI8926EN/i8926en.pdf).women:aguideformeasurement.Rome,FAO.FAO.2018p.Agri-environmentalstatistics.Taking(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5486e.pdf).thepulseoftheplanet,onecountryatatime![Cited22April2018].Rome.http://www.fao.org/FAO&CBD.2016.Mainstreamingecosystemserviceseconomic/ess/environment/en/andbiodiversityintoagriculturalproductionandFAO.2018q.WhatisIntegratedPlantNutrientmanagementinEastAfrica.PracticalissuesforManagement?[Cited4December2018].PlantconsiderationinNationalBiodiversityStrategiesandProductionandProtectionDivision.Rome.http://www.ActionPlanstominimizetheuseofagrochemicals.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/spi/Technicalguidancedocument.Rome,FAO.(availablescpi-home/managing-ecosystems/integrated-plant-athttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5603e.pdf).nutrient-management/ipnm-what/en/FAO,CBD,SPREP&SPC.2016.MainstreamingecosystemservicesandbiodiversityintoagriculturalproductionandmanagementinthePacificIslands.Technicalguidancedocument.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i6505e.pdf).FAO,DFSC&IPGRI.2001.Forestgeneticresourcesconservationandmanagement.Vol.2:Inmanagednaturalforestsandprotectedareas(insitu).Rome,InternationalPlantGeneticResourcesInstitute(IPGRI).(availableathttp://www.bioversityinternational.org/478thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREfileadmin/_migrated/uploads/tx_news/Forest_genetic_oftheCGIAR.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/resources_conservation_and_management__In_ca0146en/CA0146EN.pdf).managed_natural_forests_and_protected_areas__in_FAO&PAR.2011.Biodiversityforfoodandagriculture.situ___Vol._2_775.pdf).ContributingtofoodsecurityandsustainabilityinaFAO,FLD&IPGRI.2004a.Forestgeneticresourceschangingworld.Outcomesofanexpertworkshopconservationandmanagement.Vol.3:InplantationsheldbyFAOandPlatformonAgrobiodiversityandgenebanks(exsitu).Rome,IPGRI.(availableatResearch.Rome,14–16April2010.Rome,FAO.http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/user_(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i1980e.pdf).upload/online_library/publications/pdfs/1053.pdf).FAO&SINER-GI.2010.Linkingpeople,placesandFAO,FLD&IPGRI.2004b.Forestgeneticresourcesproducts.Aguideforpromotingqualitylinkedtoconservationandmanagement.Vol.1:Overview,geographicaloriginandsustainablegeographicalconceptsandsomesystematicapproaches.indications.Secondedition.E.Vandecandelaere,F.Rome,InternationalPlantGeneticResourcesArfini,G.Belletti&A.Marescotti,eds.Rome,FAO.Institute(IPGRI).(availableathttp://www.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1760e/bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/_migrated/i1760e00.pdf).uploads/tx_news/Forest_genetic_resources_FAO&TheNationalForestProgrammeFacility.conservation_and_management__overview__2006.Understandingnationalforestprogrammes.concepts_and_some_systematic_approaches__Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/Vol._1_1018.pdf).tempref/docrep/fao/012/a0826e/a0826e00.pdf).FAO&IAEA.2016.SupportingbiologicalcontrolofFAO&UNISDR.2017.Lineamientosystableflies(Stomoxyscalcitrans,L)throughtheuserecomendacionesparalaimplementacióndelofparasitoidsreproducedonfruitflies.Insect&PestMarcodeSendaiparalaReduccióndelRiesgoControlNewsletterNo.87.Vienna.(availableathttp://deDesastresenelSectorAgrícolaySeguridadwww-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/ipc/public/IPC-NL-87.pdf).AlimentariayNutricional.AméricaLatinayelFAO,IIRR&WorldFishCenter.2001.IntegratedCaribe.SantiagodeChile,FAO.agriculture-aquaculture.Aprimer.FAOFisheriesFAO&WHO.1999.Guidelinesfortheproduction,TechnicalPaper.No.407.Rome.(availableathttp://processing,labellingandmarketingoforganicallywww.fao.org/docrep/005/Y1187E/y1187e00.HTM).producedfoods.Rome,FAO.(availableatwww.fao.FAO&INRA.2016.Innovativemarketsforsustainableorg/input/download/standards/360/cxg_032e.pdf).agriculture.A.Loconto,A.S.Poisot&P.FAO&WHO.2002.GuidelinesfortheevaluationofSantacoloma,eds.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://probioticsinfood.London,Canada.(availableatwww.fao.org/3/a-i5907e.pdf).https://www.who.int/foodsafety/fs_management/en/FAO&INRA.2018.Constructingmarketsforagroecology:probiotic_guidelines.pdf).AnanalysisofdiverseoptionsformarketingproductsFAO&WHO.2014a.ConferenceOutcomeDocument:fromagroecology.A.Loconto,A.Jimenez&E.RomeDeclarationonNutrition.SecondInternationalVandecandelaere,eds.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://ConferenceonNutrition,Rome,19–21Novemberwww.fao.org/3/i8605en/I8605EN.pdf).2014.ICN22014/2.(availableathttp://www.fao.FAO&ITPS.2015.StatusoftheWorld’sSoilResourcesorg/3/a-ml542e.pdf).(SWSR)–MainReport.Rome,FAOandITPS.FAO&WHO.2014b.Frameworkforaction.Reportof(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5199e.pdf).theJointFAO/WHOSecondInternationalConferenceFAO&IWMI.2018.Morepeople,morefood,worseonNutrition,Rome,19–21November2014.ICN2water?aglobalreviewofwaterpollutionfrom2014/3Corr.1.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-agriculture.J.Mateo-Sagasta,S.M.Zadeh&H.mm215e.pdf).Turral,eds.Rome,FAO,andColombo,InternationalFAO&WHO.2014c.TheInternationalCodeofConductWaterManagementInstituteonbehalfoftheonPesticideManagement.Rome,FAO.(availableatResearchProgramonWaterLandandEcosystemshttp://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE479documents/Pests%7B_%7DPesticides/Code/Fletcher,W.J.&Bianchi,G.2014.TheFAO-EAFtoolbox:CODE%7B_%7D2014Sep%7B_%7DENG.pdf).makingtheecosystemapproachaccessibletoallFAO,IFAD,UNICEF,WFP&WHO.2018.TheStatefisheries.Ocean&CoastalManagement,90:20–26.ofFoodSecurityandNutritionintheWorld2018.BuildingclimateresilienceforfoodsecurityandFletcher,W.J.,Kearney,R.E.,Wise,B.S.&Nash,W.J.nutrition.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.2015.Large-scaleexpansionofno-takeclosuresorg/3/I9553EN/i9553en.pdf).withintheGreatBarrierReefhasnotenhancedFaruque,G.,Sarwer,R.H.,Karim,M.,Phillips,M.,fisheryproduction.EcologicalSocietyofAmerica,Collis,W.J.,Belton,B.&Kassam,L.2017.25(5):1187–1196.TheevolutionofaquaticagriculturalsystemsinSouthwestBangladeshinresponsetosalinityandFogarty,N.D.2012.Caribbeanacroporidcoralhybridsotherdriversofchange.InternationalJournalofareviableacrosslifehistorystages.MarineEcologyAgriculturalSustainability,15(2):185–207.ProgressSeries,446:145–159.FederalOfficefortheEnvironmentofSwitzerland.2018.Prairiesetpâturagessecs.[Cited30AprilFoley,J.A.,DeFries,R.,Asner,G.P.,Barford,C.,2018].https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/Bonan,G.,Carpenter,S.R.,Chapin,F.S.etal.themes/biodiversite/info-specialistes/mesures-de-2005.Globalconsequencesoflanduse.Science,conservation-de-la-biodiversite/infrastructure-309(5734):570–574.ecologique/biotopes-d_importance-nationale/prairies-et-paturages-secs.htmlFoley,J.A.,Ramankutty,N.,Brauman,K.A.,Cassidy,Ferrario,F.,Beck,M.W.,Storlazzi,C.,Micheli,F.,E.S.,Gerber,J.S.,Johnston,M.,Mueller,N.D.etShepard,C.&Airoldi,L.2014.Theeffectivenessofal.2011.Solutionsforacultivatedplanet.Nature,coralreefsforcoastalhazardriskreduction.Nature478(7369):337–342.Communications,5(3794):1–9.Ferrel,J.K.2005.Controllingflagsofconvenience:oneFolke,C.,Carpenter,S.,Walker,B.,Scheffer,M.,measuretostopoverfishingofcollapsingfishstocks.Elmqvist,T.,Gunderson,L.&Holling,C.S.EnvironmentalLaw,35(2):323–390.2004.Regimeshifts,resilience,andbiodiversityinFiBL(ForschungsinstitutfürBiologischenLandbau).ecosystemmanagement.AnnualReviewofEcology,2016.Organicagriculturepromotesbiodiversity.Evolution,andSystematics,35(1):557–581.[Cited26April2018].http://www.fibl.org/en/themes/biodiversity.htmlFolke,C.,Carpenter,S.R.,Walker,B.,Scheffer,Finckh,M.R.,Gacek,E.S.,Goyeau,H.,Lannou,C.,M.,Chapin,T.&Rockström,J.2010.ResilienceMerz,U.,Mundt,C.C.,Munk,L.etal.2000.Cerealthinking:integratingresilience,adaptabilityandvarietyandspeciesmixturesinpractice,withemphasistransformability.EcologyandSociety,15(4):20–28.ondiseaseresistance.Agronomie,20(7):813–837.Finke,D.L.&Denno,R.F.2004.PredatordiversityFontaine,C.M.,DeVreese,R.,Jacquemin,I.,Marek,dampenstrophiccascades.Nature,429(6990):A.,Mortelmans,D.,Dendoncker,N.,François,407–410.L.M.,VanHerzle,A.&Devillet,G.2013.ValuationFinlayson,R.2017.ASEANcallsforagroforestryofterrestrialecosystemservicesinamultifunctionalguidelines.[Cited23April2018].http://blog.peri-urbanspace(TheVOTESproject).FinalReport.worldagroforestry.org/index.php/2017/07/11/asean-Brussels,BelgianSciencePolicy.calls-agroforestry-guidelines/Fisher,M.C.,Henk,D.A.,Briggs,C.J.,Brownstein,Fonte,S.J.,Vanek,S.J.,Oyarzun,P.,Parsa,J.S.,Madoff,L.C.,McCraw,S.L.&Gurr,S.J.S.,Quintero,C.D.,Rao,I.M.&Lavelle,P.2012.Emergingfungalthreatstoanimal,plantand2012.Chapter4:Pathwaystoagroecologicalecosystemhealth.Nature,484(7393):186–194.intensificationofsoilfertilitymanagementbysmallholderfarmersintheAndeanHighlands.AdvancesinAgronomy,116:125–184.ForestryCommission.2018.Chalaradiebackofash(Hymenoscyphusfraxineus).[Cited17May2018].https://www.forestry.gov.uk/ashdiebackForman,R.T.T.1995.Landmosaics:theecologyoflandscapesandregions.Cambridge,UK,CambridgeUniversityPress.480thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREFornara,D.A.&Tilman,D.2008.PlantfunctionalFuller,D.Q.2007.Contrastingpatternsincropcompositioninfluencesratesofsoilcarbonanddomesticationanddomesticationrates:recentnitrogenaccumulation.JournalofEcology,96(2):archaeobotanicalinsightsfromtheOldWorld.314–322.AnnalsofBotany,100:903–924.Forrest,J.R.K.,Thorp,R.W.,Kremen,C.&Williams,Fürst,M.A.,McMahon,D.P.,Osborne,J.L.,Paxton,N.M.2015.ContrastingpatternsinspeciesandR.J.&Brown,M.J.F.2014.Diseaseassociationsfunctional-traitdiversityofbeesinanagriculturalbetweenhoneybeesandbumblebeesasathreattolandscape.JournalofAppliedEcology,52(3):706–715.wildpollinators.Nature,506:364–366.Foundjem-Tita,D.,Tchoundjeu,Z.,Speelman,S.,Gaba,S.,Gabriel,E.,Chadœuf,J.,Bonneu,F.&D’Haese,M.,Degrande,A.,Asaah,E.,vanBretagnolle,V.2016.HerbicidesdonotensureforHuylenbroeck,G.,vanDamme,P.&Ndoye,higherwheatyield,buteliminaterareplantspecies.O.2013.PolicyandlegalframeworksgoverningScientificReports,6:30112.trees:incentivesordisincentivesforsmallholdertreeplantingdecisionsinCameroon?Small-scaleGabriel,D.,Sait,S.M.,Kunin,W.E.&Benton,T.G.Forestry,12(3):489–505.2013.Foodproductionvs.biodiversity:comparingorganicandconventionalagriculture.JournalofFourqurean,J.W.,Duarte,C.M.,Kennedy,H.,Marbà,AppliedEcology,50(2):355–364.N.,Holmer,M.,Mateo,M.A.,Apostolaki,E.T.etal.2012.SeagrassecosystemasagloballysignificantGadgil,M.,Berkes,F.&Folke,C.1993.Indigenouscarbonstock.NatureGeoscience,5:505–509.knowledgeforbiodiversityconservation.Ambio,22(2–3):151–156.Francis,C.,Lieblein,G.,Gliessman,S.,Breland,T.A.,Creamer,N.,Harwood,R.,Salomonsson,L.etGalhena,D.H.,Freed,R.&Maredia,K.M.2013.al.2003.Agroecology:theecologyoffoodsystems.Homegardens:apromisingapproachtoenhanceJournalofSustainableAgriculture,22(3):99–118.householdfoodsecurityandwellbeing.Agriculture&FoodSecurity,2(8).Franzel,S.,Coe,R.,Cooper,P.,Place,F.&Scherr,S.J.2001.AssessingtheadoptionpotentialofGallai,N.,Salles,J.M.,Settele,J.&Vaissière,B.E.agroforestrypracticesinsub-SaharanAfrica.2009.EconomicvaluationofthevulnerabilityofAgriculturalSystems,69(1–2):37–62.worldagricultureconfrontedwithpollinatordecline.EcologicalEconomics,68(3):810–821.Free,J.B.1993.Insectpollinationofcrops.London,AcademicPress.Galloway,J.N.,Townsend,A.R.,Erisman,J.W.,Bekunda,M.,Cai,Z.,Freney,J.R.&Sutton,M.A.Freitas,B.M.&Paxton,R.J.1998.Acomparisonoftwo2008.Transformationofthenitrogencycle:recentpollinators:theintroducedhoneybeeApismelliferatrends,questions,andpotentialsolutions.Science,andanindigenousbeeCentristarsataoncashew320(5878):889–892.AnacardiumoccidentaleinitsnativerangeofNEBrazil.JournalofAppliedEcology,35(1):109–121.Galluzzi,G.,Eyzaguirre,P.&Negri,V.2009.UncoveringEuropeanhomegardens:theirhumanFriberg,N.,Angelopoulos,N.V.,Buijse,A.D.,Cowx,andbiologicalfeaturesandpotentialcontributionI.G.,Kail,J.,Moe,T.F.,Moir,H.,O’Hare,M.T.,totheconservationofagro-biodiversity.InA.Bailey,Verdonschot,P.F.M.&Wolter,C.2016.EffectiveP.Eyzaguirre&L.Maggioni,eds.Cropgeneticriverrestorationinthe21stcentury:fromtrialandresourcesinEuropeanhomegardens:Proceedingserrortonovelevidence-basedapproaches.AdvancesofaWorkshop,3-4October2007,Ljubljana,inEcologicalResearch,55:535–611.Slovenia,pp.8–17.Rome,BioversityInternational.Frison,E.A.,Cherfas,J.&Hodgkin,T.2011.Galluzzi,G.,Eyzaguirre,P.&Negri,V.2010.HomeAgriculturalbiodiversityisessentialforasustainablegardens:neglectedhotspotsofagro-biodiversityimprovementinfoodandnutritionsecurity.andculturaldiversity.BiodiversityandConservation,Sustainability,3(1):238–253.19(13):3635–3654.FSC.2018.ForestStewardshipCouncil.[CitedGardi,C.,Montanarella,L.,Arrouays,D.,Bispo,A.,23April2018].https://ic.fsc.org/enLemanceau,P.,Jolivet,C.,Mulder,C.etal.2009.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE481SoilbiodiversitymonitoringinEurope:ongoingGeburek,T.&Müller,F.2005.Howcansilviculturalactivitiesandchallenges.EuropeanJournalofSoilmanagementcontributetogeneticconservation?Science,60:807–819.InT.Geburek&J.Turok,eds.ConservationandGaribaldi,L.A.,Carvalheiro,L.G.,Leonhardt,S.D.,managementofforestgeneticmesourcesinEurope,Aizen,M.A.,Blaauw,B.R.,Isaacs,R.,Kuhlmann,pp.651–669.Zvolen,Slovakia,ArboraPublishers.M.etal.2014.Fromresearchtoaction:enhancingcropyieldthroughwildpollinators.FrontiersinGEF(GlobalEnvironmentFacility).2016.PacificR2R-EcologyandtheEnvironment,12(8):439–447.RidgetoReef-Home.[Cited29June2018].https://Garibaldi,L.A.,Steffan-Dewenter,I.,Kremen,C.,www.pacific-r2r.org/Morales,J.M.,Bommarco,R.,Cunningham,S.A.,Carvalheiro,L.G.etal.2011.StabilityofGeiger,F.,Bengtsson,J.,Berendse,F.,Weisser,W.W.,pollinationservicesdecreaseswithisolationfromEmmerson,M.,Morales,M.B.,Ceryngier,P.etnaturalareasdespitehoneybeevisits.Ecologyal.2010.PersistentnegativeeffectsofpesticidesLetters,14(10):1062–1072.onbiodiversityandbiologicalcontrolpotentialonGaribaldi,L.A.,Steffan-Dewenter,I.,Winfree,R.,Europeanfarmland.BasicandAppliedEcology,Aizen,M.A.,Bommarco,R.,Cunningham,11(2):97–105.S.A.,Kremen,C.etal.2013.WildpollinatorsenhancefruitsetofcropsregardlessofhoneybeeGeldmann,J.,Coad,L.,Barnes,M.,Craigie,I.D.,abundance.Science,340(6127):1608–1611.Hockings,M.,Knights,K.,Leverington,F.etGaribaldi,L.A.,Carvalheiro,L.G.,Vaissière,B.E.,al.2015.ChangesinprotectedareamanagementGemmill-Herren,B.,Hipólito,J.,Freitas,B.M.,effectivenessovertime:aglobalanalysis.BiologicalNgo,H.T.etal.2016.MutuallybeneficialpollinatorConservation,191:692–699.diversityandcropyieldoutcomesinsmallandlargefarms.Science,351(6271):388–391.GEOBONSecretariat.2016.GlobalWetlandsGarnett,T.,Appleby,M.C.,Balmford,A.,Bateman,ObservingSystem(GWOS).[Cited21March2018].I.J.,Benton,T.G.,Bloomer,P.,Burlingame,B.ethttp://geobon.org/global-wetlands-observing-al.2013.Sustainableintensificationinagriculture:system-gwos/premisesandpolicies.Science,341(6141):33–34.Garrity,D.P.,Akinnifesi,F.K.,Ajayi,O.C.,Gerber,P.J.,Steinfeld,H.,Henderson,B.,Mottet,Weldesemayat,S.G.,Mowo,J.G.,Kalinganire,A.,Opio,C.,Dijkman,J.,Falcucci,A.&Tempio,A.,Larwanou,M.&Bayala,J.2010.EvergreenG.2013.Tacklingclimatechangethroughlivestockagriculture:arobustapproachtosustainablefood–AglobalassessmentofemissionsandmitigationsecurityinAfrica.FoodSecurity,2:197–214.opportunities.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.Gaston,K.&Spicer,J.2004.Doesbiodiversitymatter?Infao.org/3/a-i3437e.pdf).K.Gaston&J.Spicer,eds.Biodiversity:anintroduction,pp.91–107.Malden,USA,BlackwellPublishing.Giannini,T.,Boff,S.,Cordeiro,G.,CartolanoJr.,E.,Gaupp-Berghausen,M.,Hofer,M.,Rewald,B.&Veiga,A.,Imperatriz-Fonseca,V.&Saraiva,A.M.Zaller,J.G.2015.Glyphosate-basedherbicides2015.CroppollinatorsinBrazil:areviewofreportedreducetheactivityandreproductionofearthwormsinteractions.Apidologie,46:209–223.andleadtoincreasedsoilnutrientconcentrations.ScientificReports,5:12886.Gibbs,H.K.&Salmon,J.M.2015.Mappingtheworld’sGEAS(UNEnvironmentGlobalAlertService).2013.degradedlands.AppliedGeography,57:12–21.Mangroveforestcoverfadingfast.EnvironmentalDevelopment,8:105–112.(availableathttps://Giller,K.E.Andersson,J.A.,Corbeels,M.,Kirkegaard,na.unep.net/geas/archive/pdfs/GEAS_Aug2013_J.,Mortensen,D.,Erenstein,O.&Vanlauwe,B.Mangroves.pdf).2015.Beyondconservationagriculture.FrontiersinPlantScience,6:870.Gilman,R.T.,Fabina,N.S.,Abbott,K.C.&Rafferty,N.E.2012.Evolutionofplant-pollinatormutualismsinresponsetoclimatechange.EvolutionaryApplications,5(1):2–16.Giraffa,G.&Carminati,D.2008.Moleculartechniquesinfoodfermentation:principlesandapplications.InL.Cocolin&D.Ercolini,eds.Moleculartechiquesin482thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREthemicrobialecologyoffermentedfoods,pp.1–30.Goka,K.,Okabe,K.&Yoneda,M.2006.WorldwideNewYork,SpringerScience&BusinessMedia.migrationofparasiticmitesasaresultofbumblebeeGjedrem,T.,Robinson,N.&Rye,M.2012.Thecommercialization.PopulationEcology,48(4):285–291.importanceofselectivebreedinginaquaculturetomeetfuturedemandsforanimalprotein:areview.Golden,C.D.,Fernald,L.C.H.,Brashares,J.S.,Aquaculture,350:117–129.Rasolofoniaina,B.J.R.&Kremen,C.2011.Gleick,P.H.,Singh,A.&Shi,H.2001.EmergingthreatsBenefitsofwildlifeconsumptiontochildnutritionintotheworld’sfreshwaterresources.Oakland,abiodiversityhotspot.ProceedingsoftheNationalUSA,PacificInstituteforStudiesinDevelopment,AcademyofSciences,108(49):19653–19656.Environment,andSecurity.Gliessman,S.1997.Agroecology:ecologicalprocessesinGómez,M.I.&Ricketts,K.D.2013.Foodvaluechainsustainableagriculture.BocaRaton,USA,CRCPress.transformationsindevelopingcountries:selectedGliessman,S.2015.Agroecology–theecologyofhypothesesonnutritionalimplications.FoodPolicy,sustainablefoodsystems.BocaRaton,USA,CRCPress.42:139–150.GlobalGreenhouseGasReferenceNetwork.2017.WhatistheGlobalGreenhouseGasReferenceGómez-Baggethun,E.&Ruiz-Pérez,M.2011.Network?[Cited22March2018].https://www.esrl.Economicvaluationandthecommodificationofnoaa.gov/gmd/about/contacts.htmlecosystemservices.ProgressinPhysicalGeography,GlobalPanel.2017.Urbandietsandnutrition:trends,35(5):613–628.challengesandopportunitiesforpolicyaction.PolicyBriefNo.9.London,UK,GlobalPanelonAgricultureGonzalezFischer,C.&Garnett,T.2016.Plates,andFoodSystemsforNutrition.pyramids,planet.DevelopmentsinnationalhealthyGlobalPartnershiponForestLandscapeRestoration.andsustainabledietaryguidelines:astateofplay2018.TheBonnchallenge–Commitments.[Citedassessment.Rome,FAO,andOxford,UK,Food29May2018].http://www.bonnchallenge.org/ClimateResearchNetwork.(availableathttp://www.commitmentsfao.org/3/a-i5640e.pdf).GMSA.2017.AbouttheGlobalMarineSpeciesAssessment(GMSA).[Cited21March2018].https://González-Acereto,J.A.,Quezada-Euán,J.J.G.&sites.wp.odu.edu/GMSA/about/Medina-Medina,L.A.2006.NewperspectivesforGOA-ON.2016.GlobalOceanAcidificationObservingstinglessbeekeepingintheYucatán:resultsofanNetwork.[Cited21March2018].http://www.goa-integralprogramtorescueandpromotetheactivity.on.org/home.phpJournalofApiculturalResearch,45(4):234–239.Godde,C.M.,Garnett,T.,Thornton,P.K.,Ash,A.J.&Herrero,M.2018.GrazingsystemsexpansionandGonzález-Sánchez,E.J.,Moreno-García,M.,Kassam,intensification:drivers,dynamics,andtrade-offs.A.,Holgado-Cabrera,A.,Triviño-Tarradas,GlobalFoodSecurity,16:93–105.P.,Carbonell-Bojollo,R.,Pisante,M.,Veroz-Godfray,H.C.J.1994.Parasitoids:behavioralandGonzález.,O.&Basch,G.2017.Conservationevolutionaryecology.Princeton,USA,Princetonagriculture:makingclimatechangemitigationUniversityPress.andadaptationrealinEurope.Brussels,EuropeanGodfray,H.C.J.2015.ThedebateoversustainableConservationAgricultureFederation(ECAF).intensification.FoodSecurity,7(2):199–208.Goettsch,B.,Durán,A.P.&Gaston,K.J.2018.GlobalGoodman,D.,DuPuis,M.&Goodman,M.2012.gapanalysisofcactusspeciesandprioritysitesAlternativefoodnetworks.NewYork,USA,Routledge.fortheirconservation.ConservationBiology,doi:10.1111/cobi.13196.Gould,D.2007.TrainingGuide4.0forsmallfarmers’organizations“DevelopingandImplementingInternalControlSystemswithFocusonFairTradeEnvironmentalStandards”.Bonn,Germany,FairtradeLabellingOrganizationsInternational.Goulson,D.2003.Effectsofintroducedbeesonnativeecosystems.AnnualReviewofEcologyEvolutionandSystematics,34:1–26.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE483Goulson,D.2013.AnoverviewoftheenvironmentalGregory,R.D.,Vorˇišek,P.,Noble,D.G.,VanStrien,A.,risksposedbyneonicotinoidinsecticides.JournalofKlvanˇová,A.,Eaton,M.,Meyling,A.W.G.,Joys,A.,AppliedEcology,50:977–987.Foppen,R.P.B.&Burfield,I.J.2008.ThegenerationanduseofbirdpopulationindicatorsinEurope.BirdGovernmentofEthiopia.2015.Ethiopia’sNationalConservationInternational,18:S223–S244.BiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan2015–2020.AddisAbaba,EthiopianBiodiversityInstitute.Grémillet,D.&Boulinier,T.2009.SpatialecologyandconservationofseabirdsfacingglobalclimateGovernmentofIndia.2017.IndianStateofForestchange:areview.MarineEcologyProgressSeries,Report(ISFR)-2017,Volume17,2016-17.Forest391:121–137.SurveyofIndia.NewDelhi.Griffin,J.,Byrnes,J.&Cardinale,B.2013.EffectsGovernmentofSwitzerland.2012.SwissBiodiversityofpredatorrichnessonpreysuppression:ameta-Strategy.Bern,FederalOfficefortheEnvironmentanalysis.Ecology,94(10):2180–2187.FOEN.Griffiths,B.S.,Ritz,K.,Bardgett,R.D.,Cook,R.,Graham,E.,Grandy,S.&Thelen,M.2009.ManureChristensen,S.,Ekelund,F.,Sorensen,S.J.effectsonsoilorganismsandsoilquality.Emergingetal.2000.EcosystemresponseofpasturesoilIssuesinAnimalAgriculture.EastLansing,USA,communitiestofumigation-inducedmicrobialMichiganStateUniversity.diversityreductions:anexaminationofthebiodiversity-ecosystemfunctionrelationship.Oikos,Grau,H.R.&Aide,M.2008.Globalizationandland-use90(2):279–294.transitionsinLatinAmerica.EcologyandSociety,13(2):16–27.GRISP(GlobalRiceSciencePartnership).2013.Ricealmanac,4thedition.LosBaños,Philippines,Graudal,L.&Lillesø,J.P.B.2007.ExperiencesandInternationalRiceResearchInstitute.(availableatfutureprospectsfortreeseedsupplyinagriculturalhttp://books.irri.org/9789712203008_content.pdf).developmentsupport:basedonlessonslearntinDanidasupportedprogrammes1965–2005.Grivetti,L.E.&Ogle,B.M.2000.ValueoftraditionalCopenaghen,MinistryofForeignAffairsofDenmark.foodsinmeetingmacro-andmicronutrientneeds:thewildplantconnection.NutritionResearchGraves,A.,Matthews,R.&Waldie,K.2004.Reviews,13(01):31.Lowexternalinputtechnologiesforlivelihoodimprovementinsubsistenceagriculture.AdvancesinGrubben,G.J.H.&Denton,O.A.2004.PlantresourcesAgronomy,82:473–555.ofTropicalAfrica2.Vegetables.Wageningen,Netherlands,PROTAFoundation.Gray,C.L.&Bilsborrow,R.E.2014.Consequencesofout-migrationforlanduseinruralEcuador.LandUseGruber,B.,Evans,D.,Henle,K.,Bauch,B.,Schmeller,Policy,36:182–191.D.,Dziock,F.,Henry,P.-Y.,Lengyel,S.,Margules,C.&Dormann,C.2012.“Mindthegap!”–HowGreen,E.P.&Short,F.T.2003.WorldatlasofwelldoesNatura2000coverspeciesofEuropeanseagrasses.LosAngeles,USA,Universityofinterest?NatureConservation,3:45–62.CaliforniaPress.Gugić,G.,Župan,D.&Zupan,I.2012.Croatia:theGregory,N.G.1995.TheroleofshelterbeltsinfloodplainecosystemoftheCentraalSavaRiverprotectinglivestock:areview.NewZealandJournalBasin.InN.Dudley&S.Stolton,eds.ProtectedofAgriculturalResearch,38(4):423–450.landscapesandwildbiodiversity,pp.19–26.Valuesofprotectedlandscapesandseascapes,Volume3.Gland,Gregory,R.D.&vanStrien,A.2010.WildbirdSwitzerland,TheProtectedLandscapesSpecialistGroupindicators:usingcompositepopulationtrendsofIUCN’sWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas.ofbirdsasmeasuresofenvironmentalhealth.OrnithologicalScience,9(1):3–22.Guizani,N.&Mothershaw,A.2007.Fermentationasamethodforfoodpreservation.HandbookoffoodGregory,R.D.,vanStrien,A.,Vorisek,P.,Gmeligpreservation.Secondedition,pp.215–236.NewMeyling,A.W.,Noble,D.G.,Foppen,R.P.B.&York,USA,CRCPress.Gibbons,D.W.2005.DevelopingindicatorsforEuropeanbirds.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,360(1454):269–288.484thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREGunasena,H.P.M.&Roshetko,J.M.2000.TreeHalpern,B.S.2003.Theimpactofmarinereserves:domesticationinSoutheastAsia:resultsofaregionaldoreservesworkanddoesreservesizematter?studyoninstitutionalcapacity.Bogor,Indonesia,EcologicalApplications,13(1):117–137.ICRAFSoutheastAsiaRegionalProgram.Halpern,B.S.,Ebert,C.M.,Kappel,C.V,Madin,Guo,J.H.2010.SignificantacidificationinmajorChineseE.M.P.,Micheli,F.,Perry,M.,Selkoe,K.A.&croplands.Science,327(5968):1008–1010.Walbridge,S.2009.Globalpriorityareasforincorporatingland-seaconnectionsinmarineGupta,R.B.,Chaudhari,P.R.&Wate,S.R.2008.conservation.ConservationLetters,2(4):189–196.Overviewonattenuationofindustrialairpollutionbygreenbelt.JournalofIndustrialPollutionControl,Halpern,B.S.,Longo,C.,Hardy,D.,McLeod,K.L.,24(1):1–8.Samhouri,J.F.,Katona,S.K.,Kleisner,K.etal.2012.AnindextoassessthehealthandbenefitsofGurr,G.,Read,D.,Catindig,J.,Cheng,J.,Liu,J.,theglobalocean.Nature,488:615–620.Lan,L.&Heong,K.2011.ParasitoidsofthericeleaffolderCnaphalocrocismedinalisandprospectsHalpern,B.S.,Frazier,M.,Afflerbach,J.,O’Hara,C.,forenhancingbiologicalcontrolwithnectarplants.Katona,S.,StewartLowndes,J.S.,Jiang,N.,AgriculturalandForestEntomology,14(1):1–12.Pacheco,E.,Scarborough,C.&Polsenberg,J.2017.DriversandimplicationsofchangeinglobalGurr,G.M.,Wratten,S.D.,Landis,D.A.&You,oceanhealthoverthepastfiveyears.PLoSONE,M.2017.Habitatmanagementtosuppresspest12(7):e0178267.populations:progressandprospects.AnnualReviewofEntomology,62(1):91–109.Halwart,M.2006.Biodiversityandnutritioninrice-basedaquaticecosystems.JournalofFoodGutiérrez-Salmeán,G.,Fabila-Castillo,L.&CompositionandAnalysis,19(6–7):747–751.Chamorro-Cevallos,G.2015.NutritionalandtoxicologicalaspectsofSpirulina(Arthrospira).Halwart,M.2008.Biodiversity,nutritionandlivelihoodsNutricionhospitalaria,32(1):34–40.inaquaticrice-basedecosystems.Biodiversity,9(1–2):36–40.Haard,N.F.,Odunfa,S.A.,Cherl-Ho,L.&Quintero-Ramírez,R.1999.Fermentedcereals.AglobalHalwart,M.&Gupta,M.V.2004.Cultureoffishinriceperspective.FAOAgriculturalServicesBulletinNo.fields.Rome,FAO,andPenang,Malaysia,WorldFish138.Rome,FAO.Center.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-a0823e.pdf).Haddad,N.M.,Brudvig,L.A.,Clobert,J.,Davies,K.F.,Gonzalez,A.,Holt,R.D.,Lovejoy,T.E.etal.2015.Halwart,M.,Bartley,D.,Buoeno,P.B.&Innes-HabitatfragmentationanditslastingimpactonTaylor,N.,eds.2016.AquacultureandfisheriesEarth’secosystems.ScienceAdvances,1(2):1–9.inrice-basedecosystems:studiesandreportsfromIndonesia,LaoPDRandthePhilippines.Rome,FAO.Haider,J.L.,Quinlan,A.&Peterson,G.D.2012.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i3841e.pdf).Interactingtraps:resilienceassessmentofapasturemanagementsysteminNorthernAfghanistan.Hamilton,S.E.&Casey,D.2016.CreationofaPlanningTheoryandPractice,13:299–333.highspatio-temporalresolutionglobaldatabaseofcontinuousmangroveforestcoverfortheHall,S.J.,Delaporte,A.,Phillips,M.J.,Beveridge,21stcentury(CGMFC-21).GlobalEcologyandM.&O’Keefe,M.2011.Bluefrontiers:managingBiogeography,25:729–738.theenvironmentalcostsofaquaculture.Penang,Malaysia,TheWorldFishCentre.Hanan,N.P.2018.AgroforestryintheSahel.NatureGeoscience:11:296–297.Hallmann,C.A.,Sorg,M.,Jongejans,E.,Siepel,H.,Hofland,N.,Schwan,H.,Stenmans,W.etal.Handelsman,J.2004.Metagenomics:applicationof2017.Morethan75percentdeclineover27yearsingenomicstounculturedmicroorganisms.Microbiologytotalflyinginsectbiomassinprotectedareas.PLoSandMolecularBiologyReviews,68(4):669–685.ONE,12(10):e0185809.Hannon,E.R.&Beers,E.H.2007.Carpenterworm.[Cited27April2018].http://jenny.tfrec.wsu.edu/opm/displaySpecies.php?pn=575thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE485Harpur,B.A.,Minaei,S.,Kent,C.F.&Zayed,A.2012.Heard,T.A.1999.TheroleofstinglessbeesincropManagementincreasesgeneticdiversityofhoneybeespollination.AnnualReviewofEntomology,44(1):viaadmixture.MolecularEcology,21:4414–4421.183–206.Harris,D.R.1989.Anevolutionarycontinuumofpeople–Heard,T.A.&Dollin,A.E.2000.Stinglessbeekeepingplantinteraction.InD.R.Harris&G.C.Hillman,inAustralia:snapshotofaninfantindustry.Beeeds.Foragingandfarming:theevolutionofplantWorld,81(3):116–125.exploitation,pp.11–26.London,UnwinHyman.Heck,K.L.,Hays,G.&Orth,R.J.2003.CriticalevaluationHarrison,G.W.&Rutström,E.E.2008.Experimentalofthenurseryrolehypothesisforseagrassmeadows.evidenceontheexistenceofhypotheticalbiasinMarineEcologyProgressSeries,253:123–136.valueelicitationmethods.InC.R.Plott&V.L.Smith,eds.Handbookofexperimentaleconomicsresults,Heesterbeek,H.,Anderson,R.,Andreasen,V.,pp.752–767.Amsterdam,NorthHolland.Bansal,S.,DeAngelis,D.,Dye,C.,Eames,K.etal.2015.ModelinginfectiousdiseasedynamicsinHarrison,S.,Gregorio,N.&Herbohn,J.2008.Athecomplexlandscapeofglobalhealth.Science,criticaloverviewofforestryseedlingproduction13(347):6227.policiesandpracticesinrelationtosmallholderforestryindevelopingcountries.Small-scaleForestry,Heimpel,G.E.&Cock,M.J.W.2018.Shiftingparadigms7:207–223.inthehistoryofclassicalbiologicalcontrol.BioControl,63(1):27–37.Harrison,P.A.,Berry,P.M.,Simpson,G.,Haslett,J.R.,Blicharska,M.,Bucur,M.,Dunford,R.etal.Hein,L.2011.Economicbenefitsgeneratedbyprotected2014.Linkagesbetweenbiodiversityattributesandareas:thecaseoftheHogeVeluweforest,theecosystemservices:asystematicreview.EcosystemNetherlands.EcologyAndSociety,16(2):13.Services,9:191–203.Hemp,A.2006.ThebananaforestsofKilimanjaro:Hassell,J.M.,Begon,M.,Ward,M.J.&Fèvre,E.M.biodiversityandconservationoftheChagga2017.Urbanizationanddiseaseemergence:homegardens.BiodiversityandConservation,15(4):dynamicsatthewildlife–livestock–humaninterface.1193–1217.TrendsinEcologyandEvolution,32(1):55–67.Henderson,G.,Cox,F.,Ganesh,S.,Jonker,A.,Young,Hauer,F.R.,Locke,H.,Dreitz,V.J.,Hebblewhite,M.,W.,Collaborators,G.R.&Janssen,P.H.2015.Lowe,W.H.,Muhlfeld,C.C.&Rood,S.B.2016.RumenmicrobialcommunitycompositionvarieswithGravel-bedriverfloodplainsaretheecologicaldietandhost,butacoremicrobiomeisfoundacrossanexusofglaciatedmountainlandscapes.Sciencewidegeographicalrange.ScientificReports,5:1–13.Advances,2(6):e1600026.Henry,M.,Tittonell,P.,Manlay,R.J.,Bernoux,M.,Hawkes,C.2008.DietaryimplicationsofsupermarketAlbrecht,A.&Vanlauwe,B.2009.Biodiversity,development:aglobalperspective.DevelopmentcarbonstocksandsequestrationpotentialinPolicyReview,26(6):657–692.abovegroundbiomassinsmallholderfarmingsystemsofwesternKenya.Agriculture,EcosystemsHawkes,C.,Chopra,M.&Friel,S.2009.Globalization,andEnvironment,129(1–3):238–252.trade,andthenutritiontransition.InR.Labonte,T.Schrecker,C.Packer&V.Runnels,eds.GlobalizationHenry,L.M.,Nigel,M.,Acheampong,S.,Gillespie,andhealth:pathways,evidenceandpolicy,pp.D.R.&Roitberg.,B.D.2010.Host-adapted235–262.NewYork,USA,Routledge.parasitoidsinbiologicalcontrol:doessourcematter?EcologicalApplications,20(1):242–250.Hayes,B.J.,Lewin,H.A.&Goddard,M.E.2013.Thefutureoflivestockbreeding:genomicselectionHeong,K.,Manza,A.,Catindig,J.,Villareal,S.&forefficiency,reducedemissionsintensity,andJacobsen,T.2007.Changesinpesticideuseandadaptation.TrendsinGenetics,29(4):206–214.arthropodbiodiversityintheIRRIresearchfarm.OutlooksonPestManagement,18(5):229–233.Hazell,P.&Wood,S.2008.Driversofchangeinglobalagriculture.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalHeron,S.F.,Eakin,C.M.&Douver,F.2017.ImpactsofSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,363(1491):495–515.climatechangeonWorldHeritagecoralreefs:afirstglobalscientificassessment.Paris,UNESCO.486thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREHerrero,M.,González-Estrada,E.,Thornton,andtheprovisionofotherecosystemservices:criticalP.K.,Quirós,C.,Waithaka,M.M.,Ruiz,R.reviewfortheforestrycomponentoftheInternational&Hoogenboom,G.2007.IMPACT:GenericClimateFund.Cambridge,UK,UNEP.household-leveldatabasesanddiagnosticstoolsHilborn,R.2011.Futuredirectionsinecosystembasedforintegratedcrop-livestocksystemsanalysis.fisheriesmanagement:apersonalperspective.AgriculturalSystems,92(1–3):240–265.FisheriesResearch,108:235–239.HLPE.2014a.SustainablefisheriesandaquacultureforHerrero,M.,Thornton,P.K.,Notenbaert,A.,Msangi,foodsecurityandnutrition.AreportbytheHighS.,Wood,S.,Kruska,R.,Dixon,J.etal.2012.LevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionDriversofchangeincrop-livestocksystemsandtheiroftheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity.Rome.potentialimpactsonagro-ecosystemsservicesand(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i3844e.pdf).humanwellbeingto2030.AstudycommissionedHLPE.2014b.FoodlossesandwasteinthecontextofbytheCGIARSystemwideLivestockProgramme.sustainablefoodsystems.AreportbytheHighLevelNairobi,InternationalLivestockResearchInstitute.PanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionoftheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity.Rome.Herrero,M.,Havlik,P.,Valin,H.,Notenbaert,A.,(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i3901e.pdf).Rufino,M.C.,Thornton,P.K.,Blummel,M.,HLPE.2016.SustainableagriculturaldevelopmentforWeiss,F.,Grace,D.&Obersteiner,M.2013.foodsecurityandnutrition:whatrolesforlivestock?Biomassuse,production,feedefficiencies,andAreportbytheHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodgreenhousegasemissionsfromgloballivestockSecurityandNutritionoftheCommitteeonWorldsystems.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofFoodSecurity.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.Sciences,110(52):20888–20893.org/3/a-i5795e.pdf).HLPE.2017a.SustainableforestryforfoodsecurityandHerrero,M.,Havlik,P.,McIntire,J.,Palazzo,A.&nutrition.AreportbytheHighLevelPanelofExpertsValin,H.2014.Africanlivestockfutures:realizingonFoodSecurityandNutritionoftheCommitteeonthepotentialoflivestockforfoodsecurity,povertyWorldFoodSecurity.Rome.(availableathttp://www.reductionandtheenvironmentinsub-Saharanfao.org/3/a-i7395e.pdf).Africa.OfficeoftheSpecialRepresentativeoftheHLPE.2017b.Nutritionandfoodsystems.AreportbyUNSecretaryGeneralforFoodSecurityandNutritiontheHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandandtheUnitedNationsSystem.NutritionoftheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity.Rome.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i7846e.pdf).Hesse,C.,Anderson,S.,Cotula,L.,Skinner,J.&Hocking,D.&Babbit,K.2014.AmphibianToulmin,C.2013.Managingtheboomandbust:contributionstoecosystemservices.Herpetologicalsupportingclimateresilientlivelihoodsinthesahel.ConservationandBiology,9(1):1–17.IIEDIssuePaper.London,InternationalInstituteforHocking,D.J.&Babbitt,K.J.2014.Effectsofred-EnvironmentandDevelopment.backedsalamandersonecosystemfunctions.PLoSONE,9(1).Heywood,V.H.2013.OverviewofagriculturalHoffmann,M.,Hilton-Taylor,C.,Angulo,A.,Böhm,biodiversityanditscontributiontonutritionandM.,Brooks,T.M.,Butchart,S.H.M.,Carpenter,health.InJ.Fanzo,D.Hunter,T.Borelli&F.Mattei,K.E.etal.2010.Theimpactofconservationoneds.Diversifyingfoodanddiets:usingagriculturalthestatusoftheworld’svertebrates.Science,biodiversitytoimprovenutritionandhealth,330(6010):1503–1509.pp.35–67.Oxford,UK,Routledge.Hofstede,R.,Segarra,P.&Mena,P.V.2003.Lospáramosdelmundo.ProyectoatlasmundialdelosHickey,G.M.,Pouliot,M.,Smith-Hall,C.,Wunder,páramos.Quito,GlobalPeatlandInitiative/NC-IUCN/S.&Nielsen,M.R.2016.QuantifyingtheEcoCiencia.economiccontributionofwildfoodharveststorurallivelihoods:aglobal-comparativeanalysis.FoodPolicy,62:122–132.Hicks,C.,Woroniecki,S.,Fancourt,M.,Bieri,M.,GarciaRobles,H.,Trumper,K.&Mant,R.2014.Therelationshipbetweenbiodiversity,carbonstoragethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE487Hogarth,P.J.2015.ThebiologyofmangrovesandIntroductions.AnnualReviewofEntomology,seagrasses.Thirdedition.Oxford,UK,Oxford38:27–51.UniversityPress.Hosonuma,N.,Herold,M.,deSy,V.,deFries,R.S.,Brockhaus,M.,Verchot,L.,Angelsen,A.&Holding-Anyonge,C.&Roshetko,J.M.2003.Farm-Romijn,E.2012.Anassessmentofdeforestationandleveltimberproduction:orientingfarmerstowardsforestdegradationdriversindevelopingcountries.themarket.Unaslyva,212(54):48–56.EnvironmentalResearchLetters,7(4):4009.Howard,P.2003.Themajorimportanceof“minor”Holl,K.D.2017.Restoringtropicalforestsfromtheresources:womenandplantbiodiversity.bottomup.Science,355:455–456.GatekeeperSeriesNo.112.London,InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopmentNaturalHolland,G.J.2012.HurricanesandrisingglobalResourcesGroupandSustainableAgricultureandtemperatures.PNAS,109(48):19513–19514.RuralLivelihoodsProgramme.Huang,Y.,Chen,Y.,Castro-Izaguirre,N.,Baruffol,Holland,J.,Oaten,H.,Moreby,S.,Birkett,T.,M.,Brezzi,M.,Lang,A.,Li,Y.etal.2018.ImpactsSimper,J.,Southway,S.&Smith,B.2012.Agri-ofspeciesrichnessonproductivityinalarge-scaleenvironmentschemeenhancingecosystemservices:subtropicalforestexperiment.Science,362(6410):ademonstrationofimprovedbiologicalcontrolin80–83.cerealcrops.Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,Huenneke,L.F.1991.Ecologicalimplicationsofgenetic155:147–152.variationinplantpopulations.InD.A.Falk&K.E.Holsinger,eds.GeneticsandconservationofrareHolland,J.M.,Smith,B.M.,Storkey,J.,Lutman,P.J.W.plants,pp.31–44.Oxford,UK,OxfordUniversityPress.&Aebischer,N.J.2015.ManaginghabitatsonHuertaLwanga,E.,Gertsen,H.,Gooren,H.,Peters,Englishfarmlandforinsectpollinatorconservation.P.,Salánki,T.,VanDerPloeg,M.,Besseling,E.,BiologicalConservation,182:215–222.Koelmans,A.A.&Geissen,V.2016.Microplasticsintheterrestrialecosystem:implicationsforHolling,C.S.1973.ResilienceandstabilityofecologicalLumbricusterrestris(Oligochaeta,Lumbricidae).systems.AnnualReviewofEcologyandSystematics,EnvironmentalScience&Technology.50(5):4:1–23.2685–2691.Huertas,I.E.,Rouco,M.,López-Rodas,V.&Costas,E.Holzschuh,A.,Steffan-Dewenter,I.&Tscharntke,2011.Warmingwillaffectphytoplanktondifferently:T.2008.Agriculturallandscapeswithorganiccropsevidencethroughamechanisticapproach.supporthigherpollinatordiversity.Oikos,117(3):ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyB:Biological354–361.Sciences,278:3534–3543.Hughes,T.P.,Kerry,J.T.,Álvarez-Noriega,M.,Holzschuh,A.,Steffan-Dewenter,I.&Tscharntke,Álvarez-Romero,J.G.,Anderson,K.D.,Baird,T.2010.HowdolandscapecompositionandA.H.,Babcock,R.C.etal.2017.Globalwarmingconfiguration,organicfarmingandfallowstripsaffectandrecurrentmassbleachingofcorals.Nature,thediversityofbees,waspsandtheirparasitoids?543(7645):373–377.JournalofAnimalEcology,79(2):491–500.Hughes,T.P.,Anderson,K.D.,Connolly,S.R.,Heron,S.F.,Kerry,J.T.,Lough,J.M.,Baird,A.H.etHooper,D.U.,Chapin,F.S.,Ewel,J.J.,Hector,A.,al.2018.SpatialandtemporalpatternsofmassInchausti,P.,Lavorel,S.,Lawton,J.H.etal.2005.bleachingofcoralsintheAnthropocene.Science,Effectsofbiodiversityonecosystemfunctioning:359(6371):80–83.aconsensusofcurrentknowledge.EcologicalHungate,R.E.1966.Therumenanditsmicrobes.NewMonographs,75(1):3–35.York,USA,AcademicPress.Hopkins,K.B.&Herr,C.2010.Factorsaffectingthesuccessfulcryopreservationofhoneybee(Apismellifera)spermatozoa.Apidologie,41:548–556.Hopkins,B.K.,Herr,C.&Sheppard,W.S.2012.Sequentialgenerationsofhoneybee(Apismellifera)queensproducedusingcryopreservedsemen.Reproduction,FertilityandDevelopment,24(8):1079–1083.Hopper,K.R.,Roush,R.T.&Powell,W.1993.Managementofgeneticsofbiologicalcontrol.488thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREHunter,D.,Pouono,K.&Semisi,S.1998.TheimpactIFOAM(InternationalFederationofOrganicoftaroleafblightinthePacificIslandswithspecialAgricultureMovements).2017.TheIFOAMnormsreferencetoSamoa.JournalofSouthPacificfororganicproductionandprocessing.Version2014.Agriculture,5(2):44–56.Bonn,Germany,IFOAM-OrganicsInternational.Husch,B.1987.GuideilinesforforestpolicyIIASA&FAO.2012.Globalagro-ecologicalzones(GAEZformulation.FAOForestryPaperNo.81.Rome,FAO.v3.0).Laxenburg,Austria,InternationalInstitutefor(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap462e/AppliedSystemsAnalysis,andRome,FAO.ap462e00.pdf).Ilstedt,U.,BarguésTobella,A.,Bazié,H.R.,Bayala,Hussain,S.,Siddique,T.,Saleem,M.,Arshad,M.&J.,Verbeeten,E.,Nyberg,G.,Sanou,J.etKhalid,A.2009.Chapter5:Impactofpesticidesal.2016.Intermediatetreecovercanmaximizeonsoilmicrobialdiversity,enzymes,andbiochemicalgroundwaterrechargeintheseasonallydrytropics.reactions.AdvancesinAgronomy,102:159–200.ScientificReports,6:21930.Hylander,K.&Nemomissa,S.2008.HomegardenIPBES(IntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformcoffeeasarepositoryofepiphytebiodiversityinonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices).2014.Ethiopia.FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment,IPBES-4/1:WorkprogrammeofthePlatform.Bonn,6(10):524–528.Germany,SecretariatoftheIPBES.IAASTD(InternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalIPBES.2016a.Theassessmentreportonpollinators,Knowledge,ScienceandTechnologyforpollinationandfoodproductionoftheDevelopment).2009.Globalreport:agricultureataIntergovernmentalScience-policyPlatformoncrossroads.B.D.McIntyre,H.R.Herren,J.WakhunguBiodiversityandEcosystemServices.S.G.Potts,&R.T.Watson,eds.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/V.L.Imperatriz-Fonseca&H.T.Ngo,eds.Bonn,fileadmin/templates/est/Investment/Agriculture_at_a_SecretariatoftheIPBES.Crossroads_Global_Report_IAASTD.pdf).IPBES.2016b.SummaryforpolicymakersoftheIbrahim,A.,Reuter,G.S.&Spivak,M.2007.FieldassessmentreportoftheIntergovernmentalScience-trialofhoneybeecoloniesbredformechanismsofPolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemresistanceagainstVarroadestructor.Apidologie,Servicesonpollinators,pollinationandfood38:67–76.production.S.G.Potts,V.L.Imperatriz-Fonseca,H.T.Ngo,J.C.Biesmeijer,T.D.Breeze,L.V.Dicks,L.A.ICCAConsortium.2018.ICCAConsortium.(availableatGaribaldietal.,eds.Bonn,SecretariatoftheIPBES.https://www.iccaconsortium.org/).IPBES.2018a.SummaryforpolicymakersoftheICCARegistry.2012.ICCARegistryCaseStudies:thematicassessmentreportonlanddegradationandKawawana,Senegal.[Cited5April2018].http://restorationoftheIntergovernmentalScience-Policywww.iccaregistry.org/en/explore/Senegal/kawawana-PlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices.R.Scholes,L.Montanarella,A.Brainich,N.Barger,ICES(InternationalCouncilfortheExplorationB.tenBrink,M.Cantele,B.Erasmusetal.,eds.oftheSea).2013.ReportoftheICESAdvisoryBonn,Germany,SecretariatoftheIPBES.(availableCommittee2013.Book1:Introduction,overviewsathttps://www.ipbes.net/system/tdf/spm_3bi_ldr_andspecialrequests.Copenaghen.digital.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=28335).ICIPE(InternationalCentreofInsectPhysiologyandIPBES.2018b.ScienceandpolicyforpeopleandnatureEcology).2015.The“push-pull”farmingsystem:[online].Bonn,Germany.[Cited25June2018].https://climate-smart,sustainableagricultureforAfrica.www.ipbes.net/ipbes-science-policy-people-natureNairobi.IPBES.2018c.IPBES/6/INF/3/Rev.1.ChaptersoftheIckowitz,A.,Powell,B.,Salim,M.A.&Sunderland,regionalandsubregionalassessmentofbiodiversityT.C.H.2014.DietaryqualityandtreecoverinAfrica.andecosystemservicesforAfrica.Bonn,Germany,GlobalEnvironmentalChange,24(1):287–294.SecretariatoftheIntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices.IFA(InternationalForumforAgroecology).2015.DeclarationoftheInternationalForumforAgroecology.Development,58(2–3):163–168.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE489IPBES.2018d.IPBES/6/INF/4/Rev.1.ChaptersoftheIPK(LeibnizInstituteofPlantGeneticsandCropregionalandsubregionalassessmentofbiodiversityPlantResearch).2017.Mansfeld’sWorldDatabaseandecosystemservicesfortheAmericas.ofAgricultureandHorticulturalCrops.[CitedBonn,Germany,Germany,Secretariatofthe25June2018].http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/IntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonapex/f?p=185:3BiodiversityandEcosystemServices.Isaacs,R.&Kirk,A.K.2010.PollinationservicesIPBES.2018e.IPBES/6/INF/5/Rev.1.Chaptersoftheregionalprovidedtosmallandlargehighbushblueberryandsubregionalassessmentofbiodiversityandfieldsbywildandmanagedbees.JournalofAppliedecosystemservicesforAsiaandthePacific.Bonn,Ecology,47:841–849.Germany,SecretariatoftheIntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemservices.Isaacs,R.,Tuell,J.,Fiedler,A.,Gardiner,M.&Landis,D.2009.Maximizingarthropod-mediatedecosystemIPBES.forthcoming(a).Globalassessmentonbiodiversityservicesinagriculturallandscapes:theroleofnativeandecosystemservices.Bonn,Germany,Secretariatplants.FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment,oftheIPBES.7(4):196–203.IPBES.forthcoming(b).ThematicassessmentonlandIsaacs,R.,Blaauw,B.,Williams,N.,Kwapong,P.,degradationandrestoration.Bonn,Germany,Lee-Mäder,E.&Vaughan,M.2016.Farm-tailoredSecretariatoftheIPBES.measurestosustainandenhancepollinationservices.InB.Gemmill-Herren,ed.PollinationservicestoIPC(InternationalPlanningCommitteeforFoodagriculture–SustainingandenhancingakeySovereignty).forthcoming.Biodiversityforfoodandecosystemservice,pp.113–130.London,Routledge.agriculture:theperspectivesofsmall-scaleproviders.ThematicstudypreparedbytheIPCAgriculturalISC(InternationalScientificCommitteeforTunaBiodiversityWorkingGroupforTheStateoftheandTuna-LikeSpeciesintheNorthPacificWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Rome.Ocean).2018.StockassessmentofPacificbluefintuna(Thunnusorientalis)inthePacificOceaninIPCC(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange).2018.18thMeetingoftheInternationalScientific2012.ManagingtherisksofextremeeventsandCommitteeforTunaandTuna-LikeSpeciesinthedisasterstoadvanceclimatechangeadaptation.ANorthPacificOcean.Yeosu,RepublicofKorea,SpecialReportofWorkingGroupsIandIIofthe11–16July2018.(availableathttp://isc.fra.go.jp/IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.C.B.pdf/ISC18/ISC_18_ANNEX_14_Pacific_Bluefin_Tuna_Field,V.Barros,T.F.Stocker,D.Qin,D.J.Dokken,Stock_Assessment_2018_FINAL.pdf).K.L.Ebi,M.D.Mastrandrea,K.J.Mach,G.-K.Plattner,S.K.Allen,M.Tignor&P.M.Midgley,eds.Ishaq,S.L.&Wright,A.D.G.2014.DesignandCambridge,UK,CambridgeUniversityPress.validationoffournewprimersfornext-generationsequencingtotargetthe18SrRNAgenesIPCC.2014.Climatechange2014:impacts,adaptation,ofgastrointestinalciliateprotozoa.Appliedandvulnerability.PartA:Globalandsectoralaspects.EnvironmentalMicrobiology,80:5515–5521.ContributionofWorkingGroupIItotheFifthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelIslam,Z.,Heong,K.L.,Catling,D.&Kritani,K.2012.onClimateChange.Cambridge,UK,andNewYork,Invertebratesinriceproductionsystems:statusUSA,CambridgeUniversityPress.andtrends.CommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgricultureBackgroundStudyPaperNo.IPES-Food.2017.Toobigtofeed–Exploringthe62.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/impactsofmega-mergers,concentration,docrep/016/ap630e/ap630e.pdf).concentrationofpowerintheagri-foodsector.Brussels(availableathttp://www.ipes-food.org/_img/Isomura,N.,Iwao,K.&Fukami,H.2013.Possibleupload/files/Concentration_FullReport.pdf).naturalhybridizationoftwomorphologicallydistinctspeciesofAcropora(Cnidaria,Scleractinia)IPGRI&FAO.2001.BroadeningthegeneticbaseofcropinthePacific:fertilizationandlarvalsurvivalrates.production.H.D.Cooper,C.Spillane&T.Hodgkin,PLoSONE,8:e56701.eds.Wallingford,UK,CABI.490thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREIsomura,N.,Iwao,K.,Morita,M.&Fukami,H.2016.IUCN&WCPA.2018.ApplyingIUCN’sGlobalConservationSpawningandfertilityofF1hybridsofthecoralgenusStandardstoMarineProtectedAreas(MPA).DeliveringAcroporaintheIndo-Pacific.CoralReefs,35:851–855.effectiveconservationactionthroughMPAs,tosecureoceanhealthandsustainabledevelopment.VersionIsrailides,C.,Smith,A.,Scanlon,B.&Barnett,C.1999.1.0.Gland,Switzerland.Pullulanfromagroindustrialwastes.BiotechnologyandGeneticEngineeringReviews,16:309–324.IUCN&WRI.2014.AguidetotheRestorationOpportunitiesAssessmentMethodology(ROAM):ITTO(InternationalTropicalTimberOrganization).assessingforestlandscaperestorationopportunities2002.ITTOGuidelinesfortherestoration,atthenationalorsub-nationallevel.Gland,managementandrehabilitationofdegradedandSwitzerland,IUCN.secondarytropicalforests.Yokohama,Japan.Jackson,J.B.C.,Donovan,M.K.,Cramer,K.L.&Lam,IUCN(InternationalUnionforConservationofV.V.2014.StatusandtrendsofCaribbeancoralNature).2008.Definingprotectedareas:anreefs:1970-2012.GlobalCoralReefMonitoringinternationalconferenceinAlmeria,Spain,May2007.Network.IUCN,Gland,Switzerland.N.Dudley&S.Stolton,eds.Gland,Switzerland,IUCN.Jackson,E.L.,Rees,S.E.,Wilding,C.&Attrill,M.J.IUCN.2011.Thelandwegraze:asynthesisofcase2015.Useofaseagrassresidencyindextoapportionstudiesabouthowpastoralists’organizationscommercialfisherylandingvaluesandrecreationdefendtheirlandrights.Nairobi.(availableathttp://fisheriesexpendituretoseagrasshabitatservice.www.cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/land_rights_ConservationBiology,29(3):899–909.publication_english_web.pdf).Jaffé,R.,Dietemann,V.,Allsopp,M.H.,Costa,C.,IUCN.2012.IUCNRedListcategoriesandcriteria:Crewe,R.M.,Dall’olio,R.,DeLaRúa,P.etal.2010.Version3.1.SecondEdition.Cambridge,UK,andEstimatingthedensityofhoneybeecoloniesacrossGland,Switzerland.(availableathttps://www.iucn.theirnaturalrangetofillthegapinpollinatordeclineorg/km/content/iucn-red-list-categories-and-criteria-censuses.ConservationBiology,24(2):583–593.version-31-second-edition).James,R.&Pitts-Singer,T.L.2008.BeepollinationIUCN.2016a.Valuingourvultures.[Cited10April2018].inagriculturalecosystems.Oxford,UK,Oxfordhttps://www.iucn.org/content/valuing-our-vulturesUniversityPress.IUCN.2016b.RestorationofforestecosystemsandJamnadass,R.,Dawson,I.K.,Anegbeh,P.,Asaah,landscapesascontributiontotheAichiBiodiversityE.,Atangana,A.,Cordeiro,N.J.,Hendrickx,H.Targets.Gland,Switzerland.etal.2010.Allanblackia,anewtreecropinAfricafortheglobalfoodindustry:marketdevelopment,IUCN.2016c.AGlobalStandardfortheIdentificationofsmallholdercultivationandbiodiversitymanagement.KeyBiodiversityAreas,Version1.0.Gland,Switzerland.Forests,TreesandLivelihoods,19:251–268.IUCN.2017a.TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Jamnadass,R.H.,Dawson,I.A.K.,Iiyama,M.,Version2017-3.[Cited22March2018].http://www.Kehlenbeck,K.,Malézieux,E.,Masters,E.,iucnredlist.org/McMullin,S.etal.2013.Thebenefitsofagroforestrysystemsforfoodandnutritionalsecurity.Nairobi,ICRAF.IUCN.2017b.Genderandbiodiversity:analysisofwomenandgenderequalityconsiderationsinNationalJansen,T.&Sirikolo,M.Q.2010.PetanigakitaSiniqaniBiodiversityStrategiesandActionPlans(NBSAPs).Lauru–TheforestfoodsofLauru.Honiara,KastomWashington,DC,IUCNGlobalGenderOffice.GadenAssociation.IUCN.undated.Paramos.EnhancingcapacitiesandJaramillo,J.,Muchugu,E.,Vega,F.E.,Davis,A.,coordinationtocopewithclimatechangeeffects.Borgemeister,C.&Chabi-Olaye,A.2011.SomeCambridge,UKandGland,Switzerland.likeithot:theinfluenceandimplicationsofclimatechangeoncoffeeberryborer(HypothenemusIUCN&WCPA.2017.IUCNGreenListofProtectedandhampei)andcoffeeproductioninEastAfrica.ConservedAreas:Standard,Version1.1.Gland,PLoSONE,6(9):e24528.Switzerland,IUCN.(availableathttps://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/iucn_green_list_standard_version_1.1_nov_2017_3.pdf).thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE491Jaronski,S.T.&Goettel,M.S.1997.DevelopmentofJohns,T.&Eyzaguirre,P.B.2006.Linkingbiodiversity,Beauveriabassianaforcontrolofgrasshoppersanddietandhealthinpolicyandpractice.Thelocusts.MemoirsoftheEntomologicalSocietyofProceedingsoftheNutritionSociety,65(2):182–189.Canada,129:225–237.Johnson,D.V.&Nair,P.K.R.1985.Perennialcrop-Jarvis,A.,Upadhyaya,H.,Gowda,C.L.L.,Aggarwal,basedagroforestrysystemsinNortheastBrazil.P.K.,Fujisaka,S.&Anderson,B.2008.ClimateAgroforestrySystems,2(4):281–292.changeanditseffectonconservationanduseofplantgeneticresourcesforfoodandagricultureandJohnson,M.D.,Kellermann,J.L.&Stercho,A.M.2010.associatedbiodiversityforfoodsecurity.ThematicPestreductionservicesbybirdsinshadeandsuncoffeeBackgroundStudy.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://inJamaica.AnimalConservation,13(2):140–147.www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1500e/i1500e16.pdf).Johnson,P.T.J.,Ostfeld,R.S.&Keesing,F.2015.Jat,R.,Sahrawat,K.l.&Kassam,A.H.2014.Frontiersinresearchonbiodiversityanddisease.Conservationagriculture:globalprospectsandEcologyLetters,18(10):1119–1133.challenges.Wallingford,UK,CABI.JointFAO/WHOCodexAlimentariusCommission.Jepson,P.C.,Guzy,M.,Blaustein,K.,Sow,M.,Sarr,1999.Guidelinesfortheproduction,processing,M.,Mineau,P.&Kegley,S.2014.MeasuringlabellingandmarketingoforganicallyproducedpesticideecologicalandhealthrisksinWestAfricanfoods.GL32–1999.Rome,SecretariatoftheJointagriculturetoestablishanenablingenvironmentforFAO/WHOFoodStandardsProgramme.(availablesustainableintensification.PhilosophicalTransactionsatwww.fao.org/input/download/standards/360/oftheRoyalSocietyofLondon.SeriesB,Biologicalcxg%7B_%7D032e.pdf).Sciences,369(1639):20130491.JointGenomeInstitute.2017.ApprovedproposalsJha,R.K.2008.Anassessmentoffarm-leveluseofFY17genefunctioninrumenmicrobes.[Citedbio-pesticidesinNepal:acasestudybasedonIPM27April2018].https://jgi.doe.gov/gene-function-Farmers’FieldSchoolsofBhaktapurDistrict.3rdrumen-microbes/0/AnnualMeetingofPlantProtectionSocietyofNepal.Kathmandu,PlantProtectionSocietyofNepal.Jones,T.A.&Monaco,T.A.2009.AroleforassistedevolutionindesigningnativeplantmaterialsforJin,Y.K.,Lundgren,P.,Lutz,A.,Raina,J.-B.,Howells,domesticatedlandscapes.FrontiersinEcologyandE.J.,Paley,A.S.,Willis,B.L.&vanOppen,M.J.H.theEnvironment,7:541–547.2016.Geneticmarkersforantioxidantcapacityinareef-buildingcoral.ScienceAdvances,2(5):e1500842.Jones,K.E.,Patel,N.G.,Levy,M.A.,Storeygard,A.,Balk,D.,Gittleman,J.L.&Daszak,P.2008.GlobalJodha,N.S.1992.Commonpropertyresources:amissingtrendsinemerginginfectiousdiseases.Nature,dimensionofdevelopmentstrategies.WorldBank451(7181):990–993.DiscussionPapersNo.169.Washington,DC,WorldBank.Jongema,Y.2017.Worldwidelistofrecordededibleinsects.Updated1April2017.https://www.wur.Johansen,C.A.,Mayer,D.F.&Eves,J.D.1978.Biologynl/upload_mm/8/a/6/0fdfc700-3929-4a74-8b69-andmanagementofthealkalibee,Nomiamelanderif02fd35a1696_Worldwide%20list%20of%20Cockerell(Hymenoptera,Halictidae).Melanderia,edible%20insects%202017.pdf28:25–46.Jonsson,M.,Wratten,S.D.,Landis,D.A.&Gurr,G.M.John,R.P.,Tyagi,R.D.,Prévost,D.,Brar,S.K.,2008.RecentadvancesinconservationbiologicalPouleur,S.&Surampalli,R.Y.2010.Mycoparasiticcontrolofarthropodsbyarthropods.BiologicalTrichodermavirideasabiocontrolagentagainstControl,45:172–175.Fusariumoxysporumf.sp.adzukiandPythiumarrhenomanesandasagrowthpromoterofJoost,S.,Bonin,A.,Bruford,M.W.,Després,L.,soybean.CropProtection,29(12):1452–1459.Conord,C.,Erhardt,G.&Taberlet,P.2007.Aspatialanalysismethod(SAM)todetectcandidatelociforselection:towardsalandscapegenomicsapproachtoadaptation.MolecularEcology,16(18):3955–3969.492thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREJordan,N.R.,Aldrich-Wolfe,L.,Huerd,S.C.,Kapulnik,Y.&Kushnir,U.1991.GrowthdependencyLarson,D.L.&Muehlbauer,G.2012.Soil–ofwild,primitiveandmoderncultivatedwheatlinesoccupancyeffectsofinvasiveandnativegrasslandonvesicular-arbuscularmycorrhizafungi.Euphytica,plantspeciesoncompositionanddiversityof56(1):27–36.mycorrhizalassociations.InvasivePlantScienceandManagement,5(4):494–505.Karp,D.S.,Mendenhall,C.D.,Sandí,R.F.,Chaumont,N.,Ehrlich,P.R.,Hadly,E.A.&Daily,G.C.2013.Kaewchai,S.,Soytong,K.&Hyde,K.D.2009.Forestbolstersbirdabundance,pestcontrolandMycofungicidesandfungalbiofertilizers.Fungalcoffeeyield.EcologyLetters,16(11):1339–1347.Diversity,38:25–50.Karr,K.,Fujita,R.,Halpenin,S.,Kapel,C.,Crowder,Kaewpaitoon,K.1992.Utilizationofseptage-raisedL.,Selkoe,K.,Alcolado,P.&Roder,D.2015.tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus)asfeedforsnakeheadThresholdsinCaribbeancoralreefs:implicationsfor(Channastriates).KhlongNueng,Thailand.Asianecosystem-basedfisherymanagement.JournalofInstituteofTechnology.AppliedEcology,52(2):402–412.Kahane,R.,Hodgkin,T.,Jaenicke,H.,Hoogendoorn,Karvonen,A.,Aalto-Araneda,M.,Virtala,A.M.,C.,Hermann,M.,DynoKeatinge,J.D.H.,Kortet,R.,Koski,P.&Hyvärinen,P.2016.EnrichedD’ArrosHughes,J.,Padulosi,S.&Looney,N.rearingenvironmentandwildgeneticbackground2013.Agrobiodiversityforfoodsecurity,healthandcanenhancesurvivalanddiseaseresistanceofincome.AgronomyforSustainableDevelopment,salmonidfishesduringparasiteepidemics.Journalof33(4):671–693.AppliedEcology,53(1):213–221.Kairis,O.,Karavitis,C.,Salvati,L.,Kounalaki,A.&Kassam,A.,Friedrich,T.&Derpsch,R.2017.GlobalKosmas,K.2015.Exploringtheimpactofovergrazingspreadofconservationagriculture:interimupdateonsoilerosionandlanddegradationinadry2015/16.InM.L.C.Bartz,R.Fuentes&R.Ralisch,Mediterraneanagro-forestlandscape(Crete,Greece).eds.Proceedingsofthe7thWorldCongressonAridLandResearchandManagement,29(3):360–374.ConservationAgriculture.1-4August2017,Rosario,Argentina,pp.16–19.Curitiba,Brazil,PositivoKakuru,O.V,Doreen,M.&Wilson,M.2014.UniversityLibrary.Adoptionofon-farmtreeplantinginKibaaleDistrict,WesternUganda.JournalofSustainableForestry,Kassam,A.,Friedrich,T.&Derpsch,R.2018.33(1):87–98.Globalspreadofconservationagriculture.InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalStudies,DOI:Kala,C.P.2009.Aboriginalusesandmanagementof10.1080/00207233.2018.1494927ethnobotanicalspeciesindeciduousforestsofChhattisgarhStateinIndia.JournalofEthnobiologyKassam,A.,Saidi,M.&Friedrich,T.,eds.2017.andEthnomedicine,5:20.ConservationagricultureforAfrica:buildingresilientfarmingsystemsinachangingclimate.Wallingford,Kålås,J.A.,Viken,Å.,Henriksen,S.&Skjelseth,S.UK,CABI.2010.The2010NorwegianRedListforSpecies.Trondheim,Norway,NorwegianBiodiversityKassam,A.,Friedrich,T.,Shaxson,F.&Pretty,J.InformationCentre.2009.Thespreadofconservationagriculture:justification,sustainabilityanduptake.InternationalKanbe,Y.,Okada,I.,Yoneda,M.,Goka,K.&JournalofAgriculturalSustainability,7(4):292–320.Tsuchida,K.2008.InterspecificmatingoftheintroducedbumblebeeBombusterrestrisKassam,A.,Basch,G.,Friedrich,T.,Shaxson,F.,andthenativeJapanesebumblebeeBombusGoddard,T.,Amado,T.,Crabtree,B.,Hongwen,hypocritasapporoensisresultsininviablehybrids.L.,Mello,I.,Pisante,M.&S.,M.2013.SustainableNaturwissenschaften,10:1003–1008.soilmanagementismorethanwhatandhowcropsaregrown.InR.Lal&B.A.Stewart,eds.PrinciplesofKang,B.T.,Wilson,G.F.&Sipkens,L.1981.Alleysoilmanagementinagro-ecosystems,pp.337–400.croppingmaize(ZeamaysL.)andleucaenaBocaRaton,USA,CRCPress.(LeucaenaleucocephalaLam)insouthernNigeria.PlantandSoil,63(2):165–179.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE493Kassam,A.,Friedrich,T.,Derpsch,R.&Kienzle,Kennedy,G.,Nantel,G.&Shetty,P.2004.J.2015.OverviewoftheworldwidespreadofGlobalizationoffoodsystemsindevelopingconservationagriculture.FieldActionsSciencecountries:asynthesisofcountrycasestudies.Reports,8:1–11.Globalizationoffoodsystemsindevelopingcountries:impactonfoodsecurityandnutrition,Kastl,B.2014.Reducingdisasterriskstomangrovepp.1–26.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.forestlivelihoodsthroughwatershed-basedorg/3/a-y5736e.pdf).protectedareamanagement.InR.Murti&C.Buvck,eds.Safehavens:protectedareasfordisasterriskKennedy,G.L.,Pedro,M.R.,Seghieri,C.,Nantel,G.&reductionandclimatechangeadaptation,pp.Brouwer,I.2007.Dietarydiversityscoreisauseful22–32.Gland,Switzerland,IUCN.indicatorofmicronutrientintakeinnon-breast-feedingFilipinochildren.TheJournalofNutrition,Kaumbutho,P.&Kienzle.,J.2007.Conservation137(2):472–477.agricultureaspractisedinKenya:twocasestudies.Nairobi,AfricanConservationTillageNetwork,Kennedy,C.M.,Lonsdorf,E.,Neel,M.C.,Williams,CIRAD&FAO.N.M.,Ricketts,T.H.,Winfree,R.,Bommarco,R.etal.2013.AglobalquantitativesynthesisoflocalKeesing,F.,Belden,L.K.,Daszak,P.,Dobson,A.,andlandscapeeffectsonwildbeepollinatorsinHarvell,C.D.,Holt,R.D.,Hudson,P.etal.agroecosystems.EcologyLetters,16(5):584–599.2010.Impactsofbiodiversityontheemergenceandtransmissionofinfectiousdiseases.Nature,Kennedy,G.,Stoian,D.,Hunter,D.,Kikulwe,468(7324):647–652.E.,Termote,C.,Alders,R.,Burlingame,B.,Jamnadass,R.,McMullin,S.&Thilsted,S.Kefuss,J.,Vanpoucke,J.,Bolt,M.&Kefuss,C.2015.2017.Foodbiodiversityforhealthy,diversediets.SelectionforresistancetoVarroadestructorunderInBioversityInternational,ed.Mainstreamingcommercialbeekeepingconditions.Journalofagrobiodiversityinsustainablefoodsystems:ApiculturalResearch,54:563–576.Scientificfoundationsforanagrobiodiversityindex–Summary,pp.10–13.Rome,BioversityInternational.Kehlenbeck,K.,Kindt,R.,Sinclair,F.L.,Simons,A.J.&Jamnadass,R.2011.ExotictreespeciesdisplaceKerr,J.T.,Pindar,A.,Galpern,P.,Packer,L.,Potts,indigenousonesonfarmsatintermediatealtitudesS.G.,Roberts,S.M.,Rasmont,P.etal.2015.aroundMountKenya.AgroforestrySystems,83:Climatechangeimpactsonbumblebeesconverge133–147.acrosscontinents.Science,349(6244):177–180.Keleman,A.&Hellin,J.2009.SpecialtymaizevarietiesKessler,J.J.1992.Theinfluenceofkarité(VitellariainMexico:acasestudyinmarket-drivenagro-paradoxa)andnéré(Parkiabiglobosa)treesonbiodiversityconservation.JournalofLatinAmericansorghumproductioninBurkinaFaso.AgroforestryGeography,8(2):147–174.Systems,17:97–118.Keller,R.P.,Geist,J.,Jeschke,J.M.&Kühn,L.2011.Kgosikoma,O.E.&Mogotsi,K.2013.UnderstandingInvasivespeciesinEurope:ecology,status,andthecausesofbushencroachmentinAfrica:thekeypolicy.EnvironmentalSciencesEurope,23(1):23–40.toeffectivemanagementofsavannagrasslands.TropicalGrasslands,1(2):215–219.Kemp,R.,Howard,P.,Allcock,L.,Carpenter,K.,Obura,D.,Polidoro,B.&Rishmont,N.2012.Khoury,C.K.,Bjorkman,A.D.,Dempewolf,H.,Ramirez-Marineinvertebratelife.InB.Collen,M.Böhm,R.Villegas,J.,Guarino,L.,Jarvis,A.,Rieseberg,L.H.Kemp&J.E.M.Baillie,eds.Spineless:statusand&Struik,P.C.2014.Increasinghomogeneityinglobaltrendsoftheworld’sinvertebrates,pp.34–44.foodsuppliesandtheimplicationsforfoodsecurity.London,ZoologicalSocietyofLondon.PNAS,111(11):4001–4006.Keneni,G.,Bekele,E.,Imtiaz,M.&Dagne,K.2012.Khoury,C.K.&Jarvis,A.2014.ThechangingGeneticvulnerabilityofmoderncropcultivars:compositionoftheglobaldiet:implicationsforCGIARcauses,mechanismandremedies.Internationalresearch.CIATPolicyBriefNo.18.Cali,Colombia.JournalofPlantResearch,2(3):69–79.CentroInternacionaldeAgriculturaTropical.494thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREKindt,R.,Kalinganire,A.,Larwanou,M.,Belem,M.,CollegeStation,USA,CollegeStation:AgriculturalDakouo,J.M.,Bayala,J.&Kaire,M.2008.SpeciesCommunications,TheTexasA&MUniversitySystem.accumulationwithinlanduseandtreediameterKobori,C.N.&RodriguezAmaya,D.B.2008.categoriesinBurkinaFaso,Mali,NigerandSenegal.UncultivatedBraziliangreenleavesarerichersourcesBiodiversityandConservation,17:1905–1993.ofcarotenoidsthanarecommerciallyproducedleafyvegetables.FoodandNutritionBulletin,29(4):Kindt,R.,Ahmad,M.,Onkware,B.,John,I.,Vagen,320–328.T.-G.,vanBreugel,P.&Lillesø,J.-P.2017.AfricaKoelmans,A.A.,Gouin,T.,Thompson,R.,Wallace,treefinder.Version2.WorldAgroforestryCentre.N.&Arthur,C.2014.Plasticsinthemarineenvironment.EnvironmentalToxicologyandKing,K.C.&Lively,C.M.2012.DoesgeneticdiversityChemistry,33(1):5–10.limitdiseasespreadinnaturalhostpopulations.Koeniger,N.,Koeniger,G.,Ellis,J.&Connor,L.Heredity(Edinb.),109(4):199–203.2014.Matingbiologyofhoneybees(Apismellifera).Kalamazoo,USA,WickwasPressLLC.Kiptot,E.,Franzel,S.&Degrande,A.2014.Gender,Koffa,S.N.&Roshetko,J.M.1999.Farmer-managedagroforestryandfoodsecurityinAfrica.Currentgermplasmproduction-diffusionpathwaysinOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,6:104–109.Lantapan,Phillipines.InJ.M.Roshetko&D.O.Evans,eds.DomesticationofagroforestrytreesinKittelmann,S.,Devente,S.R.,Kirk,M.R.,Seedorf,southeastAsia:proceedingsofaregionalworkshop,H.,Dehority,B.A.&Janssen,P.H.2015.Yogyakarta,IndonesiaNovember4-7,1997,pp.Phylogenyofintestinalciliates,includingCharonina142–150.Nairobi,ICRAF.ventriculi,andcomparisonofmicroscopyandKöhler-Rollefson,I.,Mathias,E.,Singh,H.,18SrRNAgenepyrosequencingforrumenciliateVivekanandan,P.&Wanyama,J.2010.Livestockcommunitystructureanalysis.AppliedEnvironmentalkeepers’rights:thestateofdiscussion.AnimalMicrobiology,81:2433–2444.GeneticResources,47:1–5.Konnert,M.,Maurer,W.,Degan,B.&Kätzel,R.Kjøhl,M.,Nielsen,A.&Stenseth,N.C.2011.Potential2011.Geneticmonitoringinforests-earlywarningeffectsofclimatechangeoncroppollination.Rome,andcontrollingsystemforecosystemicchanges.FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i2242e.pdf).iForest,4:77–81.Koohafkan,P.&Altieri,M.A.2010.GloballyImportantKlein,A.M.,Vaissiere,B.E.,Cane,J.H.,Steffan-AgriculturalHeritageSystems.AlegacyfortheDewenter,I.,Cunningham,S.A.,Kremen,C.&future.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/Tscharntke,T.2007.Importanceofpollinatorsindocrep/014/i2232e/i2232e00.htm).changinglandscapesforworldcrops.ProceedingsofKoskela,J.,Vinceti,B.,Dvorak,W.,Bush,D.,theRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,274(1608):Dawson,I.,Loo,J.,Kjaer,E.D.etal.2009.The303–313.useandexchangeofforestgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.CommissiononGeneticKlein,A.M.,Brittain,C.,Hendrix,S.D.,Thorp,R.,ResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundWilliams,N.&Kremen,C.2012.WildpollinationStudyPaperNo.44.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://servicestoCaliforniaalmondrelyonsemi-naturalwww.fao.org/3/a-ak565e.pdf).habitat.JournalofAppliedEcology,49(3):723–732.Koskela,J.,Lefèvre,F.,Schueler,S.,Kraigher,H.,Olrik,D.C.,Hubert,J.,Longauer,R.etal.2013.Kluger,L.C.,Taylor,M.H.,Mendo,J.,Tam,J.&Wolff,Translatingconservationgeneticsintomanagement:M.2016.CarryingcapacitysimulationsasatoolforPan-Europeanminimumrequirementsfordynamicecosystem-basedmanagementofascallopaquacultureconservationunitsofforesttreegeneticdiversity.system.EcologicalModelling,331:44–55.BiologicalConservation,157:39–49.Kneafsey,M.,Cox,R.,Holloway,L.,Dowler,E.,Venn,L.&Tuomainen,T.2008.Reconnectingconsumers,producersandfood:exploringalternatives.Oxford,UK,BergPublishers.Knutson,A.1998.Thetrichogrammamanual:aguidetotheuseoftrichogrammaforbiologicalcontrolwithspecialreferencetoaugmentativereleasesforcontrolofbollwormandbudwormincotton.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE495Kovács-Hostyánszki,A.,Espíndola,A.,Vanbergen,Kwapong,P.,Aidoo,K.,Combey,R.&Karikari,A.A.J.,Settele,J.,Kremen,C.&Dicks,L.V.2017.2010.Stinglessbees:importance,managementEcologicalintensificationtomitigateimpactsofandutilisation:atrainingmanualforstinglessbeeconventionalintensivelanduseonpollinatorsandkeeping.AccraNorth,Ghana,UNIMAXMacmillan.pollination.EcologyLetters,20(5):673–689.Läderach,P.,Ramirez–Villegas,J.,Navarro-Racines,Krell,R.1996.Valueaddedproductsfrombeekeeping.C.,Zelaya,C.,Martinez–Valle,A.&Jarvis,FAOAgriculturalServicesBulletin.No.124.Rome,A.2017.ClimatechangeadaptationofcoffeeFAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/productioninspaceandtime.ClimaticChange,w0076e/w0076e00.htm%7B#%7Dcon).141(1):47–62.Kremen,C.&Merenlender,A.M.2018.LandscapesLaffoley,D.&Grimsditch,G.2009.Themanagementthatworkforbiodiversityandpeople.Science,ofnaturalcoastalcarbonsinks.Cambridge,UK,and362(6412):eaau6020.Gland,Switzerland,IUCN.Kremen,C.&Miles,A.2012.EcosystemservicesinLagucki,E.,Burdine,J.D.&McCluney,K.E.2017.biologicallydiversifiedversusconventionalfarmingUrbanizationalterscommunitiesofflyingarthropodssystems:benefits,externalitites,andtrade-offs.inparksandgardensofamedium-sizedcity.PeerJ,EcologyandSociety,17(4):1–23.5:e3620.Kremen,C.,Williams,N.M.&Thorp,R.W.2002.CropLaidlaw,H.H.1977.Instrumentalinseminationofhoneypollinationfromnativebeesatriskfromagriculturalbeequeens.Hamilton,USA,DadantPublications.intensification.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,99(26):16812–16816.Lambin,E.F.,Gibbs,H.K.,Ferreira,L.,Grau,R.,Mayaux,P.,Meyfroidt,P.,Morton,D.C.,Rudel,Kristjansson,K.&Rasmussen,K.1991.PollinationT.K.,Gasparri,I.&Munger,J.2013.Estimatingofsweetpepper(CapsicumannuumL.)withthetheworld’spotentiallyavailablecroplandusingasolitarybeeOsmiacornifrons(Radoszkowski).Actabottom-upapproach.GlobalEnvironmentalChange,Horticulturae,288:172–179.23(5):892–901.Kuczera,G.1987.PredictionofwateryieldreductionsLamers,H.A.H.,Kruijssen,F.,Sthapit,B.R.&followingabushfireinash-mixedspecieseucalyptRamanathaRao,V.2016.Howcanmarketsforest.JournalofHydrology,94(3–4):215–236.contributetotheconservationofagriculturalbiodiversityonfarms?Fromtheoryintopractice.InKumar,B.M.2006.CarbonsequestrationpotentialofB.R.Sthapit,H.A.H.Lamers,R.V.Rao&A.Bailey,tropicalhomegardens.InB.M.Kumar&P.K.R.Nair,eds.Tropicalfruittreediversity:goodpracticesforeds.Tropicalhomegardens:atime-testedexampleinsituandon-farmconservation,pp.253–284.ofsustainableagroforestry,pp.185–204.Dordrecht,Abingdon,UK,Routledge.Netherlands,Springer.Lamien,N.,Sidibe,A.&Bayala,J.1996.UseandKumar,B.M.&Nair,P.K.R.2006.Tropicalhomegardens:commercializationofnon-timberforestproductsatime-testedexampleofsustainableagroforestry.inwesternBurkinaFaso.DomesticationandVol.3.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.commercializationofnon-timberforestproductsinagroforestrysystems,Non-WoodForestProducts9.Kumar,R.,McInnes,R.J.,Everard,M.,Gardner,R.C.,Rome,FAO.Kulindwa,K.A.A.,Wittmer,H.&InfanteMata,D.2017.IntegratingmultiplewetlandvaluesintoLande,R.&Barrowclough,G.1987.Effectivedecision-making.RamsarPolicyBriefNo.2.Gland,populationsize,geneticvariation,andtheiruseSwitzerland,RamsarConventionSecretariat.inpopulationmanagement.InM.E.Soulé,ed.Viablepopulationsforconservation,pp.87–123.Kusler,J.2009.Wetlandsandnaturalhazards.Windham,Cambridge,UK,CambridgeUniversityPress.USA,AssociationofStateWetlandsManagers.Landis,D.A.2017.DesigningagriculturallandscapesKuyper,E.,Vitta,B.&Dewey,K.2013.Novelandforbiodiversity-basedecosystemservices.BasicandunderusedfoodsourcesofkeynutrientsforAppliedEcology,18:1–12.complementaryfeeding.Washington,DC,Alive&ThriveTechnicalBrief6.496thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURELandis,D.,Wratten,S.&Gurr,G.2000.HabitatLaurans,Y.,Rankovic,A.,Billé,R.,Pirard,R.&managementtoconservenaturalenemiesofMermet,L.2013.Useofecosystemservicesarthropodpestsinagriculture.AnnualReviewofeconomicvaluationfordecisionmaking:questioningEntomology,45(1):175–201.aliteratureblindspot.JournalofEnvironmentalManagement,119:208–219.Landon-Lane,C.2011.Livelihoodsgrowingardens:diversifyingruralincomesthroughhomegardens.Lautenbach,S.,Seppelt,R.,Liebscher,J.&Dormann,Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/C.F.2012.Spatialandtemporaltrendsofglobaldocrep/015/i2463e/i2463e00.pdf).pollinationbenefit.PLoSONE,7(4):e35954.Lang,K.,Schuldes,J.,Klingl,A.,Poehlein,A.,Lazard,J.&Dabbadie,L.2002.FreshwateraquacultureDaniel,R.&Brune,A.2015.Newmodeofenergyandpolyculture.InP.Safran,ed.Fisheriesandmetabolismintheseventhorderofmethanogensaquaculture:towardssustainableaquaticlivingasrevealedbycomparativegenomeanalysisofresourcesmanagement.EncyclopediaofLifeSupport“CandidatusMethanoplasmatermitum”.AppliedSystems(EOLSS).DevelopedundertheauspicesoftheEnvironmentalMicrobiology,81:1338–1352.UNESCO,p.30.Oxford,UK,EOLSSPublishers.Lang,T.,Barling,D.&Caraher,M.2009.foodpolicy:Lazarovits,G.2001.Managementofsoil-borneplantintegratinghealthenvironmentandsociety.Oxford,pathogenswithorganicsoilamendments:adiseaseUK,OxfordUniversityPress.control.CanadianJournalofMicrobiology,23(1):1–7.Lange,M.,Eisenhauer,N.,Sierra,C.A.,Bessler,H.,Lazos-Chavero,E.2016.StakeholdersandtropicalEngels,C.,Griffiths,R.I.,Mellado-Vázquez,reforestation:challenges,trade-offs,andstrategiesP.G.etal.2015.Plantdiversityincreasessoilindynamicenvironments.Biotropica,48:900–914.microbialactivityandsoilcarbonstorage.NatureCommunications,6:6707.Leadley,P.W.,Krug,C.B.,Alkemade,R.,Pereira,H.M.,Sumaila,U.R.,Walpole,M.,Marques,A.Langellotto,G.A.&Denno,R.F.2004.Responsesofetal.2014.ProgresstowardstheAichiBiodiversityinvertebratenaturalenemiestocomplex-structuredTargets:anassessmentofbiodiversitytrends,policyhabitats:ameta-analyticalsynthesis.Oecologia,scenariosandkeyactions.CBDTechnicalSeriesNo.139(1):1–10.78.Montreal,Canada,SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Larios,C.,Casas,A.,Vallejo,M.,Moreno-Calles,A.I.I.&Blancas,J.2013.PlantmanagementandLeahy,S.C.,Kelly,W.J.,Altermann,E.,Ronimus,R.S.,biodiversityconservationinNáhuatlhomegardensofYeoman,C.J.,Pacheco,D.M.,Li,D.etal.2010.theTehuacánValley,Mexico.JournalofEthnobiologyThegenomesequenceoftherumenmethanogenandEthnomedicine,9(1):74–90.MethanobrevibacterruminantiumrevealsnewpossibilitiesforcontrollingruminantmethaneLarsen,L.G.,Choi,J.,Nungesser,M.K.&Harvey,emissions.PLoSONE,5(1):e8926.J.W.2012.Directionalconnectivityinhydrologyandecology.EcologicalApplications,22(8):2204–2220.Leakey,R.R.B.1996.Definitionofagroforestryrevisited.AgroforestryToday,8(1):5–7.Latawiec,A.E.,Strassburg,B.B.N.,Brancalion,P.H.S.,Rodrigues,R.R.&Gardner,T.2015.Leakey,R.R.B.2010.Agroforestry:adeliverymechanismCreatingspaceforlarge-scalerestorationintropicalformulti-functionalagriculture.InL.R.Kellimore,ed.agriculturallandscapes.FrontiersinEcologyandtheHandbookofagroforestry:managementpracticesEnvironment,13:211–218.andenvironmentalimpact,pp.461–471.Hauppage,USA,NovaSciencePublishers.Laurance,W.F.,Sayer,J.&Cassman,K.G.2014.AgriculturalexpansionanditsimpactsontropicalLeaky,R.,Caron.P.,Craufurd,P.,Martin,A.,McDonald,nature.TrendsinEcology&Evolution,29:107–116.A.,Abedini,W.,Afiff,S.etal.2009.ImpactsofAKSTondevelopmentandsustainabilitygoals.InLaurans,Y.,Ruat,R.&Barthélemy,P.2016.CountingB.D.McIntyre,H.R.Herren,J.Wakhungu&R.T.onnature:howgovernmentsplantorelyonWatson,eds.InternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalecosystemsfortheirclimatestrategies.IDDRIIssueKnowledge,ScienceandTechnologyforDevelopmentBriefNo.5.Paris,IDDRI.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE497(IAASTD):Agricultureatacrossroads,globalreport,onfirepotentialbetweengrasslandstructuraltypes.pp.145–253.Washington,DC,IslandPress.JournalofAppliedEcology,47(4):876–883.Leakey,R.R.B.,Weber,J.C.,Page,T.,Cornelius,J.P.,Letourneau,D.K.,Fitzsimmons,M.I.&Nieto,D.J.Akinnifesi,F.K.,Roshetko,J.M.,Tchoundjeu,2017.Approachesinplantprotection–science,Z.&Jamnadass,R.2012.Treedomesticationintechnology,environmentandsociety.InM.Coll&agroforestry:progressintheseconddecade.InP.K.R.E.Wajnberg,eds.EnvironmentalpestmanagementNair&D.P.Garrity,eds.Thefutureofagroforestry,withintheenvironment:challengesforagronomists,pp.145–173.NewYork,USA,Springer.ecologists,economistsandpolicymakers,LeConte,Y.,Ellis,M.&Ritter,W.2010.Varroamitespp.21–53.Hoboken,USA,JohnWiley&Sons.andhoneybeehealth:canVarroaexplainpartoftheLetourneau,D.K.,Jedlicka,J.A.,Bothwell,S.G.colonylosses?Apidologie,41:353–363.&Moreno,C.R.2009.EffectsofnaturalenemyLee,D.J.&Gordon,R.M.2006.Economicsofbiodiversityonthesuppressionofarthropodaquacultureandinvasiveaquaticspecies–anherbivoresinterrestrialecosystems.AnnualReviewofoverview.AquacultureEconomicsandManagement,Ecology,Evolution,andSystematics,40(1):573–592.10(2):83–96.Lévêque,C.,Oberdorff,T.,Paugy,D.,Stiassny,Lee,S.,Iwasaki,Y.,Shikina,S.&Yoshizaki,G.2013.M.L.J.&Tedesco,P.A.2008.GlobaldiversityofGenerationoffunctionaleggsandspermfromfish(Pisces)infreshwater.Hydrobiologia,595(1):cryopreservedwholetestes.Proceedingsofthe545–567.NationalAcademyofSciences,110(5):1640–1645.Ley,R.E.,Hamady,M.,Lozupone,C.,Turnbaugh,P.J.,Lefèvre,F.2004.HumanimpactsonforestgeneticRamey,R.R.,Bircher,J.S.,Schlegel,M.L.etal.resourcesinthetemperatezone:anupdatedreview.2008.Evolutionofmammalsandtheirgutmicrobes.ForestEcologyandManagement,197(1–3):257–271.Science,320(5883):1647–1651.Lefèvre,F.,Koskela,J.,Hubert,J.,Kraigher,H.,Li,Y.,Leahy,S.C.,Jeyanathan,J.,Henderson,G.,Longauer,R.,Olrik,D.C.,Schüler,S.etal.2013.Cox,F.,Altermann,E.,Kelly,W.J.&Lambie,S.C.Dynamicconservationofforestgeneticresourcesin2016.Thecompletegenomeofthemethanogenic33Europeancountries.ConservationBiology,archaeonISO4-H5providesinsightsintothe27(2):373–384.methylotrophiclifestyleofaruminalrepresentativeLefèvre,F.,Boivin,T.,Bontemps,A.,Courbet,F.,oftheMethanomassiliicoccales.StandardsinDavi,H.,Durand-Gillmann,M.,Fady,B.J.etal.GenomicSciences,11(1):59.2014.ConsideringevolutionaryprocessesinadaptiveLiang,J.,Crowther,T.W.,Picard,N.,Wiser,S.,Zhou,forestry.AnnalsofForestScience,71(7):723–739.M.,Alberti,G.,Schulze,E.D.etal.2016.PositiveLehmann,J.,Rillig,M.C.,Thies,J.,Masiello,C.A.,biodiversity-productivityrelationshippredominantinHockaday,W.C.&Crowley,D.2011.Biochareffectsglobalforests.Science,354(6309):196.onsoilbiota–areview.Soil,43(9):1812–1836.Liang,J.,Yu,K.,Wang,Y.,Huang,X.,Huang,W.,LEI(Landbouw-EconomischInstitut).2015.AgrimatieQin,Z.,Pan,Z.,Yao,Q.,Wang,W.&Wu,Z.-informatieoverdeagrosector.Wageningen,2017.DistinctbacterialcommunitiesassociatedNetherlands,WageningenUniversity&Research.withmassiveandbranchingscleractiniancoralsandLemessa,F.&Wakjira,M.2015.Covercropsaspotentiallinkagestocoralsusceptibilitytothermalorameansofecologicalweedmanagementincoldstress.FrontiersinMicrobiology,8:979.agroecosystems.JournalofCropScienceandLiebman,M.&Davis,A.S.2000.Integrationofsoil,Biotechnology,18(2):133–145.cropandweedmanagementinlow-external-inputLenné,J.M.&Wood,D.2011.Agrobiodiversityfarmingsystems.WeedResearch,40(1):27–47.managementforfoodsecurity:acriticalreview.Lightner,D.V.2011.StatusofshrimpdiseasesandWallingford,UK,CABI.advancesinshrimphealthmanagement.DiseasesLeonard,S.,Kirkpatrick,J.&Marsden-Smedley,J.inAsianaquacultureVII,pp.121–134.Selangor,2010.VariationintheeffectsofvertebrategrazingMalaysia,FishHealthSection,AsianFisheriesSociety.498thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURELillesø,J.B.L.,Graudal,L.,Moestrup,S.,Kjær,E.D.,inKalkBay,SouthAfrica,December2008.KalkBay,Kindt,R.,Mbora,A.,Dawson,I.,Muriuki,J.,SouthAfrica.Ræbild,A.&Jamnadass,R.2011.InnovationinLovreglio,R.,Meddour-Sahar,O.&Leone,V.2014.inputsupplysystemsinsmallholderagroforestry:Goatgrazingasawildfirepreventiontool:abasicseedsources,supplychainsandsupportsystems.review.IForest,7(4):260–268.AgroforestrySystems,83(3):347–359.Lowder,S.K.,Skoet,J.&Raney,T.2016.Thenumber,size,anddistributionoffarms,smallholderfarms,Lillesø,J.P.B.,Harwood,C.,Derero,A.,Graudal,andfamilyfarmsworldwide.WorldDevelopment,L.,Roshetko,J.M.,Kindt,R.,Moestrup,S.87:16–29.etal.2018.WhyinstitutionalenvironmentsforLowder,S.K.,Skoet,J.&Singh,S.2014.Whatdoagroforestryseedsystemsmatter.DevelopmentwereallyknowaboutthenumberanddistributionPolicyReview,36(September2015):O89–O112.offarmsandfamilyfarmsworldwide?BackgroundpaperforTheStateofFoodandAgricultureLin,B.B.2007.Agroforestrymanagementasanadaptive2014.ESAWorkingPaperNo.14-02.Rome,FAO.strategyagainstpotentialmicroclimateextremes(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i3729e.pdf).incoffeeagriculture.AgriculturalandForestLowe,C.N.,Butt,K.R.&Sherman,R.L.2014.CurrentMeteorology,144(1–2):85–94.andpotentialbenefitsofmassearthwormculture.InJ.Morales-Ramos,M.Guadalupe-Rojas&D.I.Shapiro-Lithgow,D.,delaLanza,G.&Silva,R.2017.Ilan,eds.Massproductionofbeneficialorganisms,pp.Ecosystem-basedmanagementstrategiestoimprove683–709.Cambridge,USA,AcademicPress.aquacultureindevelopingcountries:casestudyofLPP,LIFENetwork,IUCN–WISP&FAO.2010.AddingMarismasNacionales.EcologicalEngineering,Inpress.valuetolivestockdiversity–Marketingtopromotelocalbreedsandimprovelivelihoods.FAOAnimalLitrico,I.&Violle,C.2015.Diversityinplantbreeding:ProductionandHealthPaper.No.168.Rome,FAO.anewconceptualframework.TrendsinPlant(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1283e/Science,20(10):604–613.i1283e00.htm).Lucas,R.,Blonda,P.,Bunting,P.,Jones,G.,Inglada,Lo,C.C.2010.EffectofpesticidesonsoilmicrobialJ.,Arias,M.,Kosmidou,V.etal.2015.Theearthcommunity.JournalofEnvironmentalScienceandobservationdataforhabitatmonitoring(EODHaM)Health,45(5):348–359.system.InternationalJournalofAppliedEarthObservationandGeoinformation,37:17–28.Locey,K.J.&Lennon,J.T.2016.ScalinglawspredictŁuczaj,Ł.,Pieroni,A.,Tardío,J.,Pardo-De-globalmicrobialdiversity.ProceedingsoftheSantayana,M.,Sõukand,R.,Svanberg,I.&NationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesKalle,R.2012.Wildfoodplantusein21stcenturyofAmerica,113(21):5970–5975.Europe:thedisappearanceofoldtraditionsandthesearchfornewcuisinesinvolvingwildedibles.ActaLocke,B.2016.NaturalVarroamite-survivingApismelliferaSocietatisBotanicorumPoloniae,81(4):359–370.honeybeepopulations.Apidologie,47:467–482.Lund,H.G.2007.Accountingfortheworld’srangelands.Rangelands,29(1):3–10.Lönnstedt,O.M.&Eklöv,P.2016.EnvironmentallyLundgren,P.,Vera,J.C.,Peplow,L.,Manel,S.&relevantconcentrationsofmicroplasticparticlesinvanOppen,M.J.H.2013.Genotype-environmentinfluencelarvalfishecology.Science,352(6290):correlationsincoralsfromtheGreatBarrierReef.1213–1216.BMCGenetics,14(9).Maas,B.,Clough,Y.&Tscharntke,T.2013.BatsandLoo,J.,Fady,B.,Dawson,I.,Vinceti,B.&birdsincreasecropyieldintropicalagroforestryBaldinelli,G.2011.Climatechangeandforestlandscapes.EcologyLetters,16(12).geneticresources:stateofknowledge,risksandopportunities.CommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.56.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/023/mb696e.pdf).LópezRaggi,F.,PérezCenteno,M.J.&Lanari,M.R.2008.MarketingofgoatmeatunderPDOseal.Marketingnicheproductsfromindigenouslivestock.WriteshopheldbytheLeagueforPastoralPeoplesthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE499Maccagnini,B.,Ladurner,E.,Santi,F.&Burgio,G.Maron,D.F.,Smith,T.J.S.&Nachman,K.E.2013.2003.Osmiacornuta(Hymenoptera,Megachilidae)Restrictionsonantimicrobialuseinfoodanimalasapollinatorofpear(Pyruscommunis):fruit-andproduction:aninternationalregulatoryandseed-set.Apidologie,34:207–216.economicsurvey.GlobalizationandHealth,9(1):48.Macedo,M.&Castello,L.2015.StateoftheAmazon:Marschner,P.,Kandeler,E.&Marschner,B.2003.freshwaterconnectivityandecosystemhealth.D.StructureandfunctionofthesoilmicrobialOliveira,C.C.Maretti&S.Charity,eds.Brasilia,communityinalong-termfertilizerexperiment.SoilWWFLivingAmazonInitiative.BiologyandBiochemistry,35(3):453–461.Macfadyen,S.,Tylianakis,J.M.,Letourneau,D.K.,Marshall,F.,Reid,R.E.B.,Goldstein,S.,Storozum,Benton,T.G.,Tittonell,P.,Perring,M.P.,Gómez-M.,Wreschnig,A.,Hu,L.,Kiura,P.,Shahack-Creutzberg,C.etal.2015.TheroleoffoodGross,R.&Ambrose,S.H.2018.Ancientherdersretailersinimprovingresilienceinglobalfoodsupply.enrichedandrestructuredAfricangrasslands.GlobalFoodSecurity,7:1–8.Nature,561(7723):387–390.Mäder,P.,Fließbach,A.,Dubois,D.,Gunst,L.,Martin,E.,Reineking,B.,Seo,B.&Steffan-Fried,P.,Niggli,U.,Series,N.&May,N.2008.Dewenter,I.2013.NaturalenemyinteractionsSoilfertilityandbiodiversityinorganicfarmingsoilconstrainpestcontrolincomplexagriculturalfertilityandbiodiversityinorganicfarming.Science,landscapes.PNAS,110(14):5534–5539.296(5573):1694–1697.Martini,E.,Roshetko,J.M.&Paramita,E.2017.Malik,K.A.&Hoffmann,P.1993.Long-termpreservationCanfarmer-to-farmercommunicationboosttheofyeastculturesbyliquid-drying.WorldJournalofdisseminationofagroforestryinnovations?AcaseMicrobiology&Biotechnology,9(3):372–376.studyfromSulawesi,Indonesia.AgroforestrySystems,91(5):811–824.Malusa,E.,Sas-Paszt,L.&Ciesielska,J.2012.TechnologiesforbeneficialmicroorganismsinoculaMarvier,M.,Kareiva,P.&Neubert,M.G.2004.Habitatusedasbiofertilizers.ScientificWorldJournal,2012:destruction,fragmentation,anddisturbancepromote491206.invasionbyhabitatgeneralistsinamultispeciesmetapopulation.RiskAnalysis,24(4):869–879.Mandelik,Y.,Winfree,R.,Neeson,T.&Kremen,C.2012.ComplementaryhabitatusebywildbeesinMathez-Stiefel,S.L.2016.Agroforesteríaparalaagro-naturallandscapes.EcologicalApplications,adaptaciónalcambioclimáticoenlosAndes:22(5):1535–1546.Aprendiendodelosconocimientoslocales.PolicyBriefNo.36,Lima,ICRAF.Maoz,Y.,Gal,S.,Argov,Y.,Domeratzky,S.,Melamed,E.,Gan-Mor,S.,Coll,M.&Palevsky,Maxwell,S.L.,Fuller,R.A.,Brooks,T.M.&Watson,E.2014.EfficacyofindigenouspredatorymitesJ.E.M.2016.Biodiversity:theravagesofguns,nets(Acari:Phytoseiidae)againstthecitrusrustmiteandbulldozers.Nature,536(7615):143–145.Phyllocoptrutaoleivora(Acari:Eriophyidae):augmentationandconservationbiologicalcontrolMazoyer,M.&Roudart,L.2006.AhistoryofworldinIsraelicitrusorchards.ExperimentalandAppliedagriculture:fromtheNeolithicAgetothecurrentAcarology,63(3):295–312.crisis.Abingdon,UK,andNewYork,USA,Earthscan.Maranz,S.2009.TreemortalityintheAfricanSahelMba,C.,Guimaraes,E.P.&Ghosh,K.2012.Re-indicatesananthropogenicecosystemdisplacedorientingcropimprovementforthechangingbyclimatechange.JournalofBiogeography,36:climaticconditionsofthe21stcentury.Agriculture&1181–1193.FoodSecurity,1(7).Markandya,A.,Taylor,T.,Longo,A.,Murty,M.N.,Mbuthia,L.W.,Acosta-Martínez,V.,DeBruyn,J.,Murty,S.&Dhavalad,K.2008.CountingtheSchaeffer,S.,Tyler,D.,Odoi,E.&Eash,N.2015.costofvulturedecline–AnappraisalofthehumanLongtermtillage,covercrop,andfertilizationhealthandotherbenefitsofvulturesinIndia.effectsonmicrobialcommunitystructure,activity:EcologicalEconomics,67(2):194–202.implicationsforsoilquality.SoilBiologyandBiochemistry,89:24–34.500thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREMcDonald,T.,Gann,G.D.,Jonson,J.&Dixon,K.W.2016.MEA(MillenniumEcosystemAssessment).2005a.InternationalstandardsforthepracticeofecologicalEcosystemandhumanwell-being–Synthesis.restoration–includingprinciplesandkeyconcepts.Washington,DC,IslandPress.Washington,DC,SocietyforEcologicalRestoration.MEA.2005b.Ecosystemsandhumanwell-being:currentMcGee,J.A.,Day,S.D.,Wynne,R.H.&White,M.B.stateandtrends.Washington,DC,IslandPress.2012.Usinggeospatialtoolstoassesstheurbantreecanopy:decisionsupportforlocalgovernments.Mead,R.&Willey,R.W.1980.Theconceptofa‘landJournalofForestry,110(5):275–286.equivalentratio’andadvantagesinyieldsfromintercropping.ExperimentalAgriculture,16(3):217–228.McGinnity,P.,Prodöhl,P.,Ferguson,A.,Hynes,R.,Maoiléidigh,N.Ó.,Baker,N.,Cotter,D.etal.Meals,D.W.,Dressing,S.A.&Davenport,T.E.2003.Fitnessreductionandpotentialextinctionof2010.LagtimeinwaterqualityresponsetowildpopulationsofAtlanticsalmon,Salmosalar,asbestmanagementpractices:areview.Journalofaresultofinteractionswithescapedfarmsalmon.EnvironmentalQuality,39(1):85–96.ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,270(1532):2443–2450.MediterraneanWetlandsObservatory.2012.Biodiversity:statusandtrendsofspeciesinMcGowan,P.J.K.2010.ConservationstatusofwildMediterraneanwetlands.Thematiccollection,relativesofanimalsusedforfood.AnimalGeneticSpecialIssueNo.1.TourduValat,France.Resources,47:115–118.Meeus,I.,Brown,M.J.,DeGraaf,D.C.&Smagghe,McIntire,J.,Bourzat,D.&Pingali,P.1992.G.2011.EffectsofinvasiveparasitesonbumblebeeCrop-livestockinteractioninSub-SaharanAfrica.declines.ConservationBiology,25(4):662–671.Washington,DC,WorldBank.Mekonnen,M.M.&Hoekstra,A.Y.2016.FourMcIntyre,A.D.,ed.2010.Lifeintheworld’soceans:billionpeoplefacingseverewaterscarcity.Sciencediversity,distribution,andabundance.Chichester,Advances,2(2):e1500323.UK,BlackwellPublishing.Melathopoulos,A.P.,Cutler,G.C.&Tyedmers,P.McKenzie,L.J.,Yoshida,R.L.,Langlois,L.,Rau,J.,2015.WhereisthevalueinvaluingpollinationWeatherall,K.,Bishop,F.,Bain,D.,Ferguson,S.ecosystemservicestoagriculture?Ecological&Lindsay,M.2017.Long-termseagrassmonitoringEconomics,109:59–70.inRoebuckBay,Broome:reportonthefirst10years.AreportfortheBroomeCommunitySeagrassMelman,T.C.P.&VanderHeide,C.M.2011.MonitoringProject,EnvironsKimberley.CentreEcosysteemdiensteninNederland:verkenningforTropicalWater&AquaticEcosystemResearchbetekenisenperspectieven.Achtergrondrapport(TropWATER)Report17/35.Cairns,Australia,JamesbijNatuurverkenning2011.WOt-rapport111.CookUniversity.WettelijkeOnderzoekstakenNatuur&Milieu.Wageningen,Netherlands,WageningenUniversityMcLeod,E.,Chmura,G.L.,Bouillon,S.,Salm,&Research.R.,Björk,M.,Duarte,C.M.,Lovelock,C.E.,Schlesinger,W.H.&Silliman,B.R.2011.AMendoza,T.2002.Anenergy-basedanalysisoforganic,blueprintforbluecarbon:towardanimprovedlowexternalinputsustainableagriculture(LEISA)understandingoftheroleofvegetatedcoastalandconventionalriceproductioninthePhilippines.habitatsinsequesteringCO2.FrontiersinEcologyThePhilippineAgriculturalScientist,88(3):257–267.andtheEnvironment,9(10):552–560.Meybeck,M.,Helmer,R.,Förstner,U.&Chilton,J.McMahon,D.P.,Natsopoulou,M.E.,Doublet,V.,1989.GlobalassessmentoffreshwatersqualityFürst,M.,Weging,S.,Brown,M.J.F.,Gogol-–afirstassessment.InM.Meybeck,R.Helmer&Döring,A.&Paxton,R.J.2016.ElevatedvirulenceU.Förstner,eds.Globalfreshwaterquality:afirstofanemergingviralgenotypeasadriverofassessment.Oxford,UK,Blackwell.honeybeeloss.ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,283:20160811.Miccolis,A.,MongeliPeneireiro,F.,RodriguesMarques,H.,MasciaVieira,D.L.,FranciaArco-Verde,M.,RigonHoffmann,M.,Rehder,T.&BarbosaPereira,A.V.2016.RestauraçãoecológicathestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE501comsistemasagroflorestais:comoconciliarModernel,P.,Rossing,W.A.H.,Corbeels,M.,Dogliotti,conservaçãocomprodução.OpçõesparacerradoeS.,Picasso,V.&Tittonell,P.2016.Landusecaatinga.Brasilia,InstitutoSociedade,PopulaçãoechangeandecosystemserviceprovisioninPampasNatureza(ISPN)andICRAF.andCamposgrasslandsofsouthernSouthAmerica.Michener,C.D.2007.Thebeesoftheworld.Baltimore,EnvironmentalResearchLetters,11(11):113002.USA,TheJohnHopkinsUniversityPress.Miles,L.&Kapos,V.2008.ReducinggreenhousegasMohd,N.,Mohd,F.,Sajap,A.S.,Rosliza,J.&Suri,R.emissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradation:2010.Conservationandsustainableutilizationofgloballand-useimplications.Science,320:1454–1455.stinglessbeesforpollinationservicesinagriculturalMiller,A.J.&Gross,B.L.2011.Fromforesttofield:ecosystemsinMalaysia.InK.Yasuda,F.Ihara&T.-Y.perennialfruitcropdomestication.AmericanJournalKu,eds.ProceedingsofInternationalSeminaronofBotany,98(9):1389–1414.EnhancementofFunctionalBiodiversityRelevantMiller,R.P.&Nair,P.K.R.2006.IndigenousagroforestrytoSustainableFoodProductioninASPAC–insystemsinAmazonia:fromprehistorytotoday.associationwithMARCO–November9-11,2010AgroforestrySystems,66(2):151–164.Tsukuba,Japan,pp.1–11.Tsukuba,Japan,NationalMiller,D.D.&Sumaila,U.R.2014.FlagusebehaviorInstituteforAgro-EnvironmentalSciences,Fujimoto,andIUUactivitywithintheinternationalfishingfleet:Japan,NationalInstituteofFruitTreeScience–Refiningdefinitionsandidentifyingareasofconcern.NARO,andTaipei,FoodandFertilizerTechnologyMarinePolicy,44:204–211.Center(FFTC)fortheAsianandPacificRegion,Minasny,B.,Malone,B.P.,McBratney,A.B.,Angers,NationalInstituteforAgro-EnvironmentalSciences.D.A.,Arrouays,D.,Chambers,A.,Chaplot,V.etal.2017.Soilcarbon4permille.Geoderma,292:59–86.MohdFahimee,J.2012.ManualteknologipenternakanMinistryofHealthofBrazil.2016.Dietaryguidelineslebahkelulut.KualaLumpur,MalaysianAgriculturalfortheBrazilianpopulation.Brasilia,MinistryofResearchandDevelopmentInstitute(MARDI).HealthofBrazil.MinistryofNaturalResources–Rwanda.2014.MohdFahimee,J.,Madihah,H.,MuhamadRadzali,ForestlandscaperestorationopportunityassessmentM.,Rosliza,J.,MohdMasri,S.,MohdYusri,forRwanda.MINIRENA(Rwanda),IUCN,WRI.Z.,Roziah,G.&Idris,A.G.2016.ThediversityMitchell,N.,Rössler,M.&Tricard,P.M.,eds.2009.andabundanceofstinglessbee(Hymenoptera:Worldheritageculturallandscapes:ahandbookMeliponini)inPeninsularMalaysia.Advanceinforconservationandmanagement.WorldHeritageEnvironmentalBiology,10(9):1–7.Papers26.Paris,UNESCO.Mitchell,R.J.,Bailey,S.,Beaton,J.K.,Bellamy,P.E.,Mohri,H.,Lahoti,S.,Saito,O.,Mahalingam,A.,Brooker,R.W.,Broome,A.,Chetcuti,J.etal.Gunatilleke,N.,Hitinayake,G.,Takeuchi,K.&2014.ThepotentialecologicalimpactofashdiebackHerath,S.2013.AssessmentofecosystemservicesintheUK.JNCCReportNo.483.Peterborough,UK,inhomegardensystemsinIndonesia,SriLanka,andJointNatureConservationCommittee(JNCC).Vietnam.EcosystemServices,5:124–136.Mitsch,W.J.&Gosselink,J.G.,eds.2015.Wetlands.Hoboken,USA,JohnWiley&Sons.Moll,H.A.J.2005.CostsandbenefitsoflivestocksystemsMNRE(MinistyofNaturalResourcesandandtheroleofmarketandnonmarketrelationships.Environment).2015.VietnamNationalBiodiversityAgriculturalEconomics,32(2):181–193.Strategyto2020,visionto2030.Hanoi.Modernel,P.,Astigarraga,L.&Picasso,V.2013.Molur,S.,Smith,K.G.,Daniel,B.A.&Darwall,W.R.T.Globalversuslocalenvironmentalimpactsof2011.Thestatusanddistributionoffreshwatergrazingandconfinedbeefproductionsystems.biodiversityintheWesternGhats,India.Cambridge,EnvironmentalResearchLetters,8(3):035052.UK,andGland,SwitzerlandIUCN,andCoimbatore,India,ZooOutreachOrganisation.Momose,K.,Yumoto,T.,Nagamitsu,T.,Kato,M.,Nagamasu,H.,Sakai,S.,Harrison,R.D.,Itioka,T.,Hamid,A.A.&Inoue,T.1998.PollinationbiologyinalowlanddipterocarpforestinSarawakMalaysia.I.Characteristicsoftheplantpollinator502thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREcommunityinalowlanddipterocarpforest.Morton,R.A.&Barras,J.A.2011.HurricaneimpactsAmericanJournalofBotany,85:1477–1501.oncoastalwetlands:ahalf-centuryrecordofstorm-Montagnini,F.,Ibrahim,M.&Murgueitio,E.2013.generatedfeaturesfromSouthernLouisiana.JournalSilvopastoralsystemsandclimatechangemitigationofCoastalResearch,27(6A):27–43.inLatinAmerica.BoisetForetsdesTropiques,67(316):3–16.Moser,C.M.&Barret,B.B.2003.ThedisappointingMontes,J.M.&Melchinger,A.E.2016.Domesticationadoptiondynamicsofayield-increasing,lowandbreedingofJatrophacurcasL.TrendsinPlantexternal-inputtechnology:thecaseofSRIinScience,21(12):1045–1057.Madagascar.AgriculturalSystems,76:1085–1100.Monty,F.,Murti,R.&Furuta,N.2016.Helpingnaturehelpus:transformingdisasterriskreductionthroughMosquera-Losada,M.R.,Moreno,G.,Pardini,A.,ecosystemmanagement.Gland,IUCN.McAdam,J.H.,Papanastasis,V.P.,Burgess,P.J.,Moodie,R.,Stuckler,D.,Monteiro,C.,Sheron,N.,Neal,Lamersdorf,N.,Castro,M.,Liagre,F.&Rigueiro-B.,Thamarangsi,T.,Lincoln,P.&Casswell,S.2013.Rodríguez,A.2012.Past,presentandfutureofProfitsandpandemics:preventionofharmfuleffectsofagroforestrysystemsinEurope.Agroforestrythefuturetobacco,alcohol,andultra-processedfoodanddrinkofgloballanduse,pp.31–67.(availableathttp://link.industries.TheLancet,381(9867):670–679.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-4676-3).Mora,C.,Tittensor,D.P.,Adl,S.,Simpson,A.G.B.&Worm,B.2011.HowmanyspeciesarethereonearthMottet,A.,deHaan,C.,Falcucci,A.,Tempio,G.,andintheocean?PLoSBiology,9(8):e1001127.Opio,C.&Gerber,P.2017.Livestock:onourplatesMorales-Ramos,J.,Guadalupe-Rojas,M.&Shapiro-oreatingatourtable?Anewanalysisofthefeed/Ilan,D.2014.Massproductionofbeneficialfooddebate.GlobalFoodSecurity,14:1–8.organisms.Cambridge,USA,AcademicPress.Morand,S.&Lajaunie,C.2017.BiodiversityandMoursi,M.M.,Arimond,M.,Dewey,K.G.,Treche,S.,health.Linkinglife,ecosystemsandsocieties.Ruel,M.T.&Delpeuch,F.2008.DietarydiversityisLondon,Elsevier&ISTEPress.agoodpredictorofthemicronutrientdensityoftheMorgera,E.,Buck,M.&Tsioumani,E.2013.dietof6-to23-month-oldchildreninMadagascar.Introduction.InE.Morgera,M.Buck&E.Tsioumani,JournalofNutrition,138(12):2448–2453.eds.The2010NagoyaProtocolonAccessandBenefit-sharinginperspective.ImplicationsforMozaffarian,D.,Afshin,A.,Benowitz,N.L.,Bittner,internationallawandimplementationchallenges,V.,Daniels,S.R.,Franch,H.A.,Jacobs,D.R.etpp.1–17.Leiden,Netherlands,Brill.al.2012.Populationapproachestoimprovediet,Moriarty,D.J.W.&Pullin,R.S.V,eds.1987.Detritusphysicalactivity,andsmokinghabits:ascientificandmicrobialecologyinaquaculture.ICLARMstatementfromtheAmericanHeartAssociation.ConferenceProceedingsNo.140.Manila,ICLARM.Circulation,126(12):1514–1563.Moritz,R.F.A.,Hartel,S.&Neumann,P.2005.Globalinvasionsofthewesternhoneybee(Apismellifera)Muck,R.E.,Filya,I.&Contreras-Govea,F.E.2007.andtheconsequencesforbiodiversity.Ecoscience,Inoculanteffectsonalfalfasilage:invitrogasand12:289–301.volatilefattyacidproduction.JournalofDairyMortensen,D.A.,Egan,J.F.,Maxwell,B.D.,Ryan,Science,90:5115–5125.M.R.&Smith,R.G.2012.Navigatingacriticaljunctureforsustainableweedmanagement.Mullin,C.A.,Frazier,M.,Frazier,J.L.,Ashcraft,S.,BioScience,62(1):75–84.Simonds,R.,vanEngelsdorp,D.&Pettis,J.S.Morton,J.&Meadows,N.2000.Pastoralismand2010.Highlevelsofmiticidesandagrochemicalsinsustainablelivelihoods:anemergingagenda.NorthAmericanapiaries:implicationsforhoneybeeChatham,UK,NaturalResourcesInstitute.health.PLoSONE,5:e9754.Mulyoutami,E.,Roshetko,J.M.,Martini,E.,Awalina,D.&Janudianto.2015.Genderrolesandknowledgeinplantspeciesselectionanddomestication:acasestudyinSouthandSoutheastSulawesi.InternationalForestryReview,17(4):99–111.Mumby,P.J.,Edwards,A.J.,Arias-González,J.E.,Lindeman,K.C.,Blackwell,P.G.,Gall,A.,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE503Gorczynska,M.I.etal.2004.MangrovesenhanceNagelkerken,I.,Blaber,S.J.M.,Bouillo,S.,Green,thebiomassofcoralreeffishcommunitiesintheP.,Haywood,M.,Kirton,L.G.,Meynecke,J.O.Caribbean.Nature,427(6974):533–536.etal.2008.ThehabitatfunctionofmangrovesMumby,P.J.,Hedley,J.D.,Kamila,Z.,Harborne,A.R.forterrestrialandmarinefauna:areview.Aquatic&Blackwell,P.G.2006.RevisitingthecatastrophicBotany,89:155–185.die-offoftheurchinDiademaantillarumonCaribbeancoralreefs:freshinsightsonresilienceNair,P.K.R.2006.Whitherhomegardens?InB.M.Kumarfromasimulationmodel.EcologicalModelling,&P.K.R.Nair,eds.Tropicalhomegardens:atime-196(1–2):131–148.testedexampleofsustainableagroforestry.Vol.3,Murchie,A.K.&Gordon,A.W.2013.Theimpactpp.355–370.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.ofthe“NewZealandflatworm”,Arthurdendyustriangulatus,onearthwormpopulationsinthefield.Naish,K.A.,Taylor,J.E.,Levin,P.S.,Quinn,T.P.,BiologicalInvasions,15(3):569–586.Winton,J.R.,Huppert,D.&Hilborn,R.2007.AnMurcia,C.,Guariguata,M.R.,Andrade,A.,Andrade,evaluationoftheeffectsofconservationandfisheryG.I.,Aronson,J.,Escobar,M.E.,Etter,A.,Moreno,enhancementhatcheriesonwildpopulationsofF.H.,Ramírez,W.&Montes,E.2015.Challengessalmon.AdvancesinMarineBiology,53(07):61–194.andprospectsforscaling-upecologicalrestorationtomeetinternationalcommitments:ColombiaasacaseNakkeeran,S.,Fernando,W.G.D.&Siddiqui,Z.A.study.ConservationLetters,9(3):213–220.2005.PlantgrowthpromotingrhizobacteriaMurdiyarso,D.,Purbopuspito,J.,Kauffman,J.B.,formulationsanditsscopeincommercializationWarren,M.W.,Sasmito,S.D.,Donato,D.C.,forthemanagementofpestsanddiseases.InZ.A.Manuri,S.,Krisnawati,H.,Taberima,S.&Siddiqui,ed.PGPR:biocontrolandbiofertilization,Kurnianto,S.2015.ThepotentialofIndonesianpp.257–296.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.mangroveforestsforglobalclimatechangemitigation.NatureClimateChange,5(12):1089–1092.Namkoong,G.,Boyle,T.,Gregorious,H.R.,Joly,H.,Murray,G.F.&Bannister,M.E.2004.Peasants,Savolainen,O.,Ratman,W.&Young,A.1996.agroforesters,andanthropologists:a20-yearTestingcriteriaandindicatorsforassessingtheventureinincome-generatingtreesandhedgerowssustainabilityofforestmanagement:geneticcriteriainHaiti.AgroforestrySystems,61:383–397.andindicators.CIFORWorkingPaperNo.10.Bogor,Murray,C.J.L.,Atkinson,C.,Bhalla,K.,Birbeck,Indonesia,CentreforInternationalForestryResearch.G.,Burstein,R.,Chou,D.,Dellavalle,R.etal.2013.ThestateofUShealth,1990-2010:burdenNamkoong,G.,Boyle,T.,El-Kassaby,Y.A.,Palmberg-ofdiseases,injuries,andriskfactors.JournaloftheLerche,C.,Eriksson,G.,Gregorius,H.-R.,Joly,H.AmericanMedicalAssociation,310(6):591–608.etal.2002.CriteriaandindicatorsforsustainableMutch,L.A.&Young,J.P.W.2004.Diversityandforestmanagement:assessmentandmonitoringofspecificityofRhizobiumleguminosarumbiovarviciaegeneticvariation.ForestGeneticResourcesWorkingonwildandcultivatedlegumes.MolecularEcology,PapersFGR/37E.Rome,FAO.13(8):2435–2444.Myers,J.H.&Cory,J.S.2017.Biologicalcontrolagents:Narayan,S.,Beck,M.W.,Reguero,B.G.,Losada,I.J.,invasivespeciesorvaluablesolutions?ImpactofvanWesenbeeck,B.,Pontee,N.,Sanchirico,J.N.biologicalinvasionsonecosystemservices,pp.etal.2016.Thebenefits,costsandeffectiveness191–202.Cham,Switzerland,Springer.ofnaturalandnature-basedcoastaldefenses.PLoSNabhan,G.P.&Buchmann,S.L.1997.ServicesONE,11(5):e0154735.providedbypollinators.InG.Daily,ed.Nature’sservices,pp.133–150.Washington,DC,IslandPress.Nasi,R.,Brown,D.,Wilkie,D.,Bennett,E.,Tutin,C.,vanTol,G.&Christophersen,T.2008.Conservationanduseofwildlife-basedresources:thebushmeatcrisis.TechnicalSeriesNo.33.Montreal,Canada,SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,andBogor,Indonesia,CenterforInternationalForestryResearch.504thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURENassar,N.M.2003.Geneflowbetweencassava,implementationofnationalforestprogrammes.ManihotesculentaCrantz,andwildrelatives.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/GeneticsandMolecularResearch,2(4):334–347.docrep/015/i2623e/i2623e00.pdf).Ng,M.,Fleming,T.,Robinson,M.,Thomson,B.,Graetz,Nates-Parra,G.2001.LasabejassinaguijónN.,Margono,C.,Mullany,E.C.etal.2014.Global,(Hymenoptera:Meliponini)deColombia.Revistaregional,andnationalprevalenceofoverweightandBiotaColombiana,2(3):233–248.obesityinchildrenandadultsduring1980-2013:asystematicanalysisfortheGlobalBurdenofDiseaseNates-Parra,G.2004.AbejascorbiculadasdeColombia.Study2013.TheLancet,384(9945):766–781.Bogota,UniversidadNacionaldeColombia.Ng,E.-L.L.,HuertaLwanga,E.,Eldridge,S.M.,Johnston,P.,Hu,H.-W.W.,Geissen,V.&Chen,D.Natsopoulou,M.E.,McMahon,D.P.,Doublet,V.,Frey,2018.AnoverviewofmicroplasticandnanoplasticE.,Rosenkranz,P.&Paxton,R.J.2017.Thevirulent,pollutioninagroecosystems.ScienceofTheTotalemerginggenotypeBofDeformedwingvirusisEnvironment,627:1377–1388.closelylinkedtooverwinterhoneybeeworkerloss.Nhan,D.K.,Milstein,A.,Verdegem,M.C.J.&Verreth,ScientificReports,7:5242.J.A.V.2006.Foodinputs,waterqualityandnutrientaccumulationinintegratedpondsystems:aNawy,T.2013.Single-cellsequencing.NatureMethods,multivariateapproach.Aquaculture,261(1):160–173.11(1):18.Nhan,D.K.,Phong,L.T.,Verdegem,M.C.J.,Duong,L.,Bosma,R.&Little,D.2007.IntegratedfreshwaterNCBI(NationalCenterforBiotechnologyInformation).aquaculture,cropandlivestockproductioninthe2018.Home–Genome.Cited14December2018.Mekongdelta,Vietnam:determinantsandtherolehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomeofthepond.AgriculturalSystems,94(2):445–458.Nicholls,C.I.&Altieri,M.A.2013.PlantbiodiversityNellemann,C.,Corcoran,E.,Duarte,C.M.,Valdés,L.,enhancesbeesandotherinsectpollinatorsinDeYoung,C.,Fonseca,L.&Grimsditch,G.2009.agroecosystems.Areview.AgronomyforSustainableBluecarbon.Arapidresponseassessment.Arendal,Development,33(2):257–274.Norway,GRID-Arendal,andNairobi,UNEP.Nielsen,U.N.,Ayres,E.,Wall,D.H.&Bardgett,R.D.2011.Soilbiodiversityandcarboncycling:areviewNesbitt,M.,McBurney,R.P.H.,Broin,M.&Beentje,andsynthesisofstudiesexaminingdiversity-functionH.J.2010.Linkingbiodiversity,foodandnutrition:relationships.EuropeanJournalofSoilScience,theimportanceofplantidentificationand62(1):105–116.nomenclature.JournalofFoodCompositionandNijar,G.S.2013.DevelopingacommonpoolsstrategyAnalysis,23(6):486–498.forgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture.InG.Winter&E.C.Kamau,eds.CommonpoolsofgeneticNeugarten,R.A.,Langhammer,P.F.,Osipova,E.,resources:equityandinnovationininternationalBagstad,K.J.,Bhagabati,N.,Butchart,S.H.M.,biodiversitylaw,pp.127–149.London,Routledge.Dudley,N.etal.2018.Toolsformeasuring,Nikolaki,S.&Tsiamis,G.2013.Microbialdiversitymodelling,andvaluingecosystemservices:guidanceintheeraofomictechnologies.BioMedResearchforkeybiodiversityareas,naturalWorldHeritageInternational,2013:958719.Sites,andprotectedareas.Gland,Switzerland,NMFS(NationalMarineFisheriesService).2016.IUCN.(availableathttps://portals.iucn.org/library/CentralValleyRecoveryDomain5-yearstatussites/library/files/documents/PAG-028-En.pdf).review:summaryandevaluationofSacramentoRiverWinter-RunChinookSalmonESU.NMFSWestNewton,A.,Oldfield,S.,Rivers,M.,Mark,J.,Schatz,CoastRegion.(availableathttps://repository.library.G.,TejedorGaravito,N.,Cantarello,E.,Golicher,noaa.gov/view/noaa/17014).D.,Cayuela,L.&Miles,L.2015a.Towardsaglobaltreeassessment.Oryx,49(3):410–415.Newton,J.A.,Feely,R.A.,Jewett,E.B.,Williamson,P.&Mathis,J.2015b.GlobalOceanAcidificationObservingNetwork(GOA-ON):requirementsandgovernanceplan.GlobalOceanAcidificationObservingNetwork.NFPF(TheNationalForestProgrammeFacility)&FAO.2012.NFPsinpractice:WaystoimprovethethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE505NOAA(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericofeggplant(Solanummelongena)ingreenhouses.Administration).2018.CoRIS:CoralReefApidologie,44:537–546.InformationSystem.[Cited21March2018].https://OceanHealthIndex.2018.Seagrass.[Citedwww.coris.noaa.gov/22March2018].http://www.oceanhealthindex.org/methodology/components/seagrassNoble,R.&Coventry,E.2005.Suppressionofsoil-Öckinger,E.&Smith,H.G.2007.Semi-naturalborneplantdiseaseswithcomposts:areview.grasslandsaspopulationsourcesforpollinatingBiocontrolScienceandTechnology,15(1):3–20.insectsinagriculturallandscapes.JournalofAppliedEcology,44(1):50–59.NordGen.2015.PlanofActionfortheConservationofOECD(OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationtheNordicBrownBee.Ås,Norway,NordicGeneticandDevelopment).2001.BiologicalresourceResourcesCenter.centres:underpinningthefutureoflifesciencesandbiotechnology.Paris.Nordlund,L.M.,Unsworth,R.K.F.,Gullström,M.&OECD.2013.OECDcompendiumofagri-environmentalCullen-Unsworth,L.C.2018.Globalsignificanceindicators.Paris.(availableathttps://www.oecd-ofseagrassfisheryactivity.FishandFisheries:19(3):ilibrary.org/fr/agriculture-and-food/oecd-compendium-319–412.of-agri-environmental-indicators_9789264186217-en?_ga=2.134309746.280343264.1547481369-Noriega,J.A.,Hortal,J.,Azcárate,F.M.,Berg,M.P.,1593362190.1547307848).Bonada,N.,Briones,M.J.I.,DelToro,I.etal.2018.Ogada,D.,Kessing,F.&Virani,M.Z.2012.DroppingResearchtrendsinecosystemservicesprovidedbydead:causesandconsequencesofvultureinsects.BasicandAppliedEcology,26:8–23.populationdeclinesworldwide.AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences,1249(1):57–71.Notarnicola,B.,Sala,S.,Anton,A.,McLaren,S.J.,Okano,J.,Shibata,J.,Sakai,Y.,Yamaguchi,M.,Ohishi,Saouter,E.&Sonesson,U.2017.TheroleoflifeM.,Goda,Y.,Nakano,S.&Okuda,N.2018.Thecycleassessmentinsupportingsustainableagri-effectofhumanactivitiesonbenthicmacroinvertebratefoodsystems:areviewofthechallenges.JournalofdiversityintributarylagoonssurroundingLakeBiwa.CleanerProduction,140:399–409.Limnology,19(2):199–207.Okoth,P.,Okoth,S.&Jefwa,J.M.2013.TheNowak,D.J.,Hirabayashi,S.,Bodine,A.&conservationanduseofmicro-organismsandGreenfield,E.2014.Treeandforesteffectsoninvertebratesinrootcrop-basedsystems:stateofairqualityandhumanhealthintheUnitedStates.knowledge,trendsandfutureprospects.CommissionEnvironmentalPollution,193:119–129.onGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.63.Rome.(availableatNRC(NationalResearchCouncil).1993.Managinghttp://www.fao.org/3/I9898EN/i9898en.pdf).globalgeneticresources:agriculturalcropissuesandOldfield,S.,Ali,N.,Goettsch,B.,Hardcastle,J.&policies.Washington,DC,NationalAcademiesPress.Shi,Y.forthcoming.StudyonthelinkagesbetweenprotectedareasandtheconservationofbiodiversityNRC.1972.Geneticvulnerabilityofmajorcrops.forfoodandagriculture.ThematicstudypreparedWashington,DC,NationalAcademyofSciences.forTheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Rome,FAO.NRC.2002.Riparianareas:functionsandstrategiesOlesen,I.,Bentsen,H.,Phillips,M.&Ponzoni,formanagement.Washington,DC,CommitteeR.2015.CantheglobaladoptionofgeneticallyonRiparianZoneFunctioningandStrategiesforimprovedfarmedfishincreasebeyond10%,andManagement,WaterScienceandTechnologyhow?JournalofMarineScienceandEngineering,Board,NationalResearchCouncil,National3(2):240–266.AcademiesPress.NRC.2007.StatusofpollinatorsinNorthAmerica.Washington,DC,NationalAcademiesPress.NRC.2010.TheimpactofgeneticallyengineeredcropsonfarmsustainabilityintheUnitedStates.Washington,DC,NationalAcademiesPress.Nunes-Silva,P.,Hrncir,M.,daSilva,C.I.,Roldão,Y.S.&Imperatriz-Fonseca,V.L.2013.Stinglessbees,Meliponafasciculata,asefficientpollinators506thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREOllerton,J.,Winfree,R.&Tarrant,S.2011.Howmanypurification:currentconceptualizationsandfloweringplantsarepollinatedbyanimals?Oikos,concludingremarks.Hydrobiologia,469:203–204.120(3):321–326.Ostroumov,S.A.2005.Onthemultifunctionalroleofthebiotaontheself-purificationofaquaticecosystems.Opio,C.,Gerber,P.,Mottet,A.,Falcucci,A.,Tempio,RussianJournalofEcology,36(6):414–420.G.,MacLeod,M.,Vellinga,T.,Henderson,B.Ostroumov,S.A.2010.Biocontrolofwaterquality:&Steinfeld,H.2013.Greenhousegasemissionsmultifunctionalroleofbiotainwaterself-fromruminantsupplychains–Agloballifecyclepurification.RussianJournalofGeneralChemistry,assessment.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.80(13):2754–2761.fao.org/docrep/018/i3460e/i3460e.pdf).Otte,J.,Costales,A.,Dijkman,J.,Pica-Ciamara,U.,Robinson,T.,Ahuja,V.,Ly,C.&Roland-Holst,OregonStateUniversity.2008.GreatestvalueofD.2012.Livestocksectorforpovertyreduction:anforestsissustainablewatersupply.[Citedeconomicandpolicyperspective–Livestock’smany21March2018].https://www.sciencedaily.com/virtues.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/releases/2008/07/080714162600.htmdocrep/015/i2744e/i2744e00.pdf).Ottesen,O.,Treasurer,J.,Fitzgerald,R.,D’Arcy,Orgiazzi,A.,Dunbar,M.B.,Panagos,P.,deGroot,J.,Maguire,J.,O’Neill,D.,Rebours,C.&G.A.&Lemanceau,P.2015.SoilbiodiversityandDunavyeska,E.2011.RearingballanwrasseforseaDNAbarcodes:opportunitiesandchallenges.Soillicecontrol.FishFarmer,November/D:12–15.BiologyandBiochemistry,80:244–250.Ouedraogo,I.,Runge,J.,Eisenberg,J.,Barron,J.&Sawadogo-Kaboré,S.2014.There-greeningOrgiazzi,A.,Bardgett,R.D.,Barrios,E.,Behan-oftheSahel:naturalcyclicityorhuman-inducedPelletier,V.,Briones,M.J.I.,Chotte,J.-L.,Dechange?Land,3(3):1075–1090.Deyn,G.B.etal.,eds.2016.GlobalsoilbiodiversityOuwehand,A.C.,Salminen,S.&Isolauri,E.2002.atlas.Luxembourg,EuropeanCommission,Probiotics:anoverviewofbeneficialeffects.InW.PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion.Konings,O.P.Kuipers&J.H.JHuisin‘tVeld,eds.Lacticacidbacteria:genetics,metabolismandapplications,Orr,D.2009.Biologicalcontrolandintegratedpp.279–289.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.pestmanagement.InR.Peshin&A.Dhawan,OxfamNovib,ANDES,SEARICE&CGN-WUR.2016.eds.Integratedpestmanagement:innovation-Women’srolesinbiodiversitymanagement.Fromdevelopmentprocess,pp.207–339.Dordrecht,lessonstopracticeandimpact:scalinguppathwaysNetherlands,Springer.inpeople’sbiodiversitymanagement.Casestudy.TheHague,Netherlands,OxfamNovib.Orr,B.J.,Cowie,A.L.,CastilloSanchez,V.M.,Chasek,Ozlu,E.&Kumar,S.2018.ResponseofsoilorganicP.,Crossman,N.D.,Erlewein,A.,Louwagie,G.carbon,pH,electricalconductivity,andwateretal.2017.Scientificconceptualframeworkforstableaggregatestolong-termannualmanureandlanddegradationneutrality.AreportoftheScience-inorganicfertilizer.SoilScienceSocietyofAmericaPolicyInterface.Bonn,Germany,UnitedNationsJournal,82(5):1243–1251.ConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD).Packer,L.,Ali,E.,Dumesh,S.&Walker,K.2016.Identificationofpollinators–whereareweandwhereOrsini,F.,Kahane,R.,Nono-Womdim,R.&shouldwego?InB.Gemhill-Herren,ed.PollinationGianquinto,G.2013.Urbanagricultureinservicestoagriculture:sustainingandenhancingkeythedevelopingworld:areview.Agronomyforecosystemservices,pp.283–299.London,Routledge.SustainableDevelopment,33(4):695–720.Padoch,C.&deJong,W.1991.ThehousegardensofSantaRosa:diversityandvariabilityinanAmazonianOrth,R.J.,Carrunthers,T.J.B.,Dennison,W.C.,agriculturalsystem.EconomicBotany,45(2):166–175.Duarte,C.M.,Fourqurean,J.W.,HeckJr.,K.L.,RandallHughes,A.etal.2006.Aglobalcrisisforseagrassecosystems.BioScience,56(12):987–996.Osemeobo,G.J.1987.Smallholderfarmersandforestrydevelopment:astudyofrurallanduseinBendel,Nigeria.AgriculturalSystems,24:32–52.Ostroumov,S.A.2002.PolyfunctionalroleofbiodiversityinprocessesleadingtowaterthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE507Page,R.E.2013.Thespiritofthehive.ThemechanismsParry,L.,Barlow,J.&Peres,C.A.2009.Huntingofsocialevolution.Cambridge,USA,Harvardforsustainabilityintropicalsecondaryforests.UniversityPress.ConservationBiology,23(5):1270–1280.Page,T.,Murphy,M.E.,Mizrahi,M.,Cornelius,J.P.&Paterson,R.&Lima,N.,eds.2017.Bioprospecting.Venter,M.2016.Sustainabilityofwood-useinremoteSuccess,potentialandconstraints.Cham,forest-dependentcommunitiesofPapuaNewGuinea.Switzerland,SpringerInternationalPublishing.ForestEcologyandManagement,382:88–99.Pattanayak,S.K.&Sills,E.O.2001.DotropicalforestsPagiola,S.2006.Paymentsforenvironmentalservicesinprovidenaturalinsurance?ThemicroeconomicsofCostaRica.MPRAPaperNo.2010.Munich,Germany,non-timberforestproductcollectionintheBrazilianTheMunichPersonalRePEcArchive(MPRA).Amazon.LandEconomics,77(4):595–612.Palmer,A.R.&Bennett,J.E.2013.DegradationofPauly,D.,Christensen,V.,Dalsgaard,J.,Froese,R.&communalrangelandsinSouthAfrica:towardsanTorres,F.1998.Fishingdownmarinefoodwebs.improvedunderstandingtoinformpolicy.AfricanScience,279(5352):860–863.JournalofRange&ForageScience,30(1–2):57–63.Pearce,D.1993.Economicvaluesandthenaturalworld.Palmer,M.A.,Covich,A.P.,Lake,S.,Biro,P.,Brooks,London,Earthscan.J.J.,Cole,J.&VanDeBund,W.J.2000.LinkagesbetweenaquaticsedimentbiotaandlifeabovePearce,D.&Moran,D.1994.Theeconomicvalueofsedimentsaspotentialdriversofbiodiversityandbiodiversity.London,Earthscan.ecologicalprocesses.BioScience,60:820–832.Pecora,G.,Musto,M.,D’adamo,C.,Adduci,F.,Palmgren,M.G.,Edenbrandt,A.K.,Vedel,S.E.,Freschi,P.&Cosentino,C.2015.GISsystemAndersen,M.M.,Landes,X.,Østerberg,J.T.,andlivestockfieldsurveyastoolstomanagetheFalhof,J.etal.2015.Arewereadyforback-to-potentialreducingoffuelloadforfireprevention.naturecropbreeding?TrendsinPlantScience,JournalofAgriculturalInformatics,6(3):57–66.20(3):155–164.PEFC.2018.ProgrammefortheEndorsementofForestPardo,D.,Forcada,J.,Wood,A.G.,Tuck,G.N.,Certification.[Cited23April2018].https://www.Ireland,L.,Pradel,R.,Croxall,J.P.&Phillips,pefc.orgR.A.2017.Additiveeffectsofclimateandfisheriesdriveongoingdeclinesinmultiplealbatrossspecies.Pelosi,C.,Toutous,L.,Chiron,F.,Dubs,F.,Hedde,ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,M.,Muratet,A.,Ponge,J.F.,Salmon,S.&114(50):E10829–E10837.Makowski,D.2013.ReductionofpesticideusecanincreaseearthwormpopulationsinwheatcropsinaParfitt,J.,Barthel,M.&Macnaughton,S.2010.FoodEuropeantemperateregion.Agriculture,Ecosystemswastewithinfoodsupplychains:quantificationandEnvironment,181:223–230.andpotentialforchangeto2050.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalPendleton,L.,Donato,D.C.,Murray,B.C.,Crooks,Sciences,365(1554):3065–3081.S.,Jenkins,W.A.,Sifleet,S.,Craft,C.etal.2012.Estimatingglobal“bluecarbon”emissionsfromParlesak,A.,Geelhoed,D.&Robertson,A.2014.conversionanddegradationofvegetatedcoastalTowardthepreventionofchildhoodundernutrition:ecosystems.PLoSONE,7(9):e43542.dietdiversitystrategiesusinglocallyproducedfoodcanovercomegapsinnutrientsupply.FoodandPeng,S.&Khushg,G.2003.FourdecadesofbreedingNutritionBulletin,35(2):191–199.forvarietalimprovementofirrigatedlowlandriceintheInternationalRiceResearchInstitute.PlantParr,J.F.,Papendick,R.I.,Youngberg,I.G.&Meyer,ProductionScience,6(3):157–164.R.E.1990.SustainableagricultureintheUnitedStates.InC.A.Edwards,R.Lal,P.Madden,R.H.Perdana,A.,Roshetko,J.M.&Kurniawan,I.2012.Miller&G.House,eds.SustainableagriculturalForcesofcompetition:smallholdingteakproducerssystems,pp.50–67.Ankeny,USA,SoilandWaterinIndonesia.InternationalForestryReview,14(2):ConservationSociety.238–248.Pérez-Jaramillo,J.E.,Mendes,R.&Raaijmakers,J.M.2016.Impactofplantdomesticationonrhizosphere508thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREmicrobiomeassemblyandfunctions.PlantMolecularPinstrup-Andersen,P.2013.CanagriculturemeetBiology,90(6):635–644.futurenutritionchallenges?EuropeanJournalofPeters,C.M.,Nepstad,D.C.&Schwartzman,S.1992.DevelopmentResearch,25(1):5–12.Theecologyandeconomicsofoligarchicforests.InD.Nepstad&S.Schwartzman,eds.Non-timberPitcher,T.J.,Kalikoski,D.,Short,K.,Varkey,D.&productsfromtropicalforests.EvaluationofaPramod,G.2009.Anevaluationofprogressinconservationanddevelopmentstrategy,pp.15–22.implementingecosystem-basedmanagementofNewYork,USA,NewYorkBotanicalGarden.fisheriesin33countries.MarinePolicy,33:223–232.Pham,T.T.,Bennet,K.,Brunner,J.,Le,N.D.&Nguyen,D.T.2013.PaymentforforestPitman,M.G.&Läuchli,A.2002.GlobalimpactofenvironmentalservicesinVietNam:frompolicytosalinityandagriculturalecosystems.InA.Läuchlipractice.OccasionalPaper93.Bogor,Indonesia,&U.Lüttge,eds.Salinity:environment–plantsCentreforInternationalForestryResearch.–molecules,pp.3–20.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Piaggio,A.J.,Segelbacher,G.,Seddon,P.J.,Alphey,L.,KluwerAcademicPublishers.Bennett,E.L.,Carlson,R.H.,Friedman,R.M.etal.2017.Isittimeforsyntheticbiodiversityconservation?Pitts-Singer,T.L.&Cane,J.H.2011.ThealfalfaTrendsinEcology&Evolution,32:97–107.leafcuttingbee,Megachilerotundata:theworld’sPica-Ciamarra,U.,Baker,D.,Bedane,B.,Emwanu,mostintensivelymanagedsolitarybee.AnnualT.&Morgan,N.2010.IntegratinglivestockintoReviewofEntomology,56:221–237.agriculturalstatistics.TheAU-IBAR,FAO,ILRI,WBDataInnovationProject.(availableathttp://www.Pivari,D.,Pacca,H.M.&Sebrian,T.2017.Occurrencefao.org/3/a-as291e.pdf).ofBoto-do-Araguaia(Iniaaraguaiaensis)inaRegionPiccini,I.,Arnieri,F.,Caprio,E.,Nervo,B.,Pelissetti,oftheAraguaiaRiver,Brazil,documentedforanS.,Palestrini,C.,Roslin,T.&Rolando,A.2017.environmentalimpactstudyforahydroelectricdam.GreenhousegasemissionsfromdungpatsvaryAquaticMammals,43(5):530–536.withdungbeetlespeciesandwithassemblagecomposition.PLoSONE,12(7):e0178077.Polidoro,B.A.,Carpenter,K.E.,Collins,L.,Duke,N.C.,Pilling,D.&Hoffmann,I.2011.ClimatechangeandEllison,A.M.,Ellison,J.C.,Farnsworth,E.J.etal.animalgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture:2010.Thelossofspecies:mangroveextinctionriskstateofknowledge,risksandopportunities.andgeographicareasofglobalconcern.PLoSONE,CommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodand4:e10095.Agriculture.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.53.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/PollinatorHealthTaskForce.2015.Nationalstrategymeeting/022/mb386e.pdf).topromotethehealthofhoneybeesandotherPimentel,D.,Zuniga,R.&Morrison,D.2005.Updatepollinators.Washington,DC.ontheenvironmentalandeconomiccostsassociatedwithalien-invasivespeciesintheUnitedStates.Popkin,B.2017.RelationshipbetweenshiftsinfoodEcologicalEconomics,52(3SPEC.ISS.):273–288.systemdynamicsandaccelerationoftheglobalPingali,P.2015.Agriculturalpolicyandnutritionnutritiontransition.NutritionReviews,75(2):73–82.outcomes–gettingbeyondthepreoccupationwithstaplegrains.FoodSecurity,7(3):583–591.Popkin,B.M.,Adair,L.S.&Ng,S.W.2012.GlobalPingali,P.L.&Roger,P.A.,eds.1995.Impactofnutritiontransitionandthepandemicofobesityinpesticidesonfarmerhealthandthericeenvironment.developingcountries.NutritionReviews,70(1):3–21.Norwell,USA,KluwerAcademicPublishers.Porro,R.2009.ExpectativasedesafiosparaaadoçãodaalternativaagroflorestalnaAmazôniaemtransformação.InR.Porro,ed.AlternativaagroflorestalnaAmazôniaemtransformação,pp.34–51.Brasilia,Embrapa.Postel,S.L.&Thompson,B.H.2005.Watershedprotection:capturingthebenefitsofnature’swatersupplyservices.NaturalResourcesForum,29(2):98–108.Postollec,F.,Falentin,H.,Pavan,S.,Combrisson,J.&Sohier,D.2011.RecentadvancesinquantitativethestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE509PCR(qPCR)applicationsinfoodmicrobiology.FoodPowell,A.,Treasurer,J.W.,Pooley,C.L.,Keay,A.J.,Microbiology,28(5):848–861.Lloyd,R.,Imsland,A.K.,&GarciadeLeaniz,C.Potkanski,T.1999.Mutualassistanceamongthe2018.Useoflumpfishforsea-licecontrolinsalmonNgorongoroMaasai.InD.M.Anderson&V.farming:challengesandopportunities.ReviewsinBroch-Due,eds.Thepoorarenotus:povertyandaquaculture,10(3):68–702.pastoralisminEasternAfrica,pp.199–217.Athens,USA,OhioUniversityPress.Power,A.G.2010.Ecosystemservicesandagriculture:Potts,S.G.,Vulliamy,B.,Roberts,S.,O’Toole,C.,tradeoffsandsynergies.PhilosophicalTransactionsDafni,A.,Ne’eman,G.&Willmer,P.2005.oftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,365:Roleofnestingresourcesinorganisingdiverse2959–2971.beecommunitiesinaMediterraneanlandscape.EcologicalEntomology,30(1):78–85.Prabhu,R.,Barrios,E.,Bayala,J.,Diby,L.,Donovan,Potts,S.G.,Biesmeijer,J.C.,Kremen,C.,Neumann,J.,Gyau,A.,Graudal,L.etal.2015.Agroforestry:P.,Schweiger,O.&Kunin,W.E.2010.Globalrealizingthepromiseofanagroecologicalapproach.Inpollinatordeclines:trends,impactsanddrivers.FAO,ed.Agroecologyforfoodsecurityandnutrition:TrendsinEcologyandEvolution,25(6):345–353.ProceedingsoftheFAOInternationalSymposium,Potts,S.G.,Imperatriz-Fonseca,V.,Ngo,H.T.,Aizen,18–19September2014,Rome,pp.201–224.Rome,M.A.,Biesmeijer,J.C.,Breeze,T.D.,Dicks,L.V.etFAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i4729e.pdf).al.2016.Safeguardingpollinatorsandtheirvaluestohumanwell-being.Nature,540(7632):220–229.Prakash,V.,Green,R.E.,Pain,D.J.,Ranade,S.P.,Potts,J.,Voora,V.,Lynch,M.&Mammadova,A.Saravanan,S.&Prakash,N.2007.Recentchanges2017.Standardsandbiodiversity.ThematicReview.inpopulationsofresidentGypsvulturesinIndia.Winnipeg,Canada,InternationalInstituteforJournaloftheBombayNaturalHistorySociety,SustainableDevelopment.(availableathttps://www.104(2):127–133.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/standards-biodiversity-ssi-report.pdf).Prakash,V.,Bishwakarma,M.C.,Chaudhary,A.,Poux,X.2008.LowinputfarmingsystemsinEurope:Cuthbert,R.,Dave,R.,Kulkarni,M.,Kumar,S.etwhatisatstake?InK.Biala,J.-M.Terres,P.Pointereaual.2012.ThepopulationdeclineofGypsvulturesin&M.L.Paracchini,eds.Lowinputfarmingsystems:IndiaandNepalhasslowedsinceveterinaryuseofanopportunitytodevelopsustainableagriculture.Diclofenacwasbanned.PLoSONE,7(11):e49118.ProceedingsoftheJRCSummerUniversityRanco,2-5July2007,pp.1–11.Luxembourg,EuropeanPretty,J.&Bharucha,Z.P.2015.IntegratedpestCommission,PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion.managementforsustainableintensificationofPowell,B.,Maundu,P.,Kuhnlein,H.V&Johns,T.agricultureinAsiaandAfrica.Insects,6(1):152–182.2013.WildfoodsfromfarmandforestintheEastUsambaraMountains,Tanzania.EcologyofFoodPretty,J.,Toulmin,C.&Williams,S.2011.SustainableandNutrition,52(6):451–478.intensificationinAfricanagriculture.InternationalPowell,B.,Ouarghidi,A.,Johns,T.,Tattou,M.I.&JournalofAgriculturalSustainability,9(1):5–24.Eyzaguirre,P.2014.WildleafyvegetableuseandknowledgeacrossmultiplesitesinMorocco:acasePretty,J.,Benton,T.G.,Bharucha,Z.P.,Dicks,L.V.,studyfortransmissionoflocalknowledge?JournalFlora,C.B.,Godfray,H.C.J.,Goulson,D.etal.ofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine,10(34).2018.GlobalassessmentofagriculturalsystemPowell,B.,Thilsted,S.H.,Ickowitz,A.,Termote,C.,redesignforsustainableintensification.NatureSunderland,T.&Herforth,A.2015.ImprovingSustainability,1(8):441–446.dietswithwildandcultivatedbiodiversityfromacrossthelandscape.FoodSecurity,7(3):535–554.Pullin,R.&White,P.2011.Climatechangeandaquaticgeneticresourcesforfoodandagriculture:stateofknowledge,risksandopportunities.CommissiononGeneticResourceforFoodandAgriculture.BackgroundStudyPaperNo.55.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/022/mb507e.pdf).Putnam,H.M.&Gates,R.D.2015.Preconditioninginthereef-buildingcoralPocilloporadamicornisandthe510thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREpotentialfortrans-generationalacclimatizationincoralRamsarConvention.2002.“Wetlands:water,life,larvaeunderfutureclimatechangeconditions.Theandculture”.PrinciplesandguidelinesforwetlandJournalofExperimentalBiology,218:2365–2372.restoration.AdoptedbyResolutionVIII.16(2002)Pywell,R.F.,Warman,E.A.,Carvell,C.,Sparks,T.H.,oftheRamsarConvention.EighthmeetingofDicks,L.V,Bennett,D.,Wright,A.,Critchley,theConferenceoftheContractingPartiestotheC.N.R.,&Sherwood,A.2005.ProvidingforagingConventiononWetlands,Valencia,Spain,18–26resourcesforbumblebeesinintensivelyfarmedNovember2002.Gland,Switzerland,Ramsarlandscapes.BiologicalConservation,121:479–494.ConventionSecretariat.QueenslandGovernment.2017.Impactsofnutrientandpesticiderun-offfromcanefarming.[CitedRamsarConvention.2010.DesignatingRamsarSites:18July2018].https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/StrategicFrameworkandguidelinesforthefutureagriculture/sustainable-farming/canefarming-impactsdevelopmentoftheListofWetlandsofInternationalQuemada,M.,Baranski,M.,Nobel-deLange,M.N.J.,Importance.4thedition.Gland,Switzerland.Vallejo,A.&Cooper,J.M.2013.Meta-analysisofstrategiestocontrolnitrateleachinginirrigatedRamsarConvention.2011a.Waterpurification.agriculturalsystemsandtheireffectsoncropyield.Wetlandecosystemservicesfactsheet5.Gland,Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,174:1–10.Switzerland,RamsarConventionSecretariat.Quigley,K.M.,Baker,A.C.,Coffroth,M.A.,Willis,B.L.&vanOppen,M.J.H.2018.BleachingresistanceRamsarConvention.2011b.Floodcontrol.Wetlandandtheroleofalgalendosymbionts.InM.J.H.vanecosystemservicesfactsheet1.Gland,Switzerland,Oppen&J.M.Lough,eds.Coralbleaching:patterns,RamsarConventionSecretariat.processes,causesandconsequences,pp.111–151.Berlin,Springer.RamsarConvention.2011c.ShorelinestabilizationRafikov,M.,Balthazar,J.&vonBremen,H.2008.andstormprotection.WetlandecosystemservicesMathematicalmodelingandcontrolofpopulationfactsheet3.Gland,Switzerland,RamsarConventionsystems:applicationsinbiologicalpestcontrol.AppliedSecretariat.MathematicsandComputation,200(2):557–573.Rah,J.H.,Akhter,N.,Semba,R.D.,Pee,S.D.,Bloem,RamsarConvention.2015a.Stateoftheworld’sM.W.,Campbell,A.A.,Moench-Pfanner,R.,Sun,wetlandsandtheirservicestopeople:acompilationK.,Badham,J.&Kraemer,K.2010.Lowdietaryofrecentanalyses.BriefingNote7.Gland,diversityisapredictorofchildstuntinginruralSwitzerland,RamsarConventionSecretariat.Bangladesh.EuropeanJournalofClinicalNutrition,64(12):1393–1398.RamsarConvention.2015b.Wetlands:sourceofRahman,M.,Varga,I.&Chowdhury,S.,eds.1992.sustainablelivelihoods.FactSheet7.Gland,ManualonpolycultureandintegratedfishfarmingSwitzerland,RamsarConventionSecretariat.inBangladesh.Project:FAO-FI—BGD/87/045/91/11.InstitutionalStrengtheningintheFisheriesSector.RamsarConvention.2015c.KeeppeatlandswetforDhaka,DepartmentofFisheries,Governmentofabetterfuture.FactSheet8.Gland,Switzerland,Bangladesh,Washington,DC,UNDP,andRome,RamsarConventionSecretariat.FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/ac375e/AC375E00.htm).RamsarConvention.2016.AnintroductiontotheRamsarConvention.1990.Recommendation4.1:ConventiononWetlands.Gland,Switzerland,Wetlandrestoration.FourthmeetingoftheRamsarConventionSecretariat.ConferenceoftheContractingParties,Montreux,Switzerland,27June–4July1990.Gland,RamsarConvention.2018.GlobalWetlandOutlook:Switzerland,RamsarConventionSecretariat.StateoftheWorld’sWetlandsandtheirServicestoPeople.Gland,Switzerland,RamsarConventionSecretariat.(availableathttps://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/flipbooks/ramsar_gwo_english_web.pdf).Ran,Y.,Deutsch,L.,Lannerstad,M.&Heinke,J.2013.RapidlyintensifiedbeefproductioninUruguay:Impactsonwaterrelatedecosystemservices.AquaticProcedia,1:77–87.Randazzo,C.L.,Caggia,C.&Neviani,E.2009.ApplicationofmolecularapproachestostudythestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE511lacticacidbacteriainartisanalcheeses.JournalofM.GuadalupeRojas&D.Shapiro-Ilan,eds.MassMicrobiologicalMethods,78(1):1–9.productionofbeneficialorganisms,pp.437–482.Randolph,T.F.,Schelling,E.,Grace,D.,Nicholson,Cambridge,USA,AcademicPress.C.F.,Leroy,J.L.,Cole,D.C.,Demment,M.W.,Reij,C.&Garrity,D.2016.Scalingupfarmer-managedOmore,A.,Zinsstag,J.&Ruel,M.2007.InvitednaturalregenerationinAfricatorestoredegradedreview:Roleoflivestockinhumannutritionandlandscapes.Biotropica,48(6):834–843.healthforpovertyreductionindevelopingcountries.Reij,C.,Tappan,G.&Smale,M.2009a.Re-greeningJournalofAnimalScience,85(11):2788–2800.theSahel:farmer-ledinnovationinBurkinaFasoRBGKew(RoyalBotanicGardensKew).2017.TheandNiger.InD.J.Spielman&R.Pandya-Lorch,StateoftheWorld’sPlants2017.Kew,UK.eds.Millionsfed:provensuccessesinagriculturalReckling,M.,Hecker,J.M.,Bergkvist,G.,Watson,C.A.,development,pp.53–58.Washington,DC,Zander,P.,Schläfke,N.,Stoddard,F.L.etal.2016.InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI).Acroppingsystemassessmentframework–EvaluatingReij,C.,Tappan,G.&Smale,M.2009b.effectsofintroducinglegumesintocroprotations.AgroenvironmentaltransformationintheSahel.EuropeanJournalofAgronomy,76:186–197.Anotherkindof“GreenRevolution”.IFPRIDiscussionRedo,D.J.,Grau,H.R.,Aide,T.M.&Clark,M.L.Paper00914.Washington,DC,InternationalFood2012.AsymmetricforesttransitiondrivenbythePolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI).interactionofsocioeconomicdevelopmentandRenaud,F.&Murti,R.2013.EcosystemsanddisasterenvironmentalheterogeneityinCentralAmerica.riskreductioninthecontextoftheGreatEastJapanPNAS,109(23):8839–8844.EarthquakeandTsunami–ascopingstudy.ReportReed,J.2014.JamesReedonintegratedlandscapetotheKeindanrenNatureConservationFund.approaches-YouTube.[Cited14May2018].https://Cambridge,UKandGland,IUCN.www.youtube.com/watch?v=vyvqpLrtOLsRenaud,F.G.,Sudmeier-Rieux,K.&Estrella,M.,Reed,J.,Deakin,L.&Sunderland,T.2015.Whatareeds.2013.Theroleofecosystemsindisasterrisk‘IntegratedLandscapeApproaches’andhoweffectivelyreduction.Tokyo,UNUPress.havetheybeenimplementedinthetropics:asystematicResearchCouncilofNorway.2010.Newapproachmapprotocol.EnvironmentalEvidence,4(1):2.tocombattingsealice:wrassetotherescue.[CitedReed,J.,vanVianen,J.,Foli,S.,Clendenning,J.,26June2018].https://www.sciencedaily.com/Yang,K.,MacDonald,M.,Petrokofsky,G.,releases/2010/04/100423215021.htmPadoch,C.&Sunderland,T.2017.Treesforlife:Reyes-Garcia,V.,Menendez-Baceta,G.,Aceituno-theecosystemservicecontributionoftreestofoodMata,L.,Acosta-Naranjo,R.,Calvet-Mir,L.,productionandlivelihoodsinthetropics.ForestDominguez,P.,Garnatje,T.etal.2015.FromfaminePolicyandEconomics,84:62–71.foodstodelicatessen:interpretingtrendsintheuseofRegan,E.C.,Santini,L.,Ingwall-King,L.,Hoffmann,wildedibleplantsthroughculturalecosystemservices.M.,Rondinini,C.,Symes,A.,Taylor,J.&Butchart,EcologicalEconomics,120:303–311.S.H.M.2015.GlobaltrendsinthestatusofbirdRicketts,T.H.,Regetz,J.,Steffan-Dewenter,I.,andmammalpollinators.ConservationLetters,8(6):Cunningham,S.A.,Kremen,C.,Bogdanski,397–403.A.,Gemmill-Herren,B.etal.2008.LandscapeReganold,J.&Wachter,J.2016.Organicagricultureineffectsoncroppollinationservices:aretheregeneralthetwenty-firstcentury.NaturePlants,2(2):15221.patterns?EcologyLetters,11(5):499–515.Reid,R.2017.DevelopingfarmerandcommunityRiesenfeld,C.S.,Schloss,P.D.&Handelsman,J.capacityinAgroforestry:istheAustralianMaster2004.Metagenomics:genomicanalysisofmicrobialTreeGrowerprogramtransferabletoothercountries?communities.AnnualReviewofGenetics,AgroforestrySystems,91(5):847–865.38(1):525–552.Reid,S.,Chan,L.&vanOers,M.M.2014.ProductionRinderer,T.E.,ed.1986.Beegeneticsandbreeding.ofentomopathogenicviruses.InJ.,Morales-Ramos,NewYork,USA,AcademicPress.512thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURERinderer,T.E.,Harris,J.W.,Hunt,G.J.&deGuzman,Rollin,O.,Bretagnolle,V.,Decourtye,A.,Aptel,J.,L.I.2010.BreedingforresistancetoVarroadestructorMichel,N.,Vaissière,B.E.&Henry,M.2013.inNorthAmerica.Apidologie,41:409–424.Differencesoffloralresourceusebetweenhoneybeesandwildbeesinanintensivefarmingsystem.Robiglio,V.&Reyes,M.2016.RestorationthroughAgriculture,EcosystemsandEnvironment,179:76–78.formalization?AssessingthepotentialofPeru’sAgroforestryConcessionsschemetocontributetoRosenkranz,P.,Aumeier,P.&Ziegelmann,B.2010.restorationinagriculturalfrontiersintheAmazonBiologyandcontrolofVarroadestructor.Journalofregion.WorldDevelopmentPerspectives,3:42–46.InvertebratePathology,103:S96–S119.Robinson,T.P.,Thornton,P.,Franceschini,G.,Kruska,Roshetko,J.M.&Evans,D.O.1999.DomesticationofR.,Chiozza,F.,Notenbaert,A.,Cecchi,G.etal.agroforestrytreesinsoutheastAsia:proceedings2011.Globallivestockproductionsystems.Rome,ofaregionalworkshop,Yogyakarta,IndonesiaFAOandILRI.November4-7,1997.Nairobi,ICRAF.Robinson,T.P.,WilliamWint,G.R.,Conchedda,G.,Roshetko,J.M.,Mulawarman&Dianarto,A.2008.VanBoeckel,T.P.,Ercoli,V.,Palamara,E.,Cinardi,Treeseedprocurement-diffusionpathwaysinG.etal.2014.MappingtheglobaldistributionofWonogiriandPonorogo,Java.Small-scaleForestry,livestock.PLoSONE,9(5):e96084.7(3–4):333–352.Robinson,T.P.,Thornton,P.,Franceschini,G.,Kruska,Ross,E.M.,Petrovski,S.,Moate,P.J.&Hayes,B.J.2013.R.,Chiozza,F.,Notenbaert,A.,Cecchi,G.etMetagenomicsofrumenbacteriophagefromthirteenal.2018.Globaldistributionofruminantlivestocklactatingdairycattle.BMCMicrobiology,13(242).productionsystemsV5(5minutesofarc).HarvardDataverse.https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/WPDSZERothenbuhler,W.C.1964.Behaviourgeneticsofnestcleaninginhoneybees.I.ResponsesoffourinbredRocca,M.&Messelink,G.J.2017.Combininglinestodisease-killedbrood.AnimalBehaviour,lacewingsandparasitoidsforbiologicalcontrolof12:578–583.foxgloveaphidsinsweetpepper.JournalofAppliedEntomology,141(5):402–410.Roulston,T.H.&Goodell,K.2011.Theroleofresourcesandrisksinregulatingwildbeepopulations.AnnualRochman,C.M.2018.Microplasticsresearch–fromsinkReviewofEntomology,56(1):293–312.tosource.Science,360(6384):28–29.Rowland,D.,Ickowitz,A.,Powell,B.,Nasi,R.&Rockström,J.,Steffen,W.,Noone,K.,Persson,Å.,Sunderland,T.2017.ForestfoodsandhealthyChapin,F.S.,Lambin,E.F.,Lenton,T.M.etal.diets:quantifyingthecontributions.Environmental2009.Asafeoperatingspaceforhumanity.Nature,Conservation,44(2):102–114.461(7263):472–475.Roy,H.&Migeon,A.2010.Ladybeetles(Coccinellidae).Rockström,J.,Williams,J.,Daily,G.,Noble,A.,Chapter8.4.BioRisk,4(1):293–313.Matthews,N.,Gordon,L.,Wetterstrand,H.etal.2017.SustainableintensificationofagricultureRundlöf,M.,Bengtsson,J.&Smith,H.G.2008.forhumanprosperityandglobalsustainability.LocalandlandscapeeffectsoforganicfarmingonAmbio,46(1):4–17.butterflyspeciesrichnessandabundance.JournalofAppliedEcology,45:813–820.Rodrigues,A.S.L.,Akcakaya,H.R.,Andelman,S.J.,Bakarr,M.I.,Boitani,L.,Brooks,T.M.,Chanson,Runyan,C.&D’Odorico,P.2016.Globaldeforestation.J.S.etal.2004.Globalgapanalysis:priorityregionsNewYork,USA,CambridgeUniversityPress.forexpandingtheGlobalProtected-AreaNetwork.BioScience,54(12):1092.Russi,D.,tenBrink,P.,Farmer,A.,Badura,T.,Coates,D.,Förster,J.,Kumar,R.etal.2013.TheRodríguez-Eugenio,N.,McLaughlin,M.&Pennock,economicsofecosystemsandbiodiversityforwaterD.2018.Soilpollution:ahiddenreality.Rome,FAO.andwetlands.London,IEEP,andGland,Switzerland,RamsarConventionSecretariat.Rogers,S.,Tarpy,D.&Burrack,H.2014.BeespeciesdiversityenhancesproductivityandstabilityinaRutgers,M.,Schouten,A.J.,Bloem,J.,VanEekeren,perennialcrop.PLoSONE,9(5):e97307.N.,DeGoede,R.G.M.,JagersopAkkerhuis,G.A.J.M.,VanderWal,A.,Mulder,C.,Brussaard,thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE513L.&Breure,M.2009.BiologicalmeasurementsinagroforestsinsouthernBahia,Brazil:treecomponent,anationwidesoilmonitoringnetwork.Europeanmanagementpracticesandtreespeciesconservation.JournalofSoilScience,60:820–832.BiodiversityandConservation,21(4):1055–1077.Rutgers,M.,Schouten,A.J.,Bloem,B.E.,Dimmers,Sanchez,P.A.2000.DeliveringonthepromiseofW.J.,VanEekeren,N.,DeGoede,R.G.M.,agroforestry.Environment,DevelopmentandJagersopAkkerhuis,G.A.J.M.etal.2014.EenSustainability,1(3):275–284.indicatorsysteemvoorecosysteemdienstenvandeSanchez-Moreno,S.,Castro,J.,Alonso-Prados,E.,bodem.Lifesupportfunctionsrevisited.RIVMRapportAlonso-Prados,J.L.,Garcia-Baudin,J.M.,Talavera,2014-0145.Bilthoven,Netherlands,RijksinstituutvoorM.&Duran-Zuazo,V.H.2015.TillageandherbicideVolksgezondheidenMilieu(RIVM).decreasesoilbiodiversityinoliveorchards.AgronomyRuthenberg,H.1980.Farmingsystemsinthetropics.forSustainableDevelopment,35(2):691–700.Oxford,UK,ClarendonPress.Sanderson,M.A.,Goslee,S.C.,Soder,K.J.,Skinner,Saad,N.,Delattre,C.,Urdaci,M.,Schmitter,J.M.R.H.,Tracy,B.F.&Deak,A.2007.Plantspecies&Bressollier,P.2013.Anoverviewofthelastdiversity,ecosystemfunction,andpastureadvancesinprobioticandprebioticfield.LWT-Foodmanagement–aperspective.CanadianJournalofScienceandTechnology,50(1):1–16.PlantScience,87(3):479–487.Sacandé,M.,Jøker,D.,Dulloo,M.E.&Thomsen,K.A.Sankaran,K.V.2004.GiantAfricansnail.PestFact2004.ComparativestoragebiologyoftropicaltreeSheet.Asia-PacificForestInvasiveSpeciesNetwork.seeds.Rome,InternationalPlantGeneticResources(availableathttp://www.fao.org/forestry/22071-0a7Institute(IPGRI).14b2449327eb9db0f552d36311fdd7.pdf).Saenger,P.,Gartside,D.&Funge-Smith,S.2013.ASans,M.&Meixner,T.2016.Theroleofbiodiversityinreviewofmangroveandseagrassecosystemsandthehydrologicalcycle.InF.Poupeau,H.Gupta,A.theirlinkagetofisheriesandfisheriesmanagement.Serrat-Capdevila,M.A.Sans-Fuentes,S.Harris&L.G.RAPPublication2013/09.Bangkok,FAORegionalHayde,eds.Waterbankruptcyinthelandofplenty,OfficeforAsiaandthePacific.(availableathttp://pp.249–288.Delft,Netherlands,UNESCO-IHEwww.fao.org/docrep/018/i3355e/i3355e.pdf).InstituteforWaterEducation.Sala,O.E.,Yahdjian,L.,Havstad,K.&Aguiar,M.R.Sayer,J.,Sunderland,T.,Ghazoul,J.,Pfund,J.-L.,2017.Rangelandecosystemservices:nature’ssupplySheil,D.,Meijaard,E.,Venter,M.etal.2013.Tenandhumans’demand.InD.D.Briske,ed.Rangelandprinciplesforalandscapeapproachtoreconcilingsystems:processes,managementandchallenges,agriculture,conservation,andothercompetinglandpp.467–489.Cham,Switzerland,SpringerNature.uses.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesSalmonHealthConsortium&PMRA.2003.oftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,110(21):8349–8356.IntegratedpestmanagementofsealiceinsalmonSayre,N.F.,Davis,D.K.,Bestelmeyer,B.&aquaculture.Ottawa,MinisterofPublicWorksandWilliamson,J.C.2017.Rangelands:whereGovernmentServicesCanada.anthromesmeettheirlimits.Land,6(2):31.Salton,J.C.,Mercante,F.M.,Tomazi,M.,Zanatta,J.A.,Scarcelli,N.,Tostain,S.,Mariac,C.,Agbangla,C.,Da,Concenço,G.,Silva,W.M.&Retore,M.2014.O.,Berthaud,J.&Pham,J.L.2006.GeneticnatureIntegratedcrop-livestocksystemintropicalBrazil:ofyams(Dioscoreasp.)domesticatedbyfarmersintowardasustainableproductionsystem.Agriculture,Benin(WestAfrica).GeneticResourcesandCropEcosystemsandEnvironment,190:70–79.Evolution,53(1):121–130.Salvat,B.&Allemand,D.2009.AcidificationandSchaffelke,B.,Collier,C.,Kroon,F.,Lough,J.,coralreefs.Scientificreview.NoumeaCedex,NewMcKenzie,L.,Ronan,M.,Uthicke,S.&Brodie,Caledonia,CoralReefInitiativesforthePacific.J.2017.ScientificConsensusStatement2017.ASambuichi,R.H.R.,Vidal,D.B.,Piasentin,F.B.,synthesisofthescienceofland-basedwaterqualityJardim,J.G.,Viana,T.G.,Menezes,A.A.,Mello,impactsontheGreatBarrierReef,Chapter1:TheD.L.N.,Ahnert,D.&Baligar,V.C.2012.Cabrucaconditionofcoastalandmarineecosystemsofthe514thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREGreatBarrierReef.Brisbane,Australia,GovernmentRuohonen-Lehto,M.,Saucy,A.G.W.&Mertens,ofQueensland.M.2017.Herbicideresistanceandbiodiversity:Scherr,S.J.,Shames,S.&Friedman,R.2013.Definingagronomicandenvironmentalaspectsofgeneticallyintegratedlandscapemanagementforpolicymodifiedherbicide-resistantplants.Environmentalmakers.EcoagriculturePolicyFocus,10.SciencesEurope,29(1):5.Schipper,J.,Chanson,J.S.,Chiozza,F.,Cox,N.A.,Scoones,I.1998.Sustainablerurallivelihoods:aHoffmann,M.Katariya,V.,Lamoreau,J.etal.frameworkforanalysis.IDSWorkingPaper72.2008.Thestatusoftheworld’slandandmarineBrighton,UK,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies.mammals:diversity,threat,andknowledge.Science,Sears,R.R.,Cronkleton,P.,PoloVillanueva,F.,322:225–230.MirandaRuiz,M.&Pérez-OjedadelArco,M.Schippmann,U.,Leaman,D.J.&Cunningham,2018.Farm-forestryinthePeruvianAmazonandA.B.2002.Impactofcultivationandgatheringofthefeasibilityofitsregulationthroughforestpolicymedicinalplantsonbiodiversity:globaltrendsandreform.ForestPolicyandEconomics,issues.InFAO,ed.Biodiversityandtheecosystem87(November2017):49–58.approachinagriculture,forestryandfisheries.Sebiomo,A.,Ogundero,V.W.&Bankole,S.A.2011.SatelliteeventontheoccasionoftheNinthRegularEffectoffourherbicidesonmicrobialpopulation,SessionoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesorganicmatteranddehydrogenaseactivity.AfricanforFoodandAgriculture.Rome,12–13OctoberJournalofBiotechnology,10:770–778.2002.Inter-DepartmentalWorkingGrouponSedbrook,J.C.,Phippen,W.B.&Marks,M.D.2014.BiologicalDiversityforFoodandAgriculture.Rome,NewapproachestofacilitaterapiddomesticationofFAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/005/awildplanttoanoilseedcrop:examplepennycressAA010E/AA010E00.HTM).(ThlaspiarvenseL.).PlantScience,227:122–132.Schlatter,D.,Kinkel,L.,Thomashow,L.,Weller,D.Seedorf,H.,Kittelmann,S.&Janssen,P.H.2015.&Paulitz,T.2017.Diseasesuppressivesoils:newFewhighlyabundantoperationaltaxonomicunitsinsightsfromthesoilmicrobiome.Phytopathology,dominatewithinrumenmethanogenicarchaeal107(11):1284–1297.speciesinNewZealandsheepandcattle.AppliedSchlüter,S.,Weller,U.&Vogel,H.J.2011.Soil-EnvironmentalMicrobiology,81:986–995.structuredevelopmentincludingseasonaldynamicsSeeley,T.D.1985.Honeybeeecology.Astudyofinalong-termfertilizationexperiment.Journalofadaptationinsociallife.Princeton,USA,PrincetonPlantNutritionandSoilScience,174(3):395–403.UniversityPress.Schmithüsen,F.2013.ThreehundredyearsofappliedSekercioglu,C.H.2006.Increasingawarenessofaviansustainabilityinforestry.Unasylva,64(240):3–11.ecologicalfunction.TrendsinEcologyandEvolution,Schramm,H.L.J.1995.Usesandeffectsofcultured21(8):464–471.fishesinaquaticecosystems.Bethesda,USA,Sengonca,C.,Kranz,J.&Blaeser,P.2002.AttractivenessAmericanFisheriesSociety.ofthreeweedspeciestopolyphagouspredatorsandSchulp,C.J.E.,Thuiller,W.&Verburg,P.H.2014.WildtheirinfluenceonaphidpopulationsinadjacentlettucefoodinEurope:asynthesisofknowledgeanddatacultivations.JournalofPestScience,75(6):161–165.ofterrestrialwildfoodasanecosystemservice.SEPSA(SecretaríaEjecutivadePlanificaciónEcologicalEconomics,105:292–305.SectorialAgropecuaria).2017.PolíticanacionaldeSchulz,S.,Brankatschk,R.,Dumig,A.,Kogel-semillasdeCostaRica2017-2030.SanJosé.Knabner,I.,Schloter,M.&Zeyer,J.2013.TheroleSerna-Chavez,H.M.,Fierer,N.&VanBodegom,ofmicroorganismsatdifferentstagesofecosystemP.M.2013.Globaldriversandpatternsofdevelopmentforsoilformation.Biogeosciences,microbialabundanceinsoil.GlobalEcologyand10(6):3983–3996.Biogeography,22(10):1162–1172.Schutte,G.,Eckerstorfer,M.,Rastelli,V.,Seshadri,R.,Leahy,S.C.,Attwood,G.T.,Teh,K.H.,Reichenbecher,W.,Restrepo-Vassalli,S.,Lambie,S.C.,Cookson,A.L.,Eloe-Fadrosh,E.A.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE515etal.2018.Cultivationandsequencingofrumenetal.2011.ExtinctionriskassessmentofthemicrobiomemembersfromtheHungate1000world´sseagrassspecies.BiologicalConservation,Collection.NatureBiotechnology,36(4):359–367.144:1961–1971.Seto,K.C.&Ramankutty,N.2016.HiddenlinkagesSileshi,G.,Akinnifesi,F.K.,Ajayi,O.C.&Place,F.betweenurbanizationandfoodsystems.Science,2008.Meta-analysisofmaizeyieldresponseto352(6288):943–945.woodyandherbaceouslegumesinsub-SaharanSettle,W.H.,Ariawan,H.,Astuti,E.T.,Cahyana,W.,Africa.PlantandSoil,307(1–2):1–19.Hakim,A.L.,Hindayana,D.&Lestari,A.S.1996.Simões,M.F.,Pereira,L.,Santos,C.&Lima,N.2013.ManagingtropicalricepeststhroughconservationPolyphasicidentificationandpreservationoffungalofgeneralistnaturalenemiesandalternateprey.diversity:conceptsandapplications.InA.Malik,Ecology,77(7):1975–1988.E.Grohmann&M.Alves,eds.ManagementofSevillaGuzmán,E.2002.Aperspectivasociológicaemmicrobialresourcesintheenvironment,pp.91–117.agroecologia:umasistematizaçãodeseusmétodosDordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.etécnicas.AgroecologiaeDesenvolvimentoRuralSimon,D.&Benhamou,J.F.2009.Rice-fishfarminginSustentável,3:18–28.GuinéeForestière–outcomeofaruraldevelopmentShackelford,G.,Steward,P.R.,Benton,T.G.,Kunin,project.FieldActionsScienceReports,2:49–56.W.E.,Potts,S.G.,Biesmeijer,J.C.&Sait,S.M.SINAC-MINAE.2014.QuintoInformeNacionalal2013.ComparisonofpollinatorsandnaturalConveniosobreDiversidadBiológica,CostaRica.Sanenemies:ameta-analysisoflandscapeandlocalJosé,SistemaNacionaldeÁreasdeConservación,effectsonabundanceandrichnessincrops.MinisteriodeAmbienteyEnergía,Washington,DC,BiologicalReviews,88(4):1002–1021.GEF,andWashington,DC,UNDP.Shackleton,C.M.&Shackleton,S.E.2006.HouseholdSingh,V.P.,Sinha,R.B.,Nayak,D.,Neufeldt,H.,vanwealthstatusandnaturalresourceuseintheKatNoordwijk,M.&Rizvi,J.2016.ThenationalRivervalley,SouthAfrica.EcologicalEconomics,agroforestrypolicyofIndia:experientiallearningin57(2):306–317.developmentanddeliveryphases.ICRAFWorkingSharpley,A.,Jarvie,H.P.,Buda,A.,May,L.,Spears,PaperNo.240.NewDelhi,ICRAF.B.&Kleinman,P.2013.Phosphoruslegacy:Sist,P.,Dykstra,D.&Fimbel,R.1998.Reducedimpactovercomingtheeffectsofpastmanagementpracticesloggingguidelinesforlowlandandhilldipterocarptomitigatefuturewaterqualityimpairment.JournalforestsinIndonesia.BulunganResearchReportSeriesofEnvironmentalQuality,42(5):1308–1326.No.1,September1998,CenterforInternationalShi,W.,Moon,C.D.,Leahy,S.C.,Kang,D.,Froula,J.,ForestryResearch,Bogor,Indonesia.Kittelmann,S.,Fan,C.etal.2014.MethaneyieldSix,J.,Feller,C.,Denef,K.,Ogle,S.M.,deMoraes,phenotypeslinkedtodifferentialgeneexpressioninJ.C.&Albrecht,A.2002.Soilorganicmatter,biotathesheeprumenmicrobiome.GenomeResearch,andaggregationintemperateandtropicalsoils–24(9):1517–1525.Effectsofno-tillage.Agronomie,22(7–8):755–775.Shiferaw,B.A.,Okello,J.&Reddy,R.V.2009.AdoptionSix,J.,Bossuyt,H.,Degryze,S.&Denef,K.2004.andadaptationofnaturalresourcemanagementAhistoryofresearchonthelinkbetween(micro)innovationsinsmallholderagriculture:reflectionsaggregates,soilbiota,andsoilorganicmatteronkeylessonsandbestpractices.Environment,dynamics.Soil&TillageResearch,79(1):7–31.DevelopmentandSustainability,11(3):601–619.Skiftesvik,A.B.,Blom,G.,Agnalt,A.L.,Durif,C.M.F.,Shiferaw,B.,Prasanna,B.M.,Hellin,J.&Bänziger,M.Browman,H.I.,Bjelland,R.M.,Harkestad,L.S.,2011.Cropsthatfeedtheworld6.PastsuccessesandFarestveit,E.,Paulsen,O.I.,Fauske,M.,Havelin,futurechallengestotheroleplayedbymaizeinglobalT.,Johnsen,K.&Mortensen,S.2014.Wrassefoodsecurity.FoodSecurity,3:307–327.(Labridae)ascleanerfishinsalmonidaquaculture–Short,F.T.,Polidoro,B.,Livingstone,S.R.,Carpenter,theHardangerfjordasacasestudy.MarineBiologyK.E.,Bandeira,S.,Bujang,J.S.,Calumpong,H.P.Research,10(3):289–300.516thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURESlaa,E.J.,SánchezChaves,L.A.,Malagodi-Braga,K.effects.Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,&Hofstede,F.E.2006.Stinglessbeesinapplied133(3):247–266.pollination:practiceandperspectives.Apidologie,SocietyforRangeManagement.1998.Glossaryof37:293–315.termsusedinrangemanagement.Adefinitionoftermscommonlyusedinrangemanagement.Slade,E.M.,Riutta,T.,Roslin,T.&Tuomisto,GlossaryUpdateTaskGroup,ed.WheatRidge,USA.H.L.2016.TheroleofdungbeetlesinreducingSolden,L.M.,Hoyt,D.W.,Collins,W.B.,Plank,greenhousegasemissionsfromcattlefarming.J.E.,Daly,R.A.,Hildebrand,E.,Beavers,T.J.ScientificReports,6:18140.etal.2017.NewrolesinhemicellulosicsugarfermentationfortheuncultivatedBacteroidetesSmaal,A.C.,Kater,B.J.&Wijsman,J.2009.Introduction,familyBS11.TheISMEJournal,11(3):691–703.establishmentandexpansionofthePacificoysterSomarriba,E.,Suárez-Islas,A.,Calero-Borge,W.,CrassostreagigasintheOosterschelde(SWVillota,A.,Castillo,C.,Vílchez,S.,Deheuvels,Netherlands).HelgolandMarineResearch,63:75–83.O.&Cerda,R.2014.Cocoa–timberagroforestrysystems:Theobromacacao–CordiaalliodorainCentralSmith,A.,Snapp,S.,Chikowo,R.,Thorne,P.,Bekunda,America.AgroforestrySystems,88(6):1001–1019.M.&Glover,J.2017.MeasuringsustainableSomerville,C.,Cohen,M.,Pantanella,E.,Stankus,A.intensificationinsmallholderagroecosystems:areview.&Lovatelli,A.2014.Small-scaleaquaponicfoodGlobalFoodSecurity,12:127–138.production.Integratedfishandplantfarming.FAOFisheriesandAquacultureTechnicalPaperNo.589.Smith,D.2012.CultureCollections.InS.SaraslaniandRome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-G.M.Gadd,eds.AdvancesinAppliedMicrobiology,i4021e.pdf).79:73–118,Academic,Burlington.SooBae,J.,WonJoo,R.&Kim,Y.2012.ForesttransitioninSouthKorea:reality,pathanddrivers.Smith,D.&Ryan,M.J.2012.ImplementingbestLandUsePolicy,29:198–207.practicesandvalidationofcryopreservationSorrenti,S.2017.Non-woodforestproductsintechniquesformicroorganisms.ScientificWorldinternationalstatisticalsystems.Rome,FAO.Journal,2012:805659.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i6731e.pdf).Soto,D.,White,P.,Dempster,T.,Silva,S.D.,Flores,Smith,D.,Ryan,M.&Day,J.G.,eds.2001.TheUKA.,Karakassis,Y.,Knapp,G.etal.2012.NationalCultureCollection(UKNCC)biologicalresource:Addressingaquaculture-fisheriesinteractionsproperties,maintenanceandmanagement.Egham,UK,throughtheimplementationoftheecosystemTheUnitedKingdomNationalCultureCollection.approachtoaquaculture(EAA).InR.P.Subasinghe,J.R.Arthur,D.M.Bartley,S.S.DeSilva,M.Halwart,Smith,G.C.,Dueker,S.R.,Clifford,A.J.&Grivetti,N.Hishamunda,C.V.Mohan&P.Sorgeloos,eds.L.E.1996.CarotenoidvaluesofselectedplantfoodsFarmingthewatersforpeopleandfood,pp.commontoSouthernBurkinaFaso,WestAfrica.385–436.ProceedingsoftheGlobalConferenceEcologyofFoodandNutrition,35(1):43–58.onAquaculture2010.Phuket,Thailand,2225September2010.Rome,FAO,andBangkok,Smith,J.2012.Urbanairquality.Grantham,UK,TheNetworkofAquacultureCentresinAsia-PacificWoodlandTrust.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2734e/i2734e.pdf).Smith,J.,vandeKop,P.,Reategui,K.,Lombardi,Spalding,M.D.,Blasco,F.&Field,C.D.,eds.1997.I.,Sabogal,C.&Diaz,A.1999.DynamicsofWorldmangroveatlas.Okinawa,Japan,Thesecondaryforestsinslash-and-burnfarming:InternationalSocietyforMangroveEcosystems.interactionsamonglandusetypesinthePeruvianAmazon.Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,76(2–3):85–98.Smith,K.M.,Loh,E.H.,Rostal,M.K.,Zambrana-Torrelio,C.M.,Mendiola,L.&Daszak,P.2014.Pathogens,pests,andeconomics:driversofhoneybeecolonydeclinesandlosses.Ecohealth,10(4):434–445.Snyder,C.S.,Bruulsema,T.W.,Jensen,T.L.&Fixen,P.E.2009.ReviewofgreenhousegasemissionsfromcropproductionsystemsandfertilizermanagementthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE517Spalding,M.D.Kainuma,M.&Collins,L.2010.plantpathogensandpests.CropProtection,5(3):Worldatlasofmangroves.LondonandWashington,190–198.DC,Earthscan.Stattersfield,A.J.,Crosby,M.J.,Long,A.J.&Wege,D.C.1998.EndemicBirdAreasoftheWorld.PrioritiesSpalding,M.D.,Brumbaugh,R.D.&Landis,E.2016.forbiodiversityconservation.BirdLifeConservationAtlasofoceanwealth–Breakingwaves.Arlington,Series7.Cambridge,UK,BirdLifeInternational.USA,TheNatureConservancy.Steffen,W.,Richardson,K.,Rockström,J.,Cornell,S.E.,Fetzer,I.,Bennett,E.M.,Biggs,R.etSpalding,M.D.,Ravilious,C.A.&Green,E.P.2001.al.2015.Planetaryboundaries:guidinghumanWorldatlasofcoralreefs.Berkeley,USA,Universitydevelopmentonachangingplanet.Science,ofCaliforniaPress.347(6223):736–746.Steinbeiss,S.,Bessler,H.,Engels,C.,Temperton,SPC(SecretariatofthePacificCommunity).2015.AV.M.,Buchmann,N.,Roscher,C.,Kreutziger,Y.,newsongforcoastalfisheriespathwaystochange:Baade,J.,Habekost,M.&Gleixner,G.2008.theNoumeaStrategy.Noumea,NewCaledonia.Plantdiversitypositivelyaffectsshort-termsoilcarbonstorageinexperimentalgrasslands.GlobalSpeed,R.,Li,Y.,Tickner,D.,Huang,H.,Naiman,ChangeBiology,14(12):2937–2949.R.,Cao,J.,Lei,G.etal.2016.Riverrestoration:aSteinfeld,H.,Mooney,H.A.,Schneider,F.&Neville,strategicapproachtoplanningandmanagement.L.E.,eds.2010.Livestockinachanginglandscape.Paris,UNESCO.Volume1.Drivers,consequences,andresponses.Washington,DC,IslandPress.Spötter,A.,Gupta,P.,Mayer,M.,Reinsch,N.&Steinhauer,N.,Rennich,K.,Lee,K.,Pettis,J.,Tarpy,Bienefeld,K.2016.Genome-wideassociationstudyD.R.,Rangel,J.,Caron,D.etal.2015.Colonyofavarroa-specificdefensebehaviorinhoneybeesLoss2014-2015:Preliminaryresults.[Cited11April(Apismellifera).JournalofHeredity,107:220–227.2018].https://beeinformed.org/results/colony-loss-2014-2015-preliminary-results/Spracklen,D.V.,Arnold,S.R.&Taylor,C.M.2012.Stephen,W.P.1960.Studiesinthealkalibee(NomiaObservationsofincreasedtropicalrainfallprecededbymelanderiCkll.).Technicalbulletin.Corvallis,USA,airpassageoverforests.Nature,489(7415):282–285.AgriculturalExperimentStation,OregonStateCollege.Stewart,J.B.1977.EvaporationfromthewetcanopyofaSradnick,A.,Murugan,R.,Oltmanns,M.,Raupp,J.pineforest.WaterResourcesResearch,13(6):915–921.&Joergensen,R.G.2013.ChangesinfunctionalStraub,C.,Finke,D.&Snyder,W.2008.Arethediversityofthesoilmicrobialcommunityinaconservationofnaturalenemybiodiversityandheterogeneoussandysoilafterlong-termfertilizationbiologicalcontrolcompatiblegoals?Biologicalwithcattlemanureandmineralfertilizer.AppliedControl,45(2):225–237.SoilEcology,63:23–28.Strayer,D.L.&Dudgeon,D.2010.Freshwaterbiodiversityconservation:recentprogressandSt-Pierre,B.,Cersosimo,L.M.,Ishaq,S.L.&futurechallenges.JournaloftheNorthAmericanWright,A.D.G.2015.TowardtheidentificationBenthologicalSociety,29:344–358.ofmethanogenicarchaealgroupsastargetsofStritar,M.L.,Schweitzer,J.A.,Hart,S.C.&Bailey,methanemitigationinlivestockanimals.FrontiersinJ.K.2010.IntroducedungulateherbivorealtersMicrobiology,6(776).soilprocessesafterfire.BiologicalInvasions,12(2):313–324.Stackebrandt,E.,Smith,D.,Casaregola,S.,Varese,G.,Strohmaier,R.,Rioux,J.,Seggel,A.,Meybeck,Verkleij,G.,Lima,N.&Bridge,P.2014.DepositofA.,Bernoux,M.,Salvatore,M.,Miranda,J.&microbialstrainsinpublicservicecollectionsaspartofAgostini,A.2016.Theagriculturesectorsinthethepublicationprocesstounderpingoodpracticeinscience.SpringerPlus,3:1–4.Stadlmayr,B.,Charrondière,U.R.,Eisenwagen,S.,Jamnadass,R.&Kehlenbeck,K.2013.Nutrientcompositionofselectedindigenousfruitsfromsub-SaharanAfrica.JournaloftheScienceofFoodandAgriculture,93(11):2627–2636.Stapleton,J.J.&DeVay,J.E.1986.Soilsolarization:anon-chemicalapproachformanagementof518thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREIntendedNationallyDeterminedContributions:Sundt,P.,Schulze,P.-E.&Syversen,F.2014.Sourcesanalysis.EnvironmentandNaturalResourcesofmicroplastic-pollutiontothemarineenvironment.ManagementWorkingPaperNo.62.Rome,FAO.ReportNo.M-3212015.NorwegianEnvironment(availableathttp://www.fao.org/3/a-i5687e.pdf).Agency(Miljødirektoratet).Strong,A.&Minnemeyer,S.2015.Satellitedatarevealsstateoftheworld’smangroveforests.Washington,Sutcliffe,L.M.E.,Batáry,P.,Kormann,U.,Báldi,DC,WorldResourcesInstitute.(availableathttps://A.,Dicks,L.V.,Herzon,I.,Kleijn,D.etal.www.wri.org/blog/2015/02/satellite-data-reveals-2015.HarnessingthebiodiversityvalueofCentralstate-world-s-mangrove-forests).andEasternEuropeanfarmland.DiversityandStruik,P.C.,Kuyper,T.W.,Brussaard,L.&Leeuwis,Distributions,21(6):722–730.C.2014.Deconstructingandunpackingscientificcontroversiesinintensificationandsustainability:Swift,M.J.1999.Towardsthesecondparadigm:whythetensionsinconceptsandvalues?CurrentIntegratedbiologicalmanagementofsoil.InOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,8:80–88.J.O.Siqueira,F.M.S.Moreira,A.S.Lopes,L.R.G.Stryamets,N.N.,Elbakidze,M.M.,Ceuterick,M.M.,Guiherme,V.Faquin,A.E.FurtaniNeto&J.G.Angelstam,P.P.&Axelsson,R.R.2015.FromCavalho,eds.Inter-relacaofertilidade,biologiadoeconomicsurvivaltorecreation:contemporarysoloenutricaodeplantas,pp.11–24.Lavras,Brazil,usesofwildfoodandmedicineinruralSweden,SociedadeBrasileiradeCiênciadoSolo,UFLA.UkraineandNWRussia.JournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine,11:53–71.Szabó,N.D.,Colla,S.R.,Wagner,D.L.,Gall,L.F.&Kerr,Stuart,T.2009.Waste:uncoveringtheglobalfoodJ.T.2012.Dopathogenspillover,pesticideuse,orscandal.London,PenguinBooks.habitatlossexplainrecentNorthAmericanbumblebeeStuart,S.,Wilson,E.,Mittermeier,R.&Rodríguez,J.declines?ConservationLetters,5(3):232–239.2010.Thebarometeroflife.Science,328:177–178.Sudmeier-Rieux,K.2013.EcosystemapproachTabacco,E.,Piano,S.,Revello-Chion,A.&Borreani,todisasterriskreduction:basicconceptsandG.2011.EffectofLactobacillusbuchneriLN4637recommendationstogovernments,withaspecialandLactobacillusbuchneriLN40177ontheaerobicfocusonEurope.Strasbourg,France,Europeanandstability,fermentationproducts,andmicrobialMediterraneanMajorHazardsAgreementpopulationsofcornsilageunderfarmconditions.(EUR-OPA),CouncilofEurope.JournalofDairyScience,94:5589–5598.Sudmeier-Rieux,K.,Fernández,M.,Gaillard,J.,Guadagno,L.&Jaboyedoff,M.2017.Tamang,J.P.2010.DiversityoffermentedbeveragesandIntroduction:exploringlinkagesbetweendisasteralcoholicdrinks.InJ.P.Tamang&K.Kailasapathy,riskreduction,climatechangeadaptation,migrationeds.Fermentedfoodsandbeveragesoftheworld,andsustainabledevelopment.InK.Sudmeier-pp.97–138.BocaRaton,USA,CRCPress.Rieux,M.Fernández,I.Penna,M.Jaboyedoff&J.Gaillard,eds.IdentifyingemergingissuesinTamang,J.P.,Watanabe,K.&Holzapfel,W.H.disasterriskreduction,migration,climatechange2016.Review:diversityofmicroorganismsinandsustainabledevelopment,pp.1–11.Cham,globalfermentedfoodsandbeverages.FrontiersinSwitzerland,SpringerInternationalPublishing.Microbiology,7:377.Sumner,D.A.&Boriss,H.2006.Bee-conomicsandtheleapinpollinationfees.AgriculturalandResourceTaylor,R.,Herms,D.,Cardina,J.&Moore,R.2018.EconomicsUpdate,9:9–11.Climatechangeandpestmanagement:unanticipatedSunderland,T.C.H.2011.Foodsecurity:whyisconsequencesoftrophicdislocation.Agronomy,8(1):7.biodiversityimportant?InternationalForestryReview,13(3):265–274.Teasdale,J.R.2003.Principlesandpracticesofusingcovercropsinweedmanagementsystems.InR.Labrada,ed.Weedmanagementindevelopingcountries,pp.169–178.FAOPlantProductionandProtectionPaper120,Add.1.Rome,FAO.TEEB(TheEconomicsofEcosystemsandBiodiversity).2010.Theeconomicsofecosystemsandbiodiversity:ecologicalandeconomicfoundations.P.Kumar,ed.London,Earthscan.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE519TEEB.2015.TEEBforagriculture&food:aninterimGérard,B.2018.Complementarypracticesreport.Geneva,Switzerland,UNEP.supportingconservationagricultureinsouthernAfrica.Areview.AgronomyforSustainableTEEB.2018.TEEBforagriculture&food.ScientificandDevelopment,38(16).economicfoundations.Geneva,UNEnvironment.Thilsted,S.H.2012.Thepotentialofnutrient-rich(availableathttp://teebweb.org/agrifood/wp-content/smallfishspeciesinaquaculturetoimproveuploads/2018/10/TEEB_Foundations_October13.pdf).humannutritionandhealth.InR.P.Subasinghe,J.R.Arthur,D.M.Bartley,S.S.DeSilva,M.Halwart,Teetes,G.1994.AdjustingcropmanagementN.Hishamunda,C.VMohan&P.Sorgeloos,eds.recommendationsforinsect-resistantcropvarieties.ProceedingsoftheGlobalConferenceonAquacultureJournalofAgriculturalEntomology,11(3):191–200.2010.FarmingtheWatersforPeopleandFood,pp.57–73.Rome,FAO,andBangkok,NetworkofTeichroew,J.L.,Xu,J.,Ahrends,A.,Huang,Z.Y.,AquacultureCentresinAsia-Pacific.(availableatTan,K.&Xie,Z.2017.IsChina’sunparalleledhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2734e/i2734e.pdf).andunderstudiedbeediversityatrisk?BiologicalThilsted,S.H.,Thorne-Lyman,A.,Webb,P.,Bogard,Conservation,210:19–28.J.R.,Subasinghe,R.,Phillips,M.J.&Allison,E.H.2016.Sustaininghealthydiets:theroleofcaptureTeletchea,F.&Fontaine,P.2014.Levelsofdomesticationfisheriesandaquacultureforimprovingnutritionininfish:implicationsforthesustainablefutureofthepost-2015era.FoodPolicy,61:126–131.aquaculture.FishandFisheries,15(2):181–195.Thomas,P.A.2016.BiologicalfloraoftheBritishIsles.JournalofEcology,104(4):1158–1209.Tendall,D.M.,Hellweg,S.,Pfister,S.,Huijbregts,Thondhlana,G.&Muchapondwa,E.2014.M.A.&Gaillard,G.2014.ImpactsofriverwaterDependenceonenvironmentalresourcesandconsumptiononaquaticbiodiversityinlifecycleimplicationsforhouseholdwelfare:evidencefromassessment–aproposedmethod,andacasestudytheKalaharidrylands,SouthAfrica.EcologicalforEurope.EnvironmentalScience&Technology,Economics,108:59–67.48(6):3236–3244.Thornton,P.K.&Herrero,M.2001.Integratedcrop-livestocksimulationmodelsforscenarioanalysisandTeo,S.S.2001.Evaluationofdifferentduckvarietiesimpactassessment.AgriculturalSystems,70(2–3):forthecontrolofthegoldenapplesnail(Pomacea581–602.canaliculata)intransplantedanddirectseededrice.Thornton,P.K.&Herrero,M.2015.AdaptingtoCropProtection,20(7):599–604.climatechangeinthemixedcropandlivestockfarmingsystemsinsub-SaharanAfrica.NatureTerHofstede,R.&Rijnsdorp,A.D.2011.ComparingClimateChange,5(9):830–836.demersalfishassemblagesbetweenperiodsofTiemann,L.K.,Grandy,A.S.,Atkinson,E.E.,contrastingclimateandfishingpressure.ICESMarin-Spiotta,E.&McDaniel,M.D.2015.JournalofMarineScience,68:1189–1198.Croprotationaldiversityenhancesbelowgroundcommunitiesandfunctionsinanagroecosystem.Thaman,R.R.,Elevitch,C.R.&Kennedy,J.2006.EcologyLetters,18:761–771.UrbanandhomegardenagroforestryinthePacificTikhonovich,I.A.&Provorov,N.A.2011.Microbiologyislands:currentstatusandfutureprospects.InB.M.isthebasisofsustainableagriculture:anopinion.Kumar&P.K.R.Nair,eds.Tropicalhomegardens:aAnnalsofAppliedBiology,159(2):155–168.time-testedexampleofsustainableagroforestry,pp.Timmermann,C.,Félix,G.F.&Tittonell,P.2018.25–41.Dordrecht,Netherlands,Springer.Foodsovereigntyandconsumersovereignty:twoantagonisticgoals?AgroecologyandSustainableThapa,R.B.2013.FieldresearchreportonfoodFoodSystems,42(3):274–298.andnutritionsecurityoftheforestdependenthouseholdsfromtheforestsofNepal.Bhaktapur,Nepal,RenaissanceSocietyNepal(RSN).Thiele-Bruhn,S.,Bloem,J.,deVries,F.T.,Kalbitz,K.&Wagg,C.2012.Linkingsoilbiodiversityandagriculturalsoilmanagement.CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,4(5):523–528.Thierfelder,C.,Baudron,F.,Setimela,P.,Nyagumbo,I.,Mupangwa,W.,Mhlanga,B.,Lee,N.&520thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURETittonell,P.2014.Ecologicalintensificationofofthreecasestudies.InternationalJournalofagriculture–sustainablebynature.CurrentOpinionAgriculturalSustainability,3(3):143–153.inEnvironmentalSustainability,8:53–61.Tripp,R.2006.Islowexternalinputtechnologycontributingtosustainableagriculturaldevelopment?Tittonell,P.&Giller,K.2013.WhenyieldgapsNaturalResourcePerspectives,102:1–4.arepovertytraps:theparadigmofecologicalTroell,M.2009.IntegratedmarineandbrackishwaterintensificationinAfricansmallholderagriculture.aquacultureintropicalregions:research,FieldCropsResearch,143:76–90.implementationandprospects.InD.Soto,ed.Integratedmariculture:aglobalreview,pp.47–131.Tittonell,P.,Klerkx,L.,Baudron,F.,Félix,G.F.,Ruggia,FAOFisheriesandAquacultureTechnicalPaperNo.A.,vanApeldoorn,D.,Dogliotti,S.,Mapfumo,P.529.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/&Rossing,W.A.H.2016.Ecologicalintensification:docrep/012/i1092e/i1092e00.htm).localinnovationtoaddressglobalchallenges.Tscharntke,T.,Klein,A.M.,Kruess,A.,Steffan-SustainableAgricultureReviews,19:1–34.Dewenter,I.&Thies,C.2005.LandscapeperspectivesonagriculturalintensificationandTitus,K.T.,Haynes,T.L.&Paragi.,T.F.2009.Thebiodiversity–ecosystemservicemanagement.importanceofmoose,caribou,deerandsmallgameEcologyLetters,8:857–874.inthedietofAlaskans.InR.T.Watson,M.Fuller,M.Tscharntke,T.,Clough,Y.,Wanger,T.C.,Jackson,Pokras&W.G.Hunt,eds.IngestionofleadfromspentL.,Motzke,I.,Perfecto,I.,Vandermeer,J.ammunition:implicationsforwildlifeandhumans,pp.&Whitbread,A.2012.Globalfoodsecurity,137–143.Boise,USA,ThePeregrineFund.biodiversityconservationandthefutureofagriculturalintensification.BiologicalConservation,Toledo,Á.&Burlingame,B.2006.Biodiversityand151(1):53–59.nutrition:acommonpathtowardglobalfoodTsegay,Z.,Gizaw,B.&Tefera,G.2016.Isolation,securityandsustainabledevelopment.JournalofidentificationandcharacterizationofyeastspeciesfromFoodCompositionandAnalysis,19(6–7):477–483.KochoandBullacollectedfromGedeoZone,SouthNationNationalityPeopleRegionalStates.InternationalTomich,T.P.,Brodt,S.,Ferris,H.,Galt,R.,Horwath,JournalofCurrentTrendsinPharmacobiologyandW.R.,Kebreab,E.,Leveau,J.H.J.etal.2011.MedicalSciencesJournal,1(2):37–44.Agroecology:areviewfromaglobal-changeTsiafouli,M.A.,Thébault,E.,Sgardelis,S.P.,deperspective.AnnualReviewofEnvironmentandRuiter,P.C.,vanderPutten,W.H.,Birkhofer,Resources,36:193–222.K.,Hemerik,L.etal.2015.IntensiveagriculturereducessoilbiodiversityacrossEurope.GlobalTorchio,P.F.1984.FieldexperimentswiththepollinatorChangeBiology,21:973–985.species,OsmialignariapropinquaCressonTugel,A.J.,Lewandowski,A.M.&Happe-vonArb,D.,(Hymenoptera:Megachilidae)inappleorchards.eds.2000.Soilbiologyprimer.Ankeny,USA,SoilJournalofKansasEntomologicalSociety,57(3):andWaterConservationSociety.517–521.Turbé,A.,DeToni,A.,Benito,P.,Lavelle,P.,Lavelle,P.,Ruiz,N.,VanderPutten,W.H.,Labouze,E.Torda,G.,Donelson,J.M.,Aranda,M.,Barshis,D.J.,&Mudgal,S.2010.Soilbiodiversity:functions,Bay,L.,Berumen,M.L.,Bourne,D.G.etal.2017.threatsandtoolsforpolicymakers.TechnicalRapidadaptiveresponsestoclimatechangeinReport-2010-049.EuropeanCommissionDGENV.corals.NatureClimateChange,7:627–636.Luxembourg,EuropeanCommission,PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion.Tóth,G.,Hermann,T.,DaSilva,M.R.&Montanarella,Ugwuanyi,J.O.,McNeil,B.&Harvey,L.M.2009.L.2016.HeavymetalsinagriculturalsoilsoftheProductionofprotein-enrichedfeedusingEuropeanUnionwithimplicationsforfoodsafety.EnvironmentInternational,88:299–309.Treweek,J.R.,Brown,C.&Bubb,P.2006.Assessingbiodiversityimpactsoftrade:areviewofchallengesintheagriculturesector.ImpactAssessmentandProjectAppraisal,24(4):299–309.Tripp,R.2005.Theperformanceoflowexternalinputtechnologyinagriculturaldevelopment:asummarythestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE521agroindustrialresiduesassubstrates.InP.Singh-UNEP-WCMC(UNEnvironmentWorldConservationnee’-Nigam&A.Pandey,eds.BiotechnologyforMonitoringCentre).2006.Inthefrontline:agroindustrialresiduesutilisation,pp.77–103.shorelineprotectionandotherecosystemservicesDordrecht,Netherlands,Springer&BusinessMediaB.V.frommangrovesandcoralreefs.Cambridge,UK.UNEnvironment(UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme).2008.WaterqualityforecosystemsUNEP-WCMC.2010.Globaldistributionofcoralreefs.andhumanhealth.Secondedition.Burlington,USA,[Cited22March2018].http://data.unep-wcmc.org/UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeGlobaldatasets/1EnvironmentMonitoringSystem/WaterProgramme.UNEnvironment.2010.HowecosystemsprotectUNEP-WCMC.2014.Theimportanceofmangrovestocommunitiesagainstnaturalhazards.[Cited21Marchpeople:acalltoaction.J.vanBochove,E.Sullivan&2018].https://reliefweb.int/report/haiti/how-ecosystems-T.Nakamura,eds.Cambridge,UK.protect-communities-against-natural-hazardsUNEnvironment.2016a.GlobalgenderandUNEP-WCMC.2018.2018UnitedNationslistofenvironmentoutlook.Nairobi,UnitedNationsprotectedareas.SupplementonprotectedareaEnvironmentProgramme.managementeffectiveness.Cambridge,UK.UNEnvironment.2016b.Marineplasticdebrisandmicroplastics:globallessonsandresearchtoinspireUNEP-WCMC&IUCN.2018.WorldDatabaseonactionandguidepolicychance.Nairobi,UnitedProtectedAreas(WDPA).[Cited8December2018].NationsEnvironmentProgramme.https://www.protectedplanet.net/UNEnvironment.2016c.Asnapshotoftheworld’swaterquality:towardsaglobalassessment.Nairobi,UNEP-WCMC,IUCN&NGS.2018.ProtectedPlanetUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.Report2018.Cambridge,UK,Gland,Switzerland,UNEnvironment&NaturalJustice.2009.Bio-culturalandWashington,DC.communityprotocols–acommunityapproachtoensuringtheintegrityofenvironmentallawandUNEP-WCMC&Short,F.T.2017.Globaldistributionofpolicy.K.Bavikatte&H.Jonas,eds.Nairobi,UNEP.seagrasses(version5.0).FourthupdatetothedataUNCCD(UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatlayerusedinGreenandShort(2003).Cambridge,Desertification).2017.Globallandoutlook.Bonn,UK,UNEP-WCMC.Germany,SecretariatoftheUNCCD.UNCED(UnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentUNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandandDevelopment).1992.RioDeclarationofCulturalOrganization).2016.AnewroadmapfortheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmenttheManandtheBiosphere(MAB)ProgrammeandandDevelopment.ReportoftheUnitedNationsitsWorldNetworkofBiosphereReserves.Paris.ConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopmentreprintedin31ILM876).Annex1.RiodeJaneiro,UNESCO,WHO&UNEnvironment.1996.Waterquality3-14June1992.(availableathttp://www.un.org/assessments–Aguidetouseofbiota,sedimentsanddocuments/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm).waterinenvironmentalmonitoring.D.Chapman,ed.UNCTAD(UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandCambridge,UK,CambridgeUniversityPress.Development).2012.EconomicDevelopmentinAfrica,Report2012.StructuraltransformationUNESCOWorldHeritageCentre.2015.TheandsustainabledevelopmentinAfrica.Geneva,OperationalGuidelinesfortheImplementationofSwitzerland.theWorldHeritageConvention.Paris.UNDP(UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme).2013.PescadoAzulWomen’sAssociationofIsabela.UN,EuropeanCommission,FAO,IMF,OECD&WorldEquatorInitiativeCaseStudySeries.NewYork,USA.Bank.2014a.Systemofenvironmental-economicaccounting2012–centralframework.NewYork,USA,UN.UN,EuropeanCommission,FAO,IMF,OECD&WorldBank.2014b.Systemofenvironmental-economicaccounting2012–experimentalecosystemaccounting.NewYork,USA,UN.UNFCCC(UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange).2015.TheParisAgreement.Bonn,Germany(availableathttps://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf).522thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREUNFCCC.2017a.Glossaryofclimatechangeacronymsreduction.Seventy-firstSession,NewYork,USA,1andterms.[Cited21March2018].https://unfccc.int/December2016.A/71/644.process-and-meetings/the-convention/glossary-of-UnitedNations.2017a.Worldurbanizationprospects:climate-change-acronyms-and-termsthe2017revision.ESA/P/WP/248.NewYork,USA,UN,DepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,UNFCCC.2017b.NationalAdaptationProgrammesPopulationDivision.ofAction.[Cited6April2018].http://unfccc.int/UnitedNations.2017b.TheFirstGlobalIntegratednational%7B_%7Dreports/napa/items/2719.phpMarineAssessment:WorldOceanAssessmentI.CambridgeUniversityPress.UNFCCC.2017c.FOCUS:Mitigation–NAMAs,NationallyUnitedNations.2017c.UnitedNationsStrategicPlanAppropriateMitigationActions.[Cited5April2018].forForests2017–2030.Resolutionadoptedbythehttp://unfccc.int/focus/mitigation/items/7172.phpGeneralAssemblyon27April2017.A/RES/71/285.NewYork,USA.UNFCCC.2017d.HighlevelengagementdayonUnitedNations.2018.Worldurbanizationprospects:resilience.Resilience-basedclimatesolutions.the2018revision.Keyfacts.NewYork,USA,United14November2017.MarrakechPartnershipforNations,DepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsGlobalClimateAction.Twenty-thirdSessionofthePopulationDivision.(availableathttps://population.ConferenceofthePartiestotheUnitedNationsun.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-KeyFacts.pdf).FrameworkConventiononClimateChange,Bonn,UN-REDDProgramme.2018.UN-REDDHowWeWork.Germany,6–17November2017.(availableathttps://[Cited6April2018].http://www.un-redd.org/how-unfccc.int/sites/default/files/cop_23_outcome-we-workresilience_final.pdf).Unwin,M.2011.Theatlasofbirds.Princeton,USA,PrincetonUniversityPress.UNFCCC.2018.IntendedNationallyDeterminedUPOV(InternationalUnionfortheProtectionofContributions(INDCs).[Cited6April2018].http://NewVarietiesofPlants).1991.Internationalunfccc.int/focus/indc%7B_%7Dportal/items/8766.phpConventionfortheProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlants.Geneva,Switzerland.UNISDR(UnitedNationsInternationalStrategyforUPOV.2017.MembersoftheInternationalUnionfortheDisasterReduction).2009.UNISDRterminologyonProtectionofNewVarietiesofPlants.Geneva.[Citeddisasterriskreduction.Geneva,Switzerland.6April2018].http://www.upov.int/export/sites/upov/members/en/pdf/pub423.pdfUnitedNations.2007.Non-legallybindinginstrumentUSDA(UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture).onalltypesofforests.Resolutionadoptedbythe2012.ReportontheNationalStakeholdersGeneralAssemblyon17December2007.ConferenceonHoneyBeeHealth.NationalHoneyA/RES/62/98.NewYork,USA.(availableathttp://BeeHealthStakeholderConferenceSteeringwww.fao.org/forestry/14717-03d86aa8c1a7426cf69Committee,Alexandria,USA,15–17October2012.bf9e2f5023bb12.pdf).Washington,DC.USFWS(UnitedStatesFishandWildlifeService).UnitedNations.2014a.Worldurbanizationprospects:2011.2011Nationalsurveyoffishing,hunting,andthe2014revision.Highlights.ST/ESA/SER.A/352.wildlife-associatedrecreation.Washington,DC,USNewYork,USA,UnitedNations,DepartmentofDepartmentoftheInterior,USFishandWildlifeService.EconomicandSocialAffairs,PopulationDivision.Uzunova-Doneva,T.&Donev,T.2005.Anabiosisandconservationofmicroorganisms.JournalofCultureUnitedNations.2014b.NewYorkDeclarationonForests.Collections,4:17–28.Declarationandactionagenda.NewYork,USA.Vaessen,J.&DeGroot,J.2003.Measuringoutcomeandimpactofsmalldevelopmentprojects:lessonsfromUnitedNations.2015a.SendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction2015-2030.NewYork,USA.UnitedNations.2015b.Internationalarrangementonforestsbeyond2015.ResolutionadoptedbytheEconomicandSocialCouncilon22July2015.E/RES/2015/33.NewYork,USA.UnitedNations.2016.Reportoftheopen-endedintergovernmentalexpertworkinggrouponindicatorsandterminologyrelatingtodisasterriskthestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE523theevaluationofatrainingprojectonlowexternalvanHintum,T.J.L.,Brown,A.H.D.,Spillane,C.&inputagricultureinGuatemala.IOBDiscussionPapersHodgkin,T.2000.Corecollectionsofplantgenetic2003.04.Antwerp,Belgium,UniversiteitAntwerpen,resources.IPGRITechnicalBulletinNo.3.Rome,InstituteofDevelopmentPolicy(IOB).InternationalPlantGeneticResourcesInstitute(IPGRI).Valette,D.2014.Invisiblehelpers:women’sviewsonthecontributionsofworkingdonkeysandmulestovanHoof,L.2015.Fisheriesmanagement,thetheirlives.London,TheBrooke&VoicesforWomen.ecosystemapproach,regionalisationandtheValiela,I.,Bowen,J.&York,J.2001.Mangroveelephantsintheroom.MarinePolicy,60:20–26.forest:oneofworld´sthreatenedmajortropicalenvironments.Bioscience,51(10):807–815.vanHuis,A.,VanItterbeeck,J.,Klunder,H.,VanBruggen,A.H.C.,He,M.M.,Shin,K.,Mai,V.,Mertens,E.,Halloran,A.,Muir,G.&Vantomme,Jeong,K.C.,Finckh,M.R.&Morris,J.G.2018.P.2013.Edibleinsects:futureprospectsforfoodandEnvironmentalandhealtheffectsoftheherbicidefeedsecurity.FAOForestryPaperNo.171.Rome,glyphosate.ScienceofTheTotalEnvironment,FAO.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/018/616–617:255–268.i3253e/i3253e.pdf).Vandecandelaere,E.,Teyssier,C.,Barjolle,D.,Jeanneaux,P.,Fournier,S.&Beucherie,O.2018.VanLavieren,H.,Spalding,M.,Alongi,D.M.,Kainuma,StrengtheningsustainablefoodsystemsthroughM.,Clüsener-Godt,M.&Adeel,Z.2012.Securinggeographicalindications.Rome,NutritionandFoodthefutureofmangroves.Apolicybrief.Hamilton,SystemsDivisionandtheInvestmentCentreDivision,USA,UnitedNationsUniversity–InstituteforWater,undertheFAO/EBRDcooperation.(availableatEnvironmentandHealth(UNU-INWEH).http://www.fao.org/3/I8737EN/i8737en.pdf).Vandermeer,J.H.2011.Theecologyofagroecosystems.VanLenteren,J.C.,Bolckmans,K.,Köhl,J.,Ravensberg,Sudbury,USA,Jones&Bartlett.W.J.&Urbaneja,A.2018.BiologicalcontrolusingvanderZijpp,A.J.,Verreth,J.A.J.,LeQuang,T.,vaninvertebratesandmicroorganisms:plentyofnewMensvoort,M.E.F.,Bosma,R.H.&Beveridge,opportunities.BioControl,63(1):39–59.M.C.M.,eds.2007.Fishpondsinfarmingsystems.Wageningen,Netherlands,WageningenAcademicVanNoordwijk,M.,Coe,R.&Sinclair,F.2016.CentralPublishers.hypothesesforthethirdagroforestryparadigmvanDijk,K.C.,Lesschen,J.P.&Oenema,O.2016.withinacommondefinition.ICRAFWorkingPaperPhosphorusflowsandbalancesoftheEuropeanNo.233.Nairobi,ICRAF.UnionMemberStates.ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment,542:1078–1093.vanNoordwijk,M.,Bizard,V.,VanDijk,T.C.,VanStaalduinen,M.A.,VanderSluijs,Wangpakapattanawong,P.,Tata,H.L.,Villamor,J.P.,Maxim,L.,derSluijs,J.P.Van,Krupke,C.H.,G.B.&Leimona,B.2014.TreecovertransitionsHunt,G.J.etal.2013.Macro-invertebratedeclineandfoodsecurityinSoutheastAsia.GlobalFoodinsurfacewaterpollutedwithimidacloprid.Security,3(3–4):200–208.PLoSONE,8(5):e62374.VanEngelsdorp,D.&Meixner,M.D.2010.AhistoricalvanOosten,C.2015.Thelandscapepuzzle:anreviewofmanagedhoneybeepopulationsinEuropeintroductiontothelandscapeapproach-YouTube.andtheUnitedStatesandthefactorsthatmayaffect[Cited15May2018].https://www.youtube.com/them.JournalofInvertebratePathology,103:80–95.watch?v=fB5BiKCerF0vanHijum,S.A.F.T.,Vaughan,E.E.&Vogel,R.F.2013.Applicationofstate-of-artsequencingtechnologiesvanOppen,M.J.H.,Puill-Stephan,E.,Lundgren,P.,toindigenousfoodfermentations.CurrentOpinionDe’ath,G.&Bay,L.K.2014.FirstgenerationfitnessinBiotechnology,24(2):178–186.consequencesofinterpopulationalhybridisationinaGreatBarrierReefcoralanditsimplicationsforassistedmigrationmanagement.CoralReefs,33:607–611.vanOppen,M.J.H.,Oliver,J.K.,Putnam,H.M.&Gates,R.D.2015.Buildingcoralreefresiliencethroughassistedevolution.PNAS,112:2307–2313.vanOppen,M.J.H.,Gates,R.D.,Blackall,L.L.,Cantin,N.,Chakravarti,L.J.,Chan,W.Y.,Cormick,C.etal.2017.Shiftingparadigmsinrestorationofthe524thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREworld’scoralreefs.GlobalChangeBiology,23(9):Gramacho,K.&daSilva,F.O.2014.Stinglessbees3437–3448.furtherimproveapplepollinationandproduction.VanTussenbroek,B.I.,Villamil,N.,Márquez-JournalofPollinationEcology,14:261–269.Guzmán,J.,Wong,R.,Monroy-Velázquez,L.V.Vicens,N.&Bosch,J.2000.Pollinatingefficacyof&Solis-Weiss,V.2016.ExperimentalevidenceofOsmiacornutaandApismellifera(Hymenoptera:pollinationinmarineflowersbyinvertebratefauna.Megachilidae,Apidae)on‘RedDelicious’apple.NatureCommunications,7:12980.EnvironmentalEntomology,29(2):235–240.Vanni,M.J.2002.NutrientrecyclingbyanimalsinVigne,J.D.2011.Theoriginsofanimaldomesticationfreshwaterecosystems.AnnualReviewofEcologyandhusbandry:amajorchangeinthehistoryofandSystematics,33:341–370.humanityandthebiosphere.ComptesrendusVelarde,E.,Ezcurra,E.&Anderson,D.W.2013.Seabirdbiologies,334(3):171–181.dietsprovideearlywarningofsardinefisherydeclinesVilela,C.L.S.,Bassin,J.P.&Peixoto,R.S.2018.WaterintheGulfofCalifornia.ScientificReports,3:1332.contaminationbyendocrinedisruptors:impacts,Velasco,D.,García-Llorente,M.,Alonso,B.,microbiologicalaspectsandtrendsforenvironmentalDolera,A.,Palomo,I.,Iniesta-Arandia,I.&protection.EnvironmentalPollution,235:546–559.Martín-López,B.2015.BiodiversityconservationVillanueva,A.B.,Halewood,M.&Noriega,I.L.researchchallengesinthe21stcentury:areviewof2017.Agriculturalbiodiversityinclimatechangepublishingtrendsin2000and2011.Environmentaladaptationplanning.EuropeanJournalofScience&Policy,54:90–96.SustainableDevelopment,6(2).Veldman,J.W.,Overbeck,G.,Negreiros,D.,Mahy,Vinceti,B.,Ickowitz,A.,Powell,B.,Kehlenbeck,K.,G.,LeStradic,S.,Fernandes,G.W.,Durigan,G.,Termote,C.,Cogill,B.&Hunter,D.2013.TheBuisson,E.,Putz,F.E.&Bond,W.J.2015.Tyrannycontributionsofforestfoodstosustainablediets.oftreesingrassybiomes.Science,347(6221):Unasylva,64(241):54–64.484–485.Vira,B.&Kontoleon,A.2012.DependenceoftheVeldman,J.W.,Silveira,F.A.O.,Fleischman,F.D.,pooronbiodiversity:whichpoor,whatbiodiversity?Ascarrunz,N.L.&Durigan,G.2017.GrassyInD.Roe,J.Elliott,C.Sandbrook&M.Walpole,eds.biomes:aninconvenientrealityforlarge-scaleforestBiodiversityconservationandpovertyalleviation:restoration?AmericanJournalofBotany,104:exploringtheevidenceforalink,pp.52–84.649–651.Hoboken,USA,Wiley-Blackwell.Velthuis,H.H.W.&vanDoorn,A.2006.AcenturyVogel,S.1969.ChiropterophilieinderneotropischenFlora.ofadvancesinbumblebeedomesticationandNeueMitteilungenIII.Flora,Abt.B.,158:289–323.theeconomicandenvironmentalaspectsofitsVorley,B.2003.Food,Inc.Corporateconcentrationfromcommercializationforpollination.Apidologie,37:farmtoconsumer.London,IIEDandUKFoodGroup.421–451.Waage,J.2007.ThesustainablemanagementofVerdonschot,P.F.M.,Spears,B.M.,Feld,C.K.,Brucet,biodiversityforbiologicalcontrolinfoodandS.,Heizer-Vlek,H.,Borja,A.,Elliot,M.,Kernan,agriculture:statusandneeds.CommissiononM.&Johnson,R.K.2013.AcomparativereviewGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture.ofrecoveryprocessesinrivers,lakes,estuarineandBackgroundStudyPaperNo.38.Rome,FAO.coastalwaters.Hydrobiologia,704(1):453–474.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/Verones,F.,Bartl,K.,Pfisterl,S.,JiménezVílchez,R.meeting/014/k0150e.pdf).&Hellweg,S.2012.ModelingthelocalbiodiversityWagg,C.,Bender,S.F.,Widmer,F.&vanderHeijden,impactsofagriculturalwateruse:casestudyofaM.G.A.2014.SoilbiodiversityandsoilcommunitywetlandinthecoastalaridareaofPeru.Environmentalcompositiondetermineecosystemmultifunctionality.Science&Technology,46(9):4966–4974.PNAS,111(14):5266–5270.Viana,B.F.,daEncarnacaoCoutinho,J.G.,Garibaldi,Wagner,B.,deLeeuw,J.,Liyama,M.&Jamnadass,L.A.,BragancaGastagnino,G.L.,PeresR.2013.Towardsgreaterresilienceinthedrylands:thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE525treesarethekey.PolicyBriefNo.18.Nairobi,Worldbiodiversityimportance.December2015edition.AgroforestryCentre(ICRAF).2017extract.Cambridge,UK,UNEP-WCMC.Waliyar,F.,Collette,L.&Kenmore,P.E.2002.BeyondWebb,E.L.&Kabir,M.E.2009.Homegardeningforthegenehorizon:sustainingagriculturalproductivitytropicalbiodiversityconservation.ConservationandenhancinglivelihoodsthroughoptimizationofBiology,23(6):1641–1644.cropandcrop-associatedbiodiversitywithemphasisWelcomme,R.L.1999.Areviewofamodelforonsemi-aridtropicalagroecosystems.Patencheru,qualitativeevaluationofexploitationlevelsinmulti-India,InternationalCropsResearchInstituteforthespeciesfisheries.FisheriesManagementandEcology,Semi-AridTropics.6:1–19.Wallberg,A.,Han,F.,Wellhagen,G.,Dahle,B.,Wenny,D.G.,DeVault,T.L.,Johnson,M.D.,Kelly,D.Kawata,M.,Haddad,N.,Simoes,Z.L.P.etal.&Sekercioglu,C.H.2011.Theneedtoquantify2014.Aworldwidesurveyofgenomesequenceecosystemservicesprovidedbybirds.TheAuk,variationprovidesinsightintotheevolutionary128(1):1–14.historyofthehoneybeeApismellifera.NatureWestwood,J.H.,Charudattan,R.,Duke,S.O.,Genetics,46:1081–1088.Fennimore,S.A.,Marrone,P.,Slaughter,Walters,B.B.,Sabogal,C.,Snook,L.K.&DeD.C.,Swanton,C.&Zollinger,R.2018.WeedAlmeida,E.2005.Constraintsandopportunitiesmanagementin2050:perspectivesonthefutureofforbettersilviculturalpracticeintropicalforestry:weedscience.WeedScience,66(3):275–285.aninterdisciplinaryapproach.ForestEcologyandWezel,A.,Bellon,S.,Dore,T.,Francis,C.,Vallod,Management,209(1–2):3–18.D.&David,C.2009.Agroecologyasascience,aWang,Q.,Cheng,L.,Liu,J.,Li,Z.,Xie,S.,&DeSilva,movementandapractice:areview.AgronomyforS.S.2015.FreshwateraquacultureinPRChina:trendsSustainableDevelopment,29:503–515.andprospects.ReviewsinAquaculture,7(4):283-302.Wezel,A.,Soboska,G.,McClelland,S.,Delespesse,Wang,J.,Guleria,S.,Koffas,M.A.G.&Yan,Y.2016.F.&Boisseau,A.2015.TheblurredboundariesMicrobialproductionofvalue-addednutraceuticals.ofecological,sustainable,andagroecologicalCurrentOpinioninBiotechnology,37:97–104.intensification:areview.AgronomyforSustainableWarner,K.D.2005.Extendingagroecology:growerDevelopment,35:1283–1295.participationinpartnershipsiskeysociallearning.White,P.2017.Aquaculturepollution:anoverviewRenewableAgricultureandFoodSystems,ofissueswithafocusonChina,Vietnam,and21:84–94.thePhilippines.WorldBankRegionalAgriculturalWarren-Thomas,E.,Dolman,P.M.&Edwards,PollutionStudy.Washington,DC,WorldBankGroup.D.P.2015.IncreasingdemandfornaturalrubberWhite,R.,Murray,S.&Rohweder,M.2000.Pilotnecessitatesarobustsustainabilityinitiativeanalysisofglobalecosystems:grasslandecosystems.tomitigateimpactsontropicalbiodiversity.Washington,DC,WorldResourcesInstitute.ConservationLetters,8(4):230–241.White,S.L.,Miller,W.L.,Dowell,S.A.,Bartron,Watson,J.,Dudley,N.,Segan,D.&Hockings,M.M.L.&Wagner,T.2018.Limitedhatchery2014.Theperformanceandpotentialofprotectedintrogressionsintowildbrooktrout(Salvelinusareas.Nature,515:67–73.fontinalis)populationsdespitereocurringstocking.Waycott,M.,Duarte,C.,Carruthers,T.J.B.,Orth,R.J.,EvolutionaryApplications,11(9):1567–1581.Dennison,W.C.,Olyarnik,S.,Calladine,A.etWHO(WorldHealthOrganization).1994.al.2009.AcceleratinglossofseagrassesacrosstheEnvironmentalhealthcriteria159:glyphosate.globethreatenscoastalecosystems.PNAS,106(30):InternationalProgrammeofChemicalSafety(IPCS).12377–12381.Geneva,Switzerland.Weatherdon,L.V.,Fletcher,R.,Jones,M.C.,Kaschner,WHO.2016.Frequentlyaskedquestions.ThirdWHOK.,Sullivan,E.,Tittensor,D.P.,Mcowen,C.etUrbanAmbientAirPollutionDatabase.Updatedal.2017.ManualofmarineandcoastaldatasetsofMay2016.Geneva,Switzerland.526thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREWHO.2018.Obesityandoverweight.WorldHealthWilliams,A.G.&Coleman,G.S.1992.TherumenOrganizationFactSheets.(availableathttp://www.protozoa.Berlin,SpringerVerlag.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight).Williams,N.M.,Crone,E.E.,Roulston,T.H.,Minckley,R.L.,Packer,L.&Potts,S.G.2010.EcologicalandWHO&CBD.2015.Connectingglobalpriorities:life-historytraitspredictbeespeciesresponsestobiodiversityandhumanhealth.Astateofknowledgeenvironmentaldisturbances.BiologicalConservation,review.Geneva,Switzerland,WorldHealth143(10):2280–2291.Organization,andMontreal,Canada,SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Willis,B.L.,Babcock,R.C.,Harrison,P.L.&Wallace,C.C.1997.ExperimentalhybridisationandbreedingWickneswari,R.,Rajora,O.P.,Finkeldey,R.,incompatibilitieswithinthematingsystemsofmassAravanopoulos,F.,Bouvet,J.M.,Vaillancourt,R.E.,spawningreefcorals.CoralReefs,16(Suppl.):553–565.Kanashiro,M.,Fady,B.,Tomita,M.&Vinson,C.2014.Geneticeffectsofforestmanagementpractices:Willis,B.L.,vanOppen,M.J.H.,Miller,D.J.,Vollmer,globalsynthesisandperspectives.ForestEcologyandS.V.&Ayre,D.J.2006.TheroleofhybridizationManagement,333:52–65.intheevolutionofreefcorals.AnnualReviewofEcology,Evolution&Systematics,37:489–517.Wijkström,U.N.2012.Isfeedingfishwithfishaviablepractice?InR.P.Subasinghe,J.R.Arthur,D.M.Willmer,P.2011.Pollinationandfloralecology.Bartley,S.S.DeSilva,M.Halwart,N.Hishamunda,Princeton,USA,PrincetonUniversityPress.C.V.Mohan&P.Sorgeloos,eds.Farmingthewatersforpeopleandfood,pp.33–55.ProceedingsoftheWinfree,R.,Williams,N.M.,Gaines,H.,Ascher,J.S.&GlobalConferenceonAquaculture2010.Phuket,Kremen,C.2008.WildbeepollinatorsprovidetheThailand,2225September2010.Rome,FAO,andmajorityofcropvisitationacrossland-usegradientsBangkok,NetworkofAquacultureCentresinAsia-inNewJerseyandPennsylvania,USA.JournalofPacific.(availableathttp://www.fao.org/docrep/015/AppliedEcology,45(3):793–802.i2734e/i2734e.pdf).Winfree,R.,Reilly,J.R.,Bartomeus,I.,Cariveau,D.P.,Wilkaniec,Z.&Radajewska,B.1997.SolitarybeeWilliams,N.M.&Gibbs,J.2018.SpeciesturnoverOsmiarufaL.(Apoidea,Megachilidae)aspollinatorpromotestheimportanceofbeediversityforcropofstrawberrycultivatedinanunheatedplasticpollinationatregionalscales.Science,359(6377):tunnel.ActaHorticulturae,439:489–493.791–793.Wilkie,M.L.,Holmgren,P.&Castañeda,F.,eds.Winston,M.L.1987.Thebiologyofthehoneybee.2003.SustainableforestmanagementandtheCambridge,USA,HarvardUniversityPress.ecosystemapproach:twoconcepts,onegoal.ForestManagementWorkingPapers,WorkingPaperFMWIPO(WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization).25.ForestResourcesDevelopmentService,Forest2017.GeographicalIndications:Anintroduction.ResourcesDivision.Rome,FAO.(availableathttp://Geneva,Switzerland.www.fao.org/forestry/6417-0905522127db12a324c6991d0a53571fa.pdf).Wittenberg,R.&Cock,M.J.W.2001.Howtoaddressoneofthegreatestthreatstobiodiversity:atoolkitWilkinson,C.2008.Statusofcoralreefsoftheworld:ofbestpreventionandmanagementpractices.2008.GlobalCoralReefMonitoringNetwork,andWallingford,UK,CABI.Townsville,Australia,ReefandRainforestResearchCentre.Wolmarans,K.&Swart,W.J.2014.Influenceofglyphosate,otherherbicidesandgeneticallyWiller,H.&Lernoud,J.2018.Theworldoforganicmodifiedherbicide-resistantcropsonsoilmicrobiota:agriculture,statistics&emergingtrends2018.areview.SouthAfricanJournalofPlantandSoil,Frick,Switzerland,ResearchInstituteofOrganic31(4):177–186.Agriculture(FiBL),andBonn,Germany,IFOAM-OrganicsInternational.WoodlandTrust.2012.Woodwise:conservationgrazinginwoodlandmanagement.Grantham,UK,TheWoodlandTrust.Woodward,G.,Gessner,M.O.,Giller,P.S.,Gulis,V.,Hladyz,S.,Lecerf,A.,Malmqvist,B.etal.2012.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE527Continental-scaleeffectsofnutrientpollutiononWright,J.S.,Fu,R.,Worden,J.R.,Chakraborty,S.,streamecosystemfunctioning.Science,336(6087):Clinton,N.E.,Risi,C.,Sun,Y.&Yin,L.2017.1438–1440.Rainforest-initiatedwetseasononsetovertheWorku,B.B.,Woldegiorgis,A.Z.&Gemeda,H.F.2016.southernAmazon.ProceedingsoftheNationalIndigenousprocessingmethodsofcheka:atraditionalAcademyofSciences,114(32):8481–8486.fermentedbeverageinSouthwesternEthiopia.JournalofFoodProcessing&Technology,7:540.Wrona,F.J.,Prowse,T.D.,Reist,J.D.,Hobbie,J.E.,WorldAirQuality.2018.World-wideairqualityLévesque,L.M.&Vincent,W.F.2006.Climatemonitoringdatacoverage.[Cited29October2018].changeeffectsonaquaticbiota,ecosystemstructurehttp://aqicn.org/sources/andfunction.Ambio,35(7):359–369.WorldBank.2008.WorldDevelopmentReport2008:Agriculturefordevelopment.Washington,DC.Wu,X.M.,Long,Y.H.,Li,Y.R.,Liu,R.X.&Li,M.(availableathttps://siteresources.worldbank.org/2014.EffectsofnapropamideonmicrobiologicalINTWDR2008/Resources/WDR_00_book.pdf).characteristicsoftobaccorhizospheresoilandWorldBank.2010.Valuingprotectedareas.itsdissipation.JournalofSoilScienceandPlantWashington,DC.Nutrition,14(1):151–159.WorldBank.2012a.Landscapes:FrequentlyAskedQuestions(FAQ)(English).Rio+20:aframeworkforWuana,R.A.&Okieimen,F.E.2011.Heavymetalsinactionforsustainabledevelopment.Washington,contaminatedsoils:areviewofsources,chemistry,DC.(availableathttp://documents.worldbank.org/risksandbestavailablestrategiesforremediation.curated/en/468091468153281587/Landscapes-ISRNEcology,2011:1–20.Frequently-Asked-Questions-FAQ).WorldBank.2012b.Hiddenharvest:TheglobalWWAP(UnitedNationsWorldWaterAssessmentcontributionofcapturefisheries.WorldBank,FAO,Programme).2017.TheUnitedNationsWorldWorldFishCenter.92pp.WaterDevelopmentReport2017.Wastewater:theWorldBank.2018.Personalremittances,received(%ofuntappedresource.Paris,UNESCO.GDP).[Cited16May2018].https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.DT.GD.ZSWWAP&UN-Water.2018.TheUnitedNationsWorldWorldBank,FAO&IFAD.2009.GenderinagricultureWaterDevelopmentReport2018:nature-basedsourcebook.Washington,DC.solutionsforwater.Paris,UNESCO.WoRMS.2018.WorldRegisterofMarineSpecies.[Cited8May2018].http://www.marinespecies.orgatVLIZWWF.2004.Riversatrisk–DamsandthefutureofWortley,L.,Hero,J.-M.&Howes,M.2013.Evaluatingfreshwaterecosystems.Surrey,UK,WWFDamsecologicalrestorationsuccess:areviewoftheInitiative.literature.RestorationEcology,21(5):537–543.Wraight,S.&Ramos,M.2002.ApplicationparametersWWF.2015.Illegalfishing.WhichfishspeciesareataffectingfieldefficacyofBeauveriabassianahighestriskfromillegalandunreportedfishing?foliartreatmentsagainstColoradopotatobeetleWashington,DC.Leptinotarsadecemlineata.BiologicalControl,23(2):164–178.WWFInternational&InstituteforEnvironmentalWRI(WorldResourcesInstitute).2014.AtlasofStudies.2004.Livingwaters.Conservingthesourceforestandlandscaperestorationopportunities.oflife.Theeconomicvaluesoftheworld’swetlands.Washington,DC.Gland,Switzerland,WWFInternational,andWRI,UNDP,UNEnvironment&WorldBank.2000.Amsterdam,InstituteforEnvironmentalStudies.WorldResources2000-2001,PeopleandEcosystems:TheFrayingWebofLife.Washington,DC.Yang,R.&Keding,G.B.2009.NutritionalcontributionsofimportantAfricanindigenousvegetables.InC.M.Shackleton,M.W.Pasquini&A.W.Drescher,eds.AfricanindigenousvegetablesinAfricanagriculture,pp.105–135.London,Earthscan.Yang,J.,McBride,J.,Zhou,J.&Sun,Z.2005.TheurbanforestinBeijinganditsroleinairpollutionreduction.UrbanForestry&UrbanGreening,3:65–78.Yaninek,S.&Hanna,R.2003.CassavegreenmiteinAfrica–auniqueexampleofsuccessfulclassical528thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTUREbiologicalcontrolofamitepestonacontinentalZhang,Y.,Ma,Y.,Wan,P.,Mu,L.&Li,G.2013.Bacillusscale.BiologicalcontrolinIPMsystemsinAfrica,pp.thuringiensisinsecticidalcrystalproteinsaffect61–75.Wallingford,UK,CABI.lifespanandreproductiveperformanceofHelicoverpaYates,K.K.,Rogers,C.S.,Herlan,J.J.,Brooks,J.R.,armigeraandSpodopteraexiguaadults.JournalofSmiley,N.A.&Larson,R.A.2014.DiversecoralEconomicalEntomology,106(2):614–662.communitiesinmangrovehabitatssuggestanovelrefugefromclimatechange.Biogeosciences,11:Zhang,Y.,Cao,C.,Guo,L.,Wu,Q.&Cui,Z.2015.Soil4321–4337.properties,bacterialcommunitycomposition,andYengoh,G.T.&Svensson,M.G.E.2008.Lowexternalmetabolicdiversityresponsestosoilsalinizationofainputstrategiesforsustainablesmall-scalefarmingsemiaridgrasslandinnortheastChina.JournalofSoilinKenya:asystemsdynamicapproach.InB.C.andWaterConservation,70(2):110–120.Dangerfield,ed.Proceedingsofthe26thInternationalConference.July20–July24,2008Athens,Greece.Ziegler,M.,Seneca,F.O.,Yum,L.K.,Palumbi,S.R.&Albany,USA,SystemDynamicsSociety.Voolstra,C.R.2017.BacterialcommunitydynamicsYu,Y.,Stomph,T.J.,Makowski,D.&vanderWerf,arelinkedtopatternsofcoralheattolerance.NatureW.2015.TemporalnichedifferentiationincreasesCommunications,8:14213.thelandequivalentratioofannualintercrops:ameta-analysis.FieldCropsResearch,184:133–144.Zimmermann,H.G.,Moran,V.C.&Hoffmann,J.F.Zander,S.V,Jacobs,K.&Hawkins,H.-J.2016.The2000.Therenownedcactusmoth,Cactoblastisimpactofcroprotationonsoilmicrobialdiversity:acactorum:itsnaturalhistoryandthreattonativemeta-analysis.Pedobiologia,59(4):215–223.OpuntiaflorasinMexicoandtheUnitedStatesofZeder,M.2012.Pathwaystoanimaldomestication.America.DiversityandDistributions,6:259–269.InP.Gepts,T.R.Famula,R.L.Bettinger,S.B.Brush,A.B.Damania,P.E.McGuire&C.O.Qualset,eds.Zomer,R.J.,Trabucco,A.,Coe,R.,Place,F.,vanBiodiversityinagriculture:domestication,evolution,Noorwijk,M.&Xu,J.2014.Treesonfarms:anandsustainability,pp.227–259.Cambridge,UK,updateandreanalysisofagroforestry’sglobalextentCambridgeUniversityPress.andsocio-ecologicalcharacteristics.ICRAFWorkingZehnder,G.,Gurr,G.,Kühne,S.,Wade,M.,Wratten,PaperNo.179.Nairobi,ICRAF.S.&Wyss,E.2007.Arthropodpestmanagementinorganiccrops.AnnualReviewofEntomology,52(1):Zongo,S.2011.Analysedelacontributionde57–80.l’opération«fossesfumières»àl’améliorationZeilinger,S.,Gruber,S.,Bansal,R.&Mukherjee,desrendementsdesculturescerealieresdanslesP.K.2016.SecondarymetabolisminTrichoderma–RegionsduNord,duCentre-OuestetduSud-OuestChemistrymeetsgenomics.FungalBiologyReviews,duBurkinaFaso.Bobo-Dioulasso,BurkinaFaso,30(2):74–90.DépartementdeVulgarisationAgricole,UniversitétechniquedeBobo-Dioulasso.ZSL(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon).2017.InternationalZooYearbook.Volume51.D.Field,C.Lees,K.Leus,R.Miller,P.Pullen&A.Rubel,eds.London.thestateOFTHEWORLD'SbiodiversityFOrFOODANDAGRICULTURE529TheStateoftheWorld’sBiodiversityforFoodandAgriculturepresentstheﬁrstglobalassessmentofbiodiversityforfoodandagricultureworldwide.Biodiversityforfoodandagricultureisthediversityofplants,animalsandmicro-organismsatgenetic,speciesandecosystemlevels,presentinandaroundcrop,livestock,forestandaquaticproductionsystems.Itisessentialtothestructure,functionsandprocessesofthesesystems,tolivelihoodsandfoodsecurity,andtothesupplyofawiderangeofecosystemservices.Ithasbeenmanagedorinﬂuencedbyfarmers,livestockkeepers,forestdwellers,ﬁshfarmersandﬁsherfolkforhundredsofgenerations.Preparedthroughaparticipatory,country-drivenprocess,thereportdrawsoninformationfrom91countryreportstoprovideadescriptionoftherolesandimportanceofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture,thedriversofchangeaffectingitanditscurrentstatusandtrends.Itdescribesthestateofeffortstopromotethesustainableuseandconservationofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture,includingthroughthedevelopmentofsupportingpolicies,legalframeworks,institutionsandcapacities.Itconcludeswithadiscussionofneedsandchallengesinthefuturemanagementofbiodiversityforfoodandagriculture.ThereportcomplementsotherglobalassessmentspreparedundertheauspicesoftheCommissiononGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture,whichhavefocusedonthestateofgeneticresourceswithinparticularsectorsoffoodandagriculture.ISBN978-92-5-131270-4ISSN2412-54749789251312704CA3129EN/1/02.19

1、当您付费下载文档后，您只拥有了使用权限，并不意味着购买了版权，文档只能用于自身使用，不得用于其他商业用途（如 [转卖]进行直接盈利或[编辑后售卖]进行间接盈利）。
2、本站所有内容均由合作方或网友上传，本站不对文档的完整性、权威性及其观点立场正确性做任何保证或承诺！文档内容仅供研究参考，付费前请自行鉴别。
3、如文档内容存在违规，或者侵犯商业秘密、侵犯著作权等，请点击“违规举报”。

碎片内容

碳中和的最新文档