地球生命力报告2022（英）-WWFVIP专享VIP免费

下载本文档

阅读 241
格式 pdf
大小 7.19 MB
约60页
2023-04-18
收藏
点赞(0)
海报
举报

BUILDING A NATURE-POSITIVE SOCIETY

LIVING PLANET

REPORT 2022

WWF

WWF is an independent conservation organisation, with more than

35 million followers and a global network active through local leadership

in over 100 countries. WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the

planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which people live

in harmony with nature, by conserving the world’s biological diversity,

ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and

promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.

ZSL (Zoological Society of London) Institute of Zoology

ZSL is a global science-led conservation organisation helping people and

wildlife live better together to restore the wonder and diversity of life

everywhere. It is a powerful movement of conservationists for the living

world, working together to save animals on the brink of extinction and

those which could be next.

ZSL manages the Living Planet Index in a collaborative partnership

with W WF.

Citation

WWF (2022) Living Planet Report 2022 – Building a nature-

positive society. Almond, R.E.A., Grooten, M., Jue Bignoli,

D. & Petersen, T. (Eds). WWF, Gland, Switzerland.

Design and infographics by: peer&dedigitalesupermarkt

Cover photograph: © Paul Robinson

Mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) in the Virunga National Park,

Democratic Republic of Congo.

ISBN 978-2-88085-316-7

Living Planet Report®

and Living Planet Index®

are registered trademarks

of WWF International.

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4

FOREWORD BY MARCO LAMBERTINI 6

SETTING THE SCENE 10

AT A GLANCE 12

CHAPTER 1: THE GLOBAL DOUBLE EMERGENCY 14

CHAPTER 2: THE SPEED AND SCALE OF CHANGE 30

CHAPTER 3: BUILDING A NATURE-POSITIVE SOCIETY 58

THE PATH AHEAD 100

REFERENCES 104

BUILDING A NATURE-POSITIVE SOCIETY

LIVING PLANET

REPORT 2022

Editorial Team

Rosamunde Almond (WWF-NL): Editor-in-chief

Monique Grooten (WWF-NL): Co-editor-in-chief

Diego Jue Bignoli (Biodiversity Decisions): Technical editor

Tanya Petersen: Lead editor

Barney Jeries and Evan Jeries (swim2birds.co.uk): Proof reading

Katie Gough and Eleanor O’Leary (WWF International): Planning and communications

Advise and Review

Zach Abraham (WWF International), Mike Barrett (WWF-UK), Winnie De'Ath (WWF International), Elaine

Geyer-Allély (WWF International), Felicity Glennie Holmes (WWF International), Katie Gough (WWF

International), Lin Li (WWF International), Rebecca Shaw (WWF International), Matt Walpole (WWF

International), Mark Wright (WWF-UK), Lucy Young (WWF-UK) and Natasha Zwaal (WWF-NL)

Authors

Rob Alkemade (Wageningen University & Research), Francisco Alpízar (Wageningen University & Research),

Mike Barrett (WWF-UK), Charlotte Benham (Zoological Society of London), Radhika Bhargava (National

University of Singapore), Juan Felipe Blanco Libreros (Universidad de Antioquia), Monika Böhm (Indianapolis

Zoo), David Boyd (UN Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment; University of British

Columbia), Guido Broekhoven (WWF International), Neil Burgess (UNEP-WCMC), Mercedes Bustamante

(University of Brasilia), Rebecca Chaplin-Kramer (Natural Capital Project, Stanford University; Institute on the

Environment, University of Minnesota; SpringInnovate.org), Mona Chaya (FAO), Martin Cheek (Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew), Alonso Córdova Arrieta (WWF-Peru), Charlotte Couch (Herbier National de Guineé and Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew), Iain Darbyshire (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), Gregorio Diaz Mirabal (Coordinator

of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin – COICA), Amanda Diep (Global Footprint Network),

Paulo Durval Branco (International Institute for Sustainability, Brazil), Gavin Edwards (WWF International),

Scott Edwards (WWF International), Ismahane Eloua (FAO), Neus Estela (Fauna & Flora International),

Frank Ewert (University of Bonn, Germany), Bruna Fatiche Pavani (International Institute for Sustainability,

Brazil), Robin Freeman (Zoological Society of London), Daniel Friess (National University of Singapore),

Alessandro Galli (Global Footprint Network), Jonas Geldmann (University of Copenhagen), Elaine Geyer-

Allély (WWF International), Mike Harfoot (Vizzuality and UNEP-WCMC), Thomas Hertel (Purdue University,

USA), Samantha Hill (UNEP-WCMC), Craig Hilton Taylor (IUCN), Jodi Hilty (Yellowstone to Yukon

Conservation Initiative), Pippa Howard (Fauna & Flora International), Melanie-Jayne Howes (Royal Botanic

Gardens, Kew; King’s College London), Nicky Jenner (Fauna & Flora International), Lucas Joppa (Microsoft),

Nicholas K Dulvy (Simon Fraser University), Kiunga Kareko (WWF-Kenya), Shadrach Kerwillain (Fauna &

Flora International), Maheen Khan (University of Maastricht), Gideon Kibusia (WWF-Kenya), Eliud Kipchoge

(Eliud Kipchoge Foundation), Jackson Kiplagat (WWF-Kenya), Isabel Larridon (Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew), Deborah Lawrence (University of Virginia), David Leclère (International Institute for Applied Systems

Analysis), Sophie Ledger (Zoological Society of London), Preetmoninder Lidder (FAO), David Lin (Global

Footprint Network), Lin Li (WWF International), Rafael Loyola (International Institute for Sustainability,

Brazil), Sekou Magassouba (Herbier National de Guineé), Valentina Marconi (Zoological Society of London),

Louise McRae (Zoological Society of London), Bradley J. Moggridge (University of Canberra), Denise

Molmou (Herbier National de Guineé), Mary Molokwu- Odozi (Fauna & Flora International), Joel Muinde

(WWF-Kenya), Jeanne Nel (Wageningen University & Research), Tim Newbold (University College London),

Eimear Nic Lughadha (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), Carlos Nobre (University of São Paulo’s Institute for

Advanced Studies), Michael Obersteiner (Oxford University), Nathan Pacoureau (Simon Fraser University),

Camille Parmesan (Theoretical and Experimental Ecology (SETE), CNRS, France; Department of Geology,

University of Texas at Austin, USA; School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, UK),

Marielos Peña-Claros (Wageningen University), Germán Poveda (Universidad Nacional de Colombia), Hannah

Puleston (Zoological Society of London), Andy Purvis (Natural History Museum), Andrea Reid (Nisga’a

Nation; University of British Columbia), Stephanie Roe (WWF International), Zack Romo Paredes Holguer

(Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin – COICA), Aafke Schipper (Radboud

University), Kate Scott-Gatty (Zoological Society of London), Tokpa Seny Doré (Herbier National de Guineé),

Bernardo Baeta Neves Strassburg (International Institute for Sustainability, Brazil), Gary Tabor (Centre

for Large Landscape Conservation), Morakot Tanticharoen (University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand),

Angelique Todd (Fauna & Flora International), Emma Torres (UN Sustainable Development Solutions

Network), Koighae Toupou (Fauna & Flora International), Detlef van Vuuren (University of Utrecht), Mathis

Wackernagel (Global Footprint Network), Matt Walpole (WWF International), Sir Robert Watson (Tyndall

Centre for Climate Change Research), Amayaa Wijesinghe (UNEP-WCMC)

Special thanks

We thank everyone for providing us with ideas, support, and inspiration for the content for this Living Planet

Report edition: Jonathan Baillie (On The EDGE Conservation), Karina Berg (WWF-Brazil), Carina Borgström-

Hansson (WWF-Sweden), Angela Brennan (University of British Columbia, Vancouver), Tom Brooks (IUCN),

Stuart Chapman (WWF-Nepal), Thandiwe Chikomo (WWF-NL), Trin Custodio (WWF-Philippines), Smriti

Dahal (WWF-Myanmar), Victoria Elias (WWF-Russia), Kenneth Er (National Parks Board, Singapore), Wendy

Foden (South African National Parks - SANParks), Jessika Garcia (Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of

the Amazon River Basin – COICA), Bernardo Hachet (WWF-Ecuador), Kurt Holle (WWF-Peru), Chris Johnson

(WWF-Australia), Lydia Kibarid (Lensational), Margaret Kinnaird (WWF-Kenya), Margaret Kuhlow (WWF

International), Matt Larsen-Daw (WWF-UK), Ryan Lee (National Parks Board, Singapore), Nan Li (Linan)

(WWF-China), Eve Lucas (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew), Abel Musumali (Climate Smart Agriculture Alliance),

Tubalemye Mutwale (WWF International), Mariana Napolitano Ferreira (WWF-Brazil), Luis Naranjo (WWF-

Colombia), Deon Nel (WWF-NL), Hein Ngo (FAO), Eleanor O'Leary (WWF International), Sile Obroin (FAO),

Sana Okayasu (Wageningen University & Research), Je Opperman (WWF International), Pablo Pacheco

(WWF International), Jon Paul Rodriguez (IUCN SSC and Venezuelan Institute for Scientic Investigations),

Kavita Prakash-Marni (Mandai Nature), Karen Richards (WWF International), Luis Roman (WWF-Peru),

Kirsten Schuijt (WWF-NL), Lauren Simmons (WWF-UK), Jessica Smith (UNEP Finance Initiative), Carolina

Soto Navarro (UNEP-WCMC), Jessica Thorn (University of York), Derek Tittensor (Dalhousie University),

Analis Vergara (WWF-US), Piero Visconti (International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis), Anthony

Waldron (University of Cambridge), Gabriela Yamaguchi (WWF-Brazil)

We would also like to thank Stefanie Deinet and everyone who kindly shared data, specically those who

supported data collection in the last two years: The Threatened Species Index team and network; Paula Hanna

Valdujo and Helga Correa Wiederhecker (WWF-Brazil); Mariana Paschoalini Frias (Instituto Aqualie/ WWF-

Brazil consultant); Elildo Alves Ribeiro De Carvalho Junior (Programa Monitora/ICMBio); Luciana Moreira

Lobo (KRAV Consultoria Ambiental/WWF-Brazil consultant); Felipe Serrano, Marcio Martins, Eletra de Souza,

João Paulo Vieira-Alencar, Juan Camilo Díaz-Ricaurte, Ricardo Luria-Manzano (University of São Paulo)

/60

下载本文档

文本预览下载提示常见问题

1BUILDINGANATURE-POSITIVESOCIETYLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022WWFWWFisanindependentconservationorganisation,withmorethan35millionfollowersandaglobalnetworkactivethroughlocalleadershipinover100countries.WWF’smissionistostopthedegradationoftheplanet’snaturalenvironmentandtobuildafutureinwhichpeopleliveinharmonywithnature,byconservingtheworld’sbiologicaldiversity,ensuringthattheuseofrenewablenaturalresourcesissustainable,andpromotingthereductionofpollutionandwastefulconsumption.ZSL(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon)InstituteofZoologyZSLisaglobalscience-ledconservationorganisationhelpingpeopleandwildlifelivebettertogethertorestorethewonderanddiversityoflifeeverywhere.Itisapowerfulmovementofconservationistsforthelivingworld,workingtogethertosaveanimalsonthebrinkofextinctionandthosewhichcouldbenext.ZSLmanagestheLivingPlanetIndexinacollaborativepartnershipwithWWF.CitationWWF(2022)LivingPlanetReport2022–Buildinganature-positivesociety.Almond,R.E.A.,Grooten,M.,JuffeBignoli,D.&Petersen,T.(Eds).WWF,Gland,Switzerland.Designandinfographicsby:peer&dedigitalesupermarktCoverphotograph:©PaulRobinsonMountaingorilla(Gorillaberingeiberingei)intheVirungaNationalPark,DemocraticRepublicofCongo.ISBN978-2-88085-316-7LivingPlanetReport®andLivingPlanetIndex®areregisteredtrademarksofWWFInternational.CONTENTSEXECUTIVESUMMARY4FOREWORDBYMARCOLAMBERTINI6SETTINGTHESCENE10ATAGLANCE12CHAPTER1:THEGLOBALDOUBLEEMERGENCY14CHAPTER2:THESPEEDANDSCALEOFCHANGE30CHAPTER3:BUILDINGANATURE-POSITIVESOCIETY58THEPATHAHEAD100REFERENCES104BUILDINGANATURE-POSITIVESOCIETYLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022EditorialTeamRosamundeAlmond(WWF-NL):Editor-in-chiefMoniqueGrooten(WWF-NL):Co-editor-in-chiefDiegoJuffeBignoli(BiodiversityDecisions):TechnicaleditorTanyaPetersen:LeadeditorBarneyJeffriesandEvanJeffries(swim2birds.co.uk):ProofreadingKatieGoughandEleanorO’Leary(WWFInternational):PlanningandcommunicationsAdviseandReviewZachAbraham(WWFInternational),MikeBarrett(WWF-UK),WinnieDe'Ath(WWFInternational),ElaineGeyer-Allély(WWFInternational),FelicityGlennieHolmes(WWFInternational),KatieGough(WWFInternational),LinLi(WWFInternational),RebeccaShaw(WWFInternational),MattWalpole(WWFInternational),MarkWright(WWF-UK),LucyYoung(WWF-UK)andNatashaZwaal(WWF-NL)AuthorsRobAlkemade(WageningenUniversity&Research),FranciscoAlpízar(WageningenUniversity&Research),MikeBarrett(WWF-UK),CharlotteBenham(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),RadhikaBhargava(NationalUniversityofSingapore),JuanFelipeBlancoLibreros(UniversidaddeAntioquia),MonikaBöhm(IndianapolisZoo),DavidBoyd(UNSpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandtheenvironment;UniversityofBritishColumbia),GuidoBroekhoven(WWFInternational),NeilBurgess(UNEP-WCMC),MercedesBustamante(UniversityofBrasilia),RebeccaChaplin-Kramer(NaturalCapitalProject,StanfordUniversity;InstituteontheEnvironment,UniversityofMinnesota;SpringInnovate.org),MonaChaya(FAO),MartinCheek(RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew),AlonsoCórdovaArrieta(WWF-Peru),CharlotteCouch(HerbierNationaldeGuineéandRoyalBotanicGardens,Kew),IainDarbyshire(RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew),GregorioDiazMirabal(CoordinatorofIndigenousOrganizationsoftheAmazonRiverBasin–COICA),AmandaDiep(GlobalFootprintNetwork),PauloDurvalBranco(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),GavinEdwards(WWFInternational),ScottEdwards(WWFInternational),IsmahaneElouafi(FAO),NeusEstela(Fauna&FloraInternational),FrankEwert(UniversityofBonn,Germany),BrunaFatichePavani(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),RobinFreeman(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),DanielFriess(NationalUniversityofSingapore),AlessandroGalli(GlobalFootprintNetwork),JonasGeldmann(UniversityofCopenhagen),ElaineGeyer-Allély(WWFInternational),MikeHarfoot(VizzualityandUNEP-WCMC),ThomasHertel(PurdueUniversity,USA),SamanthaHill(UNEP-WCMC),CraigHiltonTaylor(IUCN),JodiHilty(YellowstonetoYukonConservationInitiative),PippaHoward(Fauna&FloraInternational),Melanie-JayneHowes(RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew;King’sCollegeLondon),NickyJenner(Fauna&FloraInternational),LucasJoppa(Microsoft),NicholasKDulvy(SimonFraserUniversity),KiungaKareko(WWF-Kenya),ShadrachKerwillain(Fauna&FloraInternational),MaheenKhan(UniversityofMaastricht),GideonKibusia(WWF-Kenya),EliudKipchoge(EliudKipchogeFoundation),JacksonKiplagat(WWF-Kenya),IsabelLarridon(RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew),DeborahLawrence(UniversityofVirginia),DavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis),SophieLedger(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),PreetmoninderLidder(FAO),DavidLin(GlobalFootprintNetwork),LinLi(WWFInternational),RafaelLoyola(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),SekouMagassouba(HerbierNationaldeGuineé),ValentinaMarconi(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),LouiseMcRae(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),BradleyJ.Moggridge(UniversityofCanberra),DeniseMolmou(HerbierNationaldeGuineé),MaryMolokwu-Odozi(Fauna&FloraInternational),JoelMuinde(WWF-Kenya),JeanneNel(WageningenUniversity&Research),TimNewbold(UniversityCollegeLondon),EimearNicLughadha(RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew),CarlosNobre(UniversityofSãoPaulo’sInstituteforAdvancedStudies),MichaelObersteiner(OxfordUniversity),NathanPacoureau(SimonFraserUniversity),CamilleParmesan(TheoreticalandExperimentalEcology(SETE),CNRS,France;DepartmentofGeology,UniversityofTexasatAustin,USA;SchoolofBiologicalandMarineSciences,UniversityofPlymouth,UK),MarielosPeña-Claros(WageningenUniversity),GermánPoveda(UniversidadNacionaldeColombia),HannahPuleston(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),AndyPurvis(NaturalHistoryMuseum),AndreaReid(Nisga’aNation;UniversityofBritishColumbia),StephanieRoe(WWFInternational),ZackRomoParedesHolguer(CoordinatorofIndigenousOrganizationsoftheAmazonRiverBasin–COICA),AafkeSchipper(RadboudUniversity),KateScott-Gatty(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),TokpaSenyDoré(HerbierNationaldeGuineé),BernardoBaetaNevesStrassburg(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),GaryTabor(CentreforLargeLandscapeConservation),MorakotTanticharoen(UniversityofTechnologyThonburi,Thailand),AngeliqueTodd(Fauna&FloraInternational),EmmaTorres(UNSustainableDevelopmentSolutionsNetwork),KoighaeToupou(Fauna&FloraInternational),DetlefvanVuuren(UniversityofUtrecht),MathisWackernagel(GlobalFootprintNetwork),MattWalpole(WWFInternational),SirRobertWatson(TyndallCentreforClimateChangeResearch),AmayaaWijesinghe(UNEP-WCMC)SpecialthanksWethankeveryoneforprovidinguswithideas,support,andinspirationforthecontentforthisLivingPlanetReportedition:JonathanBaillie(OnTheEDGEConservation),KarinaBerg(WWF-Brazil),CarinaBorgström-Hansson(WWF-Sweden),AngelaBrennan(UniversityofBritishColumbia,Vancouver),TomBrooks(IUCN),StuartChapman(WWF-Nepal),ThandiweChikomo(WWF-NL),TrinCustodio(WWF-Philippines),SmritiDahal(WWF-Myanmar),VictoriaElias(WWF-Russia),KennethEr(NationalParksBoard,Singapore),WendyFoden(SouthAfricanNationalParks-SANParks),JessikaGarcia(CoordinatorofIndigenousOrganizationsoftheAmazonRiverBasin–COICA),BernardoHachet(WWF-Ecuador),KurtHolle(WWF-Peru),ChrisJohnson(WWF-Australia),LydiaKibarid(Lensational),MargaretKinnaird(WWF-Kenya),MargaretKuhlow(WWFInternational),MattLarsen-Daw(WWF-UK),RyanLee(NationalParksBoard,Singapore),NanLi(Linan)(WWF-China),EveLucas(RoyalBotanicGardensKew),AbelMusumali(ClimateSmartAgricultureAlliance),TubalemyeMutwale(WWFInternational),MarianaNapolitanoFerreira(WWF-Brazil),LuisNaranjo(WWF-Colombia),DeonNel(WWF-NL),HeinNgo(FAO),EleanorO'Leary(WWFInternational),SileObroin(FAO),SanaOkayasu(WageningenUniversity&Research),JeffOpperman(WWFInternational),PabloPacheco(WWFInternational),JonPaulRodriguez(IUCNSSCandVenezuelanInstituteforScientificInvestigations),KavitaPrakash-Marni(MandaiNature),KarenRichards(WWFInternational),LuisRoman(WWF-Peru),KirstenSchuijt(WWF-NL),LaurenSimmons(WWF-UK),JessicaSmith(UNEPFinanceInitiative),CarolinaSotoNavarro(UNEP-WCMC),JessicaThorn(UniversityofYork),DerekTittensor(DalhousieUniversity),AnalisVergara(WWF-US),PieroVisconti(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis),AnthonyWaldron(UniversityofCambridge),GabrielaYamaguchi(WWF-Brazil)WewouldalsoliketothankStefanieDeinetandeveryonewhokindlyshareddata,specificallythosewhosupporteddatacollectioninthelasttwoyears:TheThreatenedSpeciesIndexteamandnetwork;PaulaHannaValdujoandHelgaCorreaWiederhecker(WWF-Brazil);MarianaPaschoaliniFrias(InstitutoAqualie/WWF-Brazilconsultant);ElildoAlvesRibeiroDeCarvalhoJunior(ProgramaMonitora/ICMBio);LucianaMoreiraLobo(KRAVConsultoriaAmbiental/WWF-Brazilconsultant);FelipeSerrano,MarcioMartins,EletradeSouza,JoãoPauloVieira-Alencar,JuanCamiloDíaz-Ricaurte,RicardoLuria-Manzano(UniversityofSãoPaulo)WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT202245Todaywefacethedouble,interlinkedemergenciesofhuman-inducedclimatechangeandthelossofbiodiversity,threateningthewell-beingofcurrentandfuturegenerations.Asourfutureiscriticallydependentonbiodiversityandastableclimate,itisessentialthatweunderstandhownature’sdeclineandclimatechangeareconnected.Thenatureoftheseconnections,theimpactstheyhaveonpeopleandbiodiversity,andbuildingapositive,equitable,andsustainablefuture,arekeythemesinthiseditionoftheLivingPlanetReport.Inaddressingthesecomplex,interlinkedchallengeswerecognisethatthereisnoone-size-fits-allsolution,noronesinglesourceofknowledge.Tocreatethisedition,wehavethereforewoventogethermultiplevoicesanddrawnondifferentsourcesofknowledgefromaroundtheworld.Land-usechangeisstillthebiggestcurrentthreattonature,destroyingorfragmentingthenaturalhabitatsofmanyplantandanimalspeciesonland,infreshwaterandinthesea.However,ifweareunabletolimitwarmingto1.5°C,climatechangeislikelytobecomethedominantcauseofbiodiversitylossinthecomingdecades.Risingtemperaturesarealreadydrivingmassmortalityevents,aswellasthefirstextinctionsofentirespecies.Everydegreeofwarmingisexpectedtoincreasetheselossesandtheimpacttheyhaveonpeople.Wefeature3storiesofpeopleonthefrontlineandhowtheyaredealingwiththeconsequencesoflocalchangesinclimateandbiodiversity.Biodiversityindicatorshelpusunderstandhowournaturalworldischangingovertime.Trackingthehealthofnatureoveralmost50years,theLivingPlanetIndexactsasanearlywarningindicatorbytrackingtrendsintheabundanceofmammals,fish,reptiles,birdsandamphibiansaroundtheworld.Initsmostcomprehensivefindingtodate,thiseditionshowsanaverage69%declineintherelativeabundanceofmonitoredwildlifepopulationsaroundtheworldbetween1970and2018.LatinAmericashowsthegreatestregionaldeclineinaveragepopulationabundance(94%),whilefreshwaterspeciespopulationshaveseenthegreatestoverallglobaldecline(83%).EXECUTIVESUMMARYNewmappinganalysistechniquesallowustobuildupamorecomprehensivepictureofboththespeedandthescaleofchangesinbiodiversityandclimate.Forexample,wefeaturethenewbiodiversityriskmapsgeneratedfortheIPCCWorkingGroup2reportpublishedinFebruary2022.Thesemapsaretheresultofdecadesofworkwhichhasinvolvedmorethan1millionhoursofcomputertime.WealsoexploreananalysisusingdatafromtheIUCNRedListwhichallowsustooverlaysixkeythreats–agriculture,hunting,logging,pollution,invasivespeciesandclimatechange–tohighlight‘threathotspots’forterrestrialvertebrates.Tohelpusimagineafuturewherepeopleandnaturecanthrive,scenariosandmodels–suchastheBendingtheCurveworkfeaturedinthe2020LivingPlanetReport–cancreate‘menus’thatindicatehowwecanmosteffectivelyaddressbiodiversitylossunderarangeofclimateanddevelopmentscenarios.Now,researchersareexploringnewlensestoaddtothiswork,includingtheintegrationofequityandfairness.Thiscouldhelptobettertargettheurgentandunprecedentedactionneededtochangeourbusiness-as-usualtrajectory.Weknowthattransformationalchange–game-changingshifts–willbeessentialtoputtheoryintopractice.Weneedsystem-widechangesinhowweproduceandconsume,thetechnologyweuse,andoureconomicandfinancialsystems.Underpinningthesechangesmustbeamovefromgoalsandtargetstovaluesandrights,inpolicy-makingandinday-to-daylife.Tocatalysethis,in2022,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyrecognisedthateveryone,everywhere,hastherighttoliveinaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironment,meaningthatforthoseinpowerrespectingthisisnolongeranoptionbutanobligation.Althoughnotlegallybinding,theUNresolutionisexpectedtoaccelerateaction,justasearlierresolutionsontherighttowaterin2010turbochargedprogressindeliveringsafewatertomillionsofpeople.ThiseditionoftheLivingPlanetReportconfirmstheplanetisinthemidstofabiodiversityandclimatecrisis,andthatwehavealastchancetoact.Thisgoesbeyondconservation.Anature-positivefutureneedstransformative-gamechanging-shiftsinhowweproduce,howweconsume,howwegovern,andwhatwefinance.Wehopeitinspiresyoutobepartofthatchange.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT202267Themessageisclearandthelightsareflashingred.Ourmostcomprehensivereporteveronthestateofglobalvertebratewildlifepopulationspresentsterrifyingfigures:ashockingtwo-thirdsdeclineintheglobalLivingPlanetIndexlessthan50years.Andthiscomesatatimewhenwearefinallybeginningtounderstandthedeepeningimpactsoftheinterlinkedclimateandnaturecrises,andthefundamentalrolebiodiversityplaysinmaintainingthehealth,productivityandstabilityofthemanynaturalsystemsweandalllifeonEarthdependon.TheCOVID-19pandemichasgivenmanyofusanewawarenessofourvulnerability.Thisisbeginningtochallengetheunthinkingassumptionthatwecancontinuetodominatethenaturalworldirresponsibly,takingnatureforgranted,exploitingitsresourceswastefullyandunsustainably,anddistributingthemunevenlywithoutfacinganyconsequences.Today,weknowthatthereareconsequences.Someofthemarealreadyhere:thelossoflivesandeconomicassetsfromextremeweather;aggravatedpovertyandfoodinsecurityfromdroughtsandfloods;socialunrestandincreasedmigrationflows;andzoonoticdiseasesthatbringthewholeworldtoitsknees.Naturelossisnowrarelyperceivedasapurelymoralorecologicalissue,withabroadenedsenseofitsvitalimportancetooureconomy,socialstability,individualwell-beingandhealth,andasamatterofjustice.Themostvulnerablepopulationsarealreadythemostaffectedbyenvironmentaldamage,andweareleavingaterriblelegacytoourchildrenandfuturegenerationstocome.Weneedaglobalplanfornature,aswehaveforclimate.Aglobalgoalfornature:naturepositiveWeknowwhat’shappening,weknowtherisksandweknowthesolutions.Whatweurgentlyneednowisaplanthatunitestheworldindealingwiththisexistentialchallenge.Aplanthatisagreedgloballyandimplementedlocally.Aplanthatclearlysetsameasurableandtime-boundglobalgoalfornatureasthe2016Parisaccord,withthenet-zeroemissionsgoalby2050,didforclimate.Butwhatcanbethe‘net-zeroemissions’equivalentforbiodiversity?CODEREDFORTHEPLANET(ANDHUMANITY)©WWFAchievingnet-zerolossfornatureiscertainlynotenough;weneedanature-ornet-positivegoaltorestorenatureandnotsimplyhaltitsloss.Firstly,becausewehavelostandcontinuetolosesomuchnatureatsuchaspeedthatweneedthishigherambition.And,secondly,becausenaturehasshownusthatitcanbounceback–andquickly–ifgivenachance.Wehavemanylocalexamplesofnatureandwildlifecomebacks,whetheritisforestsorwetlands,tigersortuna,beesorearthworms.Weneednaturepositiveby2030–which,insimpleterms,meansmorenaturebytheendofthisdecadethanatitsstart(seetheexplanatoryinfographiconpage100).Morenaturalforests,morefishintheoceanandriversystems,morepollinatorsinourfarmlands,morebiodiversityworldwide.Anature-positivefuturewillbringcountlessbenefitstohumanandeconomicwell-being,includingtoourclimate,foodandwatersecurity.Together,thecomplementarygoalsofnet-zeroemissionsby2050andnet-positivebiodiversityby2030representthecompasstoguideustowardsasafefutureforhumanity,toshifttoasustainabledevelopmentmodel,tosupportthedeliveryofthe2030SustainableDevelopmentGoals.UnmissableopportunityForme,forWWF,andformanyotherorganizationsandagrowingnumberofcountryandbusinessleaders(e.g.theLeaders’PledgeforNaturegroupof93headsofstateandthePresidentoftheEuropeanCommission,andtheBusinessForNature,theTaskforceonNature-RelatedFinancialDisclosureandtheFinanceforBiodiversitycoalitions),agreeingonanature-positiveglobalgoaliscrucialandurgent.WorldleadershaveanunmissableopportunityinDecember2022toembraceanature-positivemissionatthelong-awaited15thconferenceoftheUNConventiononBiologicalDiversity(COP15)inMontreal,Canada,underthepresidencyofChina.Thisiskeytoensuringtherightlevelofambitionandmeasurabilityinthegoalsandtargetsoftheagreement.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT202289©naturepl.com/AndyRouse/WWFBengaltiger(Pantheratigristigris)motherwithcubagefourmonths,Ranthambhore,Rajhasthan,India.Itiskeytomobilizingandaligninggovernments,communities,businesses,financialinstitutionsandevenconsumerstowardscontributingtothesamesharedglobalgoal,inspiringawhole-of-societyapproach.Anditiskeytoinjectingthesamehighdegreeofaccountabilitythatwearebeginningtowitnessaroundclimateaction.Justastheglobalgoalof‘net-zeroemissionsby2050’isdisruptingtheenergysectorsothatitshiftstowardsrenewables,‘naturepositiveby2030’willdisruptthesectorsthataredriversofnatureloss–agriculture,fishing,forestry,infrastructureandextractives–drivinginnovationandaccelerationtowardssustainableproductionandconsumptionbehaviours.Oursocietyisatthemostimportantforkinitshistory,andisfacingitsdeepestsystemschangechallengearoundwhatisperhapsthemostexistentialofallourrelationships:theonewithnature.Andallthisatatimewhenwearebeginningtounderstandthatwedependonnaturemuchmorethannaturedependsonus.TheCOP15biodiversityconferencecanbethemomentwhentheworldcomestogetheronnature.MarcoLambertini,DirectorGeneralWWFInternationalWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20221011ThisreportpresentsthelargestdatasetyetfromtheLivingPlanetIndex,andthemostcomprehensiveanalysisoftheglobalstateofnaturefromawidearrayofvoicesandperspectives.Thefindingsarestark.Whileweneedtourgentlyacttorestorethehealthofthenaturalworld,thereisnosignthatthelossofnatureisbeinghalted,letalonereversed.Thedecliningtrendinvertebratepopulationscontinues,despiteanarrayofpoliticalandprivatesectorcommitments.Datagatheredfromalmost32,000populationsof5,230speciesacrosstheplanetleavesnodoubtthattheUNDecadeonBiodiversity,meanttoimplementbroad-basedactiontotransformsociety’srelationshipwithnature,hasfallenfarshortofwhatisneeded.Theimpactsoftheglobalnatureandclimateemergencyarealreadybeingfelt:displacementanddeathsfromincreasinglyfrequentextremeweatherevents,increasingfoodinsecurity,depletedsoils,alackofaccesstofreshwater,andanincreaseinthespreadofzoonoticdiseasestonamejustafew.Theseimpactsaffectallofusbutfalldisproportionatelyonthepoorestandmostmarginalisedpeople.OnepartoftheworldfromwherewehaveincludedsignificantlymoredataisLatinAmerica,notleasttheAmazon.Andwealsoshowcasestudiesfromtheregion.Thisisofparticularsignificanceasratesofdeforestationareincreasing.Wehavealreadylost17%oftheoriginalextentoftheforestandanadditional17%hasbeendegraded163.Thelatestresearchindicatesthatwearerapidlyapproachingatippingpointbeyondwhichourlargesttropicalrainforestwillnolongerfunction176.Thislaysbaresomeofthechallengesweface,rangingfromthedirectimpactsoflandgrabbingandhabitatconversiononpeopleandwildlife,tochangesinrainfallandsoilsandthecatastrophicimpactthesehaveonglobaleffortstoavertextremeclimatechange.Weneedtourgentlyrampupmitigationactionstoavertadangerousriseinglobaltemperaturesbeyond1.5°C,andtohelppeopleadapttotheclimatechangewearealreadyexperiencing.Weneedtorestorenatureandtheenvironmentalservicesitprovides–boththetangibleprovisionofourcleanair,freshwater,food,fuelandfibre;andalsothemanyintangiblewaysinwhichnaturecontributestoourlivesandwell-being.SETTINGTHESCENEFinally,weneedaninclusive‘wholeofsociety’approachthatempowerseachofustoact,recognisesthepluralityofvaluesandknowledgesystemsthatcanputusonamoresustainablepath,andensuresthatthecostsandbenefitsfromouractionsaresociallyjustandequitablyshared.ThiseditionoftheLivingPlanetReportmakesastartinthatdirectionbybringingmultiplevalues,voices,andkindsofevidencetobeartoshowthatchangeisstillpossible,fromourindividual,day-to-daychoicestoglobalchange,especiallyinourfood,financeandgovernancesystems.ThelandmarkrecognitioninJuly2022bytheUNGeneralAssemblyoftherighttoahealthyenvironmentcementsourunderstandingthatclimatebreakdown,natureloss,pollutionandthepandemicarehumanrightscrises.AndastheUNSustainableDevelopmentGoalsprescribe,wecanonlyachieveafair,greenandprosperousfutureifwefindintegratedsolutionstothehumanitarianandenvironmentalchallengesweface.Byrecognisingthelinksbetweeninterconnectedcrises,westandabetterchanceofbeingabletoremedythem.TheUnitedNationsmeetsinMontrealinDecember2022toagreeanewGlobalFrameworkforBiodiversity.Thisisthelastchancewewillget.Bytheendofthisdecadewewillknowwhetherthisplanwasenoughornot;thefightforpeopleandnaturewillhavebeenwonorlost.Thesignsarenotgood.Discussionssofararelockedinold-worldthinkingandentrenchedpositions,withnosignoftheboldactionneededtoachieveanature-positivefuture.Weneedaplanthatisbothfairandinclusive,thateveryonecanplayapartindelivering.Weneedarights-basedapproachincludingsecuringtherightsofIndigenousPeoplesandlocalcommunitiestotheirland,freshwaterandseas.Weneedtorecognisethatprotectingandrestoringnaturewillonlybeachievedbyaddressingthedriversofbiodiversitylossandecosystemdegradation–includingtheglobalfoodsystem–thatareprimarilydrivenbythoseofuswholiveoutsidethoseplaces.Andaboveallweneedtodeliverlastingresultsonagreaterscaleandwithgreaterurgencythanwehaveeverseenbefore.Itisnowornever.MikeBarrett(WWF-UK),ElaineGeyer-Allély(WWFInternational)andMattWalpole(WWFInternational)WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20221213•Wearelivingthroughclimateandbiodiversitycrises;thesearenotseparatefromeachotherbutaretwosidesofthesamecoin.•Land-usechangeisstillthemostimportantdriverofbiodiversityloss.•Thecascadingimpactsofclimatechangearealreadyaffectingthenaturalworld.•Unlesswelimitwarmingto1.5°C,climatechangeislikelytobecomethedominantcauseofbiodiversitylossinthecomingdecades.•Threephotostoriesexplorehowcommunitiesusetheirknowledgetoadapttolocalchangesinclimateandbiodiversity.•Indicatorshelpustobuildupapictureofboththespeedandscaleofchangeinbiodiversityaroundtheworld,andtheimpactsofthischange.•TheLivingPlanetIndexactsasanearlywarningindicatorbytrackingtrendsintheabundanceofmammals,fish,reptiles,birdsandamphibiansaroundtheworld.•The2022globalLivingPlanetIndexshowsanaverage69%decreaseinmonitoredwildlifepopulationsbetween1970and2018.•LatinAmericashowsthegreatestregionaldeclineinaveragepopulationabundance(94%).•Populationtrendsformonitoredfreshwaterspeciesarealsofallingsteeply(83%).•Newmappinganalysistechniquesallowustobuildupamorecomprehensivepictureofboththespeedandscaleofchangesinbiodiversityandclimate,andtomapwherenaturecontributesmosttoourlives.•Thiseditionhasbeenwrittenby89authorsfromaroundtheworld,andtheyhavedrawnonarangeofdifferentknowledgesources.TheglobaldoubleemergencyThespeedandscaleofchangeCHAPTER1CHAPTER2Buildinganature-positivesocietyCHAPTER3•Weknowthatthehealthofourplanetisdeclining,andweknowwhy.•Wealsoknowthatwehavetheknowledgeandmeanstoaddressclimatechangeandbiodiversityloss.•ThelandmarkrecognitioninJuly2022bytheUNGeneralAssemblyofthehumanrighttoahealthyenvironmentcementsourunderstandingthatclimatebreakdown,natureloss,pollutionandpandemicsarehumanrightscrises.•Weknowthattransformationalchange–game-changingshifts–willbeessentialtobringtheoryintopractice.•Theremustbesystem-widechangesinhowweproduceandconsume,thetechnologyweuse,andoureconomicandfinancialsystems.•Tohelpusimagineafuturewherepeopleandnaturecanthrive,wehaveexploredanumberofscenariosandmodels,suchasthepioneeringBendingtheCurveworkfeaturedintheLivingPlanetReport2020.•Researchersareexploringnewlensestoaddtothesemodels,includingclimatechangeimpacts,equityandfairness.•Linkinginternationaltradetoitsimpactsonnatureisakeypartofbendingthecurveofbiodiversitylossatscale.•Inaddressingthesecomplex,interlinkedchallengesthereisnoone-size-fits-allsolution.Toillustratethiswehavecollectedexamplesfromaroundtheworld,rangingfromtheAmazontoCanada,Zambia,Kenya,IndonesiaandAustralia.ATAGLANCEThisreportisdesignedasaspringboardforaction,toprovidefoodforthoughtandtoactasacatalystfortransformationalchange.Wehopeitinspiresyoutobepartofthatchange.©ZigKoch/WWFButterflies(Rhopaloceraspp.)neartheAugustoFallsontheJuruenaRiver,JuruenaNationalPark,Brazil.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20221415©GisleSverdrup/Silverback/NetflixCHAPTER1THEGLOBALDOUBLEEMERGENCYWearelivingthroughbothclimateandbiodiversitycrises.Thesehavebeendescribedastwosidesofthesamecoin,drivenbytheunsustainableuseofourplanet’sresources.Itisclear:unlesswestoptreatingtheseemergenciesastwoseparateissues,neitherproblemwillbeaddressedeffectively.Giantkelpisoneofthefastestgrowingofallplantsandcangrow50cmaday;thesegiantstandscanreach50mfromseafloortothesurface,theirfrondscarriedupwardsbyair-filledfloats.ChannelIslandsNationalPark,California,USA.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20221617Biodiversityisthevarietyoflifeandtheinteractionsbetweenlivingthingsatalllevelsonland,inwaterandintheseaandair–genes,populations,speciesandecosystems.Terrestrial,freshwaterandmarineecosystems–forexampleforests,grasslands,wetlands,mangroveswampsandtheoceans–provideuswithservicesessentialforhumanwell-beingsuchasfoodandfeed,medicines,energyandfibres.Theyregulateclimate,naturalhazardsandextremeevents,airquality,thequantityandqualityoffreshwater,pollinationandthedispersalofseeds,pestsanddiseases,soils,oceanacidification,andthecreationandmaintenanceofhabitats.Theseecosystemsalsoprovideforphysicalandpsychologicalexperiences,learningandinspiration,whilesupportingidentitiesandasenseofplace.Everythingthatenablesustolivecomesfromnature.Themajordirectdrivingforcesforthedegradationofterrestrial,freshwaterandmarinesystemsarechangesinlandandseause,theoverexploitationofplantsandanimals,climatechange,pollutionandinvasivealienspecies.Thesedirectdriversofbiodiversityloss,andthedegradationofecosystemsandtheirservices,stemfromincreasingdemandsforenergy,foodandothermaterialsbecauseofrapideconomicgrowth,increasesinpopulation,internationaltrade,andchoicesoftechnology,especiallyoverthelast50years.Wehaveexploitedtheservicesthathavemarketvalue–forexampletheproductionoffood,fibre,energyandmedicines–attheexpenseoftheservicesthathavenomarketpricesbutbroadereconomicandsocialvalue.Onemillionplantsandanimalsarethreatenedwithextinction.1-2.5%ofbirds,mammals,amphibians,reptilesandfishhavealreadygoneextinct;populationabundancesandgeneticdiversityhavedecreased;andspeciesarelosingtheirclimaticallydeterminedhabitats.TheEarthhasalreadywarmedby1.2oCsincepre-industrialtimes.Whileclimatechangehasnotbeenthedominantdriverofthelossofbiodiversitytodate,unlesswelimitwarmingtolessthan2oC,andpreferably1.5oC,climatechangeislikelytobecomethedominantcauseofbiodiversitylossandthedegradationofecosystemservicesinthecomingdecades.About50%ofwarm-watercoralshavealreadybeenlostduetoavarietyofcauses.Awarmingof1.5oCwillresultinalossof70-90%ofwarm-watercorals,anda2oCwarmingwillresultinalossofmorethan99%.Andyet,progresstoconserveandrestorebiodiversityhaslargelyfailedinallcountries–noneofthe20Aichibiodiversitytargetsfor2020werefullymet,andinsomecasesthesituationin2020wasworsethanin2010.EquallywearefailingtoachievetheParistargetoflessthan2oC–currentpledgesputusonapathwayto2-3oCandpossiblyhigher.Tobeonapathwayto1.5oCrequiresglobalemissionstobeabout50%lessthancurrentemissionsby2030,andnetzerobymid-century.Unfortunately,wearelikelytopassthe1.5oCtargetbefore2040.Climatechangeandbiodiversitylossarenotonlyenvironmentalissues,buteconomic,development,security,social,moralandethicalissuestoo–andtheymustthereforebeaddressedtogetheralongwiththe17UNSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).Whileindustrialisedcountriesareresponsibleformostenvironmentaldegradation,itispoorcountriesandpoorpeoplewhoarethemostvulnerable.Unlessweconserveandrestorebiodiversity,andlimithuman-inducedclimatechange,almostnoneoftheSDGscanbeachieved–inparticularfoodandwatersecurity,goodhealthforeveryone,povertyalleviation,andamoreequitableworld.Everyonehasaroletoplayinaddressingtheseemergencies;andmostnowacknowledgethattransformationsareneeded.Thisrecognitionnowneedstobeturnedintoaction.THECLIMATEANDBIODIVERSITYCRISES–TWOSIDESOFTHESAMECOINTodaywefacethedouble,interlinkedemergenciesofhuman-inducedclimatechangeandthelossofbiodiversity,threateningthewell-beingofcurrentandfuturegenerations.SirRobertWatson(TyndallCentreforClimateChangeResearch)WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20221819Anupdatedsynthesisoftheimpactsofclimatechangeonwildspecies,andontheecosystemstheylivein,wasrecentlypublishedbytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC6thassessmentreport)11,170.Theseimpactsincludeincreasingheatwavesanddroughtsthataredrivingmassmortalityeventsintrees,birds,bats,andfish.Asinglehotdayin2014killedmorethan45,000‘flyingfox’batsinAustralia.Climatechangeshavealsobeenlinkedtothelossofwholepopulationsofmorethan1,000plantandanimalspecies.Wearealsoseeingthefirstextinctionsofentirespecies.Thegoldentoadwentextinctin1989duetomoreandmoredayswithoutthefognormaltoCostaRicancloudforests.TheBrambleCaymelomys,asmallrodentthatlivedonasinglesmallislandbetweenAustraliaandPapuaNewGuinea,wasdeclaredextinctin2016aftersealevelriseandaseriesofheavystormsfloodeditshome,killingitsfoodplantanddestroyingitsnestingsites.Everydegreeofwarmingisexpectedtoincreasetheselosses(Figure1).ThecascadingimpactsofclimatechangeonpeopleandnatureHuman-drivenglobalwarmingischangingthenaturalworld,drivingmassmortalityeventsaswellasthefirstextinctionsofentirespecies.Everydegreeofwarmingisexpectedtoincreasetheselossesandtheimpacttheyhaveonpeople.CamilleParmesan(TheoreticalandExperimentalEcology(SETE),CNRS,France;DepartmentofGeology,UniversityofTexasatAustin,USA;SchoolofBiologicalandMarineSciences,UniversityofPlymouth,UK)Figure1:Projectedlossofterrestrialandfreshwaterbiodiversitycomparedtopre-industrialperiodBiodiversitylosswithincreasingglobalwarming.Thehigherthepercentageofspeciesprojectedtobelost(duetolossofsuitableclimateinagivenarea),thehighertherisktoecosystemintegrity,functioningandresiliencetoclimatechange.ColourshadingrepresentstheproportionofspeciesforwhichtheclimateisprojectedtobecomesufficientlyunsuitablethatthespeciesbecomeslocallyEndangered(sensuInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature,IUCN)andathighriskoflocalextinctionwithinagivenareaatagivenglobalwarminglevel.Source:ReprintedfromFigure2.6inParmesanetal.(2022)11,basedondatafromWarrenetal(2018)178.25-50%50-75%>75%<25%Key+4.0˚C+3.0˚C+2.0˚C+1.0˚CWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20222021Notallspeciesaresufferingfromclimatechange.Beetlesandmothsthatattacknorthernforestsaresurvivingbetterinwarmerwintersandproducingmoregenerationsperyearwiththelongergrowingseason,causingmassdie-offsoftreesinthenortherntemperateandborealzonesofNorthAmericaandEurope.ManyinsectsandwormsthatcausediseasesinbothwildlifeandhumanshavemovedintonewareasandarecausingnewdiseasestoemergeinthehighArcticandHimalayanhighlands.Warmingisalsochanginghowecosystemsfunction,puttingintomotionecologicalprocessesthat,themselves,intimecausemorewarming:thisprocessiscalleda‘positiveclimatefeedback’.Increasesinwildfires,treesdyingduetodroughtandinsectoutbreaks,peatlandsdryingandtundrapermafrostthawing,allreleasemoreCO₂asdeadplantmaterialdecomposesorisburned.Thisisstartingtotransformsystemsthathavehistoricallybeensolidcarbonsinksintonewcarbonsources.Oncetheseecologicalprocessesreachatippingpointtheywillbecomeirreversibleandcommitourplanettocontinuewarmingataveryhighrate.Thisisoneofthebiggestrisksfrom"overshoot"oftheinternationallyagreed-uponthresholdsfordangerousclimatechange,(exceedingadefinedthresholdofwarmingforatleastadecadeormore),andwouldbeadisasterforsocietyaswellasformuchofourplanet’swildlife.Aqueengardenbumblebee(Bombushortorum)visitingawhitenettle(Lamiumalbum).Bumblebeesareimportantpollinatorsforbothwildplantsandmanycrops.Eventhoughindividualspeciesareexpectedtobenefitfromclimatechange,astudyof66bumblebeespeciesacrossNorthAmericaandEurope171founddeclinesinmostbeesatmostsites.Thisisprobablyduetoharmcausedbypesticidesandherbicidesthatsurpassesanypotentialpositiveeffectsofclimatechange.©OlaJennersten/WWF-SwedenWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20222223ForestsarefundamentalforregulatingtheEarth’sclimate,exchangingmorecarbon,waterandenergywiththeatmospherethananyotherterrestrialecosystem1.Forestsalsoaffectrainfallpatternsandtheseverityofheatwaves,impactingtheresilienceofagriculturalsystemsandlocalcommunities2.ForestsstoremorecarbonthanalltheEarth’sexploitableoil,gasandcoal3,4,andbetween2001and2019forestsabsorbed7.6gigatonnesofCO₂fromtheatmosphereeveryyear5,orabout18%ofallhuman-causedcarbonemissions6.Inadditiontocarbon,thephysicalstructureofforestsalsoaffectsboththeglobalandlocalclimates.Forestsabsorbenergyfromthesunbecausetheyaredark.Thisenergyisusedtomovevastquantitiesofwaterfromthesoilbackintotheatmosphere,throughaprocesscalledevapotranspiration,coolingthesurfacetemperaturelocallyandglobally.Theroughnessofforestcanopiescontributestotheupwardmixingofwarmairintotheatmosphere,drawingawayheatandredistributingessentialmoisture.Thesebiophysicalprocessesstabiliseweatheraswellasclimate,limitingmaximumdailytemperaturesbyuptoseveraldegrees,reducingtheintensityanddurationofextremeheatanddryspells,andmaintainingrainfallseasonality7.Thecombinedneteffectofforestscoolstheplanetbyabout0.5ºC7.Yeteveryyearweloseroughly10millionhectaresofforests–anareaaboutthesizeofPortugal8.Deforestation,especiallyinthetropics,causescarbonemissionsandleadstowarmer,drierlocalclimates,increasingdroughtsandfiresand,dependingonthescale,reducingrainfallandshiftingglobalprecipitationpatterns.Forexample,clearingthetropicalforestsinCentralAfricaorSouthAmericacouldincreaseaveragedaytimetemperaturesby7-8ºCanddecreaserainfallacrossthoseregionsbyaround15%2,7.Rainfedagricultureuses80%ofglobalcroplandsandisresponsiblefor60%ofallfoodproduced9.Forestdestructioncouldthereforeputthefoodsecurityofbillionsofpeopleandthelivelihoodsofmillionsatrisk.Thisriskiscompoundedbyimpactsfromclimatechangethatcanmakedroughtsmorefrequentandmoresevereandreduceagriculturalandlabourproductivity10,11.TheglobalSustainableDevelopmentGoalofhaltingdeforestationandrestoringandsustainablymanagingforeststhereforeplaysanimportantroleinprotectingbiodiversityandinlimitingglobalwarming,adaptingtoclimatechange,andprovidingvaluablewaterforourfoodsystem.Vitallinksbetweenforests,climate,waterandfoodForestsarecriticalforstabilisingourclimate,butdeforestationthreatensthisvitalfunctionaswellasotherecosystemservicesincludingbufferingagainsttheimpactofheatwaves,andprovidingfreshwatertoagriculturallands.StephanieRoe(WWFInternational)andDeborahLawrence(UniversityofVirginia)NancyRono,afarmer,onherfarminBometCounty,MaraRiverUpperCatchment,Kenya.©JonathanCaramanus/GreenRenaissance/WWF-UKWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20222425EcologicalconnectivityreferstotheunimpededmovementofspeciesandtheflowofnaturalprocessesthatsustainlifeonEarth12.Habitatfragmentationacrossland,airandwatersbreaksthisconnectivityandisaglobalthreattotheconservationofbiodiversityandtheecologicalprocessesthatsustainthebiosphere13,14.Throughthedestructionanddegradationofhabitat,fragmentationimpactsnatureinthreespecificways.Firstly,itreducesoverallhabitatareaandquality.Secondly,italsoincreasesisolationfromotherhabitatpatches.Finally,itamplifiesedgeeffectsaroundtheboundaryofahabitatfragment,forexample,byincreasingthefrequencyofabrupttransitionsfromnaturaltoalteredhabitats14.RestoringnaturalconnectionsacrossthelandscapeEcologicalconnectivityisseverelythreatenedbythedestructionanddegradationofnaturethatfragmentshabitats.Tocounterthis,connectivityconservationisrapidlyemergingasasolutiontorestorethemovementofspeciesandtheflowofnaturalprocesses.GaryTabor(CenterforLargeLandscapeConservation)andJodiHilty(YellowstonetoYukonConservationInitiative)Thisleadsintoadownwardspiralofecologicaldysfunctions.Fromtheunravellingoffoodwebstothelossofecologicalprocessessuchasfreshwaterflowsorpollination,fragmentationlimitstheabilityofspeciestomovetofulfiltheirneeds–tomigrate,todisperse,tofindmates,tofeedandtocompletetheirlifecycles–andcanleadtoextinction15.Finally,fragmentationexacerbatesthewide-ranging,damagingimpactsofclimatechange.Todayjust10%oftheworld’sterrestrialprotectedareasareconnected16.Aroundtheglobe,two-thirdsofcriticalconnectivityareaslinkingprotectedareasareunprotected17.Connectivityconservation–protectingandrestoringecologicalconnectionsacrosslandsandwatersthroughecologicalcorridors,linkageareasandwildlifecrossingstructures–israpidlyemergingaroundtheworldasaneffectivewaytocombathabitatfragmentationandtoenhanceclimateresilience18.Scientificevidencebuiltonislandbiogeographyresearchandspeciesmeta-populationstudiesdemonstratesthatconnectedhabitatsaremoreeffectiveforpreservingspeciesandecologicalfunctions19.Globally-agreedIUCNguidelinesdefinehowtoadvanceecologicalcorridorstoachieveconnectivityfrompolicytoon-the-groundaction,atthesametimerecognisingtheneedsandrightsofIndigenousandlocalpeoples20.Aswaysofenhancingconnectivityaredeveloped,itisimportanttorecognisetheintersectionalityofthiswork:itcanandshouldalsoadvancesocialandeconomictargets,whichinteractwiththebenefitsthatnatureprovides21.HighLowMMPKey1.2.3.1.2.3.Figure2:Globalmammalmovementprobability(MMP)betweenterrestrialprotectedareas(PAs)MMPisthepredictedflowofmammalmovementbetweenPAsandreflectshowmediumtolargemammalsaremovinginresponsetohumanpressuresontheenvironment.HighMMPreflectsconcentratedmovements,typicallywithincorridorsthatfunnelmammalsbetweenhigherhumanfootprintareasorwithinlargeblocksofintactlandsituatedwithinanetworkoflargePAs(e.g.theAmazonbasin).Orangeandpurplereflectareaswheretheflowofmammalsisdispersedamongmanypathways.Blackregionsarenotdevoidofconnectivity,butratherdepictareasoflowermammalmovementbetweenPAsrelativetotheglobalscale.Box1:corridorsthroughmountainsofwesternNorthAmerica(e.g.theYellowstonetoYukoncorridor).Box2:corridorsanddispersedflowacrosssub-SaharanAfrica’sKavango-ZambeziTransfrontierConservationAreaandcoastaldesertsofNamibia.Box3:flowsthroughrainforestsofIndonesiaandMalaysia(e.g.HeartofBorneoconservationarea).Source:Brennanetal.(2022)17WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20222627Mangrovesareuniqueforestsofthesea.Theyareanimportantreservoirofbiodiversity,andsupportthelivelihoodsofcoastalcommunitiesbyprovidingservicessuchasfoodandfuel,byunderpinningeconomically-importantfisheries,andthroughculturalservicessuchasecotourism,education,andspiritualvalues22,23.Mangrovesarealsoakeynature-basedsolutiontoclimatechange.Theycontributetomitigationthroughsequesteringandstoring‘bluecarbon’intheirwaterloggedsoils,atdensitiesexceedingmanyotherecosystems24.Someofthemostcarbon-richmangrovesarefoundonthePacificcoastofColombia–theseexceed50minheight25.Inaddition,mangroveshelpclimatechangeadaptation,astheirtangledabove-groundrootsareabuffertowaves26andtrapsediments,allowingsomemangrovestoincreasetheirsurfacesandkeeppacewithsea-levelrise27.Despitetheirimportance,mangrovescontinuetobedeforestedbyaquaculture,agricultureandcoastaldevelopment,atcurrentratesof0.13%peryear28.Manymangrovesarealsodegradedbyoverexploitationandpollution,alongsidenaturalstressorssuchasstormsandcoastalerosion.Mangrovelossrepresentsthelossofhabitatforbiodiversityandthelossofecosystemservicesforcoastalcommunities,andinsomelocationsitcanmeanthelossoftheverylandwherecoastalcommunitieslive.Forinstance,137km2oftheSundarbansmangroveforesthavebeenerodedsince198529,reducinglandandecosystemservicesformanyofthe10millionpeoplewholivethere.Encouragingly,mangrovedeforestationhasreduceddramaticallysincethe1980s30andwenowhaveplausiblescenarioswheretheglobalmangroveareamaystabiliseorevenincreaseby207031.Thelatterwouldrequireextensivemangroverestoration,butsuchactions,whensuccessful,canbringbackvaluableecosystemservicesthatimprovelivelihoodsandmitigateclimatechange.However,hotspotsofmangrovelossstillremain,particularlyinMyanmar28,andseveralcountriesaredevelopingfoodsecuritypoliciesthatmayleadtofurthermangroveconversion.Ambitiousrestorationtargets,whilewelcome,oftenprovedifficulttotranslateintoon-the-groundsuccess.Furtherconservationandrestorationeffortsareneededformangrovestocontinuetoimproveclimate,biodiversityandlivelihoodsacrosstheworld.Themagicofmangroves–akeynature-basedsolutionforcoastalcommunitiesMangroveforestsareawin-win-winsolutionforbiodiversity,climateandpeople,ifwecontinuetoconserveandrestorethem.DanielFriessandRadhikaBhargava(NationalUniversityofSingapore)andJuanFelipeBlancoLibreros(UniversidaddeAntioquia)MangrovesinLosTúnelesonIsabelaIsland,Galapagos,Ecuador.©AntonioBusiello/WWF-USWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20222829©ClaireMetito/LensationalVoicesforJustClimateActionClimatechangeimpactswillbefeltbyeveryoneeverywhere,butnotequally.SomeofthecommunitiesmostvulnerabletoclimatechangeliveincountriesintheGlobalSouth–andsomeofthese,despiteresourceconstraints,areapplyingcreativesolutionstotacklethecrisisthatco-benefitpeopleandnature,leaningonawealthoflocalknowledgetosupporttheirefforts.Toamplifytheselocalvoices,aglobalcoalitionhascometogethertocreatetheVoicesforJustClimateAction(VCA)alliance.ThisalliancepartnershipincludesAkinaMamawaAfrika,FundaciónAvina,SlumDwellersInternational,SouthSouthNorth,Hivos,andWWF-Netherlands.TheNetherlandsMinistryofForeignAffairsisprovidingVCAwithtechnicalandfinancialsupportbetween2021and2025viaa€55milliongrant.AnaturalbartersysteminKenyaDroughtsareintensifyinginmanypartsofAfrica,threateningfoodsecurityaswellasthelivelihoodsofcountlesscommunities.InAmboseli,Kenya,Maasaicommunitieshavebeenimpactedastheirlivelihoodsrelyentirelyonsellinglivestock–butthedroughthaslefttheirlivestockinpoorhealth,makingitdifficultfortheMaasaitoputfoodonthetable.Maasaiwomen–oftenleftbehindwhentheirhusbandsundertakelongjourneyswiththeirlivestockinsearchofgreenpastures–assumeresponsibilityforthewell-beingoftheirfamilies.Facedwithincreasinghardships,thesewomenareusingtheirlocalknowledgetofindsolutions.InEsiteti,avillageinAmboseli,MaasaiwomenhavecreatedabartersystemwithfarmerswholiveacrosstheborderinTanzania.TheyexchangeMagadi,thesaltymineralsoilfoundinabundanceintheirregion,foritemsincludingbeans,potatoes,maize,cookingoilandsugarfromthefarmers.Thismutuallybeneficialarrangementispossiblebecausetheclimatevariesmarkedlybetweentheborderareasofthetwocountries;theTanzaniansideislocatedunderthefootofMountKilimanjaro,wherethedroughtisnotasintenseasinKenya.MagadiisalsoahealthieralternativetomineralsaltandisnotreadilyavailableinTanzania.AMaasaiwomanwithacamerainKenya.Lensational.orgisanon-for-profitorganisationwhoaretrainingunderrepresentedwomenacross22locationstosharetheirownstoriesthroughphotography,video,anddigitalstorytelling.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20223031©TomasHulikCHAPTER2THESPEEDANDSCALEOFCHANGEOurwell-being,healthandeconomicfuturearecriticallydependentonbiodiversityandnaturalsystems,andmanyindicatorsshowthatbiodiversityisindecline.Itisessentialthatweunderstandhowandwhynatureischanginginordertoalterthispath.Newmappinganalysistechniquesallowustobuildupamorecomprehensivepictureofboththespeedandscaleofchangesinbiodiversityandclimate,andtomapwherenaturecontributesmosttoourlives.Eurasianlynx(Lynxlynx)huntingintheVeľkáFatraNationalPark,Slovakia.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20223233TheLivingPlanetIndex(LPI)trackschangesintherelativeabundanceofwildspeciespopulationsovertime42-44.TheglobalIndexisconstructedbycalculatinganaveragetrendfortensofthousandsofterrestrial,freshwaterandmarinevertebratepopulationsfromacrosstheglobe.Despite30yearsofpolicyinterventionstostopbiodiversitylosswecontinuetoobservesimilardeclinestothoseshowninpreviousreports.The2022globalLPIshowsanaverage69%declineinmonitoredpopulationsbetween1970and2018(range:-63%to-75%).TheIndexcontainsbothincreasinganddecliningtrends.Toensuretheaccuracyofthestatistics,theIndexhasbeenstress-testedbyrecalculatingitexcludingcertainspeciesorpopulations.Thisconfirmsitisnotdrivenbyextremedeclinesorincreasesinspeciesorpopulations.TheLPIiscontinuallychanging:838newspeciesand11,011newpopulationshavebeenaddedtothedatasetsincethe2020LivingPlanetReport.Thenewdatahasledtoasubstantialincreaseinthenumberoffishspeciesincluded(29%,+481species)andhasimprovedcoverageforpreviouslyunderrepresentedareassuchasBrazil.WhytrendsinabundanceareimportantTheLivingPlanetIndextrackstheabundanceofpopulationsofmammals,birds,fish,reptilesandamphibiansaroundtheworld.In2022theIndexincludedalmost32,000speciespopulations,whichis11,000morethanin2020,thelargestincreaseyetinnumberofpopulationsbetweentwoeditionsofthisreport.Thesepopulations,ortrendsinrelativeabundance,areimportantbecausetheygiveasnapshotofchangesinanecosystem.Essentially,declinesinabundanceareearlywarningindicatorsofoverallecosystemhealth.Atthesametime,populationtrendsareresponsive–thereforeifconservationorpolicymeasuresaresuccessful,speciesabundancetrendswillquicklyshowthis.SourcingdatainlanguagesotherthanEnglishAroundtheworld,manylanguagesareusedtocommunicatescience46.However,globalbiodiversitydatabasessuchastheLPIstorefewerrecordsforcountrieswhereEnglishisnotwidelyspoken47,whichareofteninthemostbiodiverseregions.ThisispartlyaresultofthegreateraccessibilityofEnglishlanguagedatasources,andalsobecausetheworkinglanguageoftheLPIteamisEnglish.Forthisyear’sLivingPlanetReport,collaboratorsfromWWF-BrazilandtheUniversityofSãoPaulohavesearchedthroughjournalsandenvironmentalimpactreportsinPortuguese.Thankstotheirefforts,wenowhave3,269populationsfor1,002Brazilianspecies(575ofwhicharenewtothedatabase)contributingtotheLPI.ThenumberofscientificarticlesonconservationinotherlanguageshasbeenincreasingoverthepastfewdecadesataratesimilartoEnglish-languagearticles48.Inthefuture,weplantoexpandourcollaborationnetworktointroducedatainmanyotherlanguagesintotheLivingPlanetIndexDatabase.Thisnotonlycreatesamorerepresentativebiodiversitydataset,butalsoensuresthatimportantscientificandmonitoringstudiesfromaroundtheworldareincludedintheindex.TheLivingPlanetIndex:anearlywarningindicatorWenowhaveabetterpicturethaneverbeforeofhowspeciespopulationsarefaringaroundtheworld.The2022globalLivingPlanetIndexshowsanaverage69%decreaseinrelativeabundanceofmonitoredwildlifepopulationsbetween1970and2018.ValentinaMarconi,LouiseMcRae,SophieLedger,KateScott-Gatty,HannahPuleston,CharlotteBenham,andRobinFreeman(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon)-69%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)Figure3:TheglobalLivingPlanetIndex(1970to2018)Theaveragechangeinrelativeabundanceof31,821populations,representing5,230speciesmonitoredacrosstheglobe,wasadeclineof69%.Thewhitelineshowstheindexvaluesandtheshadedareasrepresentthestatisticalcertaintysurroundingthetrend(95%statisticalcertainty,range63%to75%).Source:WWF/ZSL(2022)184.GlobalLivingPlanetIndexConfidencelimitsKeyABUNDANCEWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20223435ChangesinbiodiversityvaryindifferentpartsoftheworldTheglobalLivingPlanetIndexdoesnotgiveustheentirepicture–therearedifferencesinabundancetrendsbetweenregions,withthelargestdeclinesintropicalareas.TheIntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES)dividestheworldintodifferentgeographicregions39,45.ThisbreakdownisdesignedtosupportthemonitoringofprogresstowardsthetargetsdevelopedundertheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.TheLPItrendspresentedherefollowtheIPBESregionalclassifications,withallterrestrialandfreshwaterpopulationswithinacountryassignedtoanIPBESregion.TheAmericasarefurthersubdividedintoNorthAmerica,andLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(Mesoamerica,theCaribbeanandSouthAmericacombined).TrendsforeachspeciesgroupareweightedaccordingtohowmanyspeciesarefoundineachIPBESregion.MoredetailsabouttheseregionaltrendsandtheothercutsoftheLivingPlanetIndexcanbefoundinthe2022LivingPlanetReport:DeepdiveintotheLivingPlanetIndex.Figure4:TheLivingPlanetIndexforeachIPBESregion(1970to2018)Thewhitelineshowstheindexvaluesandtheshadedareasrepresentthestatisticalcertaintysurroundingthetrend(95%).Source:WWF/ZSL(2022)184.ValentinaMarconi,LouiseMcRaeandRobinFreeman(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon)-20%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)NorthAmerica-94%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean-66%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)Africa-55%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)AsiaandthePacific-18%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)EuropeandCentralAsiaWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20223637Freshwaterenvironmentshostarichbiodiversity,includingone-thirdofvertebratespecies.Freshwaterisalsoessentialtooursurvivalandwell-being49indomesticuse,energyproduction,foodsecurity,andindustry50.Althoughfreshwatercoverslessthan1%oftheplanet’ssurface,morethan50%ofthehumanpopulationliveswithin3kmofafreshwaterbody51.Thishumanproximitycanbeathreattofreshwaterspeciesandhabitats,includingmanybiodiversityhotspots182,viapollution,waterabstractionorflowmodification,speciesoverexploitationandinvasivespecies.Becausefreshwaterenvironmentsarehighlyconnected,threatscantraveleasilyfromonelocationtoanother52,53.Basedon6,617monitoredpopulations,representing1,398speciesofmammals,birds,amphibians,reptilesandfish,thefreshwaterLPIprovidesanindicationofthestatusoffreshwaterhabitats.Since1970thesepopulationshavedeclinedbyanaverageof83%(range:-74%to-89%).Usingthelargestsamplesizesofar–454newfreshwaterspeciesand2,876newpopulationshavebeenaddedtothedataset–wecanseethat,aswiththeglobalLPI,thedeclineissimilartothosepresentedinpreviouseditionsoftheLivingPlanetReport.TheFreshwaterLivingPlanetIndexPopulationsinthefreshwaterLivingPlanetIndexhavebeenhitthehardest,decliningbyanaverageof83%,withtheadditionofalargeamountofnewdataconfirmingtheresultsshowninpreviousreports.ValentinaMarconi(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon),MonikaBöhm(IndianapolisZoo),LouiseMcRaeandRobinFreeman(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon)-83%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)Figure5:TheFreshwaterLivingPlanetIndex(1970to2018)Theaverageabundanceof6,617freshwaterpopulationsacrosstheglobe,representing1,398species,declinedby83%.Thewhitelineshowstheindexvaluesandtheshadedareasrepresentthestatisticalcertaintysurroundingthetrend(95%statisticalcertainty,range74%to89%).Source:WWF/ZSL(2022)184.FreshwaterLivingPlanetIndexConfidencelimitsKeyOnly37%ofriverslongerthan1,000kmremainfree-flowingovertheirentirelength54.Whensomefishspeciesmigratelargedistancesalongthese‘Swimways’55,thepresenceofdamsandreservoirsposesathreattotheirsurvival.TheLPIoffreshwatermigratoryfish(fishthatliveinfreshwaterhabitatseitherpartlyorexclusively)showsanaveragedeclineof76%between1970and2016,withhabitatlossandmodifications,inparticularbarrierstomigrationroutes,accountingforaroundhalfofthethreatstothesepopulations.Keysolutionsforreconnectingfreshwaterhabitatsaretoimprovefishpassagesthroughbarriersandtoremovedams.Forexample,theremovaloftwodamsandimprovementstootherdamsinthePenobscotRiverinMaine,USA,resultedinanincreaseinriverherringnumbersfromafewhundredtonearly2millionwithinfiveyears,enablingpeopletoreturntofishing55.What’shappeningtofishonthemove?Manyfishspeciesmigratetofeedandbreed,yetthismovementisdependentontheconnectivityoffreshwaterecosystems–whichisdeclining.-76%012197019801990200020102016Indexvalue(1970=1)LouiseMcRae(ZoologicalSocietyofLondon)Figure6:ThefreshwatermigratoryfishLivingPlanetIndex(1970to2016)Theaveragechangeinrelativeabundanceof1,406monitoredpopulationsof247specieswasadeclineof76%.Thewhitelineshowstheindexvaluesandtheshadedareasrepresentthestatisticalcertaintysurroundingthetrend(95%statisticalcertainty,range88%to53%).Source:Deinetetal.(2020)56.FreshwatermigratoryfishLivingPlanetIndexConfidencelimitsKeyWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20223839Morethan140,000specieshavebeenevaluatedusinginformationonlife-historytraits,population,distributionsizeandstructure,andtheirchangeovertimetoassignthemtooneofeightcategories:Extinct,ExtinctintheWild,CriticallyEndangered,Endangered,Vulnerable,NearThreatened,LeastConcern,orDataDeficient57.Forfivetaxonomicgroupsinwhichallspecieshavebeenassessedatleasttwice,theRedListIndex(RLI)showstrendsovertimeintheirrelativesurvivalprobabilitybasedongenuinechangesintheseRedListCategories.Thesedatashowthatcycads(anancientgroupofplants)aremostthreatened,whilecoralsaredecliningfastest.BaselineRLIvaluesareavailableforadditionalgroupswhichhaveonlybeenassessedonce;reptileshaveasimilarinitialRLIvaluetomammals,anddragonfliesasimilarRLIvaluetobirds.Fromabundancetoextinction:whatdoweknowaboutspeciesextinctionriskandrecovery?TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpeciesassessestherelativeriskofaspecies’extinction.Now,newGreenStatusassessmentsprovideatoolforassessingtherecoveryofspeciespopulationsandmeasuringtheirconservationsuccess.CraigHiltonTaylor(InternationalUnionforConservationofNature)AmphibiansBirdsCycadsMammalsCoralsReptilesBonyfishesSharks&raysDragonfliesConesnailsCrustaceansLegumesConifersMonocots0,50,60,70,80,91,0198019851990200020102020199520052015RedListIndexofspeciessurvivalBetterWorseFigure7:TheRedListIndex(RLI)Itshowstrendsinsurvivalprobability(theinverseofextinctionrisk)overtime61.AnRLIvalueof1.0equatestoallspecieswithinagroupqualifyingasLeastConcern(i.e.notexpectedtobecomeExtinctinthenearfuture61).Anindexvalueof0equatestoallspecieshavinggoneExtinct.Aconstantvalueovertimeindicatesthattheoverallextinctionriskforthegroupisunchanged.Iftherateofbiodiversitylosswerereducing,theIndexwouldshowanupwardtrend.AdeclineintheIndexmeansthatspeciesarebeingdriventowardsextinctionatanacceleratingrate.Source:IUCN(2021)57.©JaimeBoschWhiletheIUCNRedListassessesextinctionrisk,itdoesnotprovidearoadmapforspeciesrecovery.Now,newclassifiersofspeciesrecoveryandconservationimpact–knownastheGreenStatusofSpecies58–provideatoolforassessingtherecoveryofspeciespopulationsandmeasuringtheirconservationsuccess.WhenviewedalongsideRedListassessments,GreenStatusassessmentsshowafullerpictureofaspecies’conservationstatus.Thisrevealsthatsomespecies’extinctionriskcanbelow,yettheyarestilldepletedcomparedwiththeirhistoricalpopulationlevels(e.g.blackstork59).TheGreenStatuscanalsoshowthepast,currentandpotentialfutureimpactofconservationforaspecies,showingthevalueoftargetedactionsforspeciesrecovery(e.g.Darwin’sfrog60).Darwin’sfrog(Rhinodermadarwinii)hasaGreenStatusofCriticallyDepletedbuthashighRecoveryPotential.EXTINCTIONRISKWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20224041Combiningexpert-basedinformationfromtheIUCNRedListonthespatialdistributionsofandthreatstoallterrestrialamphibians,birdsandmammals–atotalof23,271species–wehavegeneratedglobalmapsofthethreattothesegroupsfromagriculture,huntingandtrapping,logging,pollution,invasivespeciesandclimatechange62.UsingtheIUCNRedListtobuildapictureofthreathotspotsAnewanalysisbasedondatafromtheRedListallowsustooverlaysixkeythreats–agriculture,hunting,logging,pollution,invasivespeciesandclimatechange–toterrestrialvertebrates.MikeHarfoot(VizzualityandUNEP-WCMC),NeilBurgess(UNEP-WCMC)andJonasGeldmann(UniversityofCopenhagen)Thesemapsshowthatagricultureisthemostprevalentthreattoamphibians,whereashuntingandtrappingaremostlikelytothreatenbirdsandmammals.Geographically,SoutheastAsiaistheregionwherespeciesaremostlikelytofacethreatsatasignificantlevel,whilepolarregions,theeastcoastofAustraliaandSouthAfricashowedthehighestimpactprobabilitiesforclimatechange,driveninparticularbyimpactsonbirds.Mappingthelikelihoodofimpactofthesixthreatsandcombiningthiswithinformationonareasofhighconservationpriority(determinedforexamplebyspeciesrichness)allowstheidentificationofnovel‘hotspots’ofconservationpriorityandthreatintensity(Figure8).Thisworkhasrevealedthatthreatsfromagriculture,huntingandtrapping,andloggingarepredominantlyoccurringinthetropics;whilepollutionhotspotsaremostprominentinEurope.TheHimalayas,SoutheastAsia,theeastcoastofAustralia,thedryforestofMadagascar,theAlbertineRiftandEasternArcMountainsineasternAfrica,theGuineanforestsofWestAfrica,theAtlanticForest,theAmazonbasinandtheNorthernAndesintoPanamaandCostaRicainSouthandCentralAmericawerealldeemed‘high-priorityareasforriskmitigation’foralltaxonomicgroupsacrossallthreatcategories.Figure8:GlobalhotspotsofriskTherelativeimportanceofeachpixelacrossspeciesandthreatsasmeasuredbythenumberoftimesapixelfallsintoahotspotregionforanytaxonorthreat.Hotspotregionsaredefinedaslocationscontainingthehighest10%ofnumbersofspeciesatriskfromeachmajorthreatandtaxonomicgroup.Source:Harfootetal.(2022)62.123456789101112KeyWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20224243Sharksandraysareimportanttothehealthofouroceans,yettheyhavebecomeincreasinglyvaluedfortheirmeat,forpartsusedfortheirpurportedmedicinalproperties(e.g.mantaanddevilraygillplates),orforuseindishessuchassharkfinsoup63,64.Theglobalabundanceof18of31oceanicsharksandrayshasdeclinedby71%overthelast50years65.Thiscollapseintheirabundancereflectsanincreaseinextinctionriskformostspecies.By1980,nineofthe31oceanicsharksandrayswerethreatened.By2020,three-quarters(77%,24species)werethreatenedwithanelevatedriskofextinction.Forexample,theoceanicWhitetipSharkhasdeclinedby95%globallyoverthreegenerationlengths,andhasconsequentlymovedfromVulnerabletoCriticallyEndangeredontheIUCNRedList66.DisappearingoceanicsharksandraysTheglobalabundanceofoceanicsharksandrayshasdeclinedby71%overthelast50years,dueprimarilytoan18-foldincreaseinfishingpressuresince1970.NathanPacoureauandNicholasKDulvy(SimonFraserUniversity)©naturepl.com/JeffRotman/WWF-81%-75%-31%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)Figure9a:LivingPlanetIndexfrom1970to2018disaggregatedbybodysize(maximumtotallengthdividedintothreecategories:small,≤250cm;medium,250–500cm;large,>500cm).Theoverfishingofsharksandrayshasfollowedaclassicpatternofserialdepletion.Thelarge-bodiedspecieswerecaughtfirstandthereforeinitiallydeclinedfasterthansmallerspecies,astheyaregenerallymorevaluablewithagreatervolumeofmeatandfins.Butcriticallytheselarger-bodiedspecieslivelongerandarelate-maturing,hencetheyhavelesscapacitytoreplacethenumberslostduetounrestrainedfishingpressure.Smallersharksandrayshavefasterlifehistoriesandcanwithstandgreaterfishingmortalitythanlargersharks.Source:Pacoureauetal.(2021)65.OceanicsharksLPISmall<250cmCredibleintervalsOceanicsharksLPIMedium250-500cmCredibleintervalsOceanicsharksLPILarge>500cmCredibleintervalsKeyScallopedhammerheadsharks(Sphyrnalewini),CocosIsland,CostaRica,PacificOcean.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20224445Duetothecomplexityandscaleofoceanicfoodwebs,theimpactofthedeclineinoceanicsharksandraysontheecosystemisuncertain67-69,howevertheprofoundeffectsofdepletingthesepredatoryspeciesarebecomingapparent.Forexample,thedeclineoflargeapexpredatorssuchassharksandtunascanresultinsignificantfunctionalchangestooceanicfoodwebs69,70.Sharksandraysarealsocriticaltomanylocalcommunitiesandeconomies71.Theseveredeclinesreportedalsothreatenfoodsecurityandincomeinmanylow-incomenations72.Subsistencefisheriesforavarietyofsharksandrayshaveexistedinthesecountriesforhundredsofyears73,andthedevelopmentofalternativelivelihoodandincomeoptionsforfisherscouldsignificantlyeasetransitionstosustainability.Haltingdeclinesandrebuildingpopulationstosustainablelevelsthroughcatchlimitswillhelpsecurethefutureoftheseiconicpredators,aswellastheecosystemsandpeoplethatdependonthem.Figure9b:LivingPlanetIndexfrom1970to2018forthreespeciesofoceanicsharksSomeformerlyabundant,wide-rangingsharkspecieshavedeclinedsosteeplythattheynowfallintothetwohighestthreatcategoriesontheIUCNRedList.Forexample,thecommerciallyvaluableShortfinMakosharkwasrecentlyclassifiedasEndangered,whiletheiconicoceanicWhitetipSharkisnowconsideredCriticallyEndangered.WhiteSharknumbershaddeclinedonaveragebyanestimated70%worldwideoverthelastfivedecades,buttheyarenowrecoveringinseveralregions,includingoffbothcoastsoftheUS(wheretheirretentionhasbeenbannedsincethemid-1990s).Source:Pacoureauetal.(2021)65.-38%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)-75%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)-37%012197019801990200020102018Indexvalue(1970=1)WhiteSharkLivingPlanetIndexCredibleintervalsKeyShortfinMakoLivingPlanetIndexCredibleintervalsKeyOceanicWhitetipSharkLivingPlanetIndexCredibleintervalsKey©DanielVersteeg/WWFSpottedeagleray(Aetobatusnarinari)swimmingneartheoceanfloornearDarwinIsland,GalapagosIslands.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20224647Figure10:BiodiversityIntactnessIndexfortheyear2020at0.25°resolutionTheglobalaverageis77%.Source:NaturalHistoryMuseum(2022)75.Howintactisnature?TheBiodiversityIntactnessIndexestimateshowmuchofanarea’snaturalbiodiversityremains,helpingustounderstandpast,currentandfuturechangestonature.AndyPurvis(NaturalHistoryMuseum)andSamanthaHill(UNEP-WCMC)Biologicalcommunitiescanchangefundamentallybecauseofhumanpressurescomparedtothestateinwhichtheywouldhavebeeninpristineconditions,evenwithoutanyspeciesgoinglocallyextinct.TheBiodiversityIntactnessIndex(BII)rangesfrom100-0%,with100representinganundisturbednaturalenvironmentwithlittletonohumanfootprint74,75.IftheBIIis90%ormore,theareahasenoughbiodiversitytobearesilientandfunctioningecosystem.Under90%,biodiversitylossmeansecosystemsmayfunctionlesswellandlessreliably.IftheBIIis30%orless,thearea’sbiodiversityhasbeendepletedandtheecosystemcouldbeatriskofcollapse.BIImodelsnowincludesite-levelpressures,simplemeasuresoflandscape-scalepressures,andlandscapehistory–thatis,howlongagohumanusefirstcovered30%oftheland.Suchindicatorscanbeusedtotestwhetherplannedconservationactionswillbeenoughtostopthefurtherlossofbiodiversity76.0255075100KeyCOMPOSITIONWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20224849©naturepl.com/AndySands/WWFNature’sContributionstoPeople(NCP)arethecontributionsthatnaturemakestopeople’squalityoflife,whichcanbeassessedbymodellingtheecologicalsupplyofthosebenefitsandthehumandemandforthem.ThesupplysideofNCPisbasedonecosystemprocessesandfunctions.Forexample,beesandotherwildpollinatorsnestinginnaturalareaspollinatenearbycrops;plantsgrowingalongstreamsandonhillsideshelptrappollutants,naturallypurifyingourwater;mangroves,coralreefsandothercoastalhabitatsprotectusfromcoastalstorms,erosionandflooding.ThedemandsideofNCPdependsonpeople’slocationandactivityaswellastheirneedsandpreferences,whichreflecttheextentoftheirdependenceonnature.Specialattentionshouldbepaidtovulnerablepopulations,whichmaylackaccesstosubstitutesforNCP.Toidentifywherenaturecontributesmosttopeople’squalityoflife,theareasbenefittingdependentpopulationsmustbemapped132.Howtheseareasaremappeddependsonhowthebenefitisdelivered–forexample,beeflightpatternsbetweentheirnestingsitesandpollination-dependentcrops;thepathwatertakesthroughawatershedonitswaytoastreamusedbypeoplefordrinkingwater,recreation,fishingorotheractivities;orthephysicalfeaturesthatreducethedestructiveforceofwavesonashorelinewherepeopleandpropertyareexposed.Globalanalyseshavefoundtrade-offsbetweenbiodiversityandNCP,specificallywithcarbon,waterprovisioning,andfisheriesproduction77,78,whichsuggeststhatmultiplestrategiesforconservationwillbeneededtomanagethebenefitsfornatureandpeople.Regionalanalysesfurtherrevealthatsynergiesmaybesomewhatlimitedifconservationeffortsareconstrainedbyexistingprotectedareastructures,whichwerenotnecessarilydesignedtomaximiseNCP79.PeopleandnatureThescienceofmappingandmodellingNature’sContributionstoPeopleinvolvespredictinghowachangeinecosystemsleadstoachangeintheirbenefitstopeople.RebeccaChaplin-Kramer(InstituteontheEnvironment,UniversityofMinnesota;SPRING,springinnovate.org;NaturalCapitalProject,StanfordUniversity)Lookingatbluebells(Hyacinthoidesnon-scripta)inawoodinHertfordshire,England,UK.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20225051Aroundtheglobe,itisclearthatleadersindominantsocietieshavefailedtocontrolthehumanactivitiesdrivingclimatechangeandhabitatloss,whileIndigenouslandsandwatershavebeensuccessfullytakencareofovermillennia80.InCanada,BrazilandAustralia,forinstance,vertebratebiodiversityinIndigenousterritoriesequalsorsurpassesthatfoundwithinformallyprotectedareas81.Farfromthecolonialideaofseparatingpeoplefromnatureinordertopreserveit–andtheconceptofthepristineorwildernessfreefromhumaninfluence–Indigenousapproachestoconservationregularlyplacereciprocalpeople-placerelationshipsatthecentreofculturalandcarepractices.TheseapproacheshingeonsystemsofIndigenousknowledgewhichincludescientificandecologicalunderstandingsthatarecarriedacrossgenerationsthroughlanguage,story,ceremony,practiceandlaw(Figure11).GlobalbiodiversitylosscarriesprofoundconsequencesforIndigenousPeoplesandtheirwaysoflife.Thelossoffish,forexample,isfarmorethansimplyalossoffood.Fishingenablesthemonitoringofwaterways,providesavehicleforknowledgeandlanguagetransfer,andembodiesIndigenouslegaltraditions.EldersacrossBritishColumbia,Canadahavereportedalossofaccesstosalmonthatparallelsthetrendsinthisreport(an83%declineintheirlifetimes)82.Theplural‘Peoples’recognisesthatmorethanonedistinctgroupcomprisesthemanyIndigenouspopulationsoftheworld,totallingmorethan370millionacross70countriesworldwide.‘IndigenousPeoples’iscapitalisedinthesamewayasothernationsorcultures,suchasCanadianorEuropean.IndigenousPeoples–“Inheritorsandpractitionersofuniqueculturesandwaysofrelatingtopeopleandtheenvironment.Theyhaveretainedsocial,cultural,economicandpoliticalcharacteristicsthataredistinctfromthoseofthedominantsocietiesinwhichtheylive.”Source:UN(2022)84.TheseeldersadvocateforIndigenouslanguagerevitalisationandfundamentallyIndigenousleadershipasbeingkeystounlockmoresustainableandjustfutures.Partofthisjustfutureinvolvesrecognisingthedistinctvalueinknowledgesystems–bothIndigenousandnon-Indigenous.TheseincludeEtuaptmumk,ortwo-eyedseeing–thatis,learningtoseefromoneeyewiththestrengthsofIndigenousknowledgeandwaysofknowing,andfromtheothereyewiththestrengthsofmainstreamknowledgeandwaysofknowing,andtouseboththeseeyestogetherforthebenefitofall83.Etuaptmumk,whenpractisedandhonouredappropriately,meansnotonlyworkingwithIndigenousknowledgeasanothersourceofevidence,butalsothepeopleandthelandinherentlytiedtothesewaysofknowing.IndigenousleadershipiskeytotakingcareofourlivingplanetTheimportanceofIndigenousleadershipinconservationisbeingincreasinglyrecognised.BylearningfromIndigenousexperts,we(re)openadoortoanapproachtoconservationthatrespectstheinherentinterconnectionsbetweenpeopleandplace.AndreaReid(Nisga’aNationandtheCentreforIndigenousFisheries,UniversityofBritishColumbia)Figure11:Interrelationshipsbetweentraditionalecologicalknowledge,IndigenousscienceandIndigenousknowledgesystemsaredepictedhereusingthesymbologyofthelifecycleofPacificsalmon,startingwiththesalmoneggatthecoreoftheimage.Theunderstandingsandphilosophiesembeddedwiththiscentrearecarriedthroughtimeandacrossgenerations,throughlanguage,story,ceremony,practiceandlaw.SalmonandSalmonPeoplenotonlycoexistinthesesettingsbutareinterdependentononeanother.Source:IllustrationcommissionedfromNicoleMarieBurton.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20225253Motivatinglocalcommunitiestoprotectnaturalhabitatsrichindiversity,suchasTropicalImportantPlantAreas(TIPAs),iscrucialforplantconservation85.Supportingthepropagationandplantingof‘useful’indigenousplantspeciestoimprovelivelihoodsisonepathtoachievingthisgoal.IntheRepublicofGuinea,thefruitandseedofseveralforesttreespecieshavetraditionallybeenharvestedfromthewild.However,bythe1990s,96%ofthenation’soriginalforesthadbeencleared86,anddeforestationisstillongoingtoday87.Demandexceedssupplyforediblenutssuchastola(Beilschmiediamannii),petitkola(Garciniakola)andthegingerbreadplumbansouma(Neocaryamacrophylla)thathavelongbeenpopular88,89andareincreasinglyrecognisedasasourceofnutrientsthatcouldhelpsupporthumanhealth90-92.Theseusefulspeciesareincludedintheplantingmixofaninitiative93designedtomultiplyCriticallyEndangeredtreespeciesinthebufferzonesofthreeTIPAsinGuinea94.ThisapproachincentivisesconservationandoffersthepotentialtoincreaseincomesandprovidenutrientsforlocalcommunitiesinacountryrankedamongthelowestintheHumanDevelopmentIndex.TheculturalandeconomicimportanceofindigenousplantsForesttreespeciesthatprovideediblefruitandnutsarebeingplantedininitiativesincountriessuchasGuineatosupportconservationandimprovelivelihoods.DeniseMolmou,SekouMagassouba,TokpaSenyDoré(HerbierNationaldeGuinée),CharlotteCouch(HerbierNationaldeGuinéeandRoyalBotanicGardens,Kew),IsabelLarridon(RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew),Melanie-JayneHowes(RoyalBotanicGardens,KewandKing’sCollegeLondon),IainDarbyshire,EimearNicLughadhaandMartinCheek(RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew)©MartinCheekHabitatofthewildbansoumatreeorgingerbreadplumtree(Neocaryamacrophylla).SeedsarelocallytradedinGuineaasanediblenut.Redtailmonkeyseatthefruitsbutnotthenut-containingendocarps.Thetreesarecurrentlybeingclearedforcharcoal,andthoseonflatlandforplantationsofinvasivenon-nativecashews.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20225455©JamesSuter/BlackBeanProductions/WWF-USProtection,preservationandresilienceinZambiaInZambia,risingtemperaturesandchangingrainfallpatternshaveledtoanincreaseinthefrequencyoffloodsanddroughts.Amongotherthings,theseeventshavedisruptedwatersystemsthatarefundamentaltosustainingecosystemsaswellasthelivelihoodsandhealthoflocalcommunities.InLusakaandtheSouthernProvinceofthecountry,waterscarcityisarealityduetopastprolongeddryspells,treecutting,andthedisturbanceofwatercatchmentareas.Therearebothenvironmentalandsocialimpactsofwaterinsecurity,whicharefurtherexacerbatedbythechangingclimate.Thisisespeciallytrueforwomenandgirlswhoprimarilybeartheburdenofprovidingthiscorenecessityfortheirfamilies.Alocalinitiative,ClimateSmartAgricultureAlliance(CSAA),isworkingwithcommunitymembersinthearea,plantingindigenouscropspecieswithinwatercatchmentzonesofoneofthedistrictsChikankatatoprotectwaterresourcesforfutureuse.Thisstrengthensandamplifiestheirchoiceofalocalsolutiontothiscrisisandenablesthosewhoaremostaffectedbywaterscarcitytotakeresponsibilityforsustainablymanagingtheresource.Localcommunitymembersmanagethewatercatchmentareas,protectingandpreservingthemwhileatthesametimebuildingresiliencetotheimpactsoftheclimatecrisis.AlocalwomancarryingemptybucketsdowntotheLuangwaRiverinZambiatocollectwater.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20225657TheknowledgeandstoriesheldbyIndigenousPeopleshavebeenacquiredthroughmanygenerationsofobservingandunderstandingtheirterritories,andthroughknowingandprotectingwater.IndigenousresearchmethodologiescanprovideabasisfortheexplorationofthisknowledgeinawaythatisculturallyappropriateandwhichgeneratesaculturallysafespaceforIndigenousresearchersandcommunities95.InsoutheastAustralia,theNationalCulturalFlowsResearchProject(NCFRP)hassupportedcapacity-building,free,priorandinformedconsent,andIndigenous-ledscience.TheNCFRPdevelopedanassessmentofAboriginalculturalwatervalues;robustmethodologiesforecological,socioeconomic,healthandwell-beingoutcomes;andrecommendedpolicy,legalandinstitutionalchangestoenabletheimplementationofculturalflows96.However,thetake-upbyjurisdictionsoftheNCFRPmethodstodateinAustraliaislimited.ThedevelopmentofIndigenousresearchmethodologiesinthecontextofwatercontinuestobelimitedinAustralia,primarilyduetogovernmentinaction,thelimitednumberofIndigenouswaterpractitioners,andnon-Indigenousresearchersdominatingthesector.Indigenousknowledge,researchandperspectivescanbewellplacedtoinformandcomplementwesternscience,butfindingthiscommongroundisoneofthestrugglesofcross-culturalresearch97,98.AtanationalandregionalscaleIndigenousparadigmscanimpactthewaysocietyvaluesandmanageswater.Ifthisweretobeincorporatedintowaterplanning,Australianswouldbenefitthroughtheprotectionandrecognitionofdifferenttypesofflows.Sotoowouldwateritself,initsmanyforms.ThestateofIndigenouslandandwaterknowledgeinAustraliaIndigenousPeopleshavecaredforandmanagedsurfaceandgroundwaterformanygenerations–inthecaseofAustralia,manythousandsofgenerationsstretchingbackmorethan65,000years.IndigenousPeoples’connectiontowaterisstrongandisabasisofculturalidentity,language,gender,lawand,mostofall,survivalonadrycontinent.BradleyJ.Moggridge(UniversityofCanberra)©WimvanPassel/WWFGumtree(Eucalyptus)growingalongYellowWaterRiver,KakaduNationalPark,NorthernTerritory,Australia.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20225859©EmmanuelRondeau/WWF-USCHAPTER3BUILDINGANATURE-POSITIVESOCIETYWeknowthatthehealthofourplanetisdeclining,andweknowwhy.Wealsoknowthatwehavetheknowledgeandmeanstoaddressclimatechangeandbiodiversityloss.First,weexplorehowvalues,rightsandnormscantakecentrestageindecision-andpolicy-makingtodrivethetransformativechangeweneed.Inaddition,weconsidermodelsandscenarioswhichhelpustoimaginethefutureandunderstandwhatroleeconomics,technology,consumptionandproductionshouldalsoplay.IntheAmazonandCongoBasin,twopilotinitiativesaretakingtheirfirststepstoturntheoryintopractice.SirjanaTharuinherchamomilefieldinNepal.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20226061Imagineaworldwhereeveryonebreathescleanair,drinkssafewaterandeatssustainablyproducedfood.Imagineaworldfreefrompollutionandtoxicsubstances,withasafeclimate,healthybiodiversityandflourishingecosystems.Isthisanimpossibledream?No,absolutelynot.Thisisavisionofaworldwhereeveryone’sfundamentalhumanrighttoliveinaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironmentisrespectedbygovernmentsandbusinesses.In2022theUnitedNationsHumanGeneralAssemblyfinallyrecognisedthateveryone,everywhere,hasthisright99.Nowit’stimetoimplementit,asworldleadersurgedattheStockholm+50conferencein2022,ameetingcommemoratingtheUN’sfirst-everinternationalenvironmentalconferencein1972100.Fulfillingthisrightisnolongeranoption,butanobligation.Implementingtherighttoaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironmentmeanstakingarights-basedapproachtotheinterconnectedcrisesthatarepreventingpeoplefromlivinginharmonywithnature–theclimateemergency,thecollapseofbiodiversity,andpervasivepollution101-104.Withrightscomeresponsibilities–forgovernments,businessesandindividuals.Theprimaryburdenfallsupongovernmentstoputinplacelawsandpoliciestoensurethateveryone,withoutdiscrimination,isabletoenjoytheirrights.Inthecontextofsavingnature,thismeansenactingandenforcingrestrictionsonfossilfuels,makinglawstoprotectendangeredspeciesandspaces,fundingecologicalrestoration,phasingoutandbetterregulatingextractiveindustries,requiringbusinessestocarryouthumanrightsandenvironmentalduediligenceacrosstheirsupplychains,endingsubsidiesthatencourageactivitiesthatdegradeecosystems,andshiftingtosustainableproductionandconsumption,includingthetransitiontoacirculareconomy.Arights-basedapproachmeanslisteningtoeveryone’svoicesandensuringthatthepeoplewhoselives,healthandrightscouldbeaffectedbyaproposedactionhaveaseatatthetablewheredecisionsaremade.Thisapproachfocusesonthemostvulnerableanddisadvantagedpopulationsandensuresaccountability.Historydemonstrates–throughtheprogressachievedbyabolitionists,suffragettes,civilrightsactivistsandIndigenousPeoples–thepowerfulroleofhumanrightsinsparkingtransformativesocietalchanges.Therighttoaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironmentcanbeacatalystforsystemicchanges,ashasbeendemonstratedbyleadingnationsandrecentevents103.Inmorethan80nations,therighttoahealthyenvironmenthassparkedstrongerenvironmentallawsandpolicies,betterimplementationandenforcement,greaterpublicparticipation,and–mostimportantly–improvedenvironmentalperformance.Ithasbeenusedbycitizensaroundtheworldtoprotectthreatenedspeciesandendangeredecosystems.Afteraddingtherighttoahealthyenvironmenttoitsconstitutionin1994,CostaRicabecameaglobalenvironmentalgiant.ThirtypercentofCostaRicaisinnationalparks.Ninety-ninepercentofitselectricitycomesfromrenewables,includinghydro,solar,windandgeothermal.Lawsbanopenpitminingandoilandgasdevelopment,whilecarbontaxesareusedtopayIndigenousPeoplesandfarmerstorestoreforests.Backin1994,deforestationhadreducedforestcoverto25%ofallland,buttodayreforestationhasdriventhatnumberbackabove50%105.OURRIGHTTOACLEAN,HEALTHYANDSUSTAINABLEENVIRONMENTIn2022theUnitedNationsHumanGeneralAssemblyrecognisedthateveryone,everywhere,hastherighttoliveinaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironment,meaningthatforthoseinpowerrespectingthisisnolongeranoptionbutanobligation.DavidBoyd(UNSpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandtheenvironment,UniversityofBritishColumbia)WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20226263Franceembracedtherighttoahealthyenvironmentin2004,sparkingstrongnewlawstobanfracking,implementtherighttobreathecleanair,andprohibittheexportofpesticidesthatarenotauthorisedforuseintheEuropeanUnionbecauseofhealthandenvironmentalconcerns.CostaRicaandFranceleadtheHighAmbitionCoalitionforNatureandPeople106,arekeymembersoftheBeyondOilandGasAlliance107andhavebeenleadingvoicesinthecampaignforuniversalrecognitionoftherighttoahealthyenvironment.Inrecentmonths,therighttoahealthyenvironmenthasbeenusedbycommunitiestoblockoffshoreoilandgasactivitiesinArgentinaandSouthAfrica,becauseofthepotentialimpactsonmarinemammals.TherightwasusedtocompelgovernmentsinIndonesiaandSouthAfricatotakeactiontoimproveairqualityandtostopanill-advisedcoal-firedpowerprojectinKenya.TherightwasusedtoprotectforestsfrommininginEcuadorandtoeliminatetheuseofabee-killingpesticideinCostaRica.Climatelawsuitsdrawingupontherighttoahealthyenvironmentareoccurringallovertheworld,andresearchindicatestheyaremorelikelytobesuccessfulthannot108.Althoughnotlegallybinding,theUNresolutionisexpectedtoaccelerateactiontoaddresstheglobalenvironmentalcrisis,justasUNresolutionsontherighttowaterin2010turbochargedprogressindeliveringsafewatertomillionsofpeople.It’stimetoturnthedreamofahealthyenvironmentintoarealityforeveryoneonEarthbyharnessingthisfundamentalhumanrighttosparktransformativeandsystemicchanges.©naturepl.com/KevinSchafer/WWFAnAmazonriverdolphinorboto(Iniageoffrensis)infloodedforestontheAriauRiver,atributaryofRioNegroinAmazonia,Brazil.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20226465TherecentassessmentreportsfromtheIPBES39,theIPCC109-111andthejointIPBES-IPCCworkshop112unambiguouslydocumentfurtherclimatechangeandthecontinuingdegradationofbiodiversityandnature’scontributionstopeople.Overthelast50years,themeanglobaltemperatureandthefrequencyofextremeweathereventshaveincreased,ashavethenumberofspeciesthreatenedwithextinction.Thesetrendsresultfromdirecthumandrivers,suchasgreenhousegasemissionsfromfossilfuelcombustion,habitatconversionanddegradationfromland-usechange,pollutionandunsustainableharvests,andtheintroductionofinvasivespecies.Somedirectdriverslikeland-usechangeandpollutioncancausebothclimatechangeandbiodiversitydegradation,whileothersprimarilydriveoneortheother:forexample,biologicalinvasionhasalimitedimpactonourclimate.Directdriversareunderpinnedbyarangeofmoreindirectdrivers,suchasincreasesinhumanpopulationandaffluence,aswellassociocultural,economic,technological,institutionalandgovernancefactors,connectedtovaluesandbehaviours.Overthelast50years,thehumanpopulationhasdoubled,theglobaleconomyhasgrownnearlyfourfoldandglobaltradehasgrowntenfold,togetherdramaticallyincreasingthedemandforenergyandmaterials.Economicincentiveshavegenerallyfavouredexpandingeconomicactivity,oftenwithenvironmentalharm,ratherthanconservationorrestoration.THEROOTSOFANINTERTWINEDCRISISIn2021,forthefirsttime,theUNclimateandbiodiversitybodies–IPBESandtheIPCC–cametogethertohighlightthemultipleconnectionsbetweentheclimateandbiodiversitycrises,includingtheircommonroots,andwarnoftheemergingrisksofanunlivablefuture.DavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis),BrunaFatichePavani(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),DetlefvanVuuren(UniversityofUtrecht),AafkeSchipper(RadboudUniversity),MichaelObersteiner(OxfordUniversity),NeilBurgess(UNEP-WCMC),RobAlkemade(WageningenUniversity&Research),TimNewbold(UniversityCollegeLondon),MikeHarfoot(VizzualityandUNEP-WCMC)©Day'sEdgeProductions/WWF-USAerialviewofaharvestedcornfieldandforestunderthehazeofsmokefromuncontrolledforestfiresinBrazil.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20226667Ourplanet’sbiocapacityistheabilityofitsecosystemstoregenerate113,183.ItistheunderlyingcurrencyofalllivingsystemsonEarth.Forinstance,biocapacityprovidespeoplewithbiologicalresourcesandabsorbsthewastethattheyproduce.Wecanmeasurebothbiocapacityandthedemandpeopleputonit;thelatterwecallpeople’sEcologicalFootprint.Itincludesallcompetingdemandsonnature,fromfoodandfibreproductiontotheabsorptionofexcesscarbonemissions.EcologicalFootprintaccountsdocumentthathumanityoverusesourplanetbyatleast75%,theequivalenttolivingoff1.75Earths113,115.Thisovershooterodestheplanet’shealthand,withit,humanity’sprospects.HumandemandandnaturalresourcesareunevenlydistributedacrosstheEarth113,115.Consumptionoftheseresourcesdiffersfromresourceavailability,asresourcesmaynotbeconsumedatthepointofextraction.EcologicalFootprintsperpersonprovideinsightsintocountries’resourceperformance,risksandopportunities114,116,117.VaryinglevelsofEcologicalFootprintareduetodifferentlifestylesandconsumptionpatterns,includingthequantityoffood,goodsandservicesresidentsconsume,thenaturalresourcestheyuse,andtheCO₂emittedtoprovidethesegoodsandservices.Humanity’sEcologicalFootprintexceedsEarth’sbiocapacityHumansuseasmanyecologicalresourcesasifwelivedonalmosttwoEarths.Thiserodesourplanet’shealthandhumanity’sprospects.AmandaDiep,AlessandroGalli,DavidLinandMathisWackernagel(GlobalFootprintNetwork)Figure12:TheglobalEcologicalFootprintandbiocapacityfrom1961to2022inglobalhectaresperpersonThebluelineisthetotalEcologicalFootprintperperson,andthepinklineistheCarbonFootprintperperson(asubsetoftheEcologicalFootprint).Thegreenlineshowsthebiocapacityperperson.Resultsfor2019-2022arenowcastestimates;remainingdatapointsaredirectlytakenfromtheNationalFootprintandBiocapacityAccounts,2022edition.00,51,01,52,02,53,03,51961197019801990200020102020GlobalhectaresperpersonFigure13:Humanity’sEcologicalFootprintbylanduseandbyactivitiesTheEcologicalFootprintmeasureshowmuchdemandhumanconsumptionplacesonthebiosphereandcomparesittowhatecosystemscanrenew.In2020,theworldaverageFootprintamountsto2.5globalhectaresperperson,comparedto1.6globalhectaresofbiocapacity.TheFootprintcanbebrokendownbyareacategories(outercircle)or,usingMulti-RegionalInput-OutputAssessments,byactivityfields(innercircle)185,186,187,188,189.GrazinglandfootprintForestproductfootprintFishinggroundsfootprintBuilt-uplandfootprintCroplandfootprintKeyCarbonfootprintHumanity’sEcologicalFootprintbylanduseEcologicalFootprintBiocapacityKeyCarbonfootprintBreakingdowntheEcologicalFootprintGrazinglandfootprintmeasuresthedemandforgrazinglandtoraiselivestockformeat,dairy,leatherandwoolproducts.Forestproductfootprintmeasuresthedemandforforeststoprovidefuelwood,pulpandtimberproducts.Fishinggroundsfootprintmeasuresthedemandformarineandinlandwaterecosystemsneededtorestocktheharvestedseafoodandsupportaquaculture.Croplandfootprintmeasuresthedemandforlandforfoodandfibre,feedforlivestock,oilcropsandrubber.Built-uplandfootprintmeasuresthedemandforbiologicallyproductiveareascoveredbyinfrastructure,includingroads,housingandindustrialstructures.Carbonfootprintmeasurescarbonemissionsfromfossilfuelburningandcementproduction.Theseemissionsareconvertedintoforestareasneededtosequestertheemissionsnotabsorbedbyoceans.Itaccountsforforests’varyingratesofcarbonsequestrationdependingonthedegreeofhumanmanagement,thetypeandageofforests,emissionsfromforestwildfiresandsoilbuild-upandloss.HousingPersonaltransportationGoodsServicesFoodKeyHumanity’sEcologicalFootprintbyactivities60%10%19%3%2%5%30%22%15%15%19%WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT202268691.7-3.4gha/person3.4-5.1gha/person5.1-6.7gha/person>6.7gha/personInsufficientdata<1.7gha/personKeyConsumptionaroundtheworldTolivewithinthemeansofourplanet,humanity’sEcologicalFootprintwouldhavetobelowerthanourplanet’sbiocapacity,whichiscurrentlyat1.6globalhectaresperperson.So,ifacountry’sEcologicalFootprintis6.4globalhectaresperperson,itsresidents’demandonnatureforfood,fibre,urbanareasandcarbonsequestrationisfourtimesmorethanwhat’savailableonthisplanetperperson.TheEcologicalFootprintperpersonisacountry’sEcologicalFootprintdividedbyitspopulation.Figure14:TheEcologicalFootprintperpersonisacountry’sEcologicalFootprintdividedbyitspopulationTolivewithinthemeansofourplanet,humanity’sEcologicalFootprintwouldhavetobelowerthanourplanet’sbiocapacity,whichiscurrentlyat1.6globalhectaresperperson.So,ifacountry’sEcologicalFootprintis6.4globalhectaresperperson,itsresidents’demandonnatureforfood,fibre,urbanareasandcarbonsequestrationisfourtimesmorethanwhat’savailableonthisplanetperperson.Formoredetailsseedata.footprintnetwork.org.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20227071Overthecomingdecades,ifunaddressed,mostdriversareexpectedtocausefurtherclimatechangeandbiodiversitylossand,hence,lossofNature’sContributiontoPeople.Thiswillnegativelyimpactmanyaspectsofagoodqualityoflifeforall,andentailsalargeriskofjeopardisingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.AsillustratedinFigure15,undercurrentpolicies,sustainedincreasesinnetgreenhousegasemissionsareexpectedtopushglobalwar-mingtoabout+3.2°Cby2100(range2.5-3.5°C)110,whilenegativetrendsinbiodiversityandecosystemfunctionsareprojectedtocontinue,withnewthreatssuchasclimatechangeprogressivelyaddingtopressuresfromotherdirectdriverssuchasland-usechangeandoverexploitation112.Asecosystemsdegrade,theircapacitytobothsupporttheprovisionofagriculturalandforestryproductsandtostorecarbonfromtheatmospheredeteriorates:thesemutuallyreinforcingclimateandbiodiversitycrisesmeanthatsatisfactorilyresolvingeitherrequiresconsiderationoftheother39.Tokeepthesustainabledevelopmentagendainsight,astrongsustainabilitytransitionisneededinthecomingdecades.Limitingglobalwarmingto1.5°C,toavoidsevereimpacts(inlinewiththeParisAgreement)willrequirerapidlybendingthecurveofgreenhousegasemissionstoreachnetzeroaroundmid-century.Reversingglobalbiodiversitydeclinesbymid-century(asforeseenbythepost-2020GlobalBiodiversityFramework)willalsorequirereversingthedeclineinnaturalecosystemsandthedegradationofallecosystems.Suchtransitionscanonlybeachievedbyactingonallindirectdriverssimultaneously,representingrapid,far-reachingandunprecedented“transformativechanges”–atermdefinedbyIPBESas“afundamental,system-widereorganisationacrosstechnological,economicandsocialfactors,includingparadigms,goalsandvalues”.THENEEDFORARAPIDSYSTEM-WIDETRANSFORMATIONWithafundamental,system-widereorganisationacrosstechnological,economicandsocialfactors,includingparadigms,goalsandvalues,theremightstillbeachancethatwecanreversethetrendofnature’sdecline.DavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis),BrunaFatichePavani(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),DetlefvanVuuren(UniversityofUtrecht),AafkeSchipper(RadboudUniversity),MichaelObersteiner(OxfordUniversity),NeilBurgess(UNEP-WCMC),RobAlkemade(WageningenUniversity&Research),TimNewbold(UniversityCollegeLondon),MikeHarfoot(VizzualityandUNEP-WCMC)Figure15:Earth’sclimate,biodiversityandpeopleatacrossroadsHumanDrivers-indirectTHECHOICESWEMAKEWILLSHAPECLIMATEANDBIODIVERSITYOUTCOMESHumanDrivers-directGOVERNANCELAND&SEAUSEOVEREXPLOITATIONPOLLUTIONINVASIVESPECIESSTATUSQUOSCENARIOCurrentpolicies&values,leadingtoincreasingpressuresTRANSITIONSCENARIOTransformativechange,leadingtorapidlydecreasingpressuresclimateoutcomes202020502100biodiversityoutcomesclimateoutcomesbiodiversityoutcomesGlobalbiodiversityindicatorGlobalbiodiversityindicatorGlobalwarmingGlobalwarming202020502100202020502100FOSSILRESOURCEEXTRACTIONDEMOGRAPHICSOCIOCULTURALECONOMICTECHNOLOGICALVALUES202020502100WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20227273Studiesexploringhowtoreachambitioustargetsforbiodiversity(asillustratedinFigure16)suggestthatincreasingtraditionalconservationandrestorationeffortsiskey,butthiswillfailtobendthecurveifitisnotcomplementedbyasignificantefforttoaddressdirectandindirectdriversofbiodiversityloss.Inparticular,moresustainableproductionandconsumptionpractices–suchassustainableincreasesinyieldandtrade,reductionofwaste,andtheadoptionofahighershareofplant-basedproductsinourdiets–canbeinstrumentalinlimitingfutureland-useexpansionandmakingspaceforecosystemrestoration.Whilethejointeffectofclimatechangeandland-usechangeonbiodiversityisuncertain,biodiversitydeclinescannotbereducedifwefailtolimitwarmingbelow2°C(orpreferably1.5°C)39,111.Thiswillrequirerapidanddeepdecarbonisationinallsectors–energy,buildings,transport,industry,agricultureandlanduse.Demand-sideeffortsbasedonresponsibleconsumptionprinciplescouldrepresent40-70%ofnetemissionreductionsby2050111.Forbothclimateandbiodiversitythiswillrequiredeliberatechallengingofroutinevaluesandpracticestoactonindirectdrivers,throughmulti-actorgovernanceinterventionsonleveragepoints.TRANSFORMATIVECHANGENEEDSDELIBERATEACTIONONDRIVERSScenario-basedmodellingisincreasinglymobilisedatthescience-policyinterfacetoidentifyplausiblefutures.Ithighlightstheneedtotackledriversasaclearelementoftherequiredtransformativechange.DavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis),BrunaFatichePavani(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),DetlefvanVuuren(UniversityofUtrecht),AafkeSchipper(RadboudUniversity),MichaelObersteiner(OxfordUniversity),NeilBurgess(UNEP-WCMC),RobAlkemade(WageningenUniversity&Research),TimNewbold(UniversityCollegeLondon),MikeHarfoot(VizzualityandUNEP-WCMC)Womansellingfruitandvegetablesinthetownscentralmarket,KotaBharu,KelantanState,Malaysia.19701990198020102020203020402000205020602070208020902100Biodiversityindicatorvalue2010INDICATORVALUEInordertobendthecurveanyearlierthan2050andminimisebiodiversitylosses,ambitiousconservationneedstobecombinedwithsustainableproductionandconsumptionmeasures-theyellowline.Thegreylineshowsthatbiodiversitycontinuestodeclineifwecontinueonourcurrentpathandrecoverydoesnotbeginbefore2100.Conservationactionsarecrucialbutthegreenlineshowsthatalonetheycannotbendthecurvebefore2050,andwillallowmuchgreateroveralllosses.Figure16:Whatbendingthecurvemeansforbiodiversity,andhowtogetthere.Thisillustrationusesonebiodiversityindicator(Meanspeciesabundance,MSA)foronebiodiversitymodel(GLOBIO),averagedacrossfourlandusemodels,toexplainwhatthedifferentscenariosmeanforprojectedbiodiversitytrendsandwhatthistellsusabouthowtobendthecurve.AdaptedfromLeclèreetal.(2020)76.NoactionIncreasedconservationeffortsIntegratedActionPortfolioThedatewhenrecoverybeginsHistoricalScenariosonfutureeffortstobendthecurve(meanacrossland-usechangemodels)WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20227475Thereiscompellingevidencethatglobaltradeisassociatedwithsignificantnegativeimpactsonbiodiversityandpeople,particularlyinproducingcountries118.Theintricatewebofsupplychainsunderlyingoureconomiesmeansthatthesenegativetrade-relatedimpactsonnatureandpeoplecanbeshiftedaroundtheworld,frombuyerstosellersandexporterstoimporters.Therefore,thephenomenonofexportedbiodiversityriskthroughinternationalsupplychains,suchasexporteddeforestation,isacriticallyimportantdriverofbiodiversitylossthatmustbeaddressed119.TheTrade,DevelopmentandEnvironmentHub(TRADEHub)isamulti-country,interdisciplinarycollaborationthatseekstounderstandinternationaltradesystemsandtheirsocialandenvironmentalimpacts.Usingthisknowledge,theHubseekstoinformtransformationalchangeatalllevels,frominternationaltradeagreementsthroughtonationallegislation,includingthroughthemainstreamingofbiodiversityimpactsanddependenciesintradepolicyandimplementation120.Atpresent,globalmomentumisbuildingtogobeyondvoluntarysustainabilitycommitmentspreviouslyputinplacebyindividualentities,towardslegallybindingduediligenceprocessesgovernedbyimportingcountriesorblocs121.IntheUK,forinstance,mandatoryduediligencetoevidencethatimportsaresustainablyproducedhasalreadybeenintroducedthroughSchedule17oftheUK’sEnvironmentAct.Secondarylegislation,todeterminemechanismsforimplementation,isnowbeingdrafted.TRADEHubprovidesongoinganalysesonnation-to-nationtradethatfeedsdirectlyintothesediscussions,suchasthroughthedevelopmentofindicatorsthatcantracehowbiodiversitylosscanbeattributedtoglobalsupplychains119.Further,togetherwithpartnersinIndonesia,Brazil,CentralAfrica,ChinaandTanzania,TRADEHubfocusesonpathwaystowardsequitableandsustainableupstreampractices,especiallysupportingproducerlivelihoods,whilealigningwithdownstreamrequirements,suchasfromendconsumers.TRADEHub:towardssustainableglobalsupplychainsThereisanurgentneedtoaddressthesustainabilityofnaturalresourcesupplychains,giventheimpacttheyhaveonnatureandpeople.Anewambitiousmulti-countrycollaborationislinkinginternationaltradesystemstosocialandenvironmentalimpactstotrytobendthecurveofbiodiversitylossatscale.AmayaaWijesingheandNeilBurgess(UNEP-WCMC)©KarineAigner/WWF-USPalmoilbeingpouredintoabottleforpurchase.Oshwe,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20227677In2021,closeto193millionpeoplein53countriesorterritoriesexperiencedacutefoodinsecurityatcrisislevelsorworse(IPC/CHPhase3-5),anincreaseofnearly40millionpeoplecomparedtotheprevioushighreachedin2020122.Almost3.1billionpeoplecannotaffordahealthydietandmillionsofchildrensufferfromstuntingorwasting,whiletheglobalobesityratecontinuestogrow123.Interconnectedandcollidingglobalandlocalcrisesareunfolding.Rightnow,conflictsincludingthewarinUkraine,economicslowdowns,andthelingeringimpactsofCOVID-19arefurtherpushingmillionsofpeopleintopovertyandhunger.Highinequalitiesinincome,employmentopportunitiesandaccesstoassetsandservicesareincreasingvulnerability,especiallyofsmall-scaleproducers,women,youthandIndigenousPeoples,furtheringfoodandnutritioninsecurity.Theimportanceofbuildingefficient,inclusive,resilientandsustainableagrifoodsystemsthatprovideaffordable,nutritiousandhealthydietsforallwithsimultaneousimprovementsintheeconomic,environmentalandsocialdimensionsofsustainabilityhasneverbeenmoreapparent.Aradicaltransformationofagrifoodsystemsisurgentlyneeded,withdiversificationatmanydifferentlevelsandacrosscomponentsoftheentiresystematitscore.Diversificationinfoodproduction,particularlyacrosscroppingandanimalsystems,isameansofincreasingproductivity,buildingresiliencetoclimatechange,enhancingresistancetopestsanddiseases,bufferingeconomicshocks,improvingtheecologicalperformanceofcrops,andconservingbiodiversity124.Atthehouseholdlevel,diversificationofincomesourcesthroughriskmanagement,safetynetsandlabourmarketdiversificationiskeytoimprovingthewell-beingofindividuals.Diversificationthroughrobustmarketsandtrade,i.e.importsfrommultipletradepartnersandacrossmultiplecommodities,isimportantforincreasingfoodsupplydiversity125.Diversityinwell-connectedfoodsupplychainsisessentialforabsorbingandrecoveringfromshocksandstresses.Finally,diversityindietsiscriticalforensuringhealthyandnutritiousoutcomesattheconsumerlevel.Diversifyingagrifoodsystemsleadstomultiplebenefits.Nonetheless,theinteractionsamongdiversificationofproductionandotherpartsoftheagrifoodsystemarecomplexandneedmoreattention.TheimportanceofdiversificationManycontemporaryagrifoodsystemsareunsustainableand,ascurrentlygoverned,notfitforpurpose.ToachievetheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,agrifoodsystemsmustbetransformedtonourishpeople,nurturetheplanet,advanceequitablelivelihoodsandbuildresilientecosystems.IsmahaneElouafi(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations),PreetmoninderLidder(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations),MonaChaya(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations),ThomasHertel(PurdueUniversity,USA),MorakotTanticharoen(UniversityofTechnologyThonburi,Thailand)FrankEwert(LeibnizCentreforAgriculturalLandscapeResearch(ZALF)andUniversityofBonn,Germany)TheviewsexpressedinthisarticlearethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsorpoliciesofFAO.GLOBECONTINENT/NATIONREGION/LANDSCAPEFARMFIELDSocialSafetynetsRiskinsurances(Agro)ecologicaldiversiﬁcationDiversiﬁcationofhouseholdearningsCropandvarietydiversiﬁcationExamplemeasuresGlobalandcontinentaltradeagreementsGlobalproductiondiversiﬁcationGlobaltradingdiversiﬁcationSupplychain,markets,andtradeDiverseglobalconsumptionpatternsConsumersAgrifoodSystemEnhancedresiliencethroughdiversiﬁcationofproduction,tradingandhousehold-relatedmeasuresEnhancedfoodsecurityandhealththroughdiversiﬁcationinproduction,trade,anddietsProductionLocal/regionaltradingdiversiﬁcationLocal/regionaldietdiversityField,farm,landscape/regiondiversiﬁcationFoodwasteLevelsoforganisationHouseholdFigure17:Foodsystemdiversificationtoenhancefoodsystemsresilience.Source:AdaptedfromHerteletal.(2021)124.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20227879Acriticaltransformativechangeinterventionwillbetoadoptacross-sectoral,integratedapproach(alsotermed‘nexusapproach’),topromotesolutionswithco-benefitsandavoidsolutionswithtrade-offsbetweenbiodiversity,climateandotherSDGs39,109,112.Examplesofpotentialsynergiesincludeactionssuchasprotectingremainingforestsandrestoringecosystems–sometimeslabelled‘nature-basedsolutions’andoftenpromotedasdouble-winsforbiodiversityandtheclimate.Suchsolutionsarealsogaininginterestfortheirpotentialtooffsetfurthergreenhousegasemissionsand/orecosystemdegradationelsewhere.However,appropriatesafeguardsareneededtoensureadequatedesignandthemaintenanceofco-benefits:theafforestationofnaturalgrasslandandthereforestationofforestedecosystemswithmonoculturesofnon-nativespecieswillbedetrimental–notbeneficial–tobiodiversity.Modelandscenarioworkcanexplorepathwaysthatmaximiseco-benefitsandminimisetrade-offsbetweenclimateandbiodiversityandidentifyhard-to-avoidtrade-offs(seeFuturemodellingfrontiers1):whiletechnicallychallenging(seeFuturemodellingfrontiers2),thiswillsupportaneededshiftingovernanceandpolicytowardsintegratedthinkingandnexusapproaches.Thisconceptneedstocoveralsoindirect,andsometimeslong-distance,inter-relationships;forexampleinglobalsupplychains,andthebroadersustainabledevelopmentagenda,includingotherenvironmentalandsocialissuessuchasfreshwateruse,pollution,povertyandhunger.Forexample,modelandscenarioworkshowsthatsomeformsofclimateactionmayentailrisksfortheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsrelatedtowateruseandpollution,biodiversity,healthandhunger,whilesustainableproductionandconsumptionmeasuresinthefoodandenergysystemscanbebeneficialforallthesegoals76,126,127.Nexusthinkingcanalsobeappliedinsupportofconservationandrestorationaction,suchasinspatialplanningtoolsfromglobaltosub-nationalscales(seeFuturemodellingfrontiers4),helpingtoprioritiserestorationactionsformultiplegoals128.Factorssuchasthecapacitytomobiliseresourcesforthetransition,thedegreetowhichbasicmateriallivingconditionsaresatisfied,theexpectedvulnerabilitytoenvironmentaldegradation,andthehistoricalresponsibilityforongoingenvironmentaldegradationarenotequallydistributedacrosscountries,sectorsandactors.Considerationsofequitableeffort-sharinginthetransitionarekeypointsofdiscussionduringinternationalnegotiationsundertheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeandtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Forexample,ascomparedtoothernations,developedcountrieshaveachievedahigherlevelofdevelopment,havealargercapacitytomitigateandmobilisefundingforadaptation,willbelessaffectedbyfutureenvironmentaldegradation,andareresponsibleforabouthalfofcumulativehistoricalgreenhousegasemissions:theapplicationofequityprinciplesimpliesthatdevelopednationsshouldundergofasteremissionreductionsthanothernations,andcontributetointernationalfinancialtransfersforclimatemitigationandadaptation.Asustainabilitytransitionwillaffectthelivesandlivelihoodsofpeopleinbothpositiveandnegativeways,andshouldcontributetoreducingexistinginequalitiesandinjusticesratherthanexacerbatingthem.Thisrequiresarecognitionofvalues,rightsandtheinterestsofallpeople,ashiftingovernancetowardsrights-basedapproachesandadequateproceduralmechanismstoensureeffectiveandinclusiverepresentation,andamoresystematicassessmentofthedistributionalimpactsofcostsandbenefitsofactionsacrossactors.Muchworkremainstobedone,butmodelandscenarioworkhasbeenusedtoexploretheimplicationsofvariousequityprinciplesfordistributingclimatemitigationeffortsacrossnations129,130andthepotentialclimateimplicationsofensuringdecentlivingstandardsforall131,aswellasdistributionalaspectsofNature’sContributionstoPeople132.Ithasalsoexploredtheeconomicimpactsoffurtherecosystemdegradation133,fundinggapstoreachspecificconservationtargets134,andhowequityquestionscouldbeincludedinthedesignofambitiouspathwaysforbiodiversity(seeFuturemodellingfrontiers3).TRANSFORMATIVECHANGENEEDSTOPLACEPEOPLEANDNATUREATITSHEARTIntegrationacrosssectorsandembeddingsocialandenvironmentaljusticeprinciplesattheheartofthetransitionwillbecrucial.DavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis),BrunaFatichePavani(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),DetlefvanVuuren(UniversityofUtrecht),AafkeSchipper(RadboudUniversity),MichaelObersteiner(OxfordUniversity),NeilBurgess(UNEP-WCMC),RobAlkemade(WageningenUniversity&Research),TimNewbold(UniversityCollegeLondon),MikeHarfoot(VizzualityandUNEP-WCMC)WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20228081©JamesSuter/BlackBeanProductions/WWF-USAssistednaturalforestregenerationinZambiaTheforestsinZambiaareunderseriousthreatduetolarge-scaledeforestation,withmostoccurringinopenaccesszonesthatareunderaweakorineffectivemanagementregime.Woodfuel(charcoalandfirewood),agriculturalexpansion,timberextraction,bushfires,andminingandinfrastructuraldevelopmentaresomeofthemaincausesofdeforestationinthecountry.IntheAssistedNaturalForestRegenerationproject,theClimateSmartAgricultureAlliance(CSAA)isworkingwithfarmersintheCentralProvincetomanagethenaturalregenerationofdeforestedareas.Naturalregenerationrequirestimeandzeroexternalinterventiontoflourish,sofarmersfromlocalcommunitiesaretrainedinareassuchasfiremanagementandcontinuousmonitoringtoensurethatareasunderregenerationareprotected.Localfarmersactivelyparticipateintherestorationandprotectionoftheforest.Theyassumetheroleoftraditionalleaderswhoareconsideredthecustodiansofnatureinsuchcommunities.AwomanpreparesafirebythesideoftheLuangwaRiverinZambia.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20228283Globalbiodiversityscenariostudieshaverecentlyshiftedfocusfrommakingexploratoryprojectionstoidentifyingstrategiesforachievingobjectivesfordesirablenaturefutures76,135.Forstrategiestobeeffective,theyneedtotacklethedirectandindirectdriversofbiodiversitychangeandaccountforsynergiesandtrade-offswithotherSustainableDevelopmentGoals136-139.TheIMAGE-GLOBIOframeworkwasusedtoassesstheeffectivenessoftwocontrastingstrategiesforputtingnatureonapathtorecoverywhilecontributingtohaltingclimatechangeandfeedinganincreasingandwealthierglobalpopulation179.Thestrategiesreflectdifferentvaluesofnature140,differentapproachestoarea-basedconservation,anddifferencesinagriculturalproductionsystems,thusbroadeningourviewonthe‘solutionspace’.Thestudyrevealedthatbothstrategiesmay'bendthecurve'ofbiodiversity,butonlyifarea-basedconservationiscombinedwithchangesintheenergyandfoodsystems,minimisingfoodwaste,reducingtheconsumptionofanimalproductsandlimitingclimatechange(Figure18).Modelandscenariostudiesareinvestigatingpathwaysforambitioustargetsforbiodiversityandclimate(seeFuturemodellingfrontiers1),withexplicitaccountingforbothclimateandland-usechangepressuresonbiodiversity.Yetthesetwomajordriversofbiodiversitychangemayreinforceoneanother141-144fortwokeyreasons145.First,land-usechangescreatefragmentedlandscapes,throughwhichitisharderforspeciestomovetokeepupwithclimatechange144.Second,land-usechangefromnaturalhabitatstohuman-usedland(agricultureandcities)altersthelocalclimate,typicallycreatinghotteranddrierconditions,andsoaddingtotheeffectsofregionalclimatewarming146.Theseinteractionsfurtherhighlighttheimportanceofintegratedapproaches,buttheyarechallengingtoincludeinmodels.Forexample,recentworksuggeststhatincreasingnaturalhabitatswithinlandscapesmightreversethedirectimpactsofland-usechangeonbiodiversity,andbuffertheeffectsofclimatechangebyprovidingcoolerandwetterlocalclimateconditionsandcorridors143,144,147.However,thismightnotworkeverywhere148.Futuremodellingfrontiers1:pathwaysintegratingbothclimateandbiodiversityactionFuturemodellingfrontiers2:bettermodellingofclimateandland-useimpactsonbiodiversityAafkeSchipper(RadboudUniversity),DavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis)andRobAlkemade(WageningenUniversity&Research).TimNewbold(UniversityCollegeLondon),BrunaFatichePavani(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil),AafkeSchipper(RadboudUniversity)andDavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis)51%50%52%53%54%55%56%57%58%59%60%20152020202520302035204020452050MeanSpeciesAbundance51%50%52%53%54%55%56%57%58%59%60%MeanSpeciesAbundanceHalfEarth-integratedsustainabilitySharingthePlanet-integratedsustainabilityHalfEarth-integratedsustainabilitySharingthePlanet-integratedsustainabilitySharedSocioeconomicPathways2baselineKeyMitigatingimpactsfromclimatechangeReducingimpactsfromfragmentation,infrastructureandencroachmentNaturerestorationinsupportingmixedsystems(SP-IS)Ecologicalrestoration(HE-IS)ExpandingandimprovingconservationSharedSocioeconomicPathways2baselineKeyFigure18:Contributionofconservationmeasurestobiodiversityintactnessin2050fortwocontrastingconservationstrategies,andabaselinecomparisonBiodiversityintactnessisexpressedbythemeanspeciesabundance(MSA)indicatoroftheGLOBIOmodel.a)Overallglobalterrestrialmeanspeciesabundance.b)Measurescontributingtopreventingterrestrialmeanspeciesabundancelossin2050.Source:AdaptedfromKoketal.(2020)179.a.b.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20228485InWestAfrica,inthetransboundaryforestlandscapethatextendsfromsoutheastGuineaintoSierraLeonetothewest,LiberiatothesouthandIvoryCoasttotheeast,Fauna&FloraInternational,withpartnersandstakeholders,isintroducingtheCALM(CollaborationAcrosstheLandscapetoMitigatetheimpactsofdevelopment)framework149toputnatureattheheartofsustainabledevelopment.Theregionisrichinbiodiversityandhometoarapidlygrowingpopulation.Manyruralcommunitiesrelyonsmall-scaleagricultureforsubsistenceandareheavilydependentonaccesstolandandtheessentialservicesprovidedbynature.Multipleeconomicsectorsreliantonnaturalresourceextractionalsooperateinthislandscape,whichisexpectedtofaceintensifyingpressurefromplannedlarge-scaleminingprojectsaswellasTowardsmulti-uselandscapesinAfricaPippaHoward,NickyJenner,KoighaeToupou,NeusEstela,MaryMolokwu-Odozi,ShadrachKerwillain,AngeliqueTodd(Fauna&FloraInternational)Urgentandtransformativeactionisneededtoaddressthecomplex,interconnectedchallengesfacingsocietytoday.Siloedandfragmentedapproachescannotadequatelyfightclimatechange,biodiversityloss,waterscarcity,foodsecurityandpoverty.Anewapproachisputtingnatureattheheartofdecision-makingandcallsforcollaborativeactionwithinandbetweensectorstoachievesuccess.associatedtransportinfrastructure.Thepotentialforsignificantcumulativeimpactsonbiodiversityandcommunitiesishigh.CALMbuildsonthestrengthsofexistingconceptsandapproaches:landscapeapproaches,themitigationhierarchy,andtheconceptofsocioecologicalsystems.Theframeworkisdesignedtoembednatureintolanduseanddevelopmentprocessesandcallsforgreatercoordinationandcollaborationtowardsachievingcommonsustainablelandscapeobjectives.Theframeworkisdesignedtobeusedincomplexmulti-uselandscapeswherepressurefromconcurrentdevelopmentsisintensifyingorisanticipated,andtoaddressshortcomingsincurrentbusiness-as-usualmanagement,sothatlandscapesareresilient,developmentissustainable,andsocialandecologicalvaluessurviveandthrive.Aseachdecision,projectandactivitycutsawayalittlemoreforest,addspollutantstotheriversandsoils,andextractsmorenaturalresourcesthanareputback,thecumulativeeffectsonspecies,ecosystemsandthepeoplethatdependonthemareoftensignificant.Thereisgrowingconcernthatthiswillleadto‘deathbyathousandcuts’150.InpilotingtheCALMframework,Fauna&FloraInternationalisengagingdiverseactorsandinstitutionstobetterunderstandforestlandscapesunderpressurefromdevelopment,fosterdialogue,andidentifyopportunitiesforcollectiveandcollaborativeactiontoachievesustainablelandscapeobjectives.1.2.3.2.1.AVOIDandSECUREpriorityareastomaintainbiodiversityandecosystemservices2.MITIGATEandMANAGEinducedandcumulativeeffectsacrossthelandscape3.RESTOREdegradedecosystemsandAVOIDandMINIMISEfutureimpactsAlllanduserscontributetolandscapeobjectivesthroughindividual,collectiveandcollaborativeactionsto:Figure19:TheCALMframeworkataglance:individual,collectiveandcollaborativeactionsallcontributetolandscapeobjectives.Source:AdaptedfromFFI(2021)149.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20228687Conventionalenvironmentalpolicyandmanagementhasmainlyfocusedonthedirectcausesofnature’sdegradation.Forexample,deforestationdirectlycausesbiodiversityloss,andtheexcessiveuseofagrochemicalspollutesthesoilandwater.Whilenecessary,thereiswidespreadagreementamongthescienceandpolicycommunitiesthatthisconventionalconservationapproachaloneisfailingtochangethedestructivewayinwhichoureconomiesandsocietiesuseandrelatetonature39,76,112.Moreurgentandambitious‘transformativechanges’areneededtothewaysinwhichweliveinmodernhumansocietytoreducetherootcausesofnaturedegradation151.Thesecausescanbedemographic(e.g.humanpopulationdynamics),sociocultural(e.g.productionandconsumptionpatterns,status-seekingbehaviour),financial(e.g.thefocusonGDPgrowthandincreasingwealththroughinvestmentsorprofits),technological,orrelatedtopoorinstitutionsandgovernance.Inallcases,theserootcausesrelatetothewayinwhichindividuals,households,firms,andorganisationsusescarcenaturalresourcestoachievemultiple,sometimescompetinggoals,andthevalueallocatedtonatureinmakingthenecessarytrade-offs.FranciscoAlpízarandJeanneNel(WageningenUniversity&Research)Economics,atitscore,isthestudyofhowpeoplemakechoicesunderconditionsofscarcity,andoftheconsequencesofthosechoicesforsociety.Simplyput,weneedtomovetoaneconomythatvalueswell-beinginitsdiverseforms,notonlymonetary,andonewhichisfullyresponsivetoresourcescarcity.Therearethreekeyprinciplesthatneedtobeembeddedintoeconomicstodrivethetransformativechangesrequired:Creatingafutureinwhichpeopleandnatureflourishdependsonhowsocietyvaluesnatureandhowthatisbuiltintodailydecisions.Differentperspectivesandmultiplevalues(notonlymoney-based)defineeverydaypracticesanddecisions.Institutionsshouldarticulatethesevaluesintosocialconventions,normsandrules.Yetcurrentinstitutionsandgovernmentpolicieslopsidedlyfavournature’sdegradation,therebyeitheractivelypromotingdestructivepracticesorfailingtoregulatethem.Harmfulsubsidies,e.g.thosemakingfossilfuelscheaperorlandclearinglesscostly,wereestimatedatUS$4-6trillionin202038,andexistinggovernanceofcommonpoolnaturalresourcesreliesonweaklegislation(e.g.voluntaryincentives)withnoclearlineofresponsibility.Asaresultitfrequentlyfailstoprotectkeynaturalinfrastructure,forexampletheworld’soceans,rainforestsandwetlands,thatprovidecriticalservicestopeople.Embeddingnaturemoreexplicitlyintofinancialandeconomicsystemscanhelptoshiftchoicestowardssustainablepractices.Threeglobaltransitionsarekeyfromaneconomicperspective:Thepricesofcommoditiesandinputsshouldreflectthetruecosttosocietyintermsofenvironmentalandhumanimpacts,therebyrebalancingthedemandandsupplyofconsumptiongoods,fromfoodtosneakers,towithinthelimitsofnature’scapacity.Theuseofeconomictoolslikesocialcost-benefitanalysis,andimproveddiscountingtoaccountforverylong-termhorizons,shouldbecomepartoftheglobalstandardofpracticeforcredibledecision-makingbybusinesses,financialinstitutions,andmultilateralorganisations.Forexample,infrastructureprojectsfundedbymultilateralbanksshouldundergoathoroughsocialcost-benefitanalysis.Animprovedrecognitionofthepublicnatureofkeynaturalresources(e.g.ouroceans,riversandriparianforests,wetlands)shouldleadtospecialattentionintermsofgovernanceandprecautionarysafeguards.Whatdoweneedfromeconomicsfortransformativechange?Figure20:Conventionalconservationeffortshavemainlyfocusedoneventsthatdirectlydrivebiodiversityloss(e.g.habitatlossorover-exploitationofspecies),orunderstandingthepatternscausingtheseevents(e.g.trendsinlanduseovertimelinkedtospeciesdecline).Whiletheseapproacheshelpustoreacttoeventsandanticipateandplanforthem,theyignoretherootcausesthatledtotheseeventsandpatternsinthefirstplace–thesocalled‘indirectdrivers’.Transformativeapproachesfocusonaddressingtheseindirectdrivers:thesystemicstructures(e.g.economics,politicalandsocialsystems)andthevaluesandnormsthatshapeourrelationtonature.Source:adaptedfromAbsonetal.(2017)181.EVENTSPATTERNSSYSTEMICSTRUCTURESVALUESANDNORMSVALUESANDNORMSSYSTEMICSTRUCTURESPATTERNSEVENTSWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20228889Transformativechangescanbetriggeredbycarefullydesignedinterventions,targetingcriticalleveragepoints,atdifferentscalesofactionthatchangethechoicearchitectureunderpinningday-to-daydecisions.Thedesignofsuchinterventionsandassociatedenablingconditionsneedstoconsidertrade-offsbetweencompetinggoalsthatspandifferentplacesandpeoplethroughouttheentiresocioecologicalsystem,andtheroleofincentivesandpoliticalbarrierstopolicyimplementation152.Transformativechangerequiresamixofregulations,publicengagementandbehavioural/market-basedinstruments,whilesimultaneouslydiscontinuingharmfulsubsidiesanddisincentives153,154.Figure21:Systemtippingdynamics-agentsofchangeandamixofinterventionscancreateenablingconditionsthattriggerandacceleratetransformativepathwaystosustainableextraction,production,consumptionandtrade.Source:AfterChanetal.(2020)180;Lentonetal.2022155.CREATINGENABLINGCONDITIONSTRIGGERINGLEVERAGEPOINTSAgentsofchangeMIXOFINTERVENTIONSDzameShehihandlesachameleonfoundbytheroadside.Dzombovillage.Kwale,Kenya.©GregArmfield/WWF-UKWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20229091Wecanexplorefornewspeciesusingvisual,acousticandgenomicsensors,monitordeforestationinalltheworld’sforestsandprotectedareasinrealtime,modelandpredicttheecosystemsthatwillbemostunderthreat,andmanagethesesystemsthroughdecisionsupportframeworks–ifwewantto.Becausethedifficultyaheadisnotoneoftechnologicalcapability,butofhumandesire.Harnessingtheinfrastructureoftheinformationagetoprotectourplanetwillrequirearapid,purposeful,coordinatedanddedicatedglobalagreementandinvestment.Aneffortthatmovesbeyondexperimentationtodeliveractualproductsthatcanbedeployedatscalebygovernmentsandorganisationsaroundtheworld.Aneffortthatfeedsintorepeatablereportingframeworksthatallowustomanageourworldmoreadaptively.OnecanimagineaLivingPlanetReportunderpinnedbyavasttechnologicalinfrastructurefeedinginformationfromecosystemsaroundtheworldintoacentralisedrepositoryoverseenbyscientistsdedicatedtomaintainingthesystemandrespondingtoitsalerts.Ido.Itistimetodomorethanimagine.Wemustputtechnologytoworkfortheplanet–tohelppeopleexplore,monitor,modelandultimatelymanageEarth’snaturalresources.Doingsowillrepresentoneofthemostvaluableinvestmentshumansocietiescanmake–simultaneouslyensuringthefutureofhumanitywhilepayingoffthedebtsofourpast.Theeconomicsaresimple–thefoundationofmodernlifeisbuiltuponthenaturalresourcesdeliveredbyclimates,ecosystemsandspecies.Thescienceiscomplicated.Determininghownaturalsystemsarecreatedandmaintained–andhowtheybecomedestabilisedwhendisrupted–isacomplextaskrequiringdeepinsightsfromphysics,chemistry,biologyandecology.Ourunderstandingofthesesystemsisnotperfect.Wehaveonlydiscoveredafractionofthespeciesonthisplanetandhaveanevenmorerudimentaryunderstandingofthetraitstheypossessandtheinteractionstheyengageintoachievethebalanceofnaturehumansarecompletelyrelianton.Butwealsoknowthatforfartoolongpeoplehaveborrowedfromourenvironmentalfuturetopayforoureconomicpresent.Weknowclimatesarequicklydestabilising,ecosystemsaredecaying,andspeciesaregoingextinct.Wenowhaveanurgentchoice–torepayourdebts,orcontinuetodestabilisetheinfrastructureofmodernhumansociety.Logicdictatestheanswer;defaultingisnotanoption.Weknowwhatwemustdo:balancetozerotheaccumulationofgreenhousegasesinouratmosphere,thedestructionofourforests,fields,andwater,andthepopulationdeclinesandextinctionsofspecies.Butquestionsremain.Howshouldwestructurepoliciestoachievethis,andhowshouldweenforcethemandmeasuretheirimpactswhileconstantlyincreasingourbasicunderstandingofthenaturalsystemsweareworkingtoconserve?Thetechnologytoanswerthesequestionsisnowavailable.Accesstounprecedentedamountsofdatafromsensorsonsatellites,smartphonesandinsitudevicescanbecombinedwithincredibleamountsofcomputingpowerthroughadvancedalgorithmstohelpusclassify,predictandmakedecisionsaboutmanagingnaturalsystems.LucasJoppa(Microsoft)Theeconomicsaresimple,thescienceiscomplicated.Cantechnologyhelpustoexplore,monitor,model,andultimatelymanageEarth’snaturalresourcessustainably?MakingtechnologyworkfortheplanetWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20229293Stretchingacross32,941hectares,theKaptagatlandscape,includinga13,000hectareforest,isanextensionofthelargerCherangany-ElgeyoHillsecosystem,oneofKenya’sfivekeywatertowers156.Duetoitshighaltitudeandclimateitiswheremanyeliteathletes,includingEliudKipchoge,therenownedworldmarathonchampion,train157.LikemanylandscapesacrossKenya,Kaptagatfacescountlessthreatsincludingclimatechange,unsustainableagriculturalpractices,illegallogging,overgrazing,forestencroachment,forestfiresandlandslides156.So,inlinewiththeKenyangovernment’sdevelopmentstrategy,KenyaVision2030(ConstitutionofKenya,2010;GovernmentofKenya,2016),WWF-KenyaandtheEliudKipchogeFoundationareimplementingtheprojectGreeningKaptagat:EstablishingAgroforestryandCleanEnergySolutionswithinaForest-BasedLandscape160.Byworkingwithcommunitymembers,andinpartnershipwithgovernmentagenciesandpassionatenaturechampions,morethan225hectaresoflandhasbeenrestoredinthelasttwoyears.Seedlingshavebeensourcedfromwomenandyouthgroupsaswellasnurseriesownedandrunbylocalcommunityforestgroups,enhancingtheirlivelihoodsthroughincreasedincome.Overall,theGreeningKaptagatprojectwillleadtoatleast1,000hectaresofdeforestedanddegradedlandbeingputunderrestoration,andatleast1,000peoplebenefitingfromimprovedlandproductivity.Further,bytraininglocalfarmersonsustainablecropandanimalfarming,therewillbelesspressureonthelandscape,especiallyfromovergrazingandencroachmentontheforestformorefarmland.Throughtheprovisionofgrainsilosandhermeticbagstherewillbelowerpost-harvestlosses.Theprojecthasalsofacilitatedglobalandnationaladvocacytomainstreamclimatepolicy.JacksonKiplagat,JoelMuinde,KiungaKarekoandGideonKibusia(WWF-Kenya)Dr.EliudKipchoge(twotimeOlympicChampion&Kenya’sDelegatetoCOP26inGlasgow)“Wearethegenerationwhoinheritedtheworldfromthepioneersofyesteryearsandourgreatcontributionwillbeanchoredonsustainability.Ourtask,however,isnotsosimple.Itisaraceagainsttimetosavewhatisleftofourhome.Everyminutecountsjustlikeamarathon.Mygenerationofathleteswillrunthismarathontosaveourforests.”Dr.EliudKipchoge,renownedworldmarathonandnaturechampion.GreeningKaptagatinKenya©WWF-KenyaDr.EliudKipchogeattheFourthAnnualKaptagatTreePlantingDrivein2020.ThroughtheEliudKipchogeFoundation,hehasadopted50hectaresinKaptagatforestforrestorationaspartofWWF’sGreeningKaptagatLandscapeRestorationProgrammewiththegovernmentofKenyaandlocalcommunities.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20229495Afairandjusttransitionwillneedseveralinterventions,fromtheeffectiverecognitionandparticipationofmarginalisedgroupsindecision-making,topromotingdeliberationonthefairdistributionofeffortsandbenefits.Theimplicationsofvariousequityprinciplesforthedistributionofclimateactionacrossnationshavebeenexplored129,butlesssoforbiodiversity;thismightbeasignificantbarriertotheimplementationofthepost-2020GlobalBiodiversityFramework.Whatcouldafairdistributionofactionsacrossnationstowardsanemblematicgoal,suchasaglobalnetgainofnaturalecosystems,looklike?Inavailableland-usechangeprojectionswepicturedsuchanetgainintheglobalareaofnaturalecoystems76but,isthedistributionofeffortsacrosscountriesfair?Suchprojectionsarebroadlyconsistentwiththeideathatnationswhichhavealreadyconvertedalargeshareoftheirnaturalecosystemsandreachedahighhumandevelopmentlevelcouldbeaskedtoreachambitiousnetgaintrajectories,whilecountriesintheoppositesituationmightstillbeallowedamanagednetlosstrajectory–aframethatwasproposedbyotherstoillustratehowequityprinciplessuchashistoricalresponsibilityandrighttodevelopmentcouldplayout161.Beyondthisillustration,thedevelopmentoffairtransitionmodelsandscenarioscouldbeusedtoexplorepathwayscompatiblewithabroadersetofalternativeequityprinciples,representingadiversifiedsetofworldviews.Modelscouldalsoexplorethedistributionofeffortsandbenefitsatvariousscalesandforvariousgroups,includingtheriskstoIndigenousPeoplesandLocalCommunitiesfromadditionalconservationandrestorationefforts,andthepotentialbenefitsfromrights-basedapproaches.MikeHarfoot(VizzualityandUNEP-WCMC),DavidLeclère(InternationalInstituteforAppliedSystemsAnalysis)Futuremodellingfrontiers3:betterinclusionofequityandfairnessinbiodiversitypathwaysThebenefitsandcostsarisingfromrestoration,conservationandconversionactivitiescanvarysignificantlyforagivenlandscape.ThemulticriteriaoptimisationofpriorityareasshouldaffordbetterresultsforbiodiversityandNature’sContributiontoPeopleineffortstoincreaseagriculturalproductivityandecosystemrestoration.TherecentAmazon2030initiativerecommendstheimmediatedevelopmentandadoptionofspatialprioritisationmaps,tooptimisecostsandbenefitsforAmazonforestrestoration,byprivateandpublicdecision-makersandagentsofinternationalcooperationandinvestment191.Modellingexercisesarecurrentlybeingcarriedouttoassessthedifferentlevelsofglobalefforts193todiscussthegoalsthatwillguidetheaction-orientedtargetsfrompartiestotheConventiononBiologicalDiversityuntil2050192.Itisimportanttopointoutthatthesescenariosaccountforfutureprojectionsonagriculturalandurbanexpansion,populationgrowthandclimatechange,beyondrestrictionsforrestorationonalocallevel.Feasibletargetsshouldaimforenvironmentalandsocioeconomicgainssimultaneously,bendingthecurveforbiodiversityandNature’sContributiontoPeoplethroughsystematicspatialplanning.BrunaFatichePavani,BernardoBaetaNevesStrassburg,PauloDurvalBrancoandRafaelLoyola(InternationalInstituteforSustainability,Brazil)Futuremodellingfrontiers4:modellingbiodiversitytargetsatregionalandglobalscalesWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20229697TheAmazonAssessmentReport2021,developedbymorethan240scientists,looksattheAmazon’scurrentstate,threats,andpolicy-relevantsolutionsbasedontheknowledgeofthescientificcommunityoftheregionandIndigenousandlocalknowledge.Basedonthecurrentstateanditsthreats,theauthorsrecommendfourkeyactions:(1)animmediatemoratoriumondeforestationanddegradationinareasapproachingatippingpoint;(2)theachievementofzerodeforestationanddegradationby2030;(3)therestorationofterrestrialandaquaticecosystems;and(4)aninclusiveandjustbioeconomyofhealthyforestsandrivers.Theseactionsareurgentbecause17%oftheAmazonbasinhasbeendeforested162,withanadditional17%ofthebiomedegraded163.ThisisthreateningtheAmazon,acriticalelementintheEarth’sclimatesystem,storing150to200billiontonnesofcarbon164,165,anditsbiodiversity–including18%ofvascularplantspecies,14%ofbirds,9%ofmammals,8%ofamphibiansand18%offishesthatinhabitthetropics(datacalculatedforthebiogeographiclimitsoftheSciencePanelfortheAmazonutilisingdatafrom166and167).Currently,27%oftheAmazonisoccupiedbyIndigenousterritorieswiththelowestratesofdeforestation168.Tosafeguardandstrengthentheirrights,andadvancesustainabledevelopment,theSciencePanelfortheAmazonconsidersinvestmentsinscience,technology,innovation,andIndigenousPeoplesandlocalcommunity-ledlandconservationessentialtoavoidcatastrophicoutcomesintheAmazonandglobally.CarlosNobre(UniversityofSãoPaulo’sInstituteforAdvancedStudies),MercedesBustamante(UniversityofBrasilia),GermánPoveda(UniversidadNacionaldeColombia),MarielosPeña-Claros(WageningenUniversity)andEmmaTorres(UNSustainableDevelopmentSolutionsNetwork)TheAmazonAssessmentReport2021,producedbytheSciencePanelfortheAmazon,isthemostcomprehensiveandcompellingscientificportraitoftheAmazoneverproduced,providingaroadmapfortheregion’ssurvivalandsustainabledevelopment.TheAmazonWeWant:atransitiontosustainabledevelopmentFigure22:MultipleandconnecteddimensionsforafairandjusttransformationtowardstheVisionoftheLivingandSustainableAmazon.Source:SciencePanelfortheAmazon(2021)169.AMAZONPEOPLES'RIGHTS,KNOWLEDGEANDWELL-BEINGIndigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities'FUNDAMENTALRIGHTSrecognizedandprotectedKNOWLEDGEDIALOGUESandpublicparticipationanddecision-makingeffectivelyimplementedCULTURALDIVERSITYandgenderequalityarepursuedINTERCULTURALEDUCATIONandcapacitybuildingareaccessibleandsupportedThrivingLIVELIHOODSandimprovedWELL-BEINGofAmazonpeopleGOVERNANCEANDFINANCEKNOWLEDGE-BASEDPOLICIESdesignedandimplementedEstablishmentofsustainability-orientedglobalpartnershipsforresourcesandFINANCIALINVESTMENTSEffectiveCIVILSOCIETYPARTICIPATIONindecision-makingisguaranteedPan-AmazonianandMULTILATERALAMAZONCOORDINATIONisimplemented,andillegalactivitiesarecurbedHEALTHYSTANDINGFORESTSANDFLOWINGRIVERSBIOECONOMYScientific,andIndigenousandlocalKNOWLEDGECONNECTEDandexpandedInclusivemodelsfortheuseofBIOLOGICALRESOURCESareimplementedINNOVATIVEAPPROACHEStoagribusinessproductionandlowcarbondevelopmentimplementedCONSERVATIONANDRESTORATIONInnovativeapproachesforconservationandrestorationIMPLEMENTEDNetworkofProtectedareaseffectivelyimplementedandMANAGEDAquaticandterrestrialecosystemsareCONSERVED,sustainablyusedandrestoredResilienceandlandscapeconnectivityRESTOREDandmaintainedWWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT20229899TheAmazonisthelargestandmostbioculturallydiversetropicalforestintheworld.Itishometomorethan500IndigenousPeoples(IP)groups,including66groupslivinginvoluntaryisolationandinitialcontact172.TheAmazonRiversystemholdsnearly20%oftheworld’sfreshwater173,whileIndigenousTerritoriesphysicallyoccupy2.37millionkm2oftheAmazonbasin174.Bythemselves,AmazoniaIndigenousTerritoriesareresponsibleforstoringnearlyonethird(32.8%)oftheAmazoniaregion'sabove-groundcarbon(28.247milliontonnes),makingasignificantcontributiontothemitigationof,andadaptationto,climatechange.In2021,theIUCNhighlightedtheroleofIndigenousterritoriesbyrecognisingthemas“spacesforsustainableconservation”175.Thesearescientificandstatisticaldata,butforAmazonianIndigenousPeoplestheAmazonismorethanthat.Itisthespacewhereourpast,presentandfutureconverge;itistheenergyandconnectionwithourancestors,withtherivers,themountains,andtheanimals.Itrepresentsourhome,oursourceofhealingandfood;itisourlife.Yet,governmentsandnationalleadersdonotunderstandthisworldviewanddonotusetheintegrativeapproachofIndigenousPeoplesforenvironmentalandsocialsafeguards.Asaresult,bothimpactsandthreatsareadvancinginourterritories,bringingtheAmazonregiontoadangeroustippingpoint.Sciencehasestablishedthatthetippingpointisbetweenathresholdof20to25%ofdeforestationandforestdegradationcombined177.Datashowsthat26%oftheAmazonisunderastateofadvanceddisturbance176whichincludesforestdegradation,recurrentfires,anddeforestation.Thisisnotafuturescenario;wearecurrentlyexperiencingacontinuouslevelofdestructionintheregionwithdevastatinglocalimpactsandnegativeimplicationsatagloballevelforclimatestability.GregorioDiazMirabalandZackRomoParedesHolguer(CoordinatorofIndigenousOrganizationsoftheAmazonRiverBasin–COICA),AlonsoCórdovaArrieta(WWF-Peru)AmazonianIndigenousorganisationsrepresenting511nationsandalliesarecallingforaglobalagreementforthepermanentprotectionof80%oftheAmazonby2025asanurgentmeasuretoavertanimminenttippingpointandplanetarycrisis.Thehorizonsetforglobalconservationgoalsistheyear2030,butineightyearstheAmazonasweknowitmighthaveceasedtoexist.Facingthisscenario,wetheIndigenousPeoplesdreamaboutworkingwithterritorialandglobalalliancestoprotectanddefendourAmazon,motherjungle,andtostopitfrombreathingitslastbreath.Weneeditsair,itswater,itsmedicineanditsfood,weneeditsspiritualstrength,andthatwillonlybepossiblewiththeunity,respectandinclusionofallwisdom,technologiesandknowledge,sittingatthesametableandatthesamelevel.ThatiswhyCOICAiscallingforaglobalagreementforthepermanentprotectionof80%oftheAmazonby2025,backedbyallAmazongovernmentsandbyIndigenousPeoplesandtheglobalcommunity,asanurgentresponsetothecurrentclimateandbiodiversitycrisesfacinghumanity.Toaccomplishthisweneedlegalsecurityforourterritoriesasaguaranteeforlife;recognitionoftherighttofree,prior,andinformedconsultation;protectionandrespectforthetraditionalknowledgesystemsofIndigenousPeoplesassolutions;anendtothecriminalisationofIndigenousdefendersaswellastheviolence,systemicthreatsandmurdersagainstthem;anddirectfinancingforIndigenousPeopleswithpermanenttechnicalsupportforhumanandeconomicresourcemanagement.Finally,wedirectaquestiontopoliticians,academicsandtotheworld:isitpossiblefortheAmazonbiometobedeclaredaslivingIntangibleCulturalHeritage,andforallthecreatureswholiveinittonolongerbemurdered,burnedandcontaminated?Isitpossibletosavethisecosystemfromextinction?Webelieveitcertainlyis,buttoachieveit,itisurgenttovalueIndigenousPeoplesandtoallowthemtoleadthisprocesstogetherwithallofyou.Anurgentcalltoprotect80%oftheAmazonby2025AboutCOICACoordinatoroftheIndigenousOrganizationsoftheAmazonBasin,isanindigenousorganizationofinternationalconvergencethatactsonbehalfof511IndigenousPeoples,ofwhichapproximately66areIndigenousPeoplesinVoluntaryIsolationandInitialContact(PIACI).COICAisarticulatedthroughorganizationswithapolitical-organizationalbase,presentinthe9Amazoniancountries:AIDESEP(Peru):InterethnicAssociationfortheDevelopmentofthePeruvianJungle.COIAB(Brazil):CoordinatoroftheIndigenousOrganizationsoftheBrazilianAmazon(CoordenaçãodasOrganizaçõesIndígenasdaAmazôniaBrasileira).ORPIA(Venezuela):RegionalOrganizationoftheIndigenousPeoplesofAmazonas.CIDOB(Bolivia):ConfederationofIndigenousPeoplesofBolivia.CONFENIAE(Ecuador):ConfederationofIndigenousNationalitiesoftheEcuadorianAmazon.APA(Guyana):AmerindianPeoplesAssociationofGuyana.OPIAC(Colombia):NationalOrganizationoftheIndigenousPeoplesoftheColombianAmazon.OIS(Suriname):IndigenousOrganizationsofSuriname(OrganizationvanInheemseninSuriname).FOAG(FrenchGuiana):FederationofAutochthonousOrganizationsofFrenchGuiana(FederationOrganizationsAutochtonesGuyane).Source:https://coicamazonia.org/somos/WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022100101TheevidencepresentedinthiseditionoftheLivingPlanetReportisclear.Thepressureweareplacingonthenaturalworldisdrivinganescalatingnaturecrisiswhich,inturn,isunderminingitsabilitytoprovidecrucialservices,includingclimatechangemitigationandadaptation.Ourdestructionofnatureisalsoincreasingourvulnerabilitytopandemics,whileplacingthemostvulnerableatthegreatestrisk.Thereisstilltimetoact,buturgencyisneeded.Anumberofsolutionsareavailable,developedbymanydifferentstakeholders,frombusinesstoIndigenousPeoplesandlocalcommunities.Theserangefromnewfinancialdisclosureinitiativestobetterunderstandandaligntheimpactoffinance,tothemulti-uselandscapeapproachesandcasestudiesdetailedinthisreport.Thedriversofbiodiversitylossarecomplexandcross-cutting,anditisvitaltoacknowledgethatthereisnosingle,simplesolution.Itisthereforeallthemoreimportantthattheworldadoptsasharedglobalgoalfornature,toguideanddriveactionacrossgovernments,businessandsociety.Aglobalgoalofreversingbiodiversitylosstosecureanature-positiveworldby2030isnecessaryifwearetoturnthetideonnaturelossandsafeguardthenaturalworldforcurrentandfuturegenerations193.Itmustbeourguidingstar,inthesamewaythatthegoaloflimitingglobalwarmingto2°C,andpreferably1.5°C,guidesoureffortsonclimate.Actiontosecureanature-positiveworldthisdecade,measuredthroughanincreaseinthehealth,abundance,diversityandresilienceofspecies,populationsandecosystems,canbetakenbyeveryone,andalsoadoptednationallyandultimatelyglobally,tourgentlytransformourrelationshipwithnature.Encouragingly,momentumisbuilding.Morethan90worldleadershaveendorsedaLeaders’PledgeforNature,committingtoreversebiodiversitylossby2030,andG7havesignalledtheirambitiontosecureanature-positiveworld.THEPATHAHEADFigure23:NaturePositiveby2030Ameasurableglobalgoalfornature.Source:Lockeetal.(2021)193.FULLRECOVERYBY2050ZERONETLOSSOFNATUREFROM20202040203020202050IndicatorsofBiodiversityTheUNConventiononBiologicalDiversity’sCOP15providesamomentousopportunityforworldleaderstoadoptanambitiousglobalbiodiversityframeworkthatdrivesimmediateactionforanature-positiveworld.Whengovernmentsprotect30%oftheworld’sland,freshwaterandoceansthroughrights-basedandcommunity-ledapproaches;tacklethedriversofnaturelossthatlargelyoriginateintheother70%;ratchetuptheiractionsiftheyarecollectivelyfallingshort;andcommittherequisiteresourcesforconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity,thenanature-positiveworldwillbewithinreach.WorldleaderswhohavesignedtheLeaders’PledgeforNaturemustplayaspecialroleinearlyimplementation,leadingtheway,includingbysecuringthenecessaryfinance.GavinEdwards,ScottEdwards,LinLiandGuidoBroekhoven(WWFInternational)WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022102103Recognitionoftheintegratednatureofourenvironmentalchallengesinturnenablesthesearchforwin-winsolutions.Again,thescienceisclear:immediateactiontoreversebiodiversitylossisessentialifwearetosucceedinlimitingclimatechangeto1.5°C;andclimatechangeisexpectedtobecomeadominantdriverofbiodiversitylossifleftunchecked.Itwillonlybethroughidentifyingandpursuingsolutionsthattackletheseconnectedchallengeswhilealsobenefitingpeoplethatwewillbeabletocourse-correctandsecureahealthiernaturalworld,tohelpachievetheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.TheLivingPlanetReport2022providesasnapshotofthehealthofournaturalworld,ourlifesupportsystem.Therearecausesfordismay,buttherearealsocausesforoptimism.Itmustbeourrallyingcryfortheurgentactionneededtodeliveranature-positive,net-zeroemissionsandequitablefutureforall.©JustinJin/WWFFranceBaobabtreesinthealléedesbaobabs(thealleyofbaobabs)inthewesterncoastalregionofMadagascar.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022104105REFERENCES15Tucker,M.A.,Böhning-Gaese,K.,Fagan,W.F.,Fryxell,J.M.,VanMoorter,B.,Alberts,S.C.,Ali,A.H.,Allen,A.M.,Attias,N.,Avgar,T.,Bartlam-Brooks,H.,Bayarbaatar,B.,Belant,J.L.,Bertassoni,A.,Beyer,D.,Bidner,L.,vanBeest,F.M.,Blake,S.,Blaum,N.,Bracis,C.,Brown,D.,deBruyn,P.J.N.…Mueller,T.(2018).MovingintheAnthropocene:Globalreductionsinterrestrialmammalianmovements.Science,359(6374),466–469.doi.org/10.1126/science.aam971216Ward,M.,Saura,S.,Williams,B.,Ramírez-Delgado,J.P.,Arafeh-Dalmau,N.,Allan,J.R.,Venter,O.,Dubois,G.&Watson,J.E.M.(2020).Justtenpercentoftheglobalterrestrialprotectedareanetworkisstructurallyconnectedviaintactland.NatureCommunications,11(1),4563.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18457-x17Brennan,A.,Naidoo,R.,Greenstreet,L.,Mehrabi,Z.,Ramankutty,N.&Kremen,C.(2022).Functionalconnectivityoftheworld’sprotectedareas.Science,376(6597),1101–1104.doi.org/10.1126/science.abl897418Keeley,A.T.H.,Beier,P.,Creech,T.,Jones,K.,Jongman,R.H.,Stonecipher,G.&Tabor,G.M.(2019).Thirtyyearsofconnectivityconservationplanning:anassessmentoffactorsinfluencingplanimplementation.EnvironmentalResearchLetters,14(10),103001.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab323419Hilty,J.,Keeley,A.,Merenlender,A.&LidickerJr.,W.(2019).CorridorEcology,SecondEdition.IslandPress.<https://www.ubcpress.ca/corridor-ecology-second-edition>20Hilty,J.,Worboys,G.L.,Keeley,A.,Woodley,S.,Lausche,B.J.,Locke,H.,Carr,M.,Pulsford,I.,Pittock,J.,White,J.W.,Theobald,D.M.,Levine,J.,Reuling,M.,Watson,J.E.M.,Ament,R.,Groves,C.&Tabor,G.M.(2020).Guidelinesforconservingconnectivitythroughecologicalnetworksandcorridors.IUCN.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.PAG.30.en21Fraenkel,M.,Aguilar,G.&McKinnon,K.(2020).Foreword.In:Guidelinesforconservingconnectivitythroughecologicalnetworksandcorridors.IUCN.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.PAG.30.en22Mukherjee,N.,Sutherland,W.J.,Dicks,L.,Hugé,J.,Koedam,N.&Dahdouh-Guebas,F.(2014).Ecosystemservicevaluationsofmangroveecosystemstoinformdecisionmakingandfuturevaluationexercises.PLOSONE,9(9),e107706.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.010770623Sandoval,L.,Mancera-Pineda,J.,Leal-Flórez,J.,Blanco-Libreros,J.&Delgado-Huertas,A.(2022).MangrovecarbonsustainsartisanalfishandotherestuarineconsumersinamajormangroveareaofthesouthernCaribbeanSea.MarineEcologyProgressSeries,681,21–35.doi.org/10.3354/meps1391024Donato,D.C.,Kauffman,J.B.,Murdiyarso,D.,Kurnianto,S.,Stidham,M.&Kanninen,M.(2011).Mangrovesamongthemostcarbon-richforestsinthetropics.NatureGeoscience,4(5),293–297.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo112325Blanco-Libreros,J.F.,López-Rodríguez,S.R.,Valencia-Palacios,A.M.,Perez-Vega,G.F.&Álvarez-León,R.(2022).Mangrovesfromrainytodesertclimates:baselinedatatoassessfuturechangesanddriversinColombia.FrontiersinForestsandGlobalChange,5.<doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.772271>26Sánchez-Núñez,D.A.,Bernal,G.&ManceraPineda,J.E.(2019).Therelativeroleofmangrovesonwaveerosionmitigationandsedimentproperties.EstuariesandCoasts,42(8),2124–2138.doi.org/10.1007/s12237-019-00628-927Krauss,K.W.,McKee,K.L.,Lovelock,C.E.,Cahoon,D.R.,Saintilan,N.,Reef,R.&Chen,L.(2014).Howmangroveforestsadjusttorisingsealevel.NewPhytologist,202(1),19–34.doi.org/10.1111/nph.1260528Goldberg,L.,Lagomasino,D.,Thomas,N.&Fatoyinbo,T.(2020).Globaldeclinesinhuman-drivenmangroveloss.GlobalChangeBiology,26(10),5844–5855.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.1527529Bhargava,R.,Sarkar,D.&Friess,D.A.(2021).Acloudcomputing-basedapproachtomappingmangroveerosionandprogradation:CasestudiesfromtheSundarbansandFrenchGuiana.Estuarine,CoastalandShelfScience,248,106798.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2020.10679830Friess,D.A.,Rogers,K.,Lovelock,C.E.,Krauss,K.W.,Hamilton,S.E.,Lee,S.Y.,Lucas,R.,Primavera,J.,Rajkaran,A.&Shi,S.(2019).Thestateoftheworld’smangroveforests:Past,present,andfuture.AnnualReviewofEnvironmentandResources,44(1),89–115.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-03330231Buelow,C.A.,Connolly,R.M.,Turschwell,M.P.,Adame,M.F.,Ahmadia,G.N.,Andradi-Brown,D.A.,Bunting,P.,Canty,S.W.J.,Dunic,J.C.,Friess,D.A.,Lee,S.Y.,Lovelock,C.E.,McClure,E.C.,Pearson,R.M.,Sievers,M.,Sousa,A.I.,Worthington,T.A.&Brown,C.J.(2022).Ambitiousglobaltargetsformangroveandseagrassrecovery.CurrentBiology,32(7),1641-1649.e3.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.02.01332IUCNCetaceanSpecialistGroup.(2022).Statusoftheworld’scetaceans–IUCN–SSCCetaceanSpecialistGroup.<https://iucn-csg.org/status-of-the-worlds-cetaceans/>1Bonan,G.B.(2008).Forestsandclimatechange:forcings,feedbacks,andtheclimatebenefitsofforests.Science,320(5882),1444–1449.doi.org/10.1126/science.11551212Lawrence,D.&Vandecar,K.(2015).Effectsoftropicaldeforestationonclimateandagriculture.NatureClimateChange,5(1),27–36.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate24303Heede,R.&Oreskes,N.(2016).PotentialemissionsofCO₂andmethanefromprovedreservesoffossilfuels:Analternativeanalysis.GlobalEnvironmentalChange,36,12–20.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.10.0054Pan,Y.,Birdsey,R.A.,Fang,J.,Houghton,R.,Kauppi,P.E.,Kurz,W.A.,Phillips,O.L.,Shvidenko,A.,Lewis,S.L.,Canadell,J.G.,Ciais,P.,Jackson,R.B.,Pacala,S.W.,McGuire,A.D.,Piao,S.,Rautiainen,A.,Sitch,S.&Hayes,D.(2011).Alargeandpersistentcarbonsinkintheworld’sforests.Science,333(6045),988–993.doi.org/10.1126/science.12016095Harris,N.L.,Gibbs,D.A.,Baccini,A.,Birdsey,R.A.,deBruin,S.,Farina,M.,Fatoyinbo,L.,Hansen,M.C.,Herold,M.,Houghton,R.A.,Potapov,P.V.,Suarez,D.R.,Roman-Cuesta,R.M.,Saatchi,S.S.,Slay,C.M.,Turubanova,S.A.&Tyukavina,A.(2021).Globalmapsoftwenty-firstcenturyforestcarbonfluxes.NatureClimateChange,11(3),234–240.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-00976-66Friedlingstein,P.,Jones,M.W.,O’Sullivan,M.,Andrew,R.M.,Bakker,D.C.E.,Hauck,J.,LeQuéré,C.,Peters,G.P.,Peters,W.,Pongratz,J.,Sitch,S.,Canadell,J.G.,Ciais,P.,Jackson,R.B.,Alin,S.R.,Anthoni,P.,Bates,N.R.,Becker,M.,Bellouin,N.,Bopp,L.,Chau,T.T.T.,Chevallier,F.,…Zeng,J.(2022).Globalcarbonbudget2021.EarthSystemScienceData,14(4),1917–2005.doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1917-20227Lawrence,D.,Coe,M.,Walker,W.,Verchot,L.&Vandecar,K.(2022).Theunseeneffectsofdeforestation:biophysicaleffectsonclimate.FrontiersinForestsandGlobalChange,5,756115.doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.7561158FAO&UNEP.(2020).TheStateoftheWorld’sForests2020.doi.org/10.4060/ca8642en9FAO.(2020).TheStateofFoodandAgriculture2020.Overcomingwaterchallengesinagriculture.FAO.doi.org/10.4060/cb1447en10BeznerKerr,R.,Hasegawa,T.,Lasco,R.,Bhatt,I.,Deryng,D.,Farrell,A.,Gurney-Smith,H.,Ju,H.,Lluch-Cota,S.,Meza,F.,Nelson,G.,Neufeldt,H.&Thornton,P.(2022).Food,fibre,andotherecosystemproducts.In:ClimateChange2022:Impacts,Adaptation,andVulnerability.ContributionofWorkingGroupIItotheSixthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.<https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter05.pdf>11Parmesan,C.,Morecroft,M.D.,Trsurat,Y.,Adrian,R.,Arneth,A.,Gao,Q.,Gonzalez,P.,Harris,R.,Price,J.,Stevens,N.&Talukdarr,G.H.(2022).Terrestrialandfreshwaterecosystemsandtheirservices.In:ClimateChange2022:Impacts,Adaptation,andVulnerability.ContributionofWorkingGroupIItotheSixthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.CambridgeUniversityPress.<https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter02.pdf>12CMS.(2020).Improvingwaysofaddressingconnectivityintheconservationofmigratoryspecies.Resolution12.26(REV.COP13),Gandhinagar,India(17-22February2020).UNEP/CMS/COP13/CRP26.4.4.ConventiononMigratorySpecies.<https://www.cms.int/en/document/improving-ways-addressing-connectivity-conservation-migratory-species-0>13Barnosky,A.D.,Hadly,E.A.,Bascompte,J.,Berlow,E.L.,Brown,J.H.,Fortelius,M.,Getz,W.M.,Harte,J.,Hastings,A.,Marquet,P.A.,Martinez,N.D.,Mooers,A.,Roopnarine,P.,Vermeij,G.,Williams,J.W.,Gillespie,R.,Kitzes,J.,Marshall,C.,Matzke,N.,Mindell,D.P.,Revilla,E.&Smith,A.B.(2012).ApproachingastateshiftinEarth’sbiosphere.Nature,486(7401),52–58.doi.org/10.1038/nature1101814Haddad,N.M.,Brudvig,L.A.,Clobert,J.,Davies,K.F.,Gonzalez,A.,Holt,R.D.,Lovejoy,T.E.,Sexton,J.O.,Austin,M.P.,Collins,C.D.,Cook,W.M.,Damschen,E.I.,Ewers,R.M.,Foster,B.L.,Jenkins,C.N.,King,A.J.,Laurance,W.F.,Levey,D.J.,Margules,C.R.,Melbourne,B.A.,Nicholls,A.O.,Orrock,J.L.,Song,D.-X.&Townshend,J.R.(2015).HabitatfragmentationanditslastingimpactonEarth’secosystems.ScienceAdvances,1(2),e1500052.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500052WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT202210610733Johnson,C.,Reisinger,R.R.,Friedlaender,A.,Palacios,D.,Willson,A.,Zerbini,A.&Lancaster,M.(2022).ProtectingBlueCorridors–ChallengesandSolutionsforMigratoryWhalesNavigatingNationalandInternationalSeas.WWFInternational,Switzerland.doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.6196131.34Harrison,A.-L.,Costa,D.P.,Winship,A.J.,Benson,S.R.,Bograd,S.J.,Antolos,M.,Carlisle,A.B.,Dewar,H.,Dutton,P.H.,Jorgensen,S.J.,Kohin,S.,Mate,B.R.,Robinson,P.W.,Schaefer,K.M.,Shaffer,S.A.,Shillinger,G.L.,Simmons,S.E.,Weng,K.C.,Gjerde,K.M.&Block,B.A.(2018).Thepoliticalbiogeographyofmigratorymarinepredators.NatureEcology&Evolution,2(10),1571–1578.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0646-835O’Leary,B.C.,Hoppit,G.,Townley,A.,Allen,H.L.,McIntyre,C.J.&Roberts,C.M.(2020).Optionsformanaginghumanthreatstohighseasbiodiversity.Ocean&CoastalManagement,187,105110.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.10511036Wright,G.,Gjerde,K.M.,Johnson,D.E.,Finkelstein,A.,Ferreira,M.A.,Dunn,D.C.,Chaves,M.R.&Grehan,A.(2021).Marinespatialplanninginareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction.MarinePolicy,132,103384.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.12.00337Roberts,C.M.,O’Leary,B.C.&Hawkins,J.P.(2020).Climatechangemitigationandnatureconservationbothrequirehigherprotectedareatargets.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,375(1794),20190121.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.012138Dasgupta,P.(2021).Theeconomicsofbiodiversity:theDasguptareview:fullreport(Updated:18February2021).HMTreasury.39IPBES.(2019).GlobalassessmentreportonbiodiversityandecosystemservicesoftheIntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(Version1).Zenodo.doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.383167340Duelli,P.&Obrist,M.K.(2003).Biodiversityindicators:thechoiceofvaluesandmeasures.Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,98(1),87–98.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(03)00072-041Purvis,A.&Hector,A.(2000).Gettingthemeasureofbiodiversity.Nature,405(6783),212–219.doi.org/10.1038/3501222142Collen,B.,Loh,J.,Whitmee,S.,McRae,L.,Amin,R.&Baillie,J.E.M.(2009).Monitoringchangeinvertebrateabundance:theLivingPlanetIndex.ConservationBiology,23(2),317–327.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01117.x43Loh,J.,Green,R.E.,Ricketts,T.,Lamoreux,J.,Jenkins,M.,Kapos,V.&Randers,J.(2005).TheLivingPlanetIndex:usingspeciespopulationtimeseriestotracktrendsinbiodiversity.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,360(1454),289–295.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.158444McRae,L.,Deinet,S.&Freeman,R.(2017).Thediversity-weightedLivingPlanetIndex:Controllingfortaxonomicbiasinaglobalbiodiversityindicator.PLOSONE,12(1),e0169156.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.016915645IPBESTechnicalSupportUnitOnKnowledgeAndData.(2021).IPBESregionsandsub-regions(1.2)[Dataset].Zenodo.doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.571943146Amano,T.,González-Varo,J.P.&Sutherland,W.J.(2016).Languagesarestillamajorbarriertoglobalscience.PLOSBiology,14(12),e2000933.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.200093347Amano,T.&Sutherland,W.J.(2013).Fourbarrierstotheglobalunderstandingofbiodiversityconservation:wealth,language,geographicallocationandsecurity.ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,280(1756),20122649.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.264948Chowdhury,S.,Gonzalez,K.,Aytekin,M.Ç.K.,Baek,S.,Bełcik,M.,Bertolino,S.,Duijns,S.,Han,Y.,Jantke,K.,Katayose,R.,Lin,M.,Nourani,E.,Ramos,D.L.,Rouyer,M.,Sidemo-Holm,W.,Vozykova,S.,Zamora-Gutierrez,V.&Amano,T.(2022).Growthofnon-English-languageliteratureonbiodiversityconservation.ConservationBiology.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.1388349Strayer,D.L.&Dudgeon,D.(2010).Freshwaterbiodiversityconservation:recentprogressandfuturechallenges.JournaloftheNorthAmericanBenthologicalSociety.29(1),16.doi.org/10.1899/08-171.150Bogardi,J.J.,Dudgeon,D.,Lawford,R.,Flinkerbusch,E.,Meyn,A.,Pahl-Wostl,C.,Vielhauer,K.&Vörösmarty,C.(2012).Watersecurityforaplanetunderpressure:interconnectedchallengesofachangingworldcallforsustainablesolutions.CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,4(1),35–43.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2011.12.00251Kummu,M.,deMoel,H.,Ward,P.J.&Varis,O.(2011).Howclosedowelivetowater?Aglobalanalysisofpopulationdistancetofreshwaterbodies.PLoSONE,6(6),e20578.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.002057852Darwall,W.,Smith,K.,Allen,D.,McGregorReid,G.,Clausnitzer,V.&Kalkman,V.(2009).Freshwaterbiodiversity–ahiddenresourceunderthreat.In:Wildlifeinachangingworld:ananalysisofthe2008IUCNredlistofthreatenedspecies(J.-C.Vié,C.Hilton-Taylor,S.N.Stuart,IUCN–TheWorldConservationUnion&IUCNSpeciesSurvivalCommission,Eds.).IUCN;LynxEdicions.53Dudgeon,D.,Arthington,A.H.,Gessner,M.O.,Kawabata,Z.-I.,Knowler,D.J.,Lévêque,C.,Naiman,R.J.,Prieur-Richard,A.-H.,Soto,D.,Stiassny,M.L.J.&Sullivan,C.A.(2006).Freshwaterbiodiversity:importance,threats,statusandconservationchallenges.BiologicalReviews,81(02),163.doi.org/10.1017/S146479310500695054Grill,G.,Lehner,B.,Lumsdon,A.E.,MacDonald,G.K.,Zarfl,C.&ReidyLiermann,C.(2015).Anindex-basedframeworkforassessingpatternsandtrendsinriverfragmentationandflowregulationbyglobaldamsatmultiplescales.EnvironmentalResearchLetters,10(1),015001.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/01500155Brink,K.,Gough,P.,Royte,J.,Schollema,P.P.&Wanningen,H.(2018).FromSeatoSource2.0:Protectionandrestorationoffishmigrationinriversworldwide.WorldFishMigrationFoundation.<https://worldfishmigrationfoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/from_sea_to_source_2_0.pdf>56Deinet,S.,Scott-Gatty,K.,Rotton,H.,Marconi,V.,McRae,L.,Baumgartner,L.J.,Brink,K.,Claussen,J.E.,Cooke,S.J.,Darwall,W.,Eriksson,B.K.,GarciadeLeaniz,M.L.,Thieme,M.,Royte,J.,Silva,L.G.M.,Tickner,D.,Waldman,D.,Wanningen,H.,Weyl,O.L.F.&Berkhuysen,A.(2020).TheLivingPlanetIndex(LPI)formigratoryfreshwaterfish–TechnicalReport.WorldFishMigrationFoundation,TheNetherlands.<https://worldfishmigrationfoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/LPI_report_2020.pdf>57IUCN.(2021).TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Version2021-3.<https://www.iucnredlist.org/en>58IUCN.(2021).IUCNGreenStatusofSpecies(1sted.).IUCN,InternationalUnionforConservationofNature.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2021.02.en59Cano-Alonso,L.S.(2021).Ciconianigra(GreenStatusassessment).IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.<https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697669/111747857>60Azat,C.&Valenzuela-Sánchez,A.(2021).Rhinodermadarwinii(GreenStatusassessment).IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.<https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697669/111747857>61Butchart,S.H.M.,Akçakaya,H.R.,Chanson,J.,Baillie,J.E.M.,Collen,B.,Quader,S.,Turner,W.R.,Amin,R.,Stuart,S.N.&Hilton-Taylor,C.(2007).ImprovementstotheRedListIndex.PLOSONE,2(1),e140.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.000014062Harfoot,M.B.J.,Johnston,A.,Balmford,A.,Burgess,N.D.,Butchart,S.H.M.,Dias,M.P.,Hazin,C.,Hilton-Taylor,C.,Hoffmann,M.,Isaac,N.J.B.,Iversen,L.L.,Outhwaite,C.L.,Visconti,P.&Geldmann,J.(2021).UsingtheIUCNRedListtomapthreatstoterrestrialvertebratesatglobalscale.NatureEcology&Evolution,1–10.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01542-963Clarke,S.C.,McAllister,M.K.,Milner-Gulland,E.J.,Kirkwood,G.P.,Michielsens,C.G.,Agnew,D.J.,Pikitch,E.K.,Nakano,H.&Shivji,M.S.(2006).Globalestimatesofsharkcatchesusingtraderecordsfromcommercialmarkets.EcologyLetters,9(10),1115–1126.64McClenachan,L.,Cooper,A.B.&Dulvy,N.K.(2016).Rethinkingtrade-drivenextinctionriskinmarineandterrestrialmegafauna.CurrentBiology,26(12),1640–1646.65Pacoureau,N.,Rigby,C.L.,Kyne,P.M.,Sherley,R.B.,Winker,H.,Carlson,J.K.,Fordham,S.V.,Barreto,R.,Fernando,D.,Francis,M.P.,Jabado,R.W.,Herman,K.B.,Liu,K.-M.,Marshall,A.D.,Pollom,R.A.,Romanov,E.V.,Simpfendorfer,C.A.,Yin,J.S.,Kindsvater,H.K.&Dulvy,N.K.(2021).Halfacenturyofglobaldeclineinoceanicsharksandrays.Nature,589(7843),567–571.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03173-966Rigby,C.L.,Barreto,R.,Carlson,J.,Fernando,D.,Fordham,S.,Francis,M.P.,Herman,K.B.,Jabado,R.W.,Liu,K.M.,Marshall,A.,Pacoureau,N.,Romanov,E.,Sherley,R.B.&Winker,H.(2019).Carcharhinuslongimanus.TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies2018:e.T39341A2903170.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T39341A2903170.en.67Heithaus,M.R.,Frid,A.,Vaudo,J.J.,Worm,B.&Wirsing,A.J.(2010).Unravelingtheecologicalimportanceofelasmobranchs.In:SharksandTheirRelativesII.CRCPress.68Kitchell,J.F.,Essington,T.E.,Boggs,C.H.,Schindler,D.E.&Walters,C.J.(2002).TheroleofsharksandlonglinefisheriesinapelagicecosystemofthecentralPacific.Ecosystems,5(2),202–216.69Pimiento,C.,Leprieur,F.,Silvestro,D.,Lefcheck,J.S.,Albouy,C.,Rasher,D.B.,Davis,M.,Svenning,J.-C.&Griffin,J.N.(2020).FunctionaldiversityofmarinemegafaunaintheAnthropocene.ScienceAdvances,6(16),eaay7650.70Polovina,J.J.,Frazier,M.,Howell,E.A.&Woodworth,P.(2009).Increasesintherelativeabundanceofmid-trophiclevelfishesconcurrentwithdeclinesinapexpredatorsinthesubtropicalNorthPacific,1996–2006.FisheryBulletin,107(4),523–531.WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT202210810971Dulvy,N.K.,Simpfendorfer,C.A.,Davidson,L.N.,Fordham,S.V.,Bräutigam,A.,Sant,G.&Welch,D.J.(2017).Challengesandprioritiesinsharkandrayconservation.CurrentBiology,27(11),R565–R572.72Dulvy,N.K.,Fowler,S.L.,Musick,J.A.,Cavanagh,R.D.,Kyne,P.M.,Harrison,L.R.,Carlson,J.K.,Davidson,L.N.,Fordham,S.V.,Francis,M.P.,Pollock,C.M.,Simpfendorfer,C.A.,Burgess,G.H.,Carpenter,K.E.,Compagno,L.J.,Ebert,D.A.,Gibson,C.,Heupel,M.R.,Livingstone,S.R.,Sanciangco,J.C.,Stevens,J.D.,Valenti,S.&White,W.T.(2014).Extinctionriskandconservationoftheworld’ssharksandrays.ELife,3,e00590.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.0059073Jabado,R.W.,Kyne,P.M.,Pollom,R.A.,Ebert,D.A.,Simpfendorfer,C.A.,Ralph,G.M.,AlDhaheri,S.S.,Akhilesh,K.V.,Ali,K.&Ali,M.H.(2018).Troubledwaters:Threatsandextinctionriskofthesharks,raysandchimaerasoftheArabianSeaandadjacentwaters.FishandFisheries,19(6),1043–1062.74Hill,S.L.L.,Gonzalez,R.,Sanchez-Ortiz,K.,Caton,E.,Espinoza,F.,Newbold,T.,Tylianakis,J.,Scharlemann,J.P.W.,Palma,A.D.&Purvis,A.(2018).Worldwideimpactsofpastandprojectedfutureland-usechangeonlocalspeciesrichnessandtheBiodiversityIntactnessIndex(p.311787).bioRxiv.doi.org/10.1101/31178775NaturalHistoryMuseum.(2022).BiodiversityIntactnessIndexdataNaturalHistoryMuseum.BiodiversityIndicatorsNaturalHistoryMuseum.<https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/data/biodiversity-indicators/biodiversity-intactness-index-data>76Leclère,D.,Obersteiner,M.,Barrett,M.,Butchart,S.H.M.,Chaudhary,A.,DePalma,A.,DeClerck,F.A.J.,DiMarco,M.,Doelman,J.C.,Dürauer,M.,Freeman,R.,Harfoot,M.,Hasegawa,T.,Hellweg,S.,Hilbers,J.P.,Hill,S.L.L.,Humpenöder,F.,Jennings,N.,Krisztin,T.,Mace,G.M.,Ohashi,H.,Popp,A.,…Young,L.(2020).Bendingthecurveofterrestrialbiodiversityneedsanintegratedstrategy.Nature,585(7826),551–556.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2705-y77Jung,M.,Arnell,A.,deLamo,X.,García-Rangel,S.,Lewis,M.,Mark,J.,Merow,C.,Miles,L.,Ondo,I.,Pironon,S.,Ravilious,C.,Rivers,M.,Schepaschenko,D.,Tallowin,O.,vanSoesbergen,A.,Govaerts,R.,Boyle,B.L.,Enquist,B.J.,Feng,X.,Gallagher,R.,Maitner,B.,Meiri,S.,…Visconti,P.(2021).Areasofglobalimportanceforconservingterrestrialbiodiversity,carbonandwater.NatureEcology&Evolution,5(11),1499–1509.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01528-778Sala,E.,Mayorga,J.,Bradley,D.,Cabral,R.B.,Atwood,T.B.,Auber,A.,Cheung,W.,Costello,C.,Ferretti,F.,Friedlander,A.M.,Gaines,S.D.,Garilao,C.,Goodell,W.,Halpern,B.S.,Hinson,A.,Kaschner,K.,Kesner-Reyes,K.,Leprieur,F.,McGowan,J.,Morgan,L.E.,Mouillot,D.,Palacios-Abrantes,J.,Possingham,H.P.,Rechberger,K.D.,Worm,B.&Lubchenco,J.(2021).Protectingtheglobaloceanforbiodiversity,foodandclimate.Nature,592(7854),397–402.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z79O’Connor,L.M.J.,Pollock,L.J.,Renaud,J.,Verhagen,W.,Verburg,P.H.,Lavorel,S.,Maiorano,L.&Thuiller,W.(2021).BalancingconservationprioritiesfornatureandforpeopleinEurope.Science,372(6544),856–860.doi.org/10.1126/science.abc489680Goolmeer,T.,Skroblin,A.&Wintle,B.A.(2022).GettingourActtogethertoimproveIndigenousleadershipandrecognitioninbiodiversitymanagement.EcologicalManagement&Restoration,23(S1),33–42.doi.org/10.1111/emr.1252381Schuster,R.,Germain,R.R.,Bennett,J.R.,Reo,N.J.&Arcese,P.(2019).Vertebratebiodiversityonindigenous-managedlandsinAustralia,Brazil,andCanadaequalsthatinprotectedareas.EnvironmentalScience&Policy,101,1–6.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.07.00282Reid,A.J.,Young,N.,Hinch,S.G.&Cooke,S.J.(2022).LearningfromIndigenousknowledgeholdersonthestateandfutureofwildPacificsalmon.FACETS,7,718–740.doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-008983Reid,A.J.,Eckert,L.E.,Lane,J.-F.,Young,N.,Hinch,S.G.,Darimont,C.T.,Cooke,S.J.,Ban,N.C.&Marshall,A.(2021).“Two-EyedSeeing”:AnIndigenousframeworktotransformfisheriesresearchandmanagement.FishandFisheries,22(2),243–261.doi.org/10.1111/faf.1251684UN.(2022).IndigenousPeoplesattheUnitedNations.<https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/about-us.html>85Darbyshire,I.,Anderson,S.,Asatryan,A.,Byfield,A.,Cheek,M.,Clubbe,C.,Ghrabi,Z.,Harris,T.,Heatubun,C.D.,Kalema,J.,Magassouba,S.,McCarthy,B.,Milliken,W.,deMontmollin,B.,Lughadha,E.N.,Onana,J.-M.,Saïdou,D.,Sârbu,A.,Shrestha,K.&Radford,E.A.(2017).ImportantPlantAreas:Revisedselectioncriteriaforaglobalapproachtoplantconservation.BiodiversityandConservation,26(8),1767–1800.doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1336-686Sayer,J.A.,Harcourt,C.S.&Collins,N.M.(1992).TheConservationAtlasofTropicalForests:Africa.IUCNandSimonandSchuster,Cambridge,UK.87Fitzgerald,M.,Nackoney,J.,Potapov,P.&Turubanova,S.(2021).AgricultureistheprimarydriveroftreecoverlossacrosstheForestièreregionoftheRepublicofGuinea,Africa.EnvironmentalResearchCommunications,3(12),121004.doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ac427888Burkill,H.N.(1995).TheUsefulPlantsofWestTropicalAfrica.Volume3,familiesJ-L.Kew:RoyalBotanicGardens.89Burkill,H.N.(1994).TheUsefulPlantsofWestTropicalAfrica.Volume2,familiesE-I.Kew:RoyalBotanicGardens.90Akintimehin,E.S.,Karigidi,K.O.,Anthony,E.O.&Adetuyi,F.O.(2021).Proximatecomposition,minerals,vitamins,phytochemicalconstituentsandanti-nutrientprofileofBeilschmiediamanniiseedsandCombretumracemosumleavesforsouppreparation.JournalofFoodScienceandTechnology,59,1847–1854.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-05198-y91Essien,E.U.,Esenowo,G.J.&Akpanabiatu,M.I.(1995).Lipidcompositionoflesserknowntropicalseeds.PlantFoodsforHumanNutrition,48(2),135–140.doi.org/10.1007/BF0108830992Lykke,A.M.,Gregersen,S.B.,Padonou,E.A.,Bassolé,I.H.N.&Dalsgaard,T.K.(2021).PotentialofunconventionalseedoilsandfatsfromwestAfricantrees:Areviewoffattyacidcompositionandperspectives.Lipids,56(4),357–390.doi.org/10.1002/lipd.1230593HerbierNationaldeGuinée.(2022).ConservationdesarbresmenacéesdeGuinée.<http://www.herbierguinee.org/conservation-des-arbres-menacees.html>94Couch,C.,Cheek,M.,Haba,P.M.,Molmou,D.,Williams,J.,Magassouba,S.,Doumbouya,S.&Diallo,Y.M.(2019).ThreatenedhabitatsandImportantPlantAreas(TIPAs)ofGuinea,westAfrica.RoyalBotanicGardens,Kew.London.95Moggridge,B.J.,Thompson,R.M.&Radoll,P.(2022).Indigenousresearchmethodologiesinwatermanagement:learningfromAustraliaandNewZealandforapplicationonKamilaroicountry.WetlandsEcologyandManagement.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-022-09866-496NCFRP.(2016).NationalCulturalFlowsResearchProject.<https://culturalflows.com.au/>97Whyte,K.P.,Brewer,J.P.&Johnson,J.T.(2015).WeavingIndigenousscience,protocolsandsustainabilityscience.SustainabilityScience,11(1),25–32.doi.org/10.1007/s11625-015-0296-698Wilson,S.(2008).ResearchIsCeremony.FernwoodPublishing,NovaScotia.<https://fernwoodpublishing.ca/book/research-is-ceremony-shawn-wilson>99UNGeneralAssembly.(2022).TheHumanRighttoaClean,HealthyandSustainableEnvironment.A/RES/76/300.<https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/07/1123482>100UNEP.(2022).Presidents’FinalRemarkstoPlenary:Keyrecommendationsforacceleratingactiontowardsahealthyplanetfortheprosperityofall.<https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/40110/Key%20Messages%20and%20Recommendations%20-%20Formatted.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y>101UNSpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandtheenvironment.(2022).Therighttoaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironment:non-toxicenvironment(A/HRC/49/53)<https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/thematic-reports/ahrc4953-right-clean-healthy-and-sustainable-environment-non-toxic>102UNSpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandtheenvironment.(2021).Humanrightsobligationsrelatingtotheenjoymentofasafe,clean,healthyandsustainableenvironment(A/76/179).103UNSpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandtheenvironment.(2020).GoodPracticesReport:Recognizingandimplementingtherighttoahealthyenvironment104UNSpecialRapporteuronhumanrightsandtheenvironment.(2019).Issueofhumanrightsobligationsrelatingtotheenjoymentofasafe,clean,healthyandsustainableenvironment(A/HRC/40/55)105Boyd,D.R.(2015).TheOptimisticEnvironmentalist:ProgressingTowardsaGreenerFuture.ECWPress.106HAC.(2022).HACforNatureandPeople.<https://www.hacfornatureandpeople.org>107BeyondOil&GasAlliance.(2022).<https://beyondoilandgasalliance.com/>108deVilchez,P.&Savaresi,A.(2022).Therighttoahealthyenvironmentandclimatelitigation:Amutuallysupportiverelation?<https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3829114>109IPCC.(2022).ClimateChange2022.Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerability.SummaryforPolicymakers.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.<https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf>110IPCC.(2022).ClimateChange2022.MitigationofClimateChange.SummaryforPolicymakers.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.<https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf>WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022110111111IPCC.(2021).ClimateChange2021:ThePhysicalScienceBasis.SummaryforPolicymakers.(p.32).IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.<https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf>112Pörtneretal.(2021).IPBES-IPCCco-sponsoredworkshop:Biodiversityandclimatechangeworkshopreport.<https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/2021-06/20210609_workshop_report_embargo_3pm_CEST_10_june_0.pdf>113Wackernagel,M.,Hanscom,L.,Jayasinghe,P.,Lin,D.,Murthy,A.,Neill,E.&Raven,P.(2021).Theimportanceofresourcesecurityforpovertyeradication.NatureSustainability,4(8),731–738.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00708-4114Wackernagel,M.,Lin,D.,Evans,M.,Hanscom,L.&Raven,P.(2019).DefyingtheFootprintOracle:Implicationsofcountryresourcetrends.Sustainability,11(7),2164.doi.org/10.3390/su11072164115YorkUniversity,EcologicalFootprintInitiative&GlobalFootprintNetwork.(2022).NationalFootprintandBiocapacityAccounts,2022edition.ProducedfortheFootprintDataFoundationanddistributedbyGlobalFootprintNetwork.<https://www.footprintnetwork.org/licenses/public-data-package-free/>116Galli,A.,Wackernagel,M.,Iha,K.&Lazarus,E.(2014).EcologicalFootprint:Implicationsforbiodiversity.BiologicalConservation,173,121–132.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.10.019117Wackernagel,M.,Hanscom,L.&Lin,D.(2017).MakingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsconsistentwithsustainability.FrontiersinEnergyResearch,5.<https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fenrg.2017.00018>118Vause,J.(2020).ExploringtherelationshipbetweentradeandbiodiversitythroughthelensoftheDasguptaReviewoftheEconomicsofBiodiversity.UKResearchandInnovationGlobalChallengesResearchFund(UKRIGCRF)Trade,DevelopmentandtheEnvironmentHub.<https://tradehub.earth/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Vause-2020-Exploring-Trade-and-Biodiversity.pdf>119Molotoks,A.&West,C.(2021).Whichforest-riskcommoditiesimportedtotheUKhavethehighestoverseasimpacts?Arapidevidencesynthesis.EmeraldOpenResearch,3,22.doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.14306.1120UNEP.(2021).Biodiversityandinternationaltradepolicyprimer:Howdoesnaturefitinthesustainabletradeagenda?UKResearchandInnovationGlobalChallengesResearchFund(UKRIGCRF)Trade,DevelopmentandtheEnvironmentHub,UNEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),andtheForumonTrade,Environment&theSDGs(TESS).<https://tradehub.earth/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Biodiversity-and-International-Trade-Policy-Primer-Document_05.pdf>121WWF-UK.(2022).Designingduediligence.WWF-UK.<https://www.wwf.org.uk/sites/default/files/2022-03/WWF-UK_Designing%20Due%20Diligence%20-%20Final%20.pdf>122FSINandGlobalNetworkAgainstFoodCrises.(2022).2022GlobalReportonFoodCrises.<https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb9997en>123FAO,IFAD,UNICEF,WFPandWHO.(2022).TheStateofFoodSecurityandNutritionintheWorld2022.Repurposingfoodandagriculturalpoliciestomakehealthydietsmoreaffordable.Rome,FAO.124Hertel,T.,Elouafi,I.,Tanticharoen,M.&Ewert,F.(2021).Diversificationforenhancedfoodsystemsresilience.NatureFood,2(11),832–834.doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00403-9125FAO.(2021).TheStateofFoodandAgriculture2021;Makingagrifoodsystemsmoreresilienttoshocksandstresses.Rome,FAO.<https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4476en>126Doelman,J.C.,Beier,F.D.,Stehfest,E.,Bodirsky,B.L.,Beusen,A.H.W.,Humpenöder,F.,Mishra,A.,Popp,A.,vanVuuren,D.P.,deVos,L.,Weindl,I.,vanZeist,W.-J.&Kram,T.(2022).Quantifyingsynergiesandtrade-offsintheglobalwater-land-food-climatenexususingamulti-modelscenarioapproach.EnvironmentalResearchLetters,17(4),045004.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac5766127Springmann,M.,Clark,M.,Mason-D’Croz,D.,Wiebe,K.,Bodirsky,B.L.,Lassaletta,L.,deVries,W.,Vermeulen,S.J.,Herrero,M.,Carlson,K.M.,Jonell,M.,Troell,M.,DeClerck,F.,Gordon,L.J.,Zurayk,R.,Scarborough,P.,Rayner,M.,Loken,B.,Fanzo,J.,Godfray,H.C.J.,Tilman,D.,Rockström,J.&Willett,W.(2018).Optionsforkeepingthefoodsystemwithinenvironmentallimits.Nature,562(7728),519–525.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0594-0128Strassburg,B.B.N.,Iribarrem,A.,Beyer,H.L.,Cordeiro,C.L.,Crouzeilles,R.,Jakovac,C.C.,BragaJunqueira,A.,Lacerda,E.,Latawiec,A.E.,Balmford,A.,Brooks,T.M.,Butchart,S.H.M.,Chazdon,R.L.,Erb,K.-H.,Brancalion,P.,Buchanan,G.,Cooper,D.,Díaz,S.,Donald,P.F.,Kapos,V.,Leclère,D.,Miles,L.,Obersteiner,M.,Plutzar,C.,deM.Scaramuzza,C.A.,Scarano,F.R.&Visconti,P.(2020).Globalpriorityareasforecosystemrestoration.Nature,586(7831),724–729.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2784-9129Dooley,K.,Holz,C.,Kartha,S.,Klinsky,S.,Roberts,J.T.,Shue,H.,Winkler,H.,Athanasiou,T.,Caney,S.,Cripps,E.,Dubash,N.K.,Hall,G.,Harris,P.G.,Lahn,B.,Moellendorf,D.,Müller,B.,Sagar,A.&Singer,P.(2021).EthicalchoicesbehindquantificationsoffaircontributionsundertheParisAgreement.NatureClimateChange,11(4),300–305.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01015-8130RobiouduPont,Y.,Jeffery,M.L.,Gütschow,J.,Rogelj,J.,Christoff,P.&Meinshausen,M.(2017).EquitablemitigationtoachievetheParisAgreementgoals.NatureClimateChange,7(1),38–43.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3186131Kikstra,J.S.,Mastrucci,A.,Min,J.,Riahi,K.&Rao,N.D.(2021).Decentlivinggapsandenergyneedsaroundtheworld.EnvironmentalResearchLetters,16(9),095006.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac1c27132Chaplin-Kramer,R.,Sharp,R.P.,Weil,C.,Bennett,E.M.,Pascual,U.,Arkema,K.K.,Brauman,K.A.,Bryant,B.P.,Guerry,A.D.,Haddad,N.M.,Hamann,M.,Hamel,P.,Johnson,J.A.,Mandle,L.,Pereira,H.M.,Polasky,S.,Ruckelshaus,M.,Shaw,M.R.,Silver,J.M.,Vogl,A.L.&Daily,G.C.(2019).Globalmodelingofnature’scontributionstopeople.Science,366(6462),255–258.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw3372133Johnson,J.A.,Baldos,U.,Liu,J.,Nootenboom,C.,Polasky,S.&Roxburg,T.(2020).GlobalFutures:Modellingtheglobaleconomicimpactsofenvironmentalchangetosupportpolicy-making.<https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/global_futures_technical_report.pdf>134Waldron,A.,Adams,V.,Allan,J.,Arnell,A.,Asner,G.,Atkinson,S.,Baccini,A.,Baillie,E.,Balmford,A.,Beau,J.A.,Brander,L.,Brondizio,E.,Bruner,A.,Burgess,N.,Burkart,K.,Butchart,S.,Button,R.,Carrasco,R.,Cheung,W.,Christensen,V.,Clements,A.,Coll,M.,…Zhang,Y.(2020).Protecting30%oftheplanetfornature:costs,benefitsandeconomicimplications.Workingpaperanalysingtheeconomicimplicationsoftheproposed30%targetforarealprotectioninthedraftpost-2020GlobalBiodiversityFramework.<https://www.conservation.cam.ac.uk/files/waldron_report_30_by_30_publish.pdf>135Rosa,M.R.,Brancalion,P.H.S.,Crouzeilles,R.,Tambosi,L.R.,Piffer,P.R.,Lenti,F.E.B.,Hirota,M.,Santiami,E.&Metzger,J.P.(2021).HiddendestructionofolderforeststhreatensBrazil’sAtlanticForestandchallengesrestorationprograms.ScienceAdvances,7(4),eabc4547.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc4547136Díaz,S.,Zafra-Calvo,N.,Purvis,A.,Verburg,P.H.,Obura,D.,Leadley,P.,Chaplin-Kramer,R.,DeMeester,L.,Dulloo,E.,Martín-López,B.,Shaw,M.R.,Visconti,P.,Broadgate,W.,Bruford,M.W.,Burgess,N.D.,Cavender-Bares,J.,DeClerck,F.,Fernández-Palacios,J.M.,Garibaldi,L.A.,Hill,S.L.L.,Isbell,F.,Khoury,C.K.,Krug,C.B.,Liu,J.,Maron,M.,McGowan,P.J.K.,Pereira,H.M.,Reyes-García,V.,Rocha,J.,Rondinini,C.,Shannon,L.,Shin,Y.-J.,Snelgrove,P.V.R.,Spehn,E.M.,Strassburg,B.,Subramanian,S.M.,Tewksbury,J.J.,Watson,J.E.M.&Zanne,A.E.(2020).Setambitiousgoalsforbiodiversityandsustainability.Science,370(6515),411–413.doi.org/10.1126/science.abe1530137Mace,G.M.(2014).Whoseconservation?Science,345(6204),1558–1560.doi.org/10.1126/science.1254704138Rosa,I.M.D.,Pereira,H.M.,Ferrier,S.,Alkemade,R.,Acosta,L.A.,Akcakaya,H.R.,denBelder,E.,Fazel,A.M.,Fujimori,S.,Harfoot,M.,Harhash,K.A.,Harrison,P.A.,Hauck,J.,Hendriks,R.J.J.,Hernández,G.,Jetz,W.,Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen,S.I.,Kim,H.,King,N.,Kok,M.T.J.,Kolomytsev,G.O.,Lazarova,T.,Leadley,P.,Lundquist,C.J.,GarcíaMárquez,J.,Meyer,C.,Navarro,L.M.,Nesshöver,C.,Ngo,H.T.,Ninan,K.N.,Palomo,M.G.,Pereira,L.M.,Peterson,G.D.,Pichs,R.,Popp,A.,Purvis,A.,Ravera,F.,Rondinini,C.,Sathyapalan,J.,Schipper,A.M.,Seppelt,R.,Settele,J.,Sitas,N.&vanVuuren,D.(2017).Multiscalescenariosfornaturefutures.NatureEcology&Evolution,1(10),1416–1419.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0273-9139Soergel,B.,Kriegler,E.,Bodirsky,B.L.,Bauer,N.,Leimbach,M.&Popp,A.(2021).Combiningambitiousclimatepolicieswitheffortstoeradicatepoverty.NatureCommunications,12(1),2342.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22315-9140Pereira,L.M.,Davies,K.K.,Belder,E.,Ferrier,S.,Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen,S.,Kim,H.,Kuiper,J.J.,Okayasu,S.,Palomo,M.G.,Pereira,H.M.,Peterson,G.,Sathyapalan,J.,Schoolenberg,M.,Alkemade,R.,CarvalhoRibeiro,S.,Greenaway,A.,Hauck,J.,King,N.,Lazarova,T.,Ravera,F.,Chettri,N.,Cheung,W.W.L.,Hendriks,R.J.J.,Kolomytsev,G.,Leadley,P.,Metzger,J.,Ninan,K.N.,Pichs,R.,Popp,A.,Rondinini,C.,Rosa,I.,Vuuren,D.&Lundquist,C.J.(2020).Developingmultiscaleandintegrativenature–peoplescenariosusingtheNatureFuturesFramework.PeopleandNature,2(4),1172–1195.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10146141Frishkoff,L.O.,Karp,D.S.,Flanders,J.R.,Zook,J.,Hadly,E.A.,Daily,G.C.&M’Gonigle,L.K.(2016).Climatechangeandhabitatconversionfavourthesamespecies.EcologyLetters,19(9),1081–1090.doi.org/10.1111/ele.12645WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022112113142Hendershot,J.N.,Smith,J.R.,Anderson,C.B.,Letten,A.D.,Frishkoff,L.O.,Zook,J.R.,Fukami,T.&Daily,G.C.(2020).Intensivefarmingdriveslong-termshiftsinaviancommunitycomposition.Nature,579(7799),393–396.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2090-6143Oliver,T.H.,Gillings,S.,Pearce-Higgins,J.W.,Brereton,T.,Crick,H.Q.P.,Duffield,S.J.,Morecroft,M.D.&Roy,D.B.(2017).Largeextentsofintensivelanduselimitcommunityreorganizationduringclimatewarming.GlobalChangeBiology,23(6),2272–2283.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13587144Platts,P.J.,Mason,S.C.,Palmer,G.,Hill,J.K.,Oliver,T.H.,Powney,G.D.,Fox,R.&Thomas,C.D.(2019).Habitatavailabilityexplainsvariationinclimate-drivenrangeshiftsacrossmultipletaxonomicgroups.ScientificReports,9(1),15039.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-51582-2145Oliver,T.H.&Morecroft,M.D.(2014).Interactionsbetweenclimatechangeandlandusechangeonbiodiversity:Attributionproblems,risks,andopportunities.WIREsClimateChange,5(3),317–335.doi.org/10.1002/wcc.271146Williams,J.J.&Newbold,T.(2020).Localclimaticchangesaffectbiodiversityresponsestolanduse:Areview.DiversityandDistributions,26(1),76–92.doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12999147Outhwaite,C.L.,McCann,P.&Newbold,T.(2022).Agricultureandclimatechangearereshapinginsectbiodiversityworldwide.Nature,605(7908),97–102.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04644-x148Hellegers,M.,vanSwaay,C.A.M.,vanHinsberg,A.,Huijbregts,M.A.J.&Schipper,A.M.(2022).Modulatingeffectsoflandscapecharacteristicsonresponsestowarmingdifferamongbutterflyspecies.FrontiersinEcologyandEvolution,10.<https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fevo.2022.873366>149FFI.(2021).Coordinatedandcollaborativeapplicationofthemitigationhierarchyincomplexmulti-uselandscapesinAfrica.Aconceptualframeworkintegratingsocioecologicalconsiderations.Fauna&FloraInternational:Cambridge,UK.<https://www.fauna-flora.org/app/uploads/2021/02/FFI_CALM_Framework_2021_ENG-1.pdf>150Carrington,D.(2019).‘Deathbyathousandcuts’:vastexpanseofrainforestlostin2018.TheGuardian.<https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/apr/25/death-by-a-thousand-cuts-vast-expanse-rainforest-lost-in-2018>151Díaz,S.,Settele,J.,Brondízio,E.S.,Ngo,H.T.,Agard,J.,Arneth,A.,Balvanera,P.,Brauman,K.A.,Butchart,S.H.M.,Chan,K.M.A.,Garibaldi,L.A.,Ichii,K.,Liu,J.,Subramanian,S.M.,Midgley,G.F.,Miloslavich,P.,Molnár,Z.,Obura,D.,Pfaff,A.,Polasky,S.,Purvis,A.,Razzaque,J.,Reyers,B.,Chowdhury,R.R.,Shin,Y.-J.,Visseren-Hamakers,I.,Willis,K.J.&Zayas,C.N.(2019).Pervasivehuman-drivendeclineoflifeonEarthpointstotheneedfortransformativechange.Science,366(6471),eaax3100.doi.org/10.1126/science.aax3100152Sterner,T.,Barbier,E.B.,Bateman,I.,vandenBijgaart,I.,Crépin,A.-S.,Edenhofer,O.,Fischer,C.,Habla,W.,Hassler,J.,Johansson-Stenman,O.,Lange,A.,Polasky,S.,Rockström,J.,Smith,H.G.,Steffen,W.,Wagner,G.,Wilen,J.E.,Alpízar,F.,Azar,C.,Carless,D.,Chávez,C.,Coria,J.,Engström,G.,Jagers,S.C.,Köhlin,G.,Löfgren,Å.,Pleijel,H.&Robinson,A.(2019).PolicydesignfortheAnthropocene.NatureSustainability,2(1),14–21.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0194-x153Alkemade,F.&deConinck,H.(2021).Policymixesforsustainabilitytransitionsmustembracesystemdynamics.EnvironmentalInnovationandSocietalTransitions,41,24–26.doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2021.10.014154Jagers,S.C.,Harring,N.,Löfgren,Å.,Sjöstedt,M.,Alpizar,F.,Brülde,B.,Langlet,D.,Nilsson,A.,Almroth,B.C.,Dupont,S.&Steffen,W.(2020).Onthepreconditionsforlarge-scalecollectiveaction.Ambio,49(7),1282–1296.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01284-w155Lenton,T.M.,Benson,S.,Smith,T.,Ewer,T.,Lanel,V.,Petykowski,E.,Powell,T.W.R.,Abrams,J.F.,Blomsma,F.&Sharpe,S.(2022).Operationalisingpositivetippingpointstowardsglobalsustainability.GlobalSustainability,5,e1.doi.org/10.1017/sus.2021.30156MinistryofEnvironmentandForestry.(2020).IntegratedmasterplanforrestorationandrehabilitationofElgeyo-Cheranganyhillsecosystem.<https://www.wwfkenya.org/knowledge_hub/our_publications_/?233611/Integrated-Master-Plan-for-Rehabilitation-and-Restoration-of-the-Cherangany-Elgeyo-Hills-Ecosystem>157Pitsiladis,Y.(Ed.).(2007).EastAfricanrunning:towardacross-disciplinaryperspective.Routledge.158ConstitutionofKenya.(2010).ConstitutionofKenya,Article69(1)(c).<http://www.kenyalaw.org/lex/actview.xql?actid=Const2010#KE/CON/Const2010/chap_5>159GovernmentofKenya.(2016).GreenEconomyStrategyandImplementationPlan2016–2030.GovernmentofKenya.<http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/GESIP_Final23032017.pdf>160UKPACT,S.H.(2020).UKPACTsupportsKenya’slow-carbonandinclusivegreengrowthambitionwith£3.7mfunding.<https://www.ukpact.co.uk/news/uk-pact-supports-kenyas-low-carbon-and-inclusive-green-growth-ambition-with-3.7-million-funding>161Maron,M.,Simmonds,J.S.,Watson,J.E.M.,Sonter,L.J.,Bennun,L.,Griffiths,V.F.,Quétier,F.,vonHase,A.,Edwards,S.,Rainey,H.,Bull,J.W.,Savy,C.E.,Victurine,R.,Kiesecker,J.,Puydarrieux,P.,Stevens,T.,Cozannet,N.&Jones,J.P.G.(2020).Globalnonetlossofnaturalecosystems.NatureEcology&Evolution,4(1),46–49.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-1067-z162RAISG.(2020).AmazoniaUnderPressure2020.AmazonNetworkofGeoreferencedSocio-environmentalInformation.RAISG.<https://www.amazoniasocioambiental.org/en/publication/amazonia-under-pressure-2020/>163Bullock,E.L.,Woodcock,C.E.,SouzaJr.,C.&Olofsson,P.(2020).Satellite-basedestimatesrevealwidespreadforestdegradationintheAmazon.GlobalChangeBiology,26(5),2956–2969.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15029164Malhi,Y.,Saatchi,S.,Girardin,C.&AragãO,L.E.O.C.(2009).Theproduction,storage,andflowofcarboninAmazonianforests.In:AmazoniaandGlobalChange(pp.355–372).AmericanGeophysicalUnion(AGU).doi.org/10.1029/2008GM000733165Saatchi,S.S.,Houghton,R.A.,DosSantosAlvalá,R.C.,Soares,J.V.&Yu,Y.(2007).DistributionofabovegroundlivebiomassintheAmazonbasin.GlobalChangeBiology,13(4),816–837.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01323.x166Raven,P.H.,Gereau,R.E.,Phillipson,P.B.,Chatelain,C.,Jenkins,C.N.&UlloaUlloa,C.(2020).Thedistributionofbiodiversityrichnessinthetropics.ScienceAdvances,6(37),eabc6228.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc6228167Mittermeier,R.A.,Mittermeier,C.G.,Brooks,T.M.,Pilgrim,J.D.,Konstant,W.R.,daFonseca,G.A.B.&Kormos,C.(2003).Wildernessandbiodiversityconservation.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,100(18),10309–10313.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1732458100168JosseC,FutadaS.M,vonHildebrandM,delosRiosM.M,Oliveira-MirandaM.A,MoraesE.N.S.,TuestaE.(2021).Chapter16:Thestateofconservationpolicies,protectedareas,andIndigenousterritories,fromthepasttothepresent.In:Nobre,C.&Encalada,A.(2021).AmazonAssessmentReport2021(1sted.).UNSustainableDevelopment.<doi.org/10.55161/KZLB5335>169SciencePanelfortheAmazon,Nobre,C.&Encalada,A.(2021).AmazonAssessmentReport2021(1sted.).UNSustainableDevelopmentSolutionsNetwork(SDSN).doi.org/10.55161/RWSX6527170Cooley,S.,Schoeman,D.,Bopp,L.,Boyd,P.,Donner,S.,Ghebrehiwet,D.Y.,Ito,S.-Y.,Kiessling,W.,Martinetto,P.,Ojea,E.,Racault,M.-F.,Rost,B.,&Skern-Mauritzen,M.(2022).OceanandCoastalEcosystemsandtheirServices.In:ClimateChange2022:Impacts,Adaptation,andVulnerability.ContributionofWorkingGroupIItotheSixthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.CambridgeUniversityPress.<https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf>171Soroye,P.,Newbold,T.&Kerr,J.(2020).Climatechangecontributestowidespreaddeclinesamongbumblebeesacrosscontinents.Science,367(6478),685–688.doi.org/10.1126/science.aax8591172COICA.(2022).Amazoniaforlife:protected80%by2025.Keyresultsandpolicy.<https://amazonia80x2025.earth/declaration>173Lovejoy,T.E.&Nobre,C.(2019).Amazontippingpoint:Lastchanceforaction.ScienceAdvances,5(12),eaba2949.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba2949174Walker,W.S.,Gorelik,S.R.,Baccini,A.,Aragon-Osejo,J.L.,Josse,C.,Meyer,C.,Macedo,M.N.,Augusto,C.,Rios,S.,Katan,T.,deSouza,A.A.,Cuellar,S.,Llanos,A.,Zager,I.,Mirabal,G.D.,Solvik,K.K.,Farina,M.K.,Moutinho,P.&Schwartzman,S.(2020).Theroleofforestconversion,degradation,anddisturbanceinthecarbondynamicsofAmazonindigenousterritoriesandprotectedareas.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,117(6),3015–3025.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1913321117175IUCN.(2021).ProceedingsoftheMembers’Assembly:WorldConservationCongressMarseille,France3–10September2021.<https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/WCC-7th-005-En.pdf>176RAISG.(2020).AmazoniaUnderPressure2020.AmazonNetworkofGeoreferencedSocio-environmentalInformation.<https://www.amazoniasocioambiental.org/en/publication/amazonia-under-pressure-2020>177Lovejoy,T.E.&Nobre,C.(2018).Amazontippingpoint.ScienceAdvances,4(2),eaat2340.<doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2340>WWFLIVINGPLANETREPORT2022114115178Warren,R.,J.Price,E.Graham,N.Forstenhaeusler,andJ.VanDerWal.(2018).Theprojectedeffectoninsects,vertebrates,andplantsoflimitingglobalwarmingto1.5°Cratherthan2°C.Science,360(6390):791-795.179Kok,M.T.J.,Meijer,J.R.,vanZeist,W.-J.,Hilbers,J.P.,Immovilli,M.,Janse,J.H.,Stehfest,E.,Bakkenes,M.,Tabeau,A.,Schipper,A.M.,&Alkemade,R.(2022).Assessingambitiousnatureconservationstrategieswithina2degreewarmerandfood-secureworld[Preprint].<doi.org/10.1101/2020.08.04.236489>180Chan,K.M.,Boyd,D.R.,Gould,R.K.,Jetzkowitz,J.,Liu,J.,Muraca,B.,Naidoo,R.,Olmsted,P.,Satterfield,T.,Selomane,O.&Singh,G.G.,2020.Leversandleveragepointsforpathwaystosustainability.PeopleandNature,2(3),693-717.181AbsonD.J.,FischerJ.,LeventonJ.,NewigJ.,SchomerusT.,VilsmaierU.,VonWehrdenH.,AbernethyP.,IvesC.D.,JagerN.W.,LangD.J.(2017)Leveragepointsforsustainabilitytransformation.Ambio,46(1),30-39.182He,F.,Bremerich,V.,Zarfl,C.,Geldmann,J.,Langhans,S.D.,David,J.N.W.,Darwall,W.,Tockner,K.,&Jähnig,S.C.(2018).Freshwatermegafaunadiversity:Patterns,statusandthreats.DiversityandDistributions,24(10),1395–1404.<doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12780>183Lin,D.,Hanscom,L.,Murthy,A.,Galli,A.,Evans,M.,Neill,E.,Mancini,M.S.,Martindill,J.,Medouar,F.-Z.,Huang,S.,&Wackernagel,M.(2018).EcologicalFootprintAccountingforCountries:UpdatesandResultsoftheNationalFootprintAccounts,2012–2018.Resources,7(3),58.doi.org/10.3390/resources7030058184WWF/ZSL.(2022).TheLivingPlanetIndexdatabase.<www.livingplanetindex.org>.185Galli,A.,Iha,K.,MorenoPires,S.,Mancini,M.S.,Alves,A.,Zokai,G.,Lin,D.,Murthy,A.,&Wackernagel,M.(2020).AssessingtheEcologicalFootprintandbiocapacityofPortuguesecities:Criticalresultsforenvironmentalawarenessandlocalmanagement.Cities,96,102442.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.102442186Galli,A.,Iha,K.,Halle,M.,ElBilali,H.,Grunewald,N.,Eaton,D.,Capone,R.,Debs,P.,&Bottalico,F.(2017).Mediterraneancountries’foodconsumptionandsourcingpatterns:AnEcologicalFootprintviewpoint.ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment,578,383–391.<doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.191>187Galli,A.,Weinzettel,J.,Cranston,G.,&Ercin,E.(2013).AFootprintFamilyextendedMRIOmodeltosupportEurope’stransitiontoaOnePlanetEconomy.ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment,461–462,813–818.<doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.09.040>188Mancini,M.S.,Galli,A.,Niccolucci,V.,Lin,D.,Bastianoni,S.,Wackernagel,M.,&Marchettini,N.(2016).EcologicalFootprint:RefiningthecarbonFootprintcalculation.EcologicalIndicators,61,390–403.<doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.09.040>189Wackernagel,M.,Hanscom,L.,Jayasinghe,P.,Lin,D.,Murthy,A.,Neill,E.,&Raven,P.(2021).Theimportanceofresourcesecurityforpovertyeradication.NatureSustainability,4(8),731–738.<doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00708-4>190Maani,K.,&Cavana,R.Y.(2017).SystemsThinking,SystemDynamics:ManagingChangeandComplexity(2nded.).PrenticeHall.191IIS.(2022).IdentificandoÁreasPrioritáriasparaRestauração,BiomaAmazônia.InstitutoInternacionalparaSustentabilidade.<https://amazonia2030.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/AMZ-29.pdf>192CBD.(2021).Firstdraftofthepost-2020globalbiodiversityframework.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.Openendedworkinggrouponthepost-2020globalbiodiversityframework.<https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/abb5/591f/2e46096d3f0330b08ce87a45/wg2020-03-03-en.pdf>193Locke,H.,Rockström,J.,Bakker,P.,Bapna,M.,Gough,M.,Lambertini,M.,Morris,J.,Zabey,E.&Zurita,P.(2021).ANature-PositiveWorld:theGlobalGoalforNature,Naturepositive.org.<https://f.hubspotusercontent20.net/hubfs/4783129/Nature%20Positive%20The%20Global%20Goal%20for%20Nature%20paper.pdf>WWFAssociatesFundaciónVidaSilvestre(Argentina)PasaulesDabasFonds(Latvia)NigerianConservationFoundation(Nigeria)PublicationdetailsPublishedinOctober2022byWWF–WorldWideFundforNature(FormerlyWorldWildlifeFund),Gland,Switzerland(“WWF”).Anyreproductioninfullorinpartofthispublicationmustbeinaccordancewiththerulesbelow,andmentionthetitleandcredittheabove-mentionedpublisherasthecopyrightowner.Recommendedcitation:WWF(2022)LivingPlanetReport2022-Buildinganature-positivesociety.Almond,R.E.A.,Grooten,M.,JuffeBignoli,D.&Petersen,T.(Eds).WWF,Gland,Switzerland.Noticefortextandgraphics:©2022WWFAllrightsreserved.Reproductionofthispublication(exceptthephotos)foreducationalorothernon-commercialpurposesisauthorisedsubjecttoadvancewrittennotificationtoWWFandappropriateacknowledgementasstatedabove.Reproductionofthispublicationforresaleorothercommercialpurposesisprohibitedwithoutpriorwrittenpermission.ReproductionofthephotosforanypurposeissubjecttoWWF’spriorwrittenpermission.Disclaimer:Thedesignationofgeographicalentitiesandthepresentationofthematerial,donotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofWWFconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,orarea,orofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.WWFOfficesArmeniaAustraliaAustriaAzerbaijanBelgiumBelizeBhutanBoliviaBrazilBulgariaCambodiaCameroonCanadaCentralAfricanRepublicChileChinaColombiaCroatiaCubaDemocraticRepublicofCongoDenmarkEcuadorFijiFinlandFranceFrenchGuyanaGabonGeorgiaGermanyGreeceGuatemalaGuyanaHondurasHongKongS.A.R.HungaryIndiaIndonesiaItalyJapanKenyaKoreaLaosMadagascarMalaysiaMexicoMongoliaMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNepalNetherlandsNewZealandNorwayPakistanPanamaPapuaNewGuineaParaguayPeruPhilippinesPolandPortugalRomaniaRussiaSingaporeSlovakiaSolomonIslandsSouthAfricaSpainSurinameSwedenSwitzerlandTanzaniaThailandTunisiaTurkeyUgandaUkraineUnitedArabEmiratesUnitedKingdomUnitedStatesofAmericaVietNamZambiaZimbabweWWFWORLDWIDENETWORKpanda.orgOURMISSIONISTOSTOPTHEDEGRADATIONOFTHEPLANET’SNATURALENVIRONMENTANDTOBUILDAFUTUREINWHICHPEOPLELIVEINHARMONYWITHNATURE.INT•LIVINGPLANETREPORT2022WWF.ORG©2022©1986PandasymbolWWF–WorldWideFundforNature(FormerlyWorldWildlifeFund)®“WWF”isaWWFRegisteredTrademark.WWF,AvenueduMont-Bland,1196Gland,Switzerland.Tel.+41223649111.Fax.+41223640332.Forcontactdetailsandfurtherinformation,pleasevisitourinternationalwebsiteatwww.panda.org/LPR2020

1、当您付费下载文档后，您只拥有了使用权限，并不意味着购买了版权，文档只能用于自身使用，不得用于其他商业用途（如 [转卖]进行直接盈利或[编辑后售卖]进行间接盈利）。
2、本站所有内容均由合作方或网友上传，本站不对文档的完整性、权威性及其观点立场正确性做任何保证或承诺！文档内容仅供研究参考，付费前请自行鉴别。
3、如文档内容存在违规，或者侵犯商业秘密、侵犯著作权等，请点击“违规举报”。

碎片内容

碳中和的最新文档