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2023-04-26
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Review of Solutions to Global Warming, Air

Pollution, and Energy Security

Mark Z. Jacobson

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford,

California 94305-4020, USA; Email: jacobson@stanford.edu; Tel: (650) 723-6836

Energy and Environmental Science

Supplementary Information

Appendix

Derivation of results used for this study.

Energy required for vehicles

Low case

High case

A1(S1)

2007 onroad vehicle miles traveled in the U.S. (mi/yr)

3.237E+12

A2 (S2)

Total onroad vehicle fleet mileage (mpg)

1.711E+01

A3=A1/A2

Gallons of fuel (gas+diesel) used (gal/yr)

1.892E+11

Lower heating value gasoline (MJ/kg)

4.400E+01

Gasoline density (kg/m3)

7.500E+02

Gallons per cubic meter (gal/m3)

2.642E+02

A7=A4*A5/A6

Energy stored in gasoline (MJ/gal)

1.249E+02

A8=A3*A7

Energy needed to power gasoline vehicles (MJ/yr)

2.363E+13

A9 (S2)

Gasoline vehicle efficiency (fraction)

1.600E-01

1.800E-01

A10=A8*A9

Net energy to power U.S. onroad vehicles (MJ/yr)

3.781E+12

4.254E+12

A11

MJ per kWh

3.600E+00

A12=A10/A11

Net energy to power U.S. onroad vehicles (kWh/yr)

1.050E+12

1.182E+12

U.S. and world CO2 emissions

B1 (S3)

U.S. onroad vehicle CO2 2007 (MT-CO2/yr)

1.466E+03

B2 (S3)

U.S. other-vehicle CO2 (MT-CO2/yr)

4.696E+02

B3 (S4)

U.S. coal-electricity CO2 2007 (MT-CO2/yr)

1.958E+03

B4 (S4)

U.S. natural gas-electricity CO2 (MT-CO2/yr)

3.618E+02

B5 (S4)

U.S. oil electricity CO2 (MT-CO2/yr)

5.450E+01

B5 (S4)

U.S. non-elect, non-transport. CO2 (MT-CO2/yr)

1.661E+03

B6=B1+B2+B3+B4+B5

U.S. total fossil CO2 2007 (MT-CO2/yr)

5.971E+03

B7 (S5)

World total CO2 2007 (MT-CO2/yr)

3.345E+04

B8 (S6)

Fraction of upstream+combust onroad CO2 from combust

7.500E-01

B9=B1/B8

U.S. onroad combust+fuel prod CO2 2007 (MT-CO2/yr)

1.955E+03

U.S. CO2 emissions per kWh electricity generated

C1 (S7)

US electricity CO2 (g-CO2e/kWH) (1998-2000 avg)

6.060E+02

C2 (S7)

US electricity CH4 (g-CO2e/kWH) w/GWP 25

1.259E-01

C3 (S7)

US electricity N2O (g-CO2e/kWH) GWP 298

2.595E+00

C4=C1+C2+C3

Total US electricity CO2e (g-CO2e/kWh) (1998-2000)

6.087E+02

Wind turbine characteristics

D1(S8)

Mean annual wind speed (m/s)

8.500E+00

7.000E+00

D2 (S9)

Turbine rated power (kW)

5.000E+03

D3 (S9)

Turbine rotor diameter (m)

1.260E+02

D4=(0.087*D1-D2/D3^2)

(S10)

Turbine capacity factor

4.246E-01

2.941E-01

Hours per year (hrs)

8.760E+03

D6=D2*D4*D5

Turbine energy output without losses (kWh/yr)

1.860E+07

1.288E+07

Turbine effic. with transmission,conversion, array losses

9.000E-01

8.500E-01

D8=D6*D7

Turbine energy output with losses (kWh/yr)

1.674E+07

1.095E+07

D9=(4*D3)*(7*D3)/10^6

(S10)

Area for one turbine accounting for spacing (km2)

4.445E-01

D10

Diameter of turbine tubular tower (m)

4.000E+00

5.000E+00

D11=PI*(D10/2)^2/10^6

Area of turbine tower touching ground (km^2)

1.257E-05

1.963E-05

D12

Lifetime of wind turbine (yr)

3.000E+01

D13 (S11)

Energy to manufacture one turbine (kWh/MW)

4.277E+05

1.141E+06

D14=D13*D2/(D12*1000)

Energy to manufacture one turbine (kWh/yr)

7.128E+04

1.901E+05

D15=0.5*(D6a+D6b)

Avg turbine energy output before transmission (kWh/yr)

1.574E+07

D16=D3*D2/D15

Energy payback time (yr) for given turbine and winds

1.359E-01

3.624E-01

D17=D14*C4

Single-turbine CO2 emissions (g-CO2e/yr)

4.339E+07

1.157E+08

D18=D17/D15

Single-turbine CO2 emissions (g-CO2e/kWh)

2.757E+00

7.352E+00

D19

Time lag (yr) between planning and operation

2.000E+00

5.000E+00

D20

Time (yr) to refurbish after first lifetime

1.000E+00

2.000E+00

D21=C4*(D19+D20*(100yr/

D12))/100yr

CO2 emissions due to time lag (g-CO2e/kWh)

3.247E+01

7.102E+01

D22=D21-D21

Wind minus wind time lag CO2 (g-CO2e/kWh)

0.000E+00

Wind-powered battery-electric vehicles (wind-BEV)

E1 (S12)

Battery effic. (delivered to input electricity ratio)

8.600E-01

7.500E-01

E2=A12/E1

Energy required for batteries for U.S. BEV (kWh/yr)

1.221E+12

1.576E+12

E3=E2/D8

Number of turbines required for U.S. wind-BEV

7.298E+04

1.439E+05

E4=E3*D9

Area to separate turbines for U.S. wind-BEV (km^2)

3.244E+04

6.397E+04

Square km per square mile

2.590E+00

Land area of U.S. (50 states) (mi^2)

3.537E+06

E7=E6*E5

Land area of U.S. (50 states) (km^2)

9.162E+06

E8=E4/E7

Fraction of U.S. land turbine spacing for wind-BEV

3.541E-03

6.983E-03

Land area of California (mi^2)

1.560E+05

E10=E9*E5

Land area of California (km^2)

4.039E+05

E11=E4/E10

California land fraction for spacing for U.S. wind-BEV

8.031E-02

1.584E-01

E12=E3*D11/E5

Footprint on ground U.S. wind-BEV (km^2)

9.170E-01

2.826E+00

E13=E12/E7

Fraction of U.S. land for footprint for all wind-BEV

1.001E-07

3.084E-07

E14=E3*D17/10^12

Wind-BEV onroad vehicles CO2(MT-CO2e/yr)

3.167E+00

1.665E+01

E15=(B9-E14)/B9

Percent reduction FFOV CO2 due to wind-BEV

9.984E+01

9.915E+01

E16=E15*B9/B6

Percent reduction US CO2 due to wind-BEV

3.268E+01

3.245E+01

E17 (AWEA, 2008S19)

Water for turbine manufacture (gal-H2O/kWh)

1.000E-03

E18=E17*D6*E3

Gal-H2O/yr required to run U.S. wind-BEV

1.357E+09

1.854E+09

Wind-powered hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles (wind-HFCV)

F1 (S2, S13)

hydrogen fuel cell efficiency (fraction)

5.000E-01

4.600E-01

F2=A10/F1

Energy required for U.S. HFCV (MJ/yr)

7.563E+12

9.248E+12

Lower heating value of hydrogen (MJ/kg-H2)

1.200E+02

F4=F2/F3

Mass of H2 required for fuel for HFCV (kg-H2/yr)

6.304E+10

7.709E+10

F5 (S2, S13)

Leakage rate hydrogen (fraction)

3.000E-02

F6=F4/(1-F5)

Mass of H2 required with leakage (kg-H2/yr)

6.499E+10

7.947E+10

Higher heating value of hydrogen (MJ/kg-H2)

1.418E+02

F8 (S14)

Electrolyzer efficiency

7.380E-01

F9=F7/(F8*F2)

Electrolyzer energy needed per kg-H2 (kWh/kg-H2)

5.337E+01

F10 (S15)

Compressor Motor size (kW)

3.000E+01

F11 (S15)

Electricity use as function of motor size (fraction)

6.500E-01

F12 (S15)

Capacity of compressor (kg/year)

3.030E+04

F13=D5*F10*F11/F12

Compressor energy needed per kg-H2 (kWh/kg-H2)

5.639E+00

F14=F9+F13

Electrolyzer+compressor en req. (kWh/kg-H2)

5.901E+01

F15=F6*F14

Electrolyzer+compressor Energy for all H2 (kWh/yr)

3.835E+12

4.690E+12

F16=F15/D8

Number of turbines required for wind-HFCV

2.292E+05

4.284E+05

F17=F16*D9

Separation area for turbines for wind-HFCV (km2)

1.019E+05

1.904E+05

F18=F17/E7

Fraction of U.S. land for spacing for wind-HFCV

1.112E-02

2.078E-02

F19=F17/E10

Fraction of California land for spacing for wind-HFCV

2.522E-01

4.714E-01

F20=D11*F16/E5

Turbine ground footprint for wind-HFCV (km^2)

2.880E+00

8.411E+00

F21=F16/E3

Ratio of turbines, wind-HFCV:wind-BEV

3.140E+00

2.977E+00

F22=F16*D17/10^12

Wind-HFCV CO2 from turbine lifecycle (MT-CO2e/yr)

9.944E+00

4.957E+01

F23=(B9-F22)/B9

Percent reduction FFOV CO2 due to wind-HFCV

9.949E+01

9.746E+01

F24=F23*B9/B6

Percent reduction US CO2 due to wind-HFCV

3.257E+01

3.190E+01

F25

H2 Molecular weight (g/mol)

2.01588

F26

H2O molecular weight (g/mol)

18.01528

F27=F26/F25

Water required for electrolyzer (kg-H2O/kg-H2)

8.936682739

F28

Density of liquid water (kg/m3)

1000

F29=F27*A6/F28

Water required for electrolyzer (gal-H2O/kg-H2)

2.361E+00

F30=F29*F6

Water required for wind HFCV (gal-H2O/yr)

1.534E+11

1.876E+11

F31=E18*F16/E3

Water for turbine manufacturing (gal-H2O/yr)

4.261E+09

5.517E+09

F32=F30+F31

Total water required (gal-H2O/yr)

1.577E+11

1.931E+11

Solar PV panel characteristics

G1 (S16)

Sample solar panel rated power (W)

1.600E+02

G2 (S16)

Mean capacity factor accounting for sunlight, PVs, inverter

2.000E-01

1.000E-01

G3=G1*G2*D5/1000

Single-panel energy output before transmis. loss (kWh/yr)

2.803E+02

1.402E+02

Transmission efficiency

9.500E-01

9.000E-01

G5=G3*G4

Single-panel output w/ transmis. loss (kWh/yr)

2.663E+02

1.261E+02

G6 (S16)

Sample solar panel area (m2) plus walking space

1.888E+00

G7 (S17)

Lifetime of solar panel (yr)

3.000E+01

G8 (S17)

Single-panel CO2 emissions (g-CO2e/kWh)

1.900E+01

5.900E+01

G9=G8*G3

Single-panel CO2 emissions (g-CO2e/yr)

5.326E+03

8.269E+03

G10

Time lag (yr) between planning and operation

2.000E+00

5.000E+00

G11

Time (yr) to refurbish after first lifetime

1.000E+00

2.000E+00

G12=C4*(G10+G11*100yr/

G7)/100yr

CO2 emissions due to time lag (g-CO2e/kWh)

3.247E+01

7.102E+01

G13=G12-D21

Solar PV minus wind time lag CO2 (g-CO2e/kWh)

0.000E+00

Solar-PV powered battery-electric vehicles (PV-BEV)

H1=E2/G5

Number of solar panels required for US PV-BEV

4.586E+09

1.249E+10

H2=H1*G6/10^6

Land+roof (km^2) for solar panels to power US PV-BEV

8.658E+03

2.358E+04

H3 (est.)

Fraction of solar panels on rooftops

3.000E-01

H4=H2*(1-H3)

Land (km^2) for solar panels to power US PV-BEV

6.060E+03

1.650E+04

H5=H4/E7

Fraction of U.S. land for PV-BEV solar panels

6.615E-04

1.801E-03

H6=H4/E10

Fraction of California land for PV-BEV solar panels

1.500E-02

4.086E-02

/11

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1ReviewofSolutionstoGlobalWarming,AirPollution,andEnergySecurityMarkZ.JacobsonDepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,California94305-4020,USA;Email:jacobson@stanford.edu;Tel:(650)723-6836EnergyandEnvironmentalScienceSupplementaryInformationAppendixDerivationofresultsusedforthisstudy.EnergyrequiredforvehiclesLowcaseHighcaseA1(S1)2007onroadvehiclemilestraveledintheU.S.(mi/yr)3.237E+123.237E+12A2(S2)Totalonroadvehiclefleetmileage(mpg)1.711E+011.711E+01A3=A1/A2Gallonsoffuel(gas+diesel)used(gal/yr)1.892E+111.892E+11A4Lowerheatingvaluegasoline(MJ/kg)4.400E+014.400E+01A5Gasolinedensity(kg/m3)7.500E+027.500E+02A6Gallonspercubicmeter(gal/m3)2.642E+022.642E+02A7=A4A5/A6Energystoredingasoline(MJ/gal)1.249E+021.249E+02A8=A3A7Energyneededtopowergasolinevehicles(MJ/yr)2.363E+132.363E+13A9(S2)Gasolinevehicleefficiency(fraction)1.600E-011.800E-01A10=A8A9NetenergytopowerU.S.onroadvehicles(MJ/yr)3.781E+124.254E+12A11MJperkWh3.600E+003.600E+00A12=A10/A11NetenergytopowerU.S.onroadvehicles(kWh/yr)1.050E+121.182E+12U.S.andworldCO2emissionsB1(S3)U.S.onroadvehicleCO22007(MT-CO2/yr)1.466E+031.466E+03B2(S3)U.S.other-vehicleCO2(MT-CO2/yr)4.696E+024.696E+02B3(S4)U.S.coal-electricityCO22007(MT-CO2/yr)1.958E+031.958E+03B4(S4)U.S.naturalgas-electricityCO2(MT-CO2/yr)3.618E+023.618E+02B5(S4)U.S.oilelectricityCO2(MT-CO2/yr)5.450E+015.450E+01B5(S4)U.S.non-elect,non-transport.CO2(MT-CO2/yr)1.661E+031.661E+03B6=B1+B2+B3+B4+B5U.S.totalfossilCO22007(MT-CO2/yr)5.971E+035.971E+03B7(S5)WorldtotalCO22007(MT-CO2/yr)3.345E+043.345E+04B8(S6)Fractionofupstream+combustonroadCO2fromcombust7.500E-017.500E-01B9=B1/B8U.S.onroadcombust+fuelprodCO22007(MT-CO2/yr)1.955E+031.955E+03U.S.CO2emissionsperkWhelectricitygeneratedC1(S7)USelectricityCO2(g-CO2e/kWH)(1998-2000avg)6.060E+026.060E+02C2(S7)USelectricityCH4(g-CO2e/kWH)w/GWP251.259E-011.259E-01C3(S7)USelectricityN2O(g-CO2e/kWH)GWP2982.595E+002.595E+00C4=C1+C2+C3TotalUSelectricityCO2e(g-CO2e/kWh)(1998-2000)6.087E+026.087E+022WindturbinecharacteristicsD1(S8)Meanannualwindspeed(m/s)8.500E+007.000E+00D2(S9)Turbineratedpower(kW)5.000E+035.000E+03D3(S9)Turbinerotordiameter(m)1.260E+021.260E+02D4=(0.087D1-D2/D3^2)(S10)Turbinecapacityfactor4.246E-012.941E-01D5Hoursperyear(hrs)8.760E+038.760E+03D6=D2D4D5Turbineenergyoutputwithoutlosses(kWh/yr)1.860E+071.288E+07D7Turbineeffic.withtransmission,conversion,arraylosses9.000E-018.500E-01D8=D6D7Turbineenergyoutputwithlosses(kWh/yr)1.674E+071.095E+07D9=(4D3)(7D3)/10^6(S10)Areaforoneturbineaccountingforspacing(km2)4.445E-014.445E-01D10Diameterofturbinetubulartower(m)4.000E+005.000E+00D11=PI(D10/2)^2/10^6Areaofturbinetowertouchingground(km^2)1.257E-051.963E-05D12Lifetimeofwindturbine(yr)3.000E+013.000E+01D13(S11)Energytomanufactureoneturbine(kWh/MW)4.277E+051.141E+06D14=D13D2/(D121000)Energytomanufactureoneturbine(kWh/yr)7.128E+041.901E+05D15=0.5(D6a+D6b)Avgturbineenergyoutputbeforetransmission(kWh/yr)1.574E+071.574E+07D16=D3D2/D15Energypaybacktime(yr)forgiventurbineandwinds1.359E-013.624E-01D17=D14C4Single-turbineCO2emissions(g-CO2e/yr)4.339E+071.157E+08D18=D17/D15Single-turbineCO2emissions(g-CO2e/kWh)2.757E+007.352E+00D19Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation2.000E+005.000E+00D20Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime1.000E+002.000E+00D21=C4(D19+D20(100yr/D12))/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)3.247E+017.102E+01D22=D21-D21WindminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)0.000E+000.000E+00Wind-poweredbattery-electricvehicles(wind-BEV)E1(S12)Batteryeffic.(deliveredtoinputelectricityratio)8.600E-017.500E-01E2=A12/E1EnergyrequiredforbatteriesforU.S.BEV(kWh/yr)1.221E+121.576E+12E3=E2/D8NumberofturbinesrequiredforU.S.wind-BEV7.298E+041.439E+05E4=E3D9AreatoseparateturbinesforU.S.wind-BEV(km^2)3.244E+046.397E+04E5Squarekmpersquaremile2.590E+002.590E+00E6LandareaofU.S.(50states)(mi^2)3.537E+063.537E+06E7=E6E5LandareaofU.S.(50states)(km^2)9.162E+069.162E+06E8=E4/E7FractionofU.S.landturbinespacingforwind-BEV3.541E-036.983E-03E9LandareaofCalifornia(mi^2)1.560E+051.560E+05E10=E9E5LandareaofCalifornia(km^2)4.039E+054.039E+05E11=E4/E10CalifornialandfractionforspacingforU.S.wind-BEV8.031E-021.584E-01E12=E3D11/E5FootprintongroundU.S.wind-BEV(km^2)9.170E-012.826E+00E13=E12/E7FractionofU.S.landforfootprintforallwind-BEV1.001E-073.084E-07E14=E3D17/10^12Wind-BEVonroadvehiclesCO2(MT-CO2e/yr)3.167E+001.665E+01E15=(B9-E14)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetowind-BEV9.984E+019.915E+01E16=E15B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetowind-BEV3.268E+013.245E+01E17(AWEA,2008S19)Waterforturbinemanufacture(gal-H2O/kWh)1.000E-031.000E-03E18=E17D6E3Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.wind-BEV1.357E+091.854E+09Wind-poweredhydrogenfuel-cellvehicles(wind-HFCV)F1(S2,S13)hydrogenfuelcellefficiency(fraction)5.000E-014.600E-01F2=A10/F1EnergyrequiredforU.S.HFCV(MJ/yr)7.563E+129.248E+12F3Lowerheatingvalueofhydrogen(MJ/kg-H2)1.200E+021.200E+02F4=F2/F3MassofH2requiredforfuelforHFCV(kg-H2/yr)6.304E+107.709E+10F5(S2,S13)Leakageratehydrogen(fraction)3.000E-023.000E-023F6=F4/(1-F5)MassofH2requiredwithleakage(kg-H2/yr)6.499E+107.947E+10F7Higherheatingvalueofhydrogen(MJ/kg-H2)1.418E+021.418E+02F8(S14)Electrolyzerefficiency7.380E-017.380E-01F9=F7/(F8F2)Electrolyzerenergyneededperkg-H2(kWh/kg-H2)5.337E+015.337E+01F10(S15)CompressorMotorsize(kW)3.000E+013.000E+01F11(S15)Electricityuseasfunctionofmotorsize(fraction)6.500E-016.500E-01F12(S15)Capacityofcompressor(kg/year)3.030E+043.030E+04F13=D5F10F11/F12Compressorenergyneededperkg-H2(kWh/kg-H2)5.639E+005.639E+00F14=F9+F13Electrolyzer+compressorenreq.(kWh/kg-H2)5.901E+015.901E+01F15=F6F14Electrolyzer+compressorEnergyforallH2(kWh/yr)3.835E+124.690E+12F16=F15/D8Numberofturbinesrequiredforwind-HFCV2.292E+054.284E+05F17=F16D9Separationareaforturbinesforwind-HFCV(km2)1.019E+051.904E+05F18=F17/E7FractionofU.S.landforspacingforwind-HFCV1.112E-022.078E-02F19=F17/E10FractionofCalifornialandforspacingforwind-HFCV2.522E-014.714E-01F20=D11F16/E5Turbinegroundfootprintforwind-HFCV(km^2)2.880E+008.411E+00F21=F16/E3Ratioofturbines,wind-HFCV:wind-BEV3.140E+002.977E+00F22=F16D17/10^12Wind-HFCVCO2fromturbinelifecycle(MT-CO2e/yr)9.944E+004.957E+01F23=(B9-F22)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetowind-HFCV9.949E+019.746E+01F24=F23B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetowind-HFCV3.257E+013.190E+01F25H2Molecularweight(g/mol)2.015882.01588F26H2Omolecularweight(g/mol)18.0152818.01528F27=F26/F25Waterrequiredforelectrolyzer(kg-H2O/kg-H2)8.9366827398.936682739F28Densityofliquidwater(kg/m3)10001000F29=F27A6/F28Waterrequiredforelectrolyzer(gal-H2O/kg-H2)2.361E+002.361E+00F30=F29F6WaterrequiredforwindHFCV(gal-H2O/yr)1.534E+111.876E+11F31=E18F16/E3Waterforturbinemanufacturing(gal-H2O/yr)4.261E+095.517E+09F32=F30+F31Totalwaterrequired(gal-H2O/yr)1.577E+111.931E+11SolarPVpanelcharacteristicsG1(S16)Samplesolarpanelratedpower(W)1.600E+021.600E+02G2(S16)Meancapacityfactoraccountingforsunlight,PVs,inverter2.000E-011.000E-01G3=G1G2D5/1000Single-panelenergyoutputbeforetransmis.loss(kWh/yr)2.803E+021.402E+02G4Transmissionefficiency9.500E-019.000E-01G5=G3G4Single-paneloutputw/transmis.loss(kWh/yr)2.663E+021.261E+02G6(S16)Samplesolarpanelarea(m2)pluswalkingspace1.888E+001.888E+00G7(S17)Lifetimeofsolarpanel(yr)3.000E+013.000E+01G8(S17)Single-panelCO2emissions(g-CO2e/kWh)1.900E+015.900E+01G9=G8G3Single-panelCO2emissions(g-CO2e/yr)5.326E+038.269E+03G10Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation2.000E+005.000E+00G11Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime1.000E+002.000E+00G12=C4(G10+G11100yr/G7)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)3.247E+017.102E+01G13=G12-D21SolarPVminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)0.000E+000.000E+00Solar-PVpoweredbattery-electricvehicles(PV-BEV)H1=E2/G5NumberofsolarpanelsrequiredforUSPV-BEV4.586E+091.249E+10H2=H1G6/10^6Land+roof(km^2)forsolarpanelstopowerUSPV-BEV8.658E+032.358E+04H3(est.)Fractionofsolarpanelsonrooftops3.000E-013.000E-01H4=H2(1-H3)Land(km^2)forsolarpanelstopowerUSPV-BEV6.060E+031.650E+04H5=H4/E7FractionofU.S.landforPV-BEVsolarpanels6.615E-041.801E-03H6=H4/E10FractionofCalifornialandforPV-BEVsolarpanels1.500E-024.086E-024H7=H4/E12Ratioofsolar-PVtowindlandfootprintforBEV6.608E+035.841E+03H8=H4/E4Ratioofsolar-PVtowindtotalspacingforBEV1.868E-012.580E-01H9=H1(G9+G13)/10^12PV-BEVCO2emissionsfromsolarpanels(MT-CO2e/yr)2.443E+011.033E+02H10=100(B9-H9)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetoPV-BEV9.875E+019.472E+01H11=H109B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetoPV-BEV3.232E+013.100E+01H12(S18,S19)Waterforbuilding/cleaningpanels(gal-H2O/kWh)4.000E-024.000E-02H13=H12G3H1Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.PV-BEV5.142E+107.002E+10CornEthanolforE85vehiclesI1(S20)EfficiencyofnewE85vehicles3.200E-012.600E-01I2=A10/I1EnergyrequiredfornewE85vehicles2007(MJ/yr)1.182E+131.636E+13I3LowerheatingvalueofETOH(MJ/kg)2.680E+012.680E+01I4DensityofETOH(kg/m3)7.870E+027.870E+02I5=I3I4/A6EnergyinETOH(MJ/gal)7.984E+017.984E+01I6=I2/(0.2A7+0.8I5)GallonsE85foronroadvehicles(gal)1.330E+111.841E+11I7=I60.8GallonsofETOHinE85forallU.S.onroadvehicles(gal)1.064E+111.473E+11I8=I6-I7GallonsofgasolineinE85forallU.S.onroadvehicles(gal)2.660E+103.683E+10I9(S21)kg-ETOHperbushelofcorn7.860E+007.860E+00I10(S21)Bushelsperacreonirrigated+nonirrigatedland1.810E+021.400E+02I11Squaremetersperacre4.047E+034.047E+03I12=I9A6/I4Gal-ETOHperbushelofcorn2.638E+002.638E+00I13=I12I10Gal-ETOHperacreofdrycorn4.775E+023.694E+02I14=I7/(I1310^6)Millionacresofcornneededforallvehicles2.228E+023.988E+02I15=I14I11Squarekmofcornforallvehicles9.016E+051.614E+06I16=I15/E7FractionofU.S.landforcorn-E859.840E-021.762E-01I17=I15/E10FractionofCalifornialandforcorn-E852.232E+003.995E+00I18(S22)TotalacresofharvestedcorninU.S.20037.350E+077.350E+07I19(S23)AcresofirrigatedcornU.S.20039.750E+069.750E+06I20=I19/I18Fractionofharvestedacresthatareirrigated1.327E-011.327E-01I21(S23)Bushelsperacreonirrigatedland1.780E+021.780E+02I22=I21I12Gal-ETOHperacreofdrycorn4.696E+024.696E+02I23(S23)Waterrequiredforcorn(acre-feet-H2O/acre-land)1.200E+001.200E+00I24U.S.gallonsperacre-foot3.259E+053.259E+05I25=I23I24/I22Gal-H2O-irrigation/gal-ETOH8.326E+028.326E+02I26=I25I20Irrigated+nonirrigatedgal-H2O/gal-ETOH1.104E+021.104E+02I27(S24)Gal-H2O-energy/gal-ETOH1.100E-011.100E-01I28(S25)Gal-H2O-factory/gal-ETOH4.500E+004.500E+00I29=I26+I27+I28TotalGal-H2O/gal-ETOH1.151E+021.151E+02I30=I29I7Gal-H2O/yrrequiredforallU.S.onroadvehicles1.224E+131.695E+13I31(S26)TotalU.S.wateruse2000(gal/day)4.080E+114.080E+11I32=I31365days/yrTotalU.S.wateruse2000(gal/year)1.489E+141.489E+14I33=I30/I32FractionofU.S.waterdemandforcorn-E858.220E-021.138E-01I34=I15/E7Ratioofcorn-E85towind-BEVlandfootprint9.831E+055.711E+05I35(S6,S28)PercentchangeinFFOVCO2with100%corn-E85-2.400E+009.300E+01I36=I35B9/B6PercentchangeinUSCO2with100%corn-E85-7.856E-013.044E+01I37=I360.30PercentchangeinUSCO2with30%corn-E85-2.357E-019.133E+00CellulosicethanolforE85(cel-E85)vehiclesJ1(S27,S29)Tonsdrymatter/acre1.000E+012.300E+00J2(S27)Gallons-ETOH/ton-drymatter1.000E+028.000E+01J3=J1J2Gallons-ETOH/acre1.000E+031.840E+025J4=I7/(J310^6)Millionacresofswitchgrassforallvehicles1.064E+028.006E+02J5=J4I11Squarekmofswitchgrassforallcel-E854.305E+053.240E+06J6=J5/E7FractionofU.S.landforcel-E854.699E-023.536E-01J7=J5/E10FractionofCalifornialandforcel-E851.066E+008.021E+00J8=J5/E12Ratioofcel-E85towind-BEVlandfootprint4.695E+051.147E+06J9=J5/E4Ratioofcel-E85towind-BEVtotalspacing1.327E+015.064E+01J10=0.5I26Irrigated+nonirrigatedgal-H2O/gal-ETOH5.522E+015.522E+01J11=J10+I27+I28TotalGal-H2O/gal-ETOH5.983E+015.983E+01J12=J11I7Gal-H2O/yrrequiredforU.S.cel-E856.366E+128.814E+12J13=J12/I32FractionofU.S.waterdemandforcel-E854.275E-025.919E-02J14(S6,S28)PercentchangeFFOVCO2with100%cel-E85-5.000E+015.000E+01J15=J14B9/B6PercentchangeinUSCO2with100%cel-E85-1.637E+011.637E+01J16=J150.30PercentchangeinUSCO2with30%cel-E85-4.910E+00+4.910E+00Nuclear-poweredbattery-electricvehicles(nuclear-BEV)K1(S30)Averagenuclearpowerplantsize(MW)8.470E+028.470E+02K2(S31)Capacityfactorglobally20058.590E-018.590E-01K3=K1K21000D5Energyperplantbeforetransmission(kWh/yr)6.374E+096.374E+09K4=G4Transmissionefficiency9.500E-019.000E-01K5=K3K4Energyperplantaftertransmission(kWh/yr)6.055E+095.736E+09K6=E2/K5NumbernuclearplantstorunU.S.nuclear-BEV2.017E+022.747E+02K7(S32)NuclearCO2lifecycleemissions(g-CO2e/kWh)9.000E+007.000E+01K8(S33)H2Oevaporationnuclear(gal/kWh)4.000E-017.200E-01K9=K8K3K6Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.nuclear-BEVs5.142E+111.260E+12K10=K9/I30FractionofU.S.waterdemandfornuclear-BEV3.453E-038.464E-03K11=K10F16/E3FractionofU.S.waterdemandfornuclear-HFCV1.084E-022.519E-02K12(S34)Landrequiredformininguranium(ha-year/GWh)6.000E-026.000E-02K13(S34)Footprint+bufferfornuclearfacility(ha-year/GWh)2.600E-012.600E-01K14(S34)Landforwastedisposalforoneplant(km^2)8.000E-028.000E-02K15km^2perhectare1.000E-021.000E-02K16=(K12+K13)K15K3/10^6+K14Land(km^2)foronenuclearfacilitywithbuffer2.048E+012.048E+01K17(S35)Land(km^2)fornuclearfacilitybuildingsonly1.000E+004.000E+00K18=K12K3K15/10^6+K14+K17Footprintonground(km^2)foronefacility4.904E+007.904E+00K19=K16K6Landwithbuffer(km^2)torunUSnuclearBEV4.130E+035.624E+03K20=K18K6Footprintonground(km^2)torunUSnuclear-BEV9.892E+022.171E+03K21=K19/E7FractionofUSlandfornuclear-BEV4.508E-046.138E-04K22=K21/E7FractionofUSlandforfootprintofnuclear-BEV1.080E-042.370E-04K23=K20/E12RatioofnucleartowindlandfootprintforBEV1.079E+037.683E+02K24=K19/E4RatioofnucleartowindtotalspacingforBEV1.273E-018.791E-02K25Lifetimeofnuclearpowerplant(yr)4.000E+014.000E+01K26(seetext)Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation1.000E+011.900E+01K27Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime2.000E+004.000E+00K28=C4(K26+K27100yr/K25)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)9.131E+011.765E+02K29=K28-D21NuclearminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)5.884E+011.055E+02K30(seetext)Nuclearemissionsfromwar/terrorism(g-CO2e/kWh)0.000E+004.100E+00K31=(K7+K28+K30)E2/10^12Nuclear-BEVCO2emissions(MT-CO2e/yr)8.286E+012.830E+02K32=100(B9-K31)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetonuclear-BEVs.9.576E+018.552E+01K33=K32B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetonuclear-BEVs3.135E+012.799E+016Hydroelectricpoweredbattery-electricvehicles(hydro-BEV)L1(S34)Selectedplantsize(MW)1.296E+031.296E+03L2(S36)Capacityfactor4.240E-014.240E-01L3=L1L21000D5Energyperplantbeforetransmission(kWh/yr)4.814E+094.814E+09L4=L3G4Energyperplantaftertransmission(kWh/yr)4.573E+094.332E+09L5=E2/L4NumberofhydroplantstorunU.S.hydro-BEV2.671E+023.637E+02L6(S34,S37)HydroCO2emissions(g-CO2e/kWh)1.700E+012.160E+01L7(S38,seetext)H2Oevaporationhydroelectric(gal/kWh)4.500E+007.560E+00L8=L8L3L6Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.BEVs5.785E+121.323E+13L9=L8/I31FractionofU.S.waterdemandforhydro-BEV3.885E-028.887E-02L10=L3F15/E2FractionofU.S.waterdemandforhydro-HFCV1.220E-012.645E-01L11(S34)Area(km^2)requiredforsinglereservoir6.531E+026.531E+02L12=L11L5Area(km^2)requiredtorunU.S.BEVs1.744E+052.375E+05L13=L12/E7FractionofUSlandforhydro-BEV1.904E-022.592E-02L14=L12/E12RatioofhydrotowindlandfootprintforBEV1.902E+058.405E+04L15=L12/E4RatioofhydrotowindtotalspacingforBEV5.377E+003.713E+00L16(seetext)Lifetimeofhydropowerplant(yr)8.000E+018.000E+01L17(seetext)Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation8.000E+001.600E+01L18Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime2.000E+003.000E+00L19=C4(L17+L18100yr/L16)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)6.392E+011.202E+02L20=L19-D21HydrominuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)3.145E+014.920E+01L21=(L6+L20)E2/10^12Hydro-BEVCO2emissions(MT-CO2e/yr)5.917E+011.116E+02L22=100(B9-L21)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetohydro-BEVs(%)9.697E+019.429E+01L23=L22B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetohydro-BEVs(%)3.174E+013.087E+01Concentratedsolarpowerpoweredbatteryelectricvehicles(CSP-BEV)withoutstorageM1Typicalplantsize(MW)1.000E+021.000E+02M2(S39)Capacityfactorwithoutstorage2.500E-011.300E-01M3=M1M21000D5Energyperplantbeforetransmission(kWh/yr)2.190E+081.139E+08M4=G4Transmissionefficiency9.500E-019.000E-01M5=M3M4Energyperplantaftertransmission(kWh/yr)2.081E+081.025E+08M6=E2/M5NumberCSPplantstorunU.S.CSP-BEV5.870E+031.537E+04M7(S40)LifetimeofCSPplant(yr)3.000E+013.000E+01M8(S40,S41)Energypaybacktime(yr)4.167E-015.583E-01M9=0.5(M3a+M3b)Avgenergyperplantbeforetransmission(kWh/yr)1.752E+081.664E+08M10=M9M8/M7EnergytomanufactureoneCSPplant(kWh/yr)2.433E+063.098E+06M11=M10C4Single-CSPplantCO2emissions(g-CO2e/yr)1.148E+091.886E+09M12=M11/M9Single-CSPplantCO2emissions(g-CO2e/kWh)8.454E+001.133E+01M13(S42)H2Oconsumptionwet-coolparabolictrough(gal/kWh)7.770E-017.770E-01M14=M13M3M6Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.CSP-BEV9.989E+111.360E+12M15=M14/I32FractionofU.S.waterdemandforwet-coolCSPBEV6.708E-039.134E-03M16=M14F15/E2FractionofU.S.waterdemandforwet-coolCSPHFCV2.106E-022.719E-02M17(S42)Landarearequired(km^2)perinstalledMWCSP1.900E-022.430E-02M18=M17M1Landarearequired(km^2)forone100MWplant1.900E+002.430E+00M19=M18M6Landarea(km^2)requiredtorunU.S.CSP-BEV1.115E+043.735E+04M20=M19/E7FractionofU.S.landforCSP-BEV1.217E-034.077E-03M21=M19/E10FractionofCalifornialandforCSP-BEV2.761E-029.248E-02M22=M19/E12RatioofCSPtowindfootprintareaforBEV1.216E+041.322E+047M23=M19/E4RatioofCSPtowindspacingareaforBEV3.438E-015.839E-01M24(seetext)Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation2.000E+005.000E+00M25Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime1.000E+002.000E+00M26=C4(M24+M25100yr/M7)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)3.247E+017.102E+01M27=M26-D20CSPminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)0.000E+000.000E+00M28=(M12+M27)E2/1012CSP-BEVCO2emissions(MT-CO2e/yr)1.033E+011.785E+01M29=100(B9-M28)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetoCSP-BEVs(%)9.947E+019.909E+01M30=M29B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetoCSP-BEVs(%)3.256E+013.243E+01CoalwithCCSpoweringbattery-electricvehicles(CCS-BEV)N1(S34)Typicalplantsize(MW)4.250E+024.250E+02N2(S34,S43)Capacityfactor8.500E-016.500E-01N3=N1N21000D5Energyperplantbeforetransmission(kWh/yr)3.165E+092.420E+09N4(S41)IncreaseinenergyrequiredforCCS(fraction)1.400E-014.000E-01N5=N3/(1+N4)Energyavailablefortransmission(kWh/yr)2.776E+091.729E+09N6=N5M4Energyperplantaftertransmission(kWh/yr)2.637E+091.556E+09N7=E2/N6NumberofcoalplantstorunU.S.CCS-BEV4.631E+021.013E+03N8(S44)CoalCO2directemissionsw/oCCS(g-CO2/kWh)7.900E+021.017E+03N9(S43)CCSCO2reductionefficiency9.000E-018.500E-01N10=N8(1-N9)CoalCO2directemissionsw/CCS(g-CO2/kWh)7.900E+011.526E+02N11(S44)Coalnon-directlifecycleCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)1.760E+022.890E+02N12=N10+N11Totallifecyclecoal-CCSCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)2.550E+024.416E+02N13(S45)H2Oconsumptionfromcoal-firedpower(gal/kWh)4.900E-014.900E-01N14=N13N3N7Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.CCS-BEV7.181E+111.201E+12N15=N14/I32FractionofU.S.waterdemandforCCS-BEV4.822E-038.064E-03N16(S34)Landareaforcoalfacility(km^2)1.290E+001.290E+00N17(S34)Landareaforrailtotransportcoal(km^2)8.600E-028.600E-02N18(S34)Landareaforcoalmining(km^2)3.800E+003.800E+00N19=N16+N17+N18Totallandareaforonecoalplant(km^2)5.176E+005.176E+00N20=N19N7Landarea(km^2)torunU.S.CCS-BEV2.397E+035.242E+03N21=N20/E7FractionofU.S.landforCCS-BEV2.616E-045.722E-04N22=N20/E12RatioofCCStowindfootprintareaforBEV2.614E+031.855E+03N23=N20/E4RatioofCCStowindspacingareaforBEV7.390E-028.194E-02N24Lifetimeofcoal-CCSpowerplant(yr)3.500E+013.000E+01N25(seetext)Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation8.000E+001.600E+01N26Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime2.000E+003.000E+00N27=C4(N25+N26100yr/N24)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)8.348E+011.583E+02N28=N27-D21Coal-CCSminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)5.102E+018.725E+01N29=N8-N10CO2injectionrateintoground(g-CO2/kWh)7.110E+028.645E+02N30(seetext)E-foldinglifetimeagainstleakage1.000E+055.000E+03N31=N29-N29N30(1-exp(-500yr/N30))/500yrAverageleakageover500years(g-CO2/kWh)1.775E+004.182E+01N32=(N11+N28+N31)E2/10^12CCS-BEVCO2emissions(MT-CO2e/yr)3.759E+028.990E+02N33=100(B9-N32)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetoCCS-BEVs8.077E+015.400E+01N34=N33B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetoCCS-BEVs2.644E+011.768E+01Geothermal-poweredbattery-electricvehicles(geo-BEV)O1Typicalplantsize(MW)1.000E+021.000E+028O2(S46)Capacityfactor9.700E-018.900E-01O3=O1O21000D5Energyperplantbeforetransmission(kWh/yr)8.497E+087.796E+08O4=O3G4Energyperplantaftertransmission(kWh/yr)8.072E+087.017E+08O5=E2/M4NumberofgeothermalplantstorunU.S.geo-BEV1.513E+032.245E+03O6(S46,S47)GeothermallifecycleCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)1.510E+015.500E+01O7(S46)H2Oconsumptionfromgeothermal(gal/kWh)5.000E-035.000E-03O8=O7O3O5Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.geo-BEV6.428E+098.753E+09O9=O8/I32FractionofU.S.waterdemandforgeo-BEV4.316E-055.878E-05O10(S46)Geothermallandrequirement(m^2/GWh)4.040E+024.040E+02O11=O10O3Landarea(km^2)foroneplant3.433E-013.150E-01O12=O11O5Landarea(km^2)torunU.S.geo-BEV5.194E+027.072E+02O13=O12/E7FractionofU.S.landforgeo-BEV5.669E-057.719E-05O14=O12/E12RatioofgeothermaltowindfootprintareaforBEV5.664E+022.503E+02O15=O12/E4RatioofgeothermaltowindspacingareaforBEV1.601E-021.106E-02O16Lifetimeofgeothermalpowerplant(yr)4.000E+013.000E+01O17(seetext)Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation3.000E+006.000E+00O18Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime1.000E+002.000E+00O19=C4(O17+O18100yr/O16)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)3.348E+017.710E+01O20=O19-D21GeothermalminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)1.015E+006.087E+00O21=(O6+O20)E2/10^12Geo-BEVCO2emissions(MT-CO2e/yr)1.968E+019.624E+01O22=100(B9-O21)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetogeo-BEVs9.899E+019.508E+01O23=O22B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetogeo-BEVs3.240E+013.112E+01Wave-poweredbattery-electricvehicles(wave-BEV)P1(S48)Devicesize(MW)7.500E-017.500E-01P2(S48)Nominalwavepower(kW/m)5.500E+015.500E+01P3(S48)Nominalenergyperdevicebeforetransmis.(kWh/yr)2.700E+062.700E+06P4(S49)Actualwavepower(kW/m)3.400E+012.800E+01P5=(P7/P2)P3/(P1D51000)Capacityfactor2.540E-012.092E-01P6=P1P51000D5Energyperdevicebeforetransmission(kWh/yr)1.669E+061.375E+06P7=P6G4Energyperdeviceaftertransmission(kWh/yr)1.586E+061.237E+06P8=E2/P7NumberofwavedevicestorunU.S.wave-BEV7.703E+051.274E+06P9(S50)WaveCO2emissions(g-CO2e/kWh)2.170E+012.170E+01P10(S48)Widthofwavedevice(m)3.500E+003.500E+00P11(S48)Lengthofwavedevice(m)1.500E+021.500E+02P12=P10P11/10^6Oceansurfacefootprint(km^2)foronewavedevice5.250E-045.250E-04P13=P12P8Oceansurfacefootprint(km^2)torunU.S.wave-BEV4.044E+026.686E+02P14(S48)Oceansurfacearrayspacing(km^2)foronewavedevice2.500E-022.500E-02P15=P14P8Oceansurfacearrayspacing(km^2)torunU.S.wave-BEV1.926E+043.184E+04P16=P15/E7FractionofU.S.land(overtheocean)forwave-BEV2.102E-033.475E-03P17=P13/E12RatioofwavetowindfootprintareaforBEV4.410E+022.366E+02P18=P15/E4RatioofwavetowindspacingareaforBEV5.936E-014.977E-01P19(S50)Lifetimeofwavedevice(yr)1.500E+011.500E+01P20(seetext)Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation2.000E+005.000E+00P21Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime1.000E+002.000E+00P22=C4(P20+P21100yr/P19)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)5.276E+011.116E+02P23=P22-D20WaveminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)2.029E+014.058E+01P24=(P9+P23)E2/10^12Wave-BEVCO2emissions(MT-CO2e/yr)5.129E+019.813E+019P25=100(B9-P24)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetowave-BEVs9.738E+019.498E+01P26=P25B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetowave-BEVs3.187E+013.109E+01P27(AWEA,2008S19)Waterfordevicemanufacture(gal-H2O/kWh)1.000E-031.000E-03P28=P27P6P8Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.wave-BEV1.286E+091.751E+09Tidal-poweredbattery-electricvehicles(tidal-BEV)Q1(S51)Tidalturbineratedpower(MW)1.000E+001.000E+00Q2(S52)Capacityfactor3.500E-012.000E-01Q3=Q1Q21000D5Energyperdevicebeforetransmission(kWh/yr)3.066E+061.752E+06Q4=Q3G4Energyperdeviceaftertransmission(kWh/yr)2.913E+061.577E+06Q5=E2/Q4NumberoftidaldevicestorunU.S.tidal-BEV4.193E+059.992E+05Q6(S37)TidalCO2emissions(g-CO2e/kWh)1.400E+011.400E+01Q7(S51)Turbinerotordiameter(m)1.150E+011.150E+01Q8(S51)Oceanfloorfootprint(km^2)foronetidaldevice2.880E-042.880E-04Q9=Q8Q5Oceanfloorfootprint(km^2)torunU.S.tidal-BEV1.208E+022.878E+02Q10=(4Q7)(7Q7)/10^6(S10)Oceanfloorarrayspacing(km^2)foronetidaldevice3.703E-033.703E-03Q11=Q10Q5Oceanfloorarrayspacing(km^2)torunU.S.tidal-BEV1.553E+033.700E+03Q12=Q11/E7FractionofU.S.land(overoceanfloor)fortidal-BEV1.695E-044.038E-04Q13=Q9/E12RatiooftidaltowindfootprintareaforBEV1.317E+021.018E+02Q14=Q11/E4RatiooftidaltowindspacingareaforBEV4.786E-025.784E-02Q15(sameaswave)Lifetimeoftidalturbine(yr)1.500E+011.500E+01Q16(seetext)Timelag(yr)betweenplanningandoperation2.000E+005.000E+00Q17Time(yr)torefurbishafterfirstlifetime1.000E+002.000E+00Q18=C4(Q16+Q17100yr/Q15)/100yrCO2emissionsduetotimelag(g-CO2e/kWh)5.276E+011.116E+02Q19=Q18-D21TidalminuswindtimelagCO2(g-CO2e/kWh)2.029E+014.058E+01Q20=(Q6+Q19)E2/10^12Tidal-BEVCO2emissions(MT-CO2e/yr)4.188E+018.599E+01Q21=100(B9-Q20)/B9PercentreductionFFOVCO2duetotidal-BEVs9.786E+019.560E+01Q22=Q21B9/B6PercentreductionUSCO2duetotidal-BEVs3.203E+013.129E+01Q23(S19)Waterforturbinemanufacture(gal-H2O/kWh)1.000E-031.000E-03Q24=Q23Q3Q5Gal-H2O/yrrequiredtorunU.S.tidal-BEV1.286E+091.751E+09U.S.energyconsumptionR1(S53)CoalelectricitykWh/yr20072.024E+122.024E+12R2(S53)OilelectricitykWh/yr20075.364E+105.364E+10R3(S53)NatGaselectricitykWh/yr20078.815E+118.815E+11R4=E2WBEVVehicleskWh/yr20071.221E+121.576E+12R5=(B2+B5)(R1+R2+R3+R4)/(B6-B2-B5)OtherkWh/yr2.320E+122.517E+12NumberofwindturbinesrequiredtodisplaceCO2S1=R1/D8NumberofturbinestodisplaceU.S.coalelectricity1.210E+051.849E+05S2=R2/D8NumberofturbinestodisplaceU.S.oilelectricity3.205E+034.900E+03S3=R3/D8NumberofturbinestodisplaceU.S.natgaselectricity5.267E+048.052E+04S4=E3NumberofturbinestopowerU.S.BEVs7.298E+041.439E+05S5=R5/D8NumberofturbinestodisplaceotherU.S.sources1.386E+052.299E+05S6=S1+S2+S3+S4+S5NumberofturbinestodisplaceallU.S.CO23.884E+056.441E+05S7=B7S6/B6NumberofturbinestodisplaceworldCO22.176E+063.608E+06“Ref.”referstoreferencesinthemaintext.S1.UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation(2008)www.fhwa.dot.gov/Environment/vmtext.htm10S2.Ref.18S3.Onroad-vehicleCO2wasobtainedbymultiplyingthe1999rateof1370MT-CO2/yrfromRef.18bytheratioof2007to1999totalU.S.petroleumCO2emissionsfromEnergyInformationAdministration(2008a)U.S.carbondioxideemissionsfromenergysources2007flashestimate,www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/flash/flash.html.OthervehicleCO2wasobtainedbysubtractingonroad-vehicleCO2andoil-electricityCO2(presenttable)fromU.S.petroleumCO2.S4.2007U.S.coal,naturalgas,andoilelectricityCO2wereestimatedbyscaling2006emissionsfromEnergyInformationAdministration(EIA)(2007b)Emissionsofgreenhousegasesreport,www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/carbon.htmlbythe2007to2006ratiooftotalenergy-relatedCO2coal,naturalgas,andpetroleumfromEnergyInformationAdministration(2008a)U.S.carbondioxideemissionsfromenergysources2007flashestimate,www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/flash/flash.html.Non-electricity,non-transportationCO2wascalculatedasthetotal2007CO2fromthesamesourceminustheelectricityandtransportationemissionsfromthepresenttable.S5.Marland,G.,T.A.Boden,andR.J.Andres(2008)http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/em_cont.htm.2004dataextrapolatedto2007usingtheslopeofthecarbonemissionchangeperyear.S6.Ref.58.S6.EnergyInformationAdministration(EIA)(2002)Updatedstate-levelgreenhousegasemissioncoefficientsforelectricitygeneration1998-2000,http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/ftproot/environment/e-supdoc-u.pdf.Globalwarmingpotentialsof25and298wereappliedtomethaneandnitrousoxide,respectivelytoobtainCO2eS7.Ref.23.S9.Ref.116.S10.Refs.11,33.S11.Ref.37.S12.Ref.117.S13.Schultz,M.G.,T.Diehl,G.P.Brasseur,andW.Zittel(2003)Airpollutionandclimate-forcingimpactsofaglobalhydrogeneconomy,Science,302,624-627.S14.NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(NREL)(2004)Technologybrief:Analysisofcurrent-daycommercialelectrolyzers,NREL/FS-560-36705,www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/36705.pdf.S15.Hydro-pacInc.(2005)C03-40-70/140LXgascompressorforhydrogenspecificationsheet,www.hydropac.com/HTML/hydrogen-compressor.html.S16.Table1,footnotec.S17.Refs.40,44-46,S18.Ref.86S19.Ref.85.S20.Thelowandhighrangeencompassa2005Hondagasoline-electrichybridvehicletank-to-wheelefficiencyof30%andarebothhigherthanthe2005Hondagasolinevehicletank-to-wheelefficiencyofabout22%(Fig.7ofRef.18).S21.Ref.56.Also,in2006,anaverageof147.5bushelsofcornperharvestedacrewereproducedintheU.S.(11,800millionbushelsproducedon80millionacres).S22.Ref.77.S23.Ref.80.S24.King,C.W.andM.E.Webber(2008)Thewaterintensityoftheplugged-inautomotiveeconomy,Environ.Sci.Technol.,42,4305-4311.S25.Ref.81.S26.Ref.87.S27.Ref.78.S28.Ref.61.S29.Ref.79.S30.EuropeanNuclearSociety(2008)Nuclearpowerplants,worldwide,http://www.euronuclear.org/info/npp-ww.htm.S31.Ref.20.S32.Refs.16,49-51.S33.Ref.84.S34.Ref.31.S35AmericanNuclearSociety(2008)http://www2.ans.org/pi/brochures/pdfs/power.pdfS36EnergyInformationAdministration(EIA)(2006)Averagecapacityfactorsbyenergysource,www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/figes3.html,Table1.11S37.Ref.40.S38.Ref.83forhighvalue.Thelowvalueisestimatedbyattributingone-thirdofreservoirwatertohydroelectricpower.S39.LowvaluefromRef.16andTable1forCaliforniasolar;highvaluefromRef.22.S40.Ref.39.S41.Ref.38.S42.Ref.86givesCSPlandarearequirements0.0203-0.0243km2/MWwithoutstorage(and0.0324-0.047km2/MWwithstorage)(Table3-1)andwaterrequirementsof2.8m3/MWhconsumptionand0.14m3/MWhforcleaning(SectionA.1.3);AbengoaSolar(2008)Concentratedsolarpower,http://www.solucar.es/sites/solar/en/tec_ccp.jspgives0.019km2/MWwithoutstorage(and0.038km2/MWwithstorage).Ref.16gives0.02km2/MWwithoutstorage.S43.Ref.32.S44.Ref.49.S45.Ref.85.S46.Ref.27.S47.Ref.43.S48.PelamisWavePower(2008)P-750waveenergyconverter,http://www.pelamiswave.com/media/pelamisbrochure.pdf.S49.Kane,M.(2005)Californiasmallhydropowerandoceanwaveenergyresources,CaliforniaEnergyCommission,CEC-500-2005-075,www.energy.ca.gov/2005publications/CEC-500-2005-074/CEC-500-2005-074.PDF.S50.Ref.41.S51.Ref.97.S52.Ref.28.S53.EnergyInformationAdministration(2008b)Annualenergyoutlook2008,http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/electricity.html.

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