ChinaCouncilforInternationalCooperationonEnvironmentandDevelopment(CCICED)SpecialPolicyStudySUSTAINABLEAGRIFOODSYSTEMS:MEETINGCHINA’SFOODANDCLIMATESECURITYGOALSMay,2022iSPECIALPOLICYSTUDYMEMBERSCo-Chairs:CraigHansonInternationalCo-Leader;VicePresidentofFood,Forests,Water&theOcean,WorldResourcesInstituteGuillermoCastillejaInternationalCo-Leader;SpecialAdvisor,CCICEDFANShenggenChineseLeader;ChairProfessorandDean,AcademyofGlobalFoodEconomicsandPolicy,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityCHENMingDeputyChineseLeader;DeputyChiefEconomist,ForeignEnvironmentalCooperationCenter,MinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentDraftingExperts:MENGTingAssociateprofessor,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityFUXiaotianDirector,ChinaFoodandNaturalResourcesProgram,WorldResourcesInstituteChinaLIUTingDeputyHead,GreenValueChainInstituteoftheForeignEnvironmentalCooperationCenter,MinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentDONGXinSeniorProjectLead,GreenValueChainInstituteoftheForeignEnvironmentalCooperationCenter,MinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentYUANYuSeniorProjectLead,GreenValueChainInstituteoftheForeignEnvironmentalCooperationCenter,MinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentCHAIYilinProjectLead,GreenValueChainInstituteoftheForeignEnvironmentalCooperationCenter,MinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentSeniorAdvisors:BobTANSEYSeniorPolicyAdvisor,China&GlobalPolicyLead,DegradedLandsandRestoration,TheNatureConservancyJIAFengChiefExpert,CenterforEnvironmentalEducationandCommunicationsofMinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentJINWenchengDirectorGeneral,ResearchCenterforRuralEconomyoftheMinistryofAgricultureandRuralAffairsMEIXurongVicePresident,ChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciencesMorganGILLESPYProgrammeDirector,FoodandLandUseCoalitionatWorldResourcesInstituteScottVAUGHANInternationalChiefAdvisor,CCICEDXUHuaqingDirector,NationalCenterforClimateChangeStrategyandInternationalCooperationYANGXiaoguangProfessor,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityZHANGJianpingDirector,RegionalEconomicCooperationResearchCenter,ChineseAcademyofInternationalTradeandEconomicCooperation,MinistryofCommerceZHAOWenhuaChiefNutritionist,NationalInstituteforNutritionandHealth,ChineseCenterforDiseaseControlandPreventionAdvisoryExperts:iiBAIZhaohaiResearcher,CenterforAgriculturalResourcesResearch,InstituteofGeneticandDevelopmentalBiology,ChineseAcademyofSciencesCHENYuquanAssistantProfessor,CollegeofEconomicsandManagement,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityFENGXiaolongAssistantProfessor,CollegeofEconomicsandManagement,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityJINShuqinDirector,ResearchCenterforRuralEconomyLIYingDirectorofSustainableAgriculture,TNCChinaLONGWenjinAssistantProfessor,CollegeofEconomicsandManagement,ChinaAgriculturalUniversitySIWeiPresident,CollegeofEconomicsandManagement,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityTimSEARCHINGERSeniorFellowandTechnicalDirector,FoodProgram,WRIWANGJingjingAssistantProfessor,CollegeofEconomicsandManagement,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityYUXinPriorityProjectCoordinator,SustainableFoodConsumptionandSupplyChain,WWFZHANGYumeiProfessor,CollegeofEconomicsandManagement,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityZHAOWeiGEFPortfolio,UNFoodandAgricultureOrganizationCoordinators:FUXiaotianDirector,ChinaFoodandNaturalResourcesProgram,WorldResourcesInstituteChinaMENGTingAssociateprofessor,ChinaAgriculturalUniversityLIUTingDeputyHead,GreenValueChainInstituteoftheForeignEnvironmentalCooperationCenter,MinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentCo-ChairsandDraftingExpertsserveintheirpersonalcapacities.iiiTableofContentsEXECUTIVESUMMARY............................................................................................................11THEVISION...........................................................................................................................41.1ACHIEVECARBONPEAKBEFORE2030ANDNEUTRALITYBEFORE2060..........................41.2ACHIEVEFOODSECURITY..................................................................................................52THECHALLENGE...................................................................................................................62.1CHALLENGESTOACHIEVINGCARBONNEUTRALITY(ASPIRATION1)...............................62.2CHALLENGESTOACHIEVINGFOODSECURITYANDRESILIENCE(ASPIRATION2)............73THESOLUTIONS..................................................................................................................113.1PRODUCE.........................................................................................................................113.2PROTECT..........................................................................................................................123.3REDUCE............................................................................................................................143.4RESTORE..........................................................................................................................153.5QUANTIFICATIONOFEMISSIONSREDUCTIONPOTENTIAL............................................164RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................................................................................195CONCLUDINGREMARKS.....................................................................................................24Reference..............................................................................................................................25ivListofFiguresFIGURE1GREENHOUSEGASEMISSIONSFROMCHINA’SAGRIFOODSYSTEM(2017)..................................7FIGURE2CROPLANDAREAGAINANDLOSS(2000-2019)............................................................................14FIGURE3GREENHOUSEGASEMISSIONSFROMAGRIFOODSYSTEMSINCHINAUNDERDIFFERENTSCENARIOS,2020–2060................................................................................................................................17ListofTablesTABLE1TECHNOLOGIESANDPRACTICESTOREDUCEGHGEMISSIONSFROMFOODPRODUCTION.........11TABLE2SCENARIODESIGNFORMODELINGGREENHOUSEGASEMISSIONREDUCTIONOFAGRICULTURALACTIVITIESINCHINA,2020-2060........................................................................................17ListofBoxesBOX1AGRIFOODSYSTEM..............................................................................................................................4BOX2“CARBON”=“GREENHOUSEGASES”...................................................................................................4BOX3WHATARE“SOFTCOMMODITIES”?..................................................................................................231EXECUTIVESUMMARYTheagri-foodsystemsfeaturepredominantlyinChina’s2021–2025five-yearplan,NationalDeterminedContributions(NDC),2060climategoals,andotherpoliciesasacontributortonationalprioritiessuchasfoodsecurity,climateneutrality,commonprosperity,andpublichealth.However,increasingly,thetradeoffoodstaplesisbecomingmorevulnerabletoshiftsingeopolitics;foodsupplywillbeevenmorevulnerabletochangesinclimateandenvironmentaldegradation;ruralpopulationshavebeenmarginalizedassecondaryandtertiaryactivitiesarethemainsourcesoffamilyincome;andmalnutritionandotherfood-relatedhealthissuesarealreadyepidemicasmanyinChinaadoptwesternfoodhabits.Toachievenationalstrategicgoalsandaddressthesechallenges,Chinamusttransformitsagrifoodsystem.Toadvancetheevaluationofactionableoptionsforthistransformation,thisSPSincludesareviewoffoodproductiontechnology,on-farmpractice,andpublicpolicysolutions,sometestedandsomeindevelopment.Suchsolutionsfallintofourcategories:producingmore(andmorenutritious)food,protectingnature,reducingagrifoodsysteminefficienciesandpollution,andrestoringdegradedlands.Whileindividualsolutionsbythemselvesmayproducesomepositiveoutcomesandbeimplementedintra-sectorally,theinterdependenciesandsheerscaleofthetaskcallforamulti-sectoralconcertedeffortsupportedbytherelevantinstitutionsthrougharrangementsandprocessesthatrelymoreonsystemsthinkingthanonnarrowsectoralmandates.Sixpolicy,governanceandinstitutionalinnovationsarerecommendedtofacilitatesuchconcertedeffort.1.DevelopaNationalAgrifoodSystemTransformationStrategyTodrawclearnationalobjectivesandpathstorealistic,necessaryandsufficientoutcomes,a“ChinaNationalAgrifoodSystemTransformationStrategy”coulddefinea2060visionanda2030ActionPlan,whichwillbe:Science-based–incorporatingthelatesttechnicaladvancessupportingafoodandlandusesystemtransformationandtheapproachesortoolsforassessingandmanagingtrade-offsbetweensolutionsandobjectives.Accountable–internallycoherenttodeliverexplicitlystatedandmeasurablegoalswhilesupportingandrelyingontherelevantcomponentsofChina’sCarbonNeutralityPlan,5-yearplans,andtheNationalDeterminedContribution(NDC)totheParisAgreementonclimatechange.Multisectoral–governedbyaninter-ministerialcommitteetoensurevariousministriesandrelevantinstitutionscontributewhatisintheirpurview,addressandmanagetrade-offsinherenttothesolutions,andstreamlinedecision-making.2.RepurposeAgriculturalFiscalIncentivesandFinanceToadvancethesolutions,Chinacouldlaunchaconcertedefforttoredirectsignificantfinancinginsupportofitsnationalfoodandclimatesecuritygoals.Muchofthisrepurposedagriculturesupportshouldbegearedtowardresearchanddevelopment(R&D)fortechnologysolutionsthatarenotyetmarketready,aswellastowarddeploymentprogramstoincreasemarketpenetrationofsolutionsthat2arealreadyinthemarket.Suchrepurposinganddesignofcross-sectoralfiscalincentivescansignalashiftawayfromtraditionalproductiontowardbetterproductionefficiency,nutrition,andsustainability.Potentialsourcesofpublicfinancingmayinclude:(a)redirectingexistingagriculturalsubsidiesawayfromprogramsincentivizingagriculturalpracticesthathaveprovenunsustainable;and(b)taxingactivitiesthatincreasetheclimatefootprintofChina’sagrifoodsystem.Potentialusesoftheseresourcesmayinclude:(a)financingsolutionsdelineatedinthisstudyasframedbytheNationalAgrifoodSystemTransformationStrategy;(b)fundingofplace-basedecologicalcompensationprograms,applyinglessonslearnedfromtheinter-provincialecologicalcompensationmechanismusedfortheXin’anRiver;and(c)andprovidingtechnicalassistancetofarmersforadoptionofimprovedland-usemanagement.Additionalfinancingmaybeattractedfromtheprivatesectorbythegovernmentprovidingpolicyandfinancialsupport(e.g.,“first-loss”riskreduction)toencourageprivatesectorcompaniesandbankstoinvestinresearch,development,and/ordeploymentofsolutionsoutlinedinthisstudy.3.PromoteHealthyDietsandConsumptionChina’smajorfoodproductionandconsumptiontransformationoverthepastthreedecadeshavebeenlargelydrivenbychangesindietarypreferencesandaffordablechoicesavailable.Theoveralltrendinfoodconsumptionisareductionintheconsumptionofbasicgrainstaplesandanincreaseintheconsumptionofanimal-basedfood(mainlymeatanddairy).Themajorconsequencesofthesechangesincludeaninitialimprovementoncaloricandproteinintakefollowedbyanincreaseincardiovasculardiseaseandprevalenceofobesityonceacertainleveloffat,saltandsugarhasbeensurpassed.Adietary-guidanceinitiativecouldcenteronthedevelopmentofanationalprogramforencouragingahealthyandsustainablediet(inaccordancewithChina’srecommendeddietaryguidelines),basedon,butnotlimitedto:DevelopinganationalnutritionguidelinefortheChinesepeoplethatmeetrequirementsofnotonlyhealthbutalsosustainabilityStrengtheningawarenessmessaging,packagelabeling,andfoodmarketinglaws,etc.LinkingahealthierdietwithasustainableproductionschemeaimedatincreasingtheproductionoffreshfruitsandvegetablesbyChinesesmallholders(anoftoverlookedsector)andincreasingaccesstofreshfruitsandvegetablesbyChineseconsumersExpandingthenationalCleanPlateInitiativetotacklefoodwaste(andassociatedplasticwaste)atretail(includingtheshoppingenvironment),foodservice(includinge-commerce),andhouseholdlevelsPromotingalternativestoanimalprotein,particularlyfrombeef,includingsyntheticmeat,plant-basedprocessedproteinrichmeals,etc.(SeeRecommendation#5)4.AcceleratetheAgrifoodSystemsTransformationthroughPrivateSectorLeadershipInclosecoordinationwithpublicinstitutions,includingtheproposedNationalAgrifoodSystemTransformationStrategyandtheinter-ministerialagrifoodsystemcommittee,theprivatesectorcouldspecificallyhelpaccelerateinvestmentandinnovationacrossthesupplychainthrough:3Supportingefficientbutfairconsolidationoffarmland.Farmsizeiscriticalwhendeployingtheadoptionofnewtechnologiesatscale,withlargerareasbeingpreferredgiventheinvestmentsneeded.Privatecompaniescouldhelpcreateinvestmentarrangementswherebysmalllandholderscanparticipateincollectiveeffortstoachievescalewithoutriskoflosingtheirland.Supportingfoodsafetyprograms.Whilefoodsafetyisultimatelyaresponsibilityofgovernmentatdifferentjurisdictionallevels,theprivatesectorcanmakethistaskmoremanageableandefficientbyintroducingthetraceabilityprotocolsandtechnologyneededtomanageintegratedsupplychains.Providingandenablingdietaryguidance.Whileremainingcommerciallyviable,largefoodretailerscanplayasignificantroleineducatingandguidingconsumersonpracticalwaystoadheretogovernment-backeddietaryguidelines.5.IncentivizeAlternativeSourcesofProteinandFoodTechnologyMostanalysesontheimpactofdietandhealthandtheenvironmentconcludethatreducingtheamountofmeatconsumptionisthesingle-mostefficientwaytocurbtherapidgrowthrateofcardiovasculardiseaseandmethaneemissions.Reductiononoverallmeatconsumptionshouldbepartofamulti-facetedinitiativetosensitizeresidentstotherisksandimpactsofmeatconsumptionwhileactivelyseekingforanddevelopingalternativesourcesofprotein,includingplant-basedandsyntheticmeat.Sucheffortsaretodaybeingdevelopedlargelybyprivateentrepreneursfacingasignificantlearningcurve.Asstatedabove,theprivatesectoreffortsinthisregardcanbeacceleratedwiththerightpoliciesandincentivesinplace.Asakeystakeholder,thegovernmentshouldcreatetheenablingconditionsandincentivesforChinesecompaniestobecomemajorglobalmanufacturersofalternativeproteins(e.g.,plant-basedmeatslikeImpossibleFoods,lab-grownmeats)andalternativestarches.Doingsothegovernmentwillbehelping:MeetgrowingdomesticandforeigndemandforproteinAddressclimatechangeandlandcompetitionCreateanentirenewindustrialsectorforChinathatChinacouldleadtheworldon.6.GreenInternationalFoodValueChainsChinacouldpursueaprogramtoensurethatthefooditimportsislowcarbon,therebyhelpingreducefoodsupplyGHGemission.The2021reportoftheCCICEDSpecialPolicyStudy,“GreeningChina’sSoftCommodityValueChains”,identifiedseveralmeasuresforthisprogram.Therecommendationsfromthe2020StudywereapprovedandendorsedbytheChinaCouncilin2020.TheserecommendationsareacriticalcomponentforsustainablefoodsupplychainsoverallandwouldhelpmeetChina’sfoodandclimatesecuritygoals.Assuch,the2020recommendationsareworthreinforcinginthiscurrentSpecialPolicyStudy:Establishanationalgreenvaluechainstrategyandprovidepolicy/institutionalsupportAdoptmandatoryandvoluntarymeasuresto“green”foodvaluechainsLeverageexistingChinesepolicyleversandinitiativesincludingtheBeltandRoadInitiative.41THEVISIONChinahasseveralaspirationsthatwillrequiredramatictransformationsinthecountry’sagricultureandfood(“agrifood”)systems(Box1).TwoaspirationsinparticularstandoutandarethefocusofthisSpecialPolicyStudy:(1)Peakingnationalcarbonemissionsbefore2030andachievingcarbonneutralitybefore2060,and(2)achievingfoodsecurityandresilience.1.1ACHIEVECARBONPEAKBEFORE2030ANDNEUTRALITYBEFORE2060In2020,theChinesegovernmentannouncedanaspirationtopeaknationalcarbonemissions(Box2)before2030andachievecarbonneutralitybefore2060(UnitedNations,2020).Tojumpstartthiseffort,the14thFiveYearPlanforNationalAgricultureGreenDevelopmentcallsforreducinggreenhousegas(GHG)emissionandincreasingcarbonsinkcapacitywithintheagricultureandlandsector(MinistryofAgricultureandRuralAffairs(MARA),2021).BothpolicyambitionsalignwithChina’svisionofbecomingan“EcologicalCivilization”(TheStateCouncil,2021;MARA,2021).Asforachievingcarbonneutrality,China’sagrifoodsystemmustfeatureprominentlyintheoverallnationalplantoaddressclimatechange.AsPresidentXiJinpingsaid,“DecreasingGHGemissionsandincreasingthecarbonsinkoftheagriculturesectorandtheruralareaarecriticalmeasuresforachievingcarbonpeakingbefore2030andcarbonneutralitybefore2060.Scientificaccounting,actionableproposalsandefficientmeasuresshouldbetaken”.China’sdomesticagrifoodsystemgenerates8%ofthecountry’sannualtotalGHGemissions,including40%ofthecountry’stotalmethaneemissionsand50%ofitstotalnitrousoxideemissions(MinistryofEcologyandEnvironment2018).TheseemissionsBox2“Carbon”=“Greenhousegases”AsusedbytheChinesegovernment,theterm“carbon”inthecontextofthe2060neutralityambitionmeanscarbondioxideequivalent(CO2e),whichencompassesallgreenhousegases(GHGs).Therefore,thisSpecialPolicyStudywilladdressallGHGsgeneratedbytheagrifoodsystem,primarilycarbondioxide,methane,andnitrousoxide.ThisstudywillconsiderdirectGHGemissions(andsinks)inChina.Inaddition,thisstudywillconsiderGHGimplicationsassociatedwithagriculturegoodsimportedintoChinafromoverseas,althoughthoseemissionsarebeyondChina’sdirectcontrol.FoodimportisanintegralpartofChina’sfoodsecurity,whileChinaiscommittedtoglobalemissionreduction.Chinacanplayapositiveroleinreducingemissionsoftheseoverseasagriculturesystems.Box1AgrifoodsystemAsusedinthisSpecialPolicyStudy,the“agrifoodsystem”encompassesboththe“on-farm”agriculturalandfoodproductionactivities,aswellastheinputsuponwhichthisproductiondepends(e.g.,productionofsyntheticfertilizer),processingandpackaging,distribution,retail,andconsumption.Land-useandland-usechangeassociatedwiththeagriculturalandfoodproductionactivitiesisalsoincludedintheagri-foodsystem.5willneedtobesignificantlyreduced.Moreover,carbonneutralitycanonlybeachievedifChina’sremainingunabatedemissions(fromenergy,industry,and/oragriculturesectors)arecounterbalancedbyadramaticincreaseinthecountry’scarbonsink(e.g.,sequesteringcarbondioxideviareforestation).1.2ACHIEVEFOODSECURITYInAprilof2020,PresidentXiJinpingdeclaredthat“foodsecurityisanimportantfoundationfornationalsecurity”(Xinhuanet,2020).LaterinDecemberof2020,hestated,“ThefoodoftheChinesepeoplemustbemadebyandremaininthehandsoftheChinese.Everyoneneedstotakeresponsibilityforfoodsecurity”(People’sDaily,2021).Inthesamevein,China’snew“dualcirculationstrategy”callsforgreaterself-relianceintermsofproductionandconsumption(includingoffood)inordertoreduceinternationalsupplychainuncertainties(CCICED,2021).Morerecently,inMarch2022,PresidentXiarticulatedtheimportanceofadequategrainandotherfoodsupplies,betterfarmlandmanagement,andapplicationofnewtechnologiesinsupportoffoodsecurity(Xinhua,2022).Itisimportanttonotethatthesearenotcallsforfullself-sufficiencywithregardtofoodorothercommoditiesbutratheroneforanappropriatecombinationofself-sufficiencyandopentrade.Inaddition,theagrifoodsystem—especiallywithrespecttoimprovinghumanhealth,accessingsafeandnutritiousfood,andreducingagriculture-generatedpollution—isanimportantcomponentofChina’seffortstoachieve“commonprosperity”.Theseandotherprioritieshighlightthatensuringasustainablesupplyofprimaryproducts,includingfood,isamajorstrategicissueforthecountry.Giventheabove,akeyquestionthecountryfacesis,“HowcanChinatransformitsagrifoodsysteminamannerthatsimultaneouslysupportsfoodsecurityandcontributestocarbonneutrality?”ThisCCICEDSpecialPolicyStudyattemptstoprovideananswer.TheStudybeginsbyoutliningthenatureandscaleofthechallenge—thecurrentstateofplayanddevelopmentswithinChina’sagrifoodsystemwhichposeobstaclestotheachievementofthesetwoaspirations.Itcontinuesbyarticulatingthetypesofsolutionsthatcouldaddresstheseobstacles.Itconcludesbyproposingasuiteofinstitutionalinnovationsforpursuingsmartersolutions.Thereportdoesnotproposetechnicalsolutionstothemyriadoffoodchallengesalarge,diversecountrysuchasChinaisboundtohave.Inasking,“howcouldChinaimplementthesesolutions?”thestudyhighlightsopportunitiesforinstitutionalarrangementsandleadershipthatcaninfusetheinnovationandconcertedeffortneededtobringaboutthechangeatscaleandwithinthetimeframesought.Thepasttwoyearshaveseengloballyanunprecedentedinterestonthefuturefood(particularlyalternativeproteins).AcursoryreviewofstudiesandreportsshowshowmuchofthisinteresthasbeencenteredonChina.WeexplicitlyrecognizetherecentreportsbyAcademyofGlobalFoodEconomicsandPolicy(AGFEP)giventheircomprehensivenessandsoundanalysis.WehopethatourreportaddsvaluetoourunderstandingofthefuturefoodinChinaandcanhelpinformongoingandfuturepublicandprivatesectorpolicydiscussionsontheseimportantissuesforChina.62THECHALLENGEInjust10years,from2000to2010,Chinaalsobecameoneofthefewdevelopingcountrieswhereundernourishmentislessthan2.5%.Dailycaloriessuppliedinthatsameperiodgrewfrom1,800to3,201kcal/perpersonacrossthecountryandproteinfrom83to101g/perperson(FAO,2021).Mostindicatorsoffoodavailabilityandaffordabilityarestillgrowing,but,withthat,theconcernofpolicymakersandfoodexpertsaboutthehiddennaturalandsocialcapitalcostsbankrollingthisgrowthandthevulnerabilityoflongsupplychains.ThissectionidentifiesthemainchallengesChinawillconfrontandbeabletofeeditspopulationwhileprotectingandrestoringnaturalandsocialcapitalasthebasisforasustainablefoodsystem.Lastyearandearlierthisyear,aconsortiumofleadingacademicinstitutionsproducedtheChinaandGlobalFoodPolicyReport(2021and2022)whichtodayarethemostthoroughandcomprehensiveaccountofChina’sfoodsystemsandfuturescenarios.TheSPSreliesheavilyonthesereports'(AGFEP,2021;AGFEP,2022)dataandanalysisofcurrenttrendsaswellasscenariosforthemediumtolongterm.TheSPS’saddedvaluetothisdiscussionistofocusoncrosscuttingandinstitutionalissuesthatarecriticaltoimplementrecommendedactions.2.1CHALLENGESTOACHIEVINGCARBONNEUTRALITY(ASPIRATION1)China’sagrifoodsystemgenerated1.09billiontonsofCO2eqin2018,thethirdannualhighestlevel(AGFEP,2021).Thisamountrepresents12%ofthe13billiontonsofCO2eqemittedbyChinathatyear,asubstantialincreasefromthe1997levelof0.94billiontonsCO2eq.Today,China’sfoodsystemcarbonemissionsmakeChinathelargestemitterinthesector,rivalingwithIndia.Butonapercapitabasis,itisat0.47tons,oneofthelowestemittersintermsofemissionsfromagriculturalactivities.WhileGHGemissionsfromthecountry’sagrifoodsystemspanmultiplesources,themajoritycomefromagriculturalactivities(Figure1).Amongthelatter,methanefromruminantlivestock(entericfermentationandmanure)andricepaddiesaretheprimarysourcesofGHGs.China’sagrifoodsystemfootprintalsoincludestheGHGemissionsofthefoodthecountryimportsfordomesticprocessingand/orconsumption.ImprovementsinChineselivingstandardsandassociatedchangesindiets(inparticularrisinganimalproductdemand)areunderway.Growingdemandisdifficulttosatisfysolelybydomesticproductionandsupply,andthereforeimportsofanumberofagriculturalproductshaveincreased.Forexample,whileChineseconsumerdemandforbeefin2019was8.3milliontons,thecountrydomesticallycouldonlysupply6.7milliontons(UNComtrade,2020).7Figure1GreenhousegasemissionsfromChina’sagrifoodsystem(2017)Source:AGFEP,CARD,CIFAE,IAED,andIFPRI.2021.2021ChinaandGlobalFoodPolicyReportThecarbonfootprintofChina'sagrifoodsystemalsoincludesGHGemissionsfromimportedfoodusedfordomesticprocessingand/orconsumption.WiththeimprovementofChinesepeople'slivingstandardandshiftsindiet(especiallytheincreaseddemandforanimalproducts),domesticproductionandsupplycannotmeetitsgrowingdemand.Therefore,theagriculturalimportshaveincreasedaccordingly.Forexample,China'sconsumptiondemandforbeefin2019was8.3milliontons,butChinacouldonlysupply6.7milliontonsdomestically(UNComtrade,2020).Someoftheseimportedfoodsareassociatedwithahighclimatefootprint.Forinstance,beef,soybeans,andpalmoilareleadingdirectcausesoftropicaldeforestation(Ritchie,2021).AlthoughtheGHGemissionsassociatedwiththeimportsofagrifoodproductsoverseasshouldnotbecountedintothetotalemissionsofChina,thecountrycanplayanincreasinglyactiveroleinglobalcarbonemissionsreductionthroughSouth-Southcooperationintrade,foreigndirectinvestment(FDI),andscienceandtechnology(S&T).ThisisconsistentwithPresidentXiJinping’sstatementofthecommunitywithasharedfutureformankind.2.2CHALLENGESTOACHIEVINGFOODSECURITYANDRESILIENCE(ASPIRATION2)China’sagrifoodsystemfacesatleastfourchallengestoachievingfoodsecurity.IncreasedenvironmentalpressuresthatunderminedomesticfoodproductioncapabilityoFarmlanddegradation.Agriculturalproductionoveralongtimeperiodhasresultedinlossofsoilfertilityandheavy-metalpollution.AccordingtotheMinistryofAgricultureandRuralAreas(MARA),ofthemorethan2billionmu(133millionha)ofcultivated8landinChina,morethantwo-thirdsisconsidered“low-quality”(i.e.,fourthtotenthgradeina1-10scale)(MARA,2020).oStresseddomesticwatersupplies.Chinaisoneofthecountrieswiththepoorestpercapitawaterresourcesintheworldwhilealsohavingthelargestwaterconsumptionintheworld.In2018,China’stotalfreshwaterconsumptionwasmorethan600billionm3,with369billionm3ofthis(61%)beingconsumedbyagriculture(MinistryofWaterResource(MWR),2019).Duetoregionalandclimatedifferences,thedistributionacrosstimeandspaceofagriculturalwaterresourcesisuneven,andtheshortageofwaternegativelyaffectsagriculturaldevelopmentinwater-deficientareas(Huangetal.,2021).oIncreasedrisksfromextremeweatherduetoclimatechange.(Cuietal.,2020)showthat,onaverage,climatechangewillreducefoodproduction,raiseprices,increasenetimportsofmostfood,andlowerChina’soverallfoodself-sufficiency.Atpresent,theperunityieldofChina'sthreemajorgraincropsdecreasesbyabout2.6%whentemperaturesriseby0.1°C,andevery1%increaseinprecipitationlevelsincreases0.4%ofyields.Consideringtheimpactoftemperatureandprecipitationongrainyield,climatechangewillhaveacertainimpactonChina'sfoodsecurity,whichmaypartiallyoffsetthepositiveeffectsbroughtbytechnologicalprogress(Xieetal.,2019).Inaddition,naturaldisastersandextremeweatherevents(e.g.,floods,droughts,unseasonablyhigh/lowtemperatures)duetoclimatechangecancauseasignificantlossindomesticagriculturalandfoodproduction.In2018,about140millionpeoplewereaffectedbynaturaldisasterswithatotallossof4billionyuan,whilein2019about20millionhainChinawereaffectedbynaturaldisasters(NationalData,2020)oWhilewomenaccountforagrowingshareofagriculturalworkers,womenaremorevulnerablethanmentothenegativeeffectsofenvironmentaldamageinmuchofthedevelopingworld(OECD,2021).Genderawarenessofclimatechangeisgraduallybeingstrengthenedandimprovedinsocialwelfareguaranteepolicies,specificallyregardingwomen’svulnerabilitiesinChina.Butmoreneedstobedonetointegrategendertofoodandclimatesecuritystrategy.IncreasedpressuresoninternationalfoodimportsintoChinaoIncreasedrelianceonforeignimports.SinceChina’saccessiontotheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO),thecountry’sagriculturaltradehasenteredanunprecedentedstageofrapiddevelopment.Whilebothagriculturalimportsandexportshavegrown,importshavegrownmuchfaster.EvenwiththeEUcountriestakenasawhole,Chinaisnowthesecond-largestimporterandfifthlargestexporterofagriculturalproductsintermsofeconomicvalueintheworld,anditstotaltradevolumeofagriculturalproductshasleapedtosecondplaceintheworld(Jiao,2020).In2021,Chinaimported165milliontonsofgrain,anincreaseof18%overthesameperiodlastyear(GeneralAdministrationofCustomsP.R.China,2022).Inparticular,China’simportsofsoybeanaccountsfor86%oftotaldomesticdemandsin2021.Importeddairyproductsandbeefcontribute35%and24%oftotalsupplyamountrespectivelyin2020(UNComtrade,2021).oDisruptionstoglobalsupplychainsduetoCOVID-19andtradeconflict.GivenChina’sincreasedrelianceoninternationaltradeforagriculturalproducts,recentsourcesof9disruptionmayhavenegativeconsequencesforChinesefoodsecurityaspirations.TheCOVID-19pandemichadahugedisruptiononinternationaltradeduring2020and2021.Ramificationsarestillbeingfelt,andfutureimplicationsareunknown.Protectionist-orientedtradedisputeswiththeUnitedStatescontinuetoimpactagriculturaltrade,especiallyforcommoditiessuchassoybeansandmaizewheretheUnitedStatespreviouslywasamajorsupplier.Moreover,the2022Russia-Ukrainecrisisisimpactingagriculturaltradeintermsoffoodpriceandavailability,particularlygiventhescaleofgrainsandvegetableoilspreviouslyexportedfromRussiaandUkraineontotheglobalmarket.oRiseofsustainabilityexpectations.AsoutlinedinarecentSPSongreeningsoftcommodityvaluechains(CCICED,2020),“tomorrow’smarkets”areincreasinglydemandingmoresustainablefoodconsumptionandproduction.DomesticChineseconsumersappeartobemovinginthisdirection.Forinstance,accordingtoasurveyconductedin2022,morethan90%ofconsumersarewillingtopayapremiumforlow-carbonfood,andmorethanhalfofconsumersarewillingtopayapremiumofmorethan10%(Xinhuanetet.al.2022).Thebusinessnormsofmultinationalretailersandmanufacturersofagriculturalgoodsarerapidlyshiftingtowardsgreatersustainabilityandarebeingappliedequallyacrossallgeographies.Walmart’ssustainabilitypolicies,forinstance,applytoallWalmartstores(WalmartInc.,2020).Thesebusinessnormsincludevaluechainpolicies.Walmartisworkingwithitsglobalsupplierstoevaluateandshareprogressonkeyenvironmentalandsocialissuesinsupplychainscoveringmorethan100productcategories,includingpulp,paper,andtimberproducts(WalmartInc.,2020).Thecompanyappliedthispolicytoallitsstoresworldwide;therewasnoseparatepolicyforstoresinEuropeversusthoseinChina.Financialmarketsaretakingnotice,too.AgrowingcriticalmassofinstitutionalinvestorsaredevelopinginvestmentguidelinestolimitaccesstocapitalbyborrowerswhoseinvestmentsinagriculturalcommodityproductionandtraderesultintropicaldeforestationorhighGHGemissions.InSeptember2019,forinstance,230institutionalinvestorsrepresenting$16.2trillioninassetsundermanagementcalledoncompaniestotakeurgentactioninlightofthedevastatingforestfiresintheAmazon(Ceres,2019).PressuresonpollutionandfoodsafetyoPollutionduetooverapplicationoffertilizers,pesticides,andplasticfilms.AccordingtotheBulletinoftheFirstNationalSurveyofPollutionSources,agriculturewasthemainsourceofchemicaloxygendemand(COD),totalnitrogen(TN),andtotalphosphorus(TP)inChinain2007–accountingfor44%,57%,and67%ofthesetotalnationalemissions,respectively.Inthe2020BulletinoftheSecondNationalSurveyofPollutionSources,theemissionsofCOD,TN,andTPfromagriculturalpollutionsourceshaddecreasedby19%,48%,and26%,respectively,by2017comparedwith2007,butthesearestillthemainpollutionsources.Intermsoffertilizerutilizationratebycrops,therateforrice,corn,andwheatinChinawas38%in2017,asignificantgapcomparedwiththeutilizationrateof50–65%offoodcropsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates(ChinaNews,2017).Lowutilizationratesmeanthatalotoffertilizerendsuppollutingtheair(e.g.,intheformoftheGHGnitrousoxide)orwaterways.oConcernsaboutfoodcontaminationandsafety.Intermsofcropproduction,excessive10applicationofchemicalfertilizers,pesticideresidues,andheavymetalpollutionthreatenfoodsafety,affectfoodquality,andcanhaveanegativeimpactondietaryhealth.Theriskofthesepollutantsexceedinghealthstandardscanrestrictavailabilityofsafeandhigh-qualityedibleagriculturalproducts.Intermsoflivestock,highstockingdensitiesandriskofdiseasescanfosterexcessiveantibioticuse.Thisinturncanresultintheemergenceofantimicrobialresistance,threateningbothlivestockandhumanhealth.ImpactonfoodconsumptionoPersistentmalnutrition.Chinaachievedzeroratesofpovertyin2020.Despitethis,malnutritionproblemsremain,includingmicronutritiondeficiencycausedbyunbalanceddiets(mainlyduetothelackofvegetableandfruitconsumption).Itisnoticedthatcertainpopulationgroupssuchasinfants,womeninchildbearingage,andtheelderlyfaceanemiaandothermalnutrition(NationalHealthCommission(NHC),2020).TheAGFEP(AGFEP,2022)foundthattheintakeoffruits,dairy,andaquaticproductsamongruralresidentsisdeficient.Moreover,theintakeofvitaminA,vitaminC,andcalciumisinsufficient,especiallyforruralpopulations.Thedietofurbanresidentsmainlyhasthechallengeofmildexcessiveintake,whilethedietofruralresidentshasthedoubleburdenofmildexcessiveintakeofcaloriesandinsufficientintakeofnutrients.oIncreaseinshareofpopulationthatisoverweightorobese.MorethanhalfofChina'sadultresidentsareoverweightorobese,andtherateofoverweightandobesityamongchildrenandadolescentshassoaredinrecentdecades(NHC,2020).Comparedwiththelastdecade,thedietarynutritionandhealthstatusofwomenhavebeengreatlyimproved,buttheintakeofcookingoilandsaltisstillhigherthantherecommendedvalue,andtheoverweightrateofwomenbetween18to49yearsoldhasincreasedsignificantly,reaching30%(ChineseCenterforDiseaseControlandPrevention,2021).oHighratesoffoodlossandwaste.In2016,thecomprehensivelossrateofalllinksofChina'sgrainvarietiesafterdeliverywasashighas18%(Wu,2022).Post-harvestlossesformeatarearound6.6%forpork,5-9%forchicken,8%forbeef,and4%formutton(Zhouetal.,2019).Foodlossrateoffruitsandvegetablesduringstorageanddistributionwas15%and10%,respectively(Liu,2014).ConsumerfoodwasteinChinaishigh,too.Forexample,theamountoffoodwasteperpersoninschoolcanteens(buffetmeals)rangesfrom61to74gramspermeal,whilerestaurantsrangefrom74to144gramspermeal(Lietal.,2022).BasedonasurveyinBeijing,Shanghai,Chengdu,andLhasafrom2013to2015,thefoodwasterateinChina'scateringindustryisnearly12%.Wasteatlargegatheringsrisestoashighas38%.oIncreasedplasticpollution(frompackaging).Chinaistheworld'sbiggestplasticproducerandconsumer,andthefoodsectorisaprimaryuser.Itisestimatedthattotalplasticpackagingforannualhouseholdpackagingconsumptionis5.4milliontons.Asignificantshareofthisplasticendsupaswasteorevenpollution.113THESOLUTIONSAsuiteofsolutionsexistthatcanmitigatethesechallenges—reducingChina’sagrifoodsystem’sclimatefootprintwhileimprovingfoodsecurity.ThesesolutionswouldhelpChinaproducemore(andmorenutritious)food,protectnature,reduceagrifoodsysteminefficienciesandpollution,andrestoredegradedlands.Thesefourcategoriesofsolutionsshouldbeimplementedatthesametimetoavoidnegativereboundeffects.3.1PRODUCEIncreasingChina’sabilitytoproducenutritiousfoodwhilereducingtheassociatedgreenhousegasemissions(andotherformsofpollution)isanimportantpillarforachievingthetwoaspirationsofcarbonneutralityandfoodsecurity.Arangeoftechnologiesandpracticesexisttodecouplefoodproductionfromgreenhousegasemissionsandpollutionthroughoutthevaluechain(Table1).Theseapproachesaddressthemainsourcesofgreenhousegasemissionsfromtheagrifoodsystem:ruminantlivestock,rice,fertilizers,andagrifood-relatedenergyuse.Thesetechnologiesandpracticesrangefrombeing“evolutionary”(e.g.,theyhavebeenestablishedforsometimeandmerelyneedtoscaleadoption)to“revolutionary”(e.g.,theyarerecentorfuturebreakthroughinnovations).Moreover,someofferopportunitiesforChinatobuildanewindustrytomeetdomestic(andincreasingglobal)demand.Forexample,Chinacouldbuildanindustrythatmanufacturesplant-basedalternativeproteins(àla“ImpossibleFoods”)orsyntheticstarches/proteinstomeetgrowingChinesedemand(andatthesametimereducedependenceonforeignfoodsources).Table1TechnologiesandpracticestoreduceGHGemissionsfromfoodproductionGHGemissionssourceAnnualemissionsatstake(MtCO2eq)TechnologiesandpracticesthatcanreducethoseemissionsbyanamountTBDRuminantentericfermentation(meatandmilk)180Utilizeentericmethaneinhibitorfeedadditives(e.g.,3-NOP,seaweeds)ImproveruminantbreedingLivestockmanure140Separatesolidsfromliquidsandmanagedrysolids(reducingemissionsinanimalhousing)Acidifymanureorotheroptionsforimprovedliquidmanuremanagement(reducinglossesduringmanurestorage)UtilizedigestersinwarmlocationswithlargelagoonsandusetheCH4asbiogas(atlarge-scalelocationslikecommunitiesorlargerfarms)Livestock:cross-cutting(entericfermentation,manuremanagement)Boostruminantlivestockproductivityandefficiency—reducingmethaneemissionsperkgofmeatandmilkorperhectareofpasture—throughimprovementsin:-Feedquality-Animalbreeds-VeterinarycareImprovepastureandgrazingmanagement(e.g.,rotational12GHGemissionssourceAnnualemissionsatstake(MtCO2eq)TechnologiesandpracticesthatcanreducethoseemissionsbyanamountTBDgrazing,bettergrassmixes)Produceplant-basedorlab-grownalternativeproteins(e.g.,“ImpossibleFoodsChina”)and/orsyntheticstarchesandproteinsRicecultivation150PromoteSystemofRiceIntensification(SRI)AccelerateyieldgainstoreduceneededfloodedpaddyareaBreedlower-methane-emittingriceRemovericestrawfromfieldsorincorporateitintosoilsintheoffseasonReducefloodingperiods(e.g.,alternatewettinganddrying,singlemid-seasonwaterdrawdown,dryseeding)UsebiodegradableplasticfilmsforricecultivationCrops:cross-cutting120Boostcropyieldsperhectare(therebyreducingcroplandneedspergivenamountofcropproduction,reducingemissionsperhectareandliberatinglandforrestoration)Fertilizers160Reduceoverapplicationoffertilizers(e.g.,“4Rmanagement”=rightamount,righttype,righttime,andrightplaces)Increaseplantabsorptionoffertilizers(nitrogenuseefficiency)throughmanagementchanges,nitrificationinhibitors,and/orbreedingbiologicalnitrificationinhibitionintocropsBoostcropyieldsviabetterbreedingandvarieties(thusreducingneedformorefertilizers)Usenitrogen-fixinglegumesincroprotationsandinter-croppingFoodprocessingandpackaging110ImproveenergyefficiencyShifttorenewableenergysourcesReducefoodpackagingDirectagricultureenergyuse120ImproveenergyefficiencyoffarmequipmentShifttorenewableenergysourcesforfarmequipmentElectrifyfarmequipmentIndirectagricultureenergyuseReduceNH3andN20emissionsduringfertilizermanufacturingImproveenergyuseefficiencyduringfertilizer,film,andpesticideproductionTotal980Memo:AnnualemissionsatstakearecalculatedfiguresfromFAOSTAT2021.Theamountfromthistotaltobepotentiallyreducedthroughthetechnologieslistedremainstobedetermined.DataobtainedfromFAOSTATS2021.ComplementingTable1areinformationanddatatechnologies(e.g.,landmonitoring,agricultureinputmonitoring,earlywarningandresponsesystems)thatsupportimplementationofthetechnologiesandpractices.Suchinformationtechnologiesalsocanintegratewithrisk-informedandshock-responsivesocialprotectionsystemstostrengthenriskmanagementandearlyresponsecapacities.3.2PROTECTProtectingnaturalecosystemsandproductiveagriculturallandfromconversiontootherusesareimportantcomponentsofachievingthetwoaspirationsofcarbonneutralityandfoodsecurity.13AvoidnaturalecosystemconversioninChina.Avoidinglossofnaturalecosystemssuchasforests,wetlands,andgrasslandshelpsretainthesizeofChina’sterrestrialcarbonsink.Conversely,conversionoftheseecosystemsintofarmland,settlements,andotherformsofdevelopmentwouldincreaseChina’sland-relatedcarbonemissions.Chinahasanumberofmeasuresalreadyinplacetoavoidsuchconversion,includingdrawingecological“redlines”andincorporatingthemintothenationalspatialplan,creatingnationalparks,andestablishinganeco-compensationscheme.AvoidtriggeringnaturalecosystemconversionoutsideofChina.Besidesprotectingdomesticnaturalecosystems,itisalsoimportantthatChineseavoidimportsofagriculturalcommodities(e.g.,beef,soy,palmoil)associatedwithinternationalecosystemconversionandassociatedGHGemissions.Strategiesincludeimplementing“deforestationfree”or“ecosystemconversionfree”supplychainagreementswithsourcecountrygovernmentsandcompanies,puttinginplacemonitoringandtrackingsystemstosupportsuchagreements,andprovidinggender-responsiveandinclusivetechnicalandfinancialassistancetoexportingcountriestosupporttheireffortstosupplyagriculturalcommoditieswhileavoidingdeforestation.China’s“FoodSilkRoad”programsprovideanopportunevehicleforputtinginplacesuchmeasures.PreventlossofprimeChineseagriculturalland.EnsuringthatproductiveChinesecroplandsandgrazinglandsremaininproductionisacriticalcomponentofachievingdomesticfoodsecurity.Absentanychangesindemand,lossofprimeagriculturallandreducesChina’sabilitytofeeditselfandincreasespressuretoconvertnaturalecosystemsintoagriculturalland—domesticallyand/orinternationally.AccordingtotheMinistryofNaturalResources,China'sfarmlandareadecreasedby7.3Mhafrom2009-2019(MinistryofNaturalResources(MNR),2021).SatelliteimageryshowslargeareasofcroplandlossthroughoutmainlandChina,especiallyintheeasternportionofthecountry,since2000(Figure2).Anumberofmeasurescouldcounterthistrend.Forinstance,theChinesegovernmenthasalreadyseta“redline”of120millionhaofcroplandtopreventthe“non-agriculturalizationofarableland”(TheStateCouncil,2008).14Figure2Croplandareagainandloss(2000-2019)Source:UniversityofMarylandandLand&CarbonLab(2021)Preventlossanddegradationoffreshwaterresources.Besidesarableland,acriticalresourceforfoodproductionisfreshwater.Likeland,thisresourceneedstobeconserved,especiallysinceChinaonaverageisoneofthemostwater-scarcecountriesintheworld(MWR,2016).Theagriculturesectoruses62%oftotalfreshwaterconsumptioninChina(MWR,2021)andaccountsfor50%ofchemicaloxygendemand,47%ofnitrogenpollution,and67%ofphosphoruspollutioninChina(MinistryofEcologyandEnvironment(MEE),2020).Theeffectiveutilizationcoefficientoffarmlandirrigationwateris0.56(MWR,2021),whichislowerthanthatofdevelopedcountries(0.7-0.8)(MWR,2019).Measuresforconservingcleanfreshwaterresourcesforagricultureincludewater-efficientirrigation,moreefficientwatertransmissionanddistributioninfrastructure,droughtandstresstolerantcropvarieties,reducedfertilizerapplications,andbetterrecoveryoflivestockmanure.3.3REDUCEReducinginefficienciesandpollutioninChina’sagrifoodsystemandreducinglevelsofunhealthydietscancontributetoChinaachievingitscarbonneutralityandfoodsecurityaspirations.Fiveareasneedingsomeformof“reduction”include:Reducefoodlossandwaste.Reducingfoodlossandwastewouldprovideatriplewinofimprovedfoodsecurity,reducedfinanciallossesforfarmersandconsumers,andlowerenvironmentalimpacts(e.g.,GHGemissions,waterconsumption,pesticide/fertilizerpollution).Numerousapproachestoreducingfoodlossandwasteperstageofthefoodvaluechainexist(Flanaganetal.,2019),withmanyrelevantforChina.ModelingsuggeststhatreducingChinesefoodlossandwasterelativetothebaselinewouldlowerthecountry’sagriculturalGHG15emissionsby2.0–5.6%by2030and4.0–7.0%by2060(AGFEP,2021).Reducechemicalpollutionfromagriculturalproduction.Severalapproachesfordoingsoexist.Forexample,precisionagriculturecanincreasetheutilizationratesoffertilizersandpesticides,therebyloweringthetotalamountofinputsappliedandamountofrunoffintotheenvironment.Bufferzonesofnaturalvegetationaroundfarmfieldsandinriparianareascanreduceinputrunoff.Insomesituations,integratedpestmanagementapproachescanlowerpollutionwhilemaintainingyields.Reduceuseofplasticsinagrifoodsystemandincreaseratesofrecycling.Optionsincludepromotingthepromulgationandimplementationofnewnationalstandardsforplasticfilms,improvingplasticfilmthicknessstandards,increasingthetensilestrengthandelongationatbreakofplasticfilms,andensuringtherecyclabilityofplasticfilmsfromthesource.Reduceinefficienciesanduseoffossilfuelsinagricultureenergy.Optionsincluderenewableenergysourcesforfarmequipment,foodstorage,andtransportation.Reduceconsumptionofunhealthy,unsustainable,carbon-intensediets.AfirststepinimprovingthehealthandsustainabilityofChinesedietsistoencouragecitizenstofollowtheChineseDietaryGuidelinesand,evenbetter,theEAT-Lancetdiet(EAT/Lancet2019).SuchdietswouldreduceGHGemissionswhileensuringnutritionalrequirements.SuchashiftcouldreduceGHGemissionsby150millionto200millionmetrictonsby2030,areductionof18–25%(AGFEP,2021).FutureChinesenutritionanddietaryguidelineshouldtakeintoconsiderationgenderimplications,sustainability,andclimatechange.3.4RESTORERestorationofnaturalecosystemsandagriculturalsoilsareimportantcomponentsofachievingthetwoaspirationsofcarbonneutralityandfoodsecurity.Restorenaturalecosystems.RestoringnativeecosystemsinChinaistheprimarymeansofgeneratingthe“negativecarbonemissions”thecountryneedstocompensateforitsdifficult-to-abateagricultureandenergyGHGemissions.Withoutsuchrestoration,Chinawillbeunabletoachieve“carbonneutrality”before2060.Ecosystemstorestoreincludeforests(whichhavethelargestcarboncontentperhectare),grasslands,andwetlands.Forestsareparticularlyimportantbecause,amongterrestrialecosystems,theycurrentlycontributeabout80%ofthecountry’sannualcarbonsequestration(MEE,2018).Targetingrestorationinmarginalareassuchasslopes,riparianzones,andlow-agriculture-productivityareaswouldreducetheriskofcreatingland-competitionforfoodproduction.Tomaximizecarbonsequestration,biodiversitybenefits,andresiliencetoclimatechange,ecosystemrestorationshouldprioritizeadiversityofnativefloraandfauna;monoculturerestorationeffortstendtogeneratefewerbenefitsandbemoresusceptibletocollapseduetoweatherextremesordisease(ChinaLandConsolidationandRehabilitationCenteroftheMinistryofNaturalResources,2021).Currently,forestsoccupy23%ofthecountry’slandmass.Chinaalreadyhasastatedgoalofrestoring“upto25%oflandareainforests”by2030(TheStateCouncil,2021).Followingthroughonthisgoalwouldleadtoannualcarbonsequestrationontheorderof230milliontons16peryearby2030(ChinaLandConsolidationandRehabilitationCenteroftheMinistryofNaturalResources2021).SomestudiessuggestamaximumpotentialofChina'sforestcoveragetobe28%-29%ofnationallandarea(ChinaLandConsolidationandRehabilitationCenteroftheMinistryofNaturalResources,2021).AchievingthatlevelofforestcoveragewouldboostChina’scarbonsinkto2.1billiontonsperyearbytheyear2060(ChinaLandConsolidationandRehabilitationCenteroftheMinistryofNaturalResources,2021).Restoredegradedagriculturalsoils.Restoringsoilhealthcanhelpreducecarbonlossestotheatmosphereandreducepollutionofwaterways.Moreimportantly,itcancontributetothe“Produce”strategybyimprovinglong-termfarmyields,moistureretention,soilorganicmatter,farmerlivelihoods,andresilience.Likewise,itsupportsthe“Protect”strategybyreducingtheneedtoexpandagriculturalareatomeetnationalfoodneeds.Approachestosuchrestorationincludeagroforestryandsilvopasturespractices(integratingtreesintocroplandsandgrazinglands),reducedorconservationtillage,mulching,croprotations,andcovercrops.Ensuringthatwomenfarmersalsohaveaccesstorestorationtechniques,giventheirconcentrationinagriculturalactivitiesandlesseraccesstotechnicaltrainingandinformation,wouldsupportexpansionandwidespreadadoptionofthesepractices.Chinaisalreadytakingsomestepsinthisdirection.Forexample,Chinahasimplementedaconservationtillageplaninthe“blackland”areainthenortheastofthecountry.By2030,therestoredareawillbe17Mha(MinistryofAgricultureandRuralAffairs,MinistryofFinance,2017).Estimatesarethatorganicmatterinsoilwillincreaseby10%after5yearsandby52%after15years(GuangmingDaily,2020).3.5QUANTIFICATIONOFEMISSIONSREDUCTIONPOTENTIALThiscombinationofsolutions–produce,protect,reduce,andrestore–couldresultinChina’sagrifoodsystemcontributingtonational2060carbonneutrality.Thelevelofcontributiontoneutralitywillbeafunctionofthedegreeofimplementation.Figure3showstheimpactondomesticChineseGHGemissionsofmanyofthe“produce”and“reduce”strategies,against3implementationscenarios.Table2describesthescenariodesigns.Emissionreductionswouldbeevengreaterifthe“protect”and“restore”strategieswerepursued.17Figure3GreenhousegasemissionsfromagrifoodsystemsinChinaunderdifferentscenarios,2020–2060Source:ResultsofChinaAgriculturalSectorModel(CAASandIFPRI)andChinaDynamicGeneralEquilibriumModel(AGFEP,2021)Note:BAU=businessasusual.Thescenarioshighlightseveralimportantinsights,including:UnderBAU,GHGemissionsfromagrifoodsystemsreaches1.17billiontonsin2030,anincreaseof7.7%comparedwith2020,andthentheyfurtherdeclineto1.09billiontonsin2060,returningtotheirlevelof2018.Measuressuchasimprovingagriculturaltechnology,reducingfoodlossandwaste,shiftingdietarypatterns,enhancingenergyefficiency,andoptimizingtheenergyconsumptionstructuresubstantiallyreduceGHGemissionsfromagrifoodsystems.Inthelow,medium,andhighscenarios,GHGemissionsfromagrifoodsystemsin2060are17–63%lowerthanunderBAUand19–63%lowerthanin2020.Themedium-levelscenariowouldcontributetoareductionof47%ofGHGemissionsinagrifoodsystemsin2060,comparedwith2020.Table2ScenariodesignformodelinggreenhousegasemissionreductionofagriculturalactivitiesinChina,2020-2060AreaHigh-levelscenarioMedium-levelscenarioLow-levelscenarioBAUYieldsofrice,wheat,andmaizein2020were7,5.7,and6.3tons/ha,respectively,whichwillbeincreasedby10%,15%,and25%in2060,reaching7.7,6.6,and7.9tons/ha,respectively.Thelossandwasterateofrice,wheat,andmaizeis15%;ofvegetablesandfruitsare55%and50%,respectively;andofpork,beef,andmuttonare15%,10%,and10%,respectively.Urbanandruralresidents’percapitaconsumptionoflivestockandpoultrymeatwillbe223gramsperdayin2060.In2060,fertilizeruseefficiencywillbeincreasedby20%;theemissioncoefficientofricefieldswillbereducedby20%;thecoefficientsofcarbonemissionsfrompork,mutton,andpoultrymeatwillbereducedby15%,25%,and30%,respectively;andthecoefficientsofcarbonemissionsfrombeef,poultryeggs,andmilkwillbereducedby10%.Tech-CRYieldofrice,wheat,andmaizein2060willbeincreasedby25%,40%,and50%,respectively,ascomparedwith2020;fertilizeruseefficiencywillbeincreasedby50%;andthecoefficientonemissionsfromricefieldswillbereducedby50%.Yieldofrice,wheatandmaizein2060willbeincreasedby20%,35%and45%,respectively,ascomparedwith2020;fertilizeruseefficiencywillbeincreasedby40%;andcoefficientofemissionfromricefieldswillbereducedby40%.Yieldofrice,wheatandmaizeby2060willbeincreasedby15%,25%,and35%,respectively,ascomparedwith2020;fertilizeruseefficiencywillbeincreasedby30%;andcoefficientofemissionfromricefieldswillbereducedby30%.18AreaHigh-levelscenarioMedium-levelscenarioLow-levelscenarioTech-LVThecoefficientofemissionsfromlivestockproductsin2060willbereducedby50%,withthefeedconversionrateimprovedby30%.Thecoefficientofemissionsfromlivestockproductsin2060willbereducedby40%,withthefeedconversionrateimprovedby20%.Thecoefficientofemissionsfromlivestockproductsin2060willbereducedby30%,withthefeedconversionrateimprovedby10%.WasteThelossandwasterateofeachproductin2060willbe67%lowerthanthatin2020.Thelossandwasterateofeachproductin2060willbe50%lowerthanthatin2020.Thelossandwasterateofeachproductin2060willbe33%lowerthanthatin2020.DietsPercapitaconsumptionoflivestockandpoultrymeatbyurbanandruralresidentsin2060willbereducedtothelowerlimitrecommendedbythedietaryguidelines,of40gramsperday.Percapitaconsumptionoflivestockandpoultrymeatbyurbanandruralresidentsin2060willbereducedtothemedianlevelrecommendedbythedietaryguidelines,of60gramsperday.Percapitaconsumptionoflivestockandpoultrymeatbyurbanandruralresidentsin2060willbereducedtotheupperlimitrecommendedbythedietaryguidelines,of75gramsperday.CombCombinationoftheabovescenariosCombinationoftheabovescenariosCombinationoftheabovescenariosSource:AGFEP,2021194RECOMMENDATIONSSixpolicy,governanceandinstitutionalinnovationsarerecommendedtoenabletheleadership,innovation,andconcertedefforttoaccelerateChina’sfoodsystemtransformation.Thearchoftheserecommendationsisnotlinear,althoughacertaindegreeofsequencingwillbeneeded.Asstatedabove,theobjectiveofthisSpecialPolicyPaperisnottoformulateproductsorpracticesthatcanbedeployedtoachieveprescribedoutcomes.Thefoodsystemisacomplexsystemthatrequiresnotaclusterofprojects,butaprocesstoengagetherelevantinstitutionsindevelopingsolutionsthatrespondtomultipleinterdependencies.Thesesixrecommendationsareintendedtocreateandsupportthisprocess.1.DevelopaNationalFoodSystemTransformationStrategyTodrawclearnationalobjectivesandpathstorealistic,necessary,andsufficientoutcomes,a“ChinaNationalFoodSystemTransformationStrategy”coulddefinea2060visionanda2030ActionPlan,whichwillneedtobe:Science-based–incorporatingthelatesttechnicaladvancessupportingafoodandlandusesystemtransformationandtheapproachesortoolsforassessingandmanagingtrade-offsbetweensolutionsandobjectives.Accountable–internallycoherenttodeliverexplicitlystatedandmeasurablegoalswhilesupportingandrelyingontherelevantcomponentsofChina’sCarbonNeutralityPlan,5-yearplans,andtheNationalDeterminedContribution(NDC)totheParisAgreementonclimatechange.Multisectoral–governedbyaninter-ministerialcommitteetoensurevariousministriesandotherrelevantinstitutionscontributewhatisintheirpurview,addressandmanagetrade-offsinherenttothesolutions,andstreamlinedecision-making.Genderresponsive–asthedifferentgoalsareagreed,thestrategywillexplicitlybringthevoicesofwomenintheestablishmentofavisionforthefuturefoodsystemandthechartingofpathwaystogetthere.Thestrategyshouldideallybedrivenbyaninter-ministerialcommitteeresponsibleforoverseeingthedevelopmentandimplementationofthestrategy,ensuringvariousministriesdowhattheyneedtodofortheircontributiontothestrategy,discussingandmanagingtrade-offs,andstreamliningdecision-making.Thecouncilcouldincluderepresentativesfromministriesofagriculture,environment,trade,healthandfoodsafety,women,planning,andfinance.Thecommitteecouldbethesameonethatwasrecommendedbythe2020CCICEDSpecialPolicyStudy,“GreeningChina’sSoftCommodityValueChains”,taskedwithoverseeingChina’sgreenvaluechainstrategy.Thus,therewouldbeoneinter-ministerialcommitteefortheentireagrifoodsystemtransition,coveringdomesticandinternationalfoodsystems.Relevanceoftherecommendation.Food,asvitallyimportantasitis,isforthemostpartnottreatedasasectorbymostgovernments.Foodisdefinedbytheinstitutionalandmarketforcesimpingingonit.Withoutadeliberateefforttomakethisinstitutionalspacecoherentandorientedtowardssharedgoals,itisunlikelythatthechallengeslistedinSectionIIcanbeovercome.Thisisnotarecommendationtocreateanadditionalbureaucraticstructure,buttocreateaprocesstodevelopavisionsharedbythe20relevantstakeholdersandtoidentifythetrade-offsacrossthesectorsthatneedtoberesolvedifthefoodsystemoutcomesaretobeachieved.2.RepurposeAgriculturalFiscalIncentivesandFinanceToadvancethesolutions,Chinacouldlaunchaconcertedefforttoredirectsignificantfinancinginsupportofitsnationalfoodandclimatesecuritygoals.Muchofthisrepurposedagriculturesupportshouldbegearedtowardresearchanddevelopment(R&D)fortechnologysolutionsthatarenotyetmarketready,aswellastowarddeploymentprogramstoincreasemarketpenetrationofsolutionsthatarealreadyinthemarket.Suchrepurposinganddesignofcross-sectoralfiscalincentivescansignalashiftawayfromtraditionalproductiontowardbetterproductionefficiency,nutrition,andsustainability.Potentialsourcesofpublicfinancingmayinclude:(a)redirectingexistingagriculturalsubsidiesawayfromprogramsincentivizingagriculturalpracticesthathaveprovenunsustainable;and(b)taxingactivitiesthatincreasetheclimatefootprintofChina’sagrifoodsystem.Potentialusesoftheseresourcesmayinclude:(a)financingsolutionsdelineatedinthisstudyasframedbytheNationalFoodSystemTransformationStrategy;(b)fundingofplace-basedecologicalcompensationprograms,applyinglessonslearnedfromtheinter-provincialecologicalcompensationmechanismusedfortheXin’anRiver;and(c)andprovidingtechnicalassistancetofarmersforadoptionofimprovedland-usemanagement.Additionalfinancingmaybeattractedfromtheprivatesectorbythegovernmentprovidingpolicyandfinancialsupport(e.g.,“first-loss”riskreduction)toencourageprivatesectorcompaniesandbankstoinvestinresearch,development,and/ordeploymentofsolutionsoutlinedinthisstudy.Relevanceoftherecommendation.Clearly,thetransformationofChina’sfoodsystemwillrequiresubstantialfinancing.Newresearchwillneedtobefunded,capacitytodevelopandapplynewtechnologieswillneedtobeenhanced,etc.Butinmanyways,stopfundingorsubsidizingthatwhichmovesthesystemawayfromitsdesiredoutcomesisas,ifnotmore,powerfultoshiftnormsandhelpdevelopthebehaviorsthatareneededtoaligninvestmentwithdesiredoutcomes.ParalleltothisSPS,anotherstudysponsoredbytheCCICEDisbeingdevelopedonInnovativegreenfinance.Thestudyonfinanceprovidesanin-depthassessmentofthedifferentmechanismsthatcanbeestablishedtobankrollthefoodtransition,particularlyassomeofthesolutionsidentifiedinourfoodpaperrepresentopportunitiesforintegratingclimatewithnaturefinance.AsubsequentstepinthedevelopmentofthisideascouldbeajoinseminarofthegroupsworkingoneachofthetwoSPSandfurtheridentifyareasofopportunityformutualleverage.3.HealthyDietsandConsumptionChina’smajorfoodproductionandconsumptiontransformationoverthelastthreedecadeshavebeenlargelydrivenbyspecificchangesindietarypreferencesandaffordablechoicesavailable.Theoveralltrendinfoodconsumptionischaracterizedbyareductionintheconsumptionofbasicgrainstaplesandanincreaseintheconsumptionofanimal-basedfood.Whiletheruralpopulationlagsbehindtheurbanpopulationinthesetrends,mostassessmentsindicateasignificantgrowthpotentialinruralareas.Themajorconsequencesofnutritionlevelsofthesechangesincludeaninitialimprovementoncaloricandproteinicintakefollowedbyanincreaseincardiovasculardiseaseandprevalenceofobesityoncea21certainlevelofcarbohydrateshasbeensurpassed.Theaccesstoricherfoodsislargelyfacilitatedbytheprocessingandretailingoffoodproductsthattendtorecreatethewesterndiet,includingaprevalenceofprocessedandultra-processedfood.Upuntilnowthegovernment’sdietaryguidancehasbeenlimited,leavingthedooropenforsupermarketsandothercommercialretailerstoshapethedietofmanyinChina.Adietary-guidanceinitiativecouldcenteronthedevelopmentofagender-responsiveandinclusivenationalprogramforencouragingahealthyandsustainablediet(inaccordancewithrecommendeddietaryguidelines),thattakesintoaccounttheneedsofadiversityofwomenandmenfrombothruralandurbanareas,basedon,butnotlimitedto:Strengtheningawarenessmessaging,packagelabeling,andfoodmarketinglaws,etc.LinkingahealthierdietwithasustainableproductionschemeaimedatincreasingtheproductionoffreshfruitsandvegetablesbyChinesesmallholders(anoftoverlookedsector)andincreasingaccesstofreshfruitsandvegetablesbyChineseconsumersExpandingthenationalCleanPlateInitiativetotacklefoodwaste(andassociatedplasticwaste)atretail(includingtheshoppingenvironment),foodservice(includinge-commerce),andhouseholdlevelsPromotionofalternativestoanimalprotein,particularlyfrombeef,includingsyntheticmeat,plant-basedprocessedproteinrichmeals,etc.Relevanceoftherecommendation.Whenwellinformed,citizensprioritizehealthandhealthylifestylesasamajorfactorinshapingtheirdiets.Publichealthandtheenvironmentoverlaparoundfoodinasignificantway;decisionsbyfoodprocessorshavehealthandenvironmentalconsequencesatasignificantscale.Foodproducedandprocessedasguidedbytheopportunitiesinthemarketneedtobebalancedwithanon-commercialsetofguidelinesthatconsumersfeelcompelledtobasetheirfoodchoiceson.Fortunatelyinmanywayswhatisgoodforhealthisalsogoodfortheenvironment.Gettingtherightalignmentbetweenwhatismarketedandwhatisnutritionallyneededshouldbeachievableintheshortterm,butforthattohappeninformation,educationandgovernmentincentivesneedtobeadequatelyaligned.4.AcceleratetheAgrifoodSystemTransformationthroughPrivateSectorLeadershipInclosecoordinationwithpublicinstitutions,includingtheproposedNationalFoodSystemTransformationStrategyandtheinter-sectoralfoodsystemcommittee,theprivatesectorcouldspecificallyhelpaccelerateinvestmentandinnovationacrossthesupplychainthrough:Supportingefficientbutfairconsolidationoffarmland.Farmsizeiscriticalwhendeployingtheadoptionofnewtechnologiesatscale,withlargerareasbeingpreferredgiventheinvestmentsneeded.Privatecompaniescouldhelpcreatefinancialarrangementswherebysmalllandholderscanparticipateincollectiveeffortstoachievescalewithoutriskoflosingtheirland.Supportingfoodsafetyprograms.Whilefoodsafetyisultimatelyaresponsibilityofgovernmentatdifferentjurisdictionallevels,theprivatesectorcanmakethistaskmoremanageableandefficientbyintroducingthetraceabilityprotocolsandtechnologyneededtomanageintegratedsupplychains.Providingandenablingdietaryguidance.Whileremainingcommerciallyviable,largefoodretailerscanplayasignificantroleineducatingandguidingconsumersonpracticalwaystoadheretogovernment-backeddietaryguidelines.22Thisprivatesectorinitiativecallsforthedevelopmentofmechanismsthatfavortheexchangeofinformationamongsupplychainactors,includingtheperspectivesofwomenandothermarginalizedgroupswithinthesupplychain,agreementonstandards,andfeedbacktogovernmentagencyonpolicyapplicationchallengesandopportunities.Relevanceoftherecommendation.Theprivatesectorhasevidentadvantagesinthepursuitofasecure,safeandsustainablefoodsystem.Throughbusinessconsolidation,supplychainsbecomemoremanageableandcontrollable.Thisisbecausefeweractorscanexertinfluenceatascalethatahighlyfragmentedproducersbase,distributionandretailsimplycannot.Businessescaninnovatepracticesandproductsatarapidratetoadaptbothtoregulationsandconsumerdemand.Bybeingakeypointofcontactbetweenproductionandconsumption,businessesareinaprivilegedpositiontoeducateandguideresidentstowardshealthierandmoresustainableconsumptionbehaviors.5.IncentivizeAlternativeSourcesofProteinandFoodTechnologyMostanalysesontheimpactofdietandhealthandtheenvironmentconcludethatreducingtheamountofmeatconsumptionisthesingle-mostefficientwaytocurbtherapidgrowthrateofcardiovasculardiseaseandcarbon(particularlymethane)emissions.Reductiononoverallmeatconsumptionshouldbepartofamulti-facetedinitiativetosensitizeresidentstotherisksandimpactsofmeatconsumptionwhileactivelyseekingforanddevelopingalternativesourcesofprotein,includingplant-basedandsyntheticmeat.Sucheffortsaretodaybeingdevelopedlargelybyprivateentrepreneursfacingasignificantlearningcurve.Asstatedabove,theprivatesectoreffortsinthisregardcanbeacceleratedwiththerightpoliciesandincentivesinplace.Asakeystakeholder,thegovernmentshouldcreatetheenablingconditionsandincentivesforChinesecompaniestobecomemajorglobalmanufacturersofalternativeproteins(e.g.,plant-basedmeatslikeImpossibleFoods,lab-grownmeats)andalternativestarches.Doingsothegovernmentwillbehelping:MeetgrowingdomesticandforeigndemandforproteinAddressclimatechangeandlandcompetitionCreateanentirenewindustrialsectorforChinathatChinacouldleadtheworldon.Relevanceoftherecommendation.AsignificantacceleratorofthedesiredtransformationofthefoodsysteminChinawillbeinnovationandtechnologicalleadership.Chinaasafoodpowerhouseintheworldisinauniquepositiontodevelopitsownfoodrevolutiongiventhevirtuouscycleshapedbytraditionandinnovation.Movingawayfromthepositionof“taker”ofwesternfoodhabitstoonewhereChinasetsthefutureofproteinuptake,forinstance,canhavetremendouspositiveimpactbothdomesticallyandglobally.6.GreenInternationalFoodValueChainsChinacouldpursueaprogramtoensurethatthefooditimportsislowcarbon,therebyhelpingreducefoodsupplyGHGemission.The2021reportoftheCCICEDSpecialPolicyStudy,“GreeningChina’sSoftCommodityValueChains”,identifiedseveralmeasuresforthisprogram.Foodandotheragriculturalgoodsarethedominantformof“softcommodity”(Box3).Therecommendationsfromthe2020StudywereapprovedandendorsedbytheChinaCouncilin2020.Theserecommendationsareacritical23componentforsustainablefoodsupplychainsoverallandwouldhelpmeetChina’sfoodandclimatesecuritygoals.Assuch,the2020recommendationsareworthreinforcinginthiscurrentSpecialPolicyStudy:Establishanationalgreenvaluechainstrategyandprovidepolicy/institutionalsupportoAnnounceanewChinesepolicyinitiativeongreeningsoftcommodityvaluechainsoEstablishanInter-MinisterialCommittee(seeabove)oEstablisha“GlobalGreenValueChainInstitute”Adoptmandatoryandvoluntarymeasuresto“green”softcommodityvaluechainsoStrengthenmeasurestoreducetheimportofsoftcommoditiesfromillegalsourcesoStrengthenduediligenceandtraceabilitysystemsoInvestindomesticcapacitytorationalizefoodvaluechainsandimprovesustainabledietsLeverageexistingChinesepolicyleversandinitiativesincludingtheBeltandRoadInitiative.oIncorporategreenvaluechainmeasuresintotradeagreementsoIncreaseChineseSouth-SouthdevelopmentassistancetosupportgreensoftcommodityvaluechainsoIntegratefinanceforgreensoftcommodityvaluechainswithgreenfinanceandtheworkoftheBRIInternationalGreenDevelopmentCoalitionBox3Whatare“softcommodities”?“Softcommodities”refertorawmaterialsandtheirderivativesthataregrownorproducedbytheagricultureandforestryindustries.Theseincludeplant-andanimal-derivedmaterialforuseasfood,fiber,feed,medicines,cosmetics,detergents,andfuels.Thesecontrastwith“hardcommodities”,whicharerawmaterialsandtheirderivativesthatareextractedormined,suchasmetals,oil,andnaturalgas.InparalleltothisSPS,anotherCCICEDstudyhasbeendevelopedonSustainableTradeandinvestment.Thereareseveralpointsofoverlapbetweengreensupplychainsandtradeandinvestment.Forinstance,howtouseandworkwithintraderulestoensurethatenvironmentalandclimaticprioritiescancoexistwithfluidtrade,forthebenefitofimporterandexporter.Itisinthebestinterestoftraderstoliftthestandardsofthecommoditiestheytradearoundtheglobe.Thestudyontradeprovidesanexcellentanalysisofsynergiesthatfoodmediatesbetweentradeandtheenvironment,butalsoofthedifficultiesandfrictionsthatcanoccurintryingtoresolvetrade-offsacrosscountrieswithoutpositivecooperation.245CONCLUDINGREMARKSCombined,thesesixpolicy,governance,andinstitutionalrecommendationswouldsetChina’sagrifoodsystemonapathtosimultaneouslyachievefoodsecurityandcarbonneutrality.EachoftheserecommendationsiswithinChina’spowertoimplement.Andeachwouldgeneratemanyco-benefitsincludingimprovedhumanhealthandnewChineseindustries.Thetimetoactontheserecommendationsisnow.TheemergingglobalfoodcrisistriggeredbytheRussia-Ukraineconflict,inflation,andclimate-inducedcropfailuresisputtingfoodsecuritynearthetopofnationalagendas.TheserecommendationsensurethatwhenChinaaddressesthenear-termfoodchallengeitdoessoinawaythataddressesthelong-termchallengeofclimatechange.ForChina,asfortheworld,foodsecurityandclimatesecuritymustgohandinhand.25ReferenceAcademyofGlobalFoodEconomicsandPolicy(AGFEP).2021.Rethinkingagrifoodsystemsforthepost-COVIDworld.http://agfep.cau.edu.cn/art/2021/4/30/art_39031_744872.htmlAcademyofGlobalFoodEconomicsandPolicy(AGFEP).2022.Reformingagriculturalsupportpoliciestotransformagrifoodsystems.http://agfep.cau.edu.cn/art/2022/5/24/art_39031_861011.htmlChinaCouncilforInternationalCooperationonEnvironmentandDevelopment(CCICED).2020.GlobalGreenValueChains—GreeningChina's“SoftCommodity”ValueChains.https://cciced.eco/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/SPS-4-2-Global-Green-Value-Chains-1.pdfCeres.2019.230InvestorswithUSD$16.2TrillioninAUMCallforCorporateActiononDeforestation,SignalingSupportfortheAmazon.https://www.ceres.org/news-center/press-releases/investors-callcorporate-action-deforestation-signaling-support-amazonChinaCouncilforInternationalCooperationonEnvironmentandDevelopment(CCICED).2021.GlobalGreenValueChains:China'sOpportunities,ChallengesandPathsintheCurrentEconomicContext.http://en.cciced.net/POLICY/rr/prr/2021/202109/P020210917469069544512.pdfChinaNews.2017.MinistryofAgriculture:China’sPesticideUs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