XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsiaILOAsia-PacificreportMarch2021DecentWorkinGarmentSupplyChainsAsiaXReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia2XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia1Copyright©InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)2021Firstpublished2021PublicationsoftheInternationalLabourOfficeenjoycopyrightunderProtocol2oftheUniversalCopyrightConvention.Nevertheless,shortexcerptsfromthemmaybereproducedwithoutauthorization,onconditionthatthesourceisindicated.Forrightsofreproductionortranslation,applicationshouldbemadetoILOPublications(RightsandLicensing),InternationalLabourOffice,CH-1211Geneva22,Switzerland,orbyemail:rights@ilo.org.TheInternationalLabourOfficewelcomessuchapplications.Libraries,institutionsandotherusersregisteredwithareproductionrightsorganizationmaymakecopiesinaccordancewiththelicencesissuedtothemforthispurpose.Visitwww.ifrro.orgtofindthereproductionrightsorganizationinyourcountry.ISBN978-922-0347-34-8(print)978-922-0343-90-6(webpdf)ThedesignationsemployedinILOpublications,whichareinconformitywithUnitedNationspractice,andthepresentationofmaterialthereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheInternationalLabourOfficeconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,areaorterritoryorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiers.Theresponsibilityforopinionsexpressedinsignedarticles,studiesandothercontributionsrestssolelywiththeirauthors,andpublicationdoesnotconstituteanendorsementbytheInternationalLabourOfficeoftheopinionsexpressedinthem.ReferencetonamesoffirmsandcommercialproductsandprocessesdoesnotimplytheirendorsementbytheInternationalLabourOffice,andanyfailuretomentionaparticularfirm,commercialproductorprocessisnotasignofdisapproval.InformationonILOpublicationsanddigitalproductscanbefoundat:www.ilo.org/publns.Allphotos:©ILOPrintedinThailandXAcknowledgementsThisreporthasbeenpreparedfortheILO’sDecentWorkinGarmentSupplyChainsinAsiaprojectwiththefinancialsupportoftheSwedishDevelopmentAgency(Sida).ThereportwaspreparedbyElsaDominishandSamanthaSharpeoftheInstituteofSustainableFutures,UniversityofTechnologySydney,underthesupervisionandguidanceofCristinaMartinez,SeniorSpecialistEnvironmentandDecentWorkoftheILORegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific.ThereportispreparedinpartnershipwiththeUNFCCC,KusumLataandWilliamAgyemang-Bonsu.WewouldliketoacknowledgeLaurelAndersonHoffnerforhereditingandpublicationsupport;MontyChanthapanyafordesigningthereport;reviewersoftheTextileandGarmentEco-InnovationResearchNetwork(TERN);DavidWilliamsandothercolleaguesoftheDecentWorkinGarmentSupplyChainsinAsiaproject;andtheILO’sGREENJOBSprogrammefortheirvaluablecontribution.XExecutivesummaryThetextileandgarmentsectoraccountsforasignificantproportionofglobalcarbonemissions,estimatesrangebetween6and8percentoftotalglobalcarbonemissions,orsome1.7billiontonnesincarbonemissionsperyear.TheParisAgreementsetsouttolimitglobalwarmingtolessthan2degreesabovepre-industriallevels,withthepreferabletargetoflimitingwarmingto1.5degrees.Theemissionreductionsassociatedwithachievingthisgoalaresignificant–toreachthistarget,globalemissionswillneedtodeclinebyabout45percent(on2010levels)by2030andbeatnetzeroby2050.Garmentsectorstakeholderscametogetherin2018tocommittoclimateactionthroughtheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)FashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction.SignatoriestotheChartercommitto30percentgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionreductionsby2030(froma2015baseline)andnet-zeroemissionsby2050.Thisisasignificantchallenge–realizingthis30percentreductioninthesector’semissionswouldrequireareductionofmorethanhalfabilliontonnesofcarbondioxideacrossthesectorperyearby2030.Meetingthischallengewillrequiresystem-levelchangesintheproductionandconsumptionoftextilesandgarments,andwilllikelyhavesignificantimpactsonhowandwheregarmentsareproducedandtheemploymentassociatedwiththisproduction.Thisreportprovidesanexplaineronhowandwherecarbonemissionsaccrueacrossthetextileandgarmentsectorsupplychainasaprecursortoidentifyingwhereinthesupplychainactionshouldbemosttargeted.Thefindingsshowthatemissionsoccurallalongthevaluechain,butaremostsignificantintheyarnandfabricproductionphase,whichisalsoconsistentwithotherenvironmentalimpactssuchaswaterconsumptionandchemicalsuse.EnergyuseisthemajorcontributortoGHGemissionsinthetextileandgarmentsector.Highenergydemandcomesfromthewetprocessingstages(dyeingandfinishing),whereenergyisusedtocreatesteamtoheatwaterandalsofordryingfabrics.Thecarbonintensityoftheenergysourcesusedinproductioncentres(coalornaturalgas)translatestohighemissionsintensityfortextileproduction.Energycanalsoaccountforasignificantportionofcostswithinenergy-intensivepartsofthevaluechain,suchastextilemillsandgarmentfactories;sothereisaneconomicandaswellanenvironmentaldrivertoreduceemissionsinthesector.Thereportexaminescarbonemissionsacrossthegarmentsectorascountedusingthetwoprominentmethodologiesforcalculatingemissions,withthepurposetoprovideinsightintowhereandwhythecarbonintensityoftextilesandgarmentsvariesacrossthesupplychainandwhereactivitiestodecarbonizethesectorshouldbeprioritized.ThetwostandardizedapproachestomeasuringGHGemissionsarethroughlifecycleassessment(LCA)andcarbonaccountinginlinewiththeGreenhouseGasProtocol.Thisreporthighlightsthecarbonemissionimplicationsof:Xusingdifferentfabricsandtextiles(specificallynaturalversusman-made);Xthecarbonintensityofenergysourcesinproductioncentres;Xtheoverallvolumeofproduction;andXthelengthandintensityoftheusephase(includingwashingandwearingbehavioursofconsumers).Thescaleandpaceofsystem-widechangeingarmentmanufacturingrequiredtomeettargetsforclimateactionmeansthattherewillalsobesignificantimpactsontheworldofworkinthesecomponentsofthesupplychain.Reducingcarbonemissionwillrequirechangestobusinessmodelsalongsidetechnologicalandprocessinnovations.Toachievethesechangeswillrequireinvestmentsinhumanandfinancialcapitaloverasustainedamountoftimetoensureajusttransitiontakesplace.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia4XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia3XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia6XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia5XAbbreviationsCO2eCarbondioxideequivalentGHGgreenhousegasHiggMSIHiggMaterialSustainabilityIndexkWhkilowatthourLCAlifecycleassessmentLCIlifecycleinventoryM&SMarks&SpencerNDCnationallydefinedcontributionSACSustainableApparelCoalitionSBTsscience-basedtargetsSBTiScienceBasedTargetsinitiativeUNFCCCUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeWALDBWorldApparelandFootwearLifeCycleAssessmentDatabaseWBCSDWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopmentWRIWorldResourcesInstituteXContentsAcknowledgements3Executivesummary4Abbreviations6X1.Introduction81.1.Purposeofthispaper81.2.AboutOutcome4oftheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChaininAsiaproject91.3.Method101.4.Structureofthisreport101.5.Backgroundcontext–environmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsupplychain11X2.Carbonemissionsinthetextileandgarmentsector142.1.Distributionofemissionsacrossthevaluechain142.1.1.Textileandgarmentproduction142.1.2.Consumerusephase152.1.3.Distributionandend-of-life162.1.4.Variationsbetweenfibres162.2.Geographicallocationofemissions172.2.1.Emissionsfromproduction172.2.2.Emissionsfromconsumption18X3.Approachestomeasuringemissions203.1.Lifecycleassessment203.1.1.LCAuseinthetextileandgarmentsector213.2.SpecificexamplesofLCAuseinthesector223.2.1.LCA-basedtools233.2.2.LCIdatabases233.2.3.Limitations243.3.GreenhouseGas(GHG)Protocol243.4.Greenhousegasassessmentsinthetextileandgarmentsector263.4.1.Science-basedtargets27X4.Conclusionsandimplicationsforreducingemissionsinthegarmentindustry30References331.Introduction1.1.PurposeofthispaperTheParisAgreementsetsouttolimitglobalwarmingtolessthan2degreesabovepre-industriallevels,withthepreferabletargetof1.5degrees.Theemissionreductionsassociatedwithachievingthesetargetsaresignificant–toreachthem,globalemissionswillneedtodeclinebyabout45percent(of2010levels)by2030andbeatnetzeroby2050(IPCC2018).Garmentstakeholderscametogetherin2018tocommittoclimateaction,forgingtheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)FashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction.TheCharterisanindustry-widecommitmenttosupportthegoalsoftheParisAgreement,launchedinDecember2018atthe24thConferenceofthePartiesinKatowice,Poland(UNFCCC2018).1SignatoriestotheCharter2committo30percentgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionreductionsby2030(froma2015baseline)andnet-zeroemissionsby2050.Thisisasignificantchallenge–globallythegarmentandtextilesectoraccountsfor6–8percentofemissions(Niinimaki2020),orsome1.7billiontonnesofcarbonemissionsperyear.A30percentcutmeansemissionsreductionofsomehalfabilliontonnesofcarbondioxideperyearby2030,andthisambitiousgoalraisessomeimmediatequestions:Howwillthesectorachievethesetargets?Whatincentives,supportandpoliciesneedtobeinplace?Whateffectswilltheseemissionreductionsandtheresultingchangesinproductionandconsumptionsystemshaveonemploymentandtheworldofwork?FortheILO,theimplicationsfortheworldofworkareclear.AsdiscussedattheGoverningBodyinNovember2020,climatechangewillsignificantlyimpactjobsandlivelihoodsandchallengeourabilitytoachievesustainabledevelopment(ILO2020).Thetransitiontoalow-carbon,environmentallysustainableeconomyandsocietywillprovidedemandfornewemploymentandskills,andallowfortheachievementofpovertyeradicationandsocialjustice.However,incertaincircumstances,geographies,communitiesandsectors,itwillhavenegativeimpactsonemploymentandlabourmarkets.Asindustrialactivitiesmoveawayfromcarbon-intensiveproduction,employmentandeconomicactivitywillalsoneedtochange,andindustrialchangeatthisscaleisrarelysmooth.Alow-carbontransitionthatisalsojust–leavingno-onebehind–willrequiretheongoingengagementofstakeholders,andthedevelopmentandimplementationofspecificpoliciestosupportemploymentcreationandskilldevelopment,sustainableenterprisedevelopment,socialprotection,rightsatworkandsocialdialogue(ILO2020).Specifically,theILOGoverningBodyprovidedILOwithamandateforactionto:a.promotefurtherdiscussion,research,knowledgeandunderstandingoftheimplicationsofclimatechangefortheworldofwork,focusingonallrelevantsectors;1ThetextofthesignedCharterisavailableat:https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Industry%20Charter%20%20Fashion%20and%20Climate%20Action%20-%2022102018.pdf.2Thecurrentlistofsignatoriesisavailableat:https://unfccc.int/climate-action/sectoral-engagement/global-climate-action-in-fashion/fashion-industry-charter-for-climate-action/participants-in-the-fashion-industry-charter-for-climate-action#eq-1.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia8XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia7b.advancetheapplicationoftheILOGuidelinesforaJustTransitiontowardsEnvironmentallySustainableEconomiesandSocietiesforAll,withafocusonassistinggovernments,workers’organizationsandemployers’organizationsinthedevelopmentofpoliciesthroughsocialdialoguetoimplementtheirclimatechangecommitments,includingthroughtheClimateActionforJobsInitiative;c.promotecollaborationbetweentheILO,itsconstituentsandrelevantinternationalinstitutionsaddressingclimatechangeandrelatedkeyenvironmentalissues,suchasdeforestation,desertification,risingsealevelsandbiodiversityloss,adaptationandreductionofemissions,aswellasimplementingtheDecadeofActiontowardsachievingthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,inparticularSustainableDevelopmentGoal8,withaviewtoadvancingajusttransitionforall;d.continuetopursuecarbonneutralityattheILO,inlinewiththeUnitedNationstargettoreachcarbonneutralityby2020;ande.reportbacktotheGoverningBodyontheimplementationoftheabove-mentionedpoints.Thisreportcontributestothiseffortinthegarmentsector.Toaddressdecarbonization,wefirstneedtounderstandwhereandhowemissionsaregenerated.Thisreportprovidesanoverviewofhowemissionsarecalculatedacrossthesector,highlightingimplicationsandlimitations.Thereportconcludeswiththeimplicationsofthispatternofemissionsandthedecarbonizationneedsacrossthesector.1.2.AboutOutcome4oftheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChaininAsiaprojectThisreportisoneoftheactivitiesunderOutcome4oftheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChainsinAsia3project.Outcome4isfocusedonenhancingtheenvironmentalsustainabilityofthegarmentsupplychain.Outcome4activitiesincludeamixofknowledgecreation,knowledgediffusionandcapacity-buildingactivitiesforkeysectoractorswiththeaimofdevelopinganevidencebaseforhowenvironmentalsustainabilityandtheadoptionofmoresustainablepracticesinthetextileandgarmentsupplychainenhancedecentworkinthesector.Throughoutthisreportweusetheterm“textileandgarmentsector”,aswearespecificallyinterestedingarmentproductionandthereforeinthetextilesmanufacturedasinputsintothesegarments.Textilesaremanufacturedforotherpurposesincludingfurniture,automotiveaccessoriesandhouseholddecoration,andwhiletheenvironmentalimpactsoftheproductionofthesetextilesmightbesimilartotextilesproducedforgarments,thesetextilesarenotthefocusofourworkinthisproject.TheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChainsinAsiaprojectisaregionalprojectwithcoverageofallcountriesacrosstheAsianregion,butactivitiesfocusonfourtargetcountries:Bangladesh,Cambodia,IndonesiaandVietNam.Outcome4’sactivitiesaredividedintofourareas,whichareoutlinedinFigure1.3ThisprojectisfundedbytheSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency(Sida)XFigure1.FouroutputareasofOutcome4:EnhancedenvironmentalsustainabilityinthegarmentsectorinAsiaThisreportispartofactivitiesunderOutput4.4:“JustTransitionguidanceforthegarmentsectordeveloped,includinganalysisandoptionsforfutureprioritiesandactivities).”SeveralactivitiesaretobeidentifiedoverthreeyearsaspartofOutput4.4,thisreportrepresentsthefirstoutputunderOutput4.4,presentingananalysisofcarbonemissionsacrossthesectorsoastounderstandthedimensionsofthejusttransitionneededforthesectorastheworldworkstowardsimplementationoftheParisAgreementandthe2030SustainableDevelopmentGoals.1.3.MethodThisreportisbasedondesk-topreviewofexistingcarbonemissionsaccountingreportsandmethodologies.Understandinghowcarbonemissionsaccrueoverthehighlyglobalizedandcomplexsupplychainsofthetextileandgarmentsectorisalsoacomplexandresource-intensiveactivity.Thereareafewfoundationalstudiesthathaveaccomplishedthismeasurementofemissionsacrossthesector(eachwithsomelimitations).InreviewingthesestudieswithaspecificfocusonthegeographyofemissionsinAsia,thereporthighlightswheretheimpactsofdecarbonizationwillbefelt;whereandinwhatsupplychainactivitiesemploymentimpactswillaccrue;andwhereshouldbethefocusofjusttransitionplanning.1.4.StructureofthisreportThisreportisdividedintofoursections.Section1includesthisintroductionandmethodsection,andalsothefollowingbackgroundcontextonthewiderenvironmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsector.Section2examinesindetailthecarbonemissionsinthesectorandidentifieswhichactivitiesinthesupplychainarethemostcarbon-intensive.Section3summarizesthetwomainmethodologiesforgreenhousegas(GHG)accounting–lifecycleassessmentandGHGaccounting.Section4presentsconclusionsandimplicationsofthisworkfortheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChainsinAsiaprojectandthewidertextileandgarmentsector.OUTCOME4:Industrystakeholderscanmoreeffectivelyapplyknowledgeandtoolstopromoteenvironmentalsustainabilityacrossthesector.Output4.1Gaps/weaknessesinnationalenvironmentalregulatitonidentifiedinselectedcountriesandcountry-levelgoodpracticesdeveloped(selectedcountries).Output4.2Knowledgeonecoinnovationandgreenerproductioninthegarmentindustrydeveloped.Output4.3Industry-relevantguidanceandsupportprovidedtohelpmanufac-turersunderstandandapplyenvironmentanddecentworkprinciplesintheworkplace(andhelpinformfutureadvisoryandcompliancetoolsfortheindustry).Output4.4JustTransitionguidanceforthegarmentsectordeveloped,includinganalysisandoptionsforfutureprioritiesandactivities.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia10XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia91.5.Backgroundcontext–environmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsupplychainAsiaaccountsforsome60percentofglobalexportsofgarments,textilesandfootwear.Theindustryhasrapidlygrownoverthepasttwodecades,employingmorethan40millionworkers,themajorityinmanycountriesbeingwomen(Sharpe2017).Environmentalimpactsareconcentratedatcertainpointsinthesupplychain,particularlyinfourareas:Xtheweaving,dyeingandfinishingprocessesintextilemanufacturing;Xenergyusethroughoutthesupplychain,butconcentratedintextilemanufacturingandtoalesserextentingarmentassembly;Xtextilewasteassociatedwithgarmentassembly;andXthetransportemissionsthroughoutthesupplychainasmaterialsandthenfinalproductsareshippedglobally.Themostsignificantimpactshoweverarewithinthefirsttwoareas,withthemainimpactsbeingonuseintensityofwaterresources,chemicaluse(includingtoxicchemicals),wastewaterdischargesandlackoftreatmentprocesses,aswellasenergyuseandthecarbonintensityofelectricity.Textilemanufacturingisverywater-andchemical-intensive.Thegrowthandsustainabilityofthesectorishighlydependentonhowresourcesaremanaged.Thetextileindustryingeneralhasanenormouswaterfootprintrangingfromagriculturalwaterconsumptionforcottonfarming,towaterconsumptionintextileprinting,dyeingandfinishing.Thesectorisoneofthelargestusersoffreshwaterintheworld,consuminganestimated79billioncubicmetersoffreshwaterannuallyacrosstheentirevaluechain(UnitedKingdom2019).Astextileproductionislocatedinsomecountriesthatalreadyhaveinsecurewatersuppliers,watercrisesareforecastinanumberoftextileproducingcountries.Thesectorisalsoresponsibleforseverewaterpollutionbydischarginglargevolumesofwastewatercontaininghazardoussubstancesintoriversandwatercourseswithoutappropriatetreatment.Itisreportedthat20percentofindustrialwaterpollutiongloballyisattributabletothedyeingandtreatmentoftextiles(EMF2017).Thecarbonfootprintfromthesectorisalsosignificantaswillbefurtherexaminedinthisreport.Asnotedabove,thesectoraccountsfor6–8percentoftotalglobalemissions(Niinimaki2020).In2015thisequatedtoemissionsof1.7billiontonnesofcarbondioxide(UnitedKingdom2019),whichismorethanallinternationalflightsandmaritimeshippingcombined(Sumner2019).Thenumbersarenotsurprisinggiventhefactthatover60percentoftextilesareusedintheapparelindustry,andalargeproportionofapparelmanufacturingoccursinChinaandIndia.Indiainparticularreliesheavilyonhardcoalandnaturalgasforelectricityandheatproduction,sharplyincreasingthecarbonfootprintofeachapparelproduct.Encouragingenergyefficiencyandswitchingtorenewableenergysources,suchassolar,hydroorwindpower,cansignificantlychangeemissionsandimprovethesustainabilityoftextileproduction.Moreover,theincreaseoffastfashionhasstimulateddemandforfast,cheapandlow-qualitygoods.Boththegrowingvolumeofgarmentproductionandhowthesegarmentsareusedanddisposedofthathaveresultedinincreasingclimatechangeimpactsstemmingfromthegarmentsector.Between2005to2016,theclimateimpactofvariousproductionstagesintheapparelsectorincreasedby35percentandisprojectedtocontinuetoincreaseunderabusiness-as-usualscenario(Quantis2018).XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia12XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia112.Carbonemissionsinthetextileandgarmentsector2.1.DistributionofemissionsacrossthevaluechainItischallengingtoquantifythedistributionofcarbonemissionsacrossthevaluechain,asitisdependentonthespecificproductandmaterials,aswellastheemissionsintensityofthecountryofproduction(WRI2019).Thefollowingsectionsummarizesthefindingsfromstudiesthathaveanalysedcarbonemissionsinthesector.Itisimportanttonotethatthestudiesvaryinmethod,scopeandlocation,sothereisalackofconsensusamongresults.However,theoverallfindingshighlightthatitistheproductionofyarnandtextilesandtheusephasethathavethelargestshareofemissions,withasmallershareofemissionsintheproductionofrawmaterials,assembly,distributionanddisposal.2.1.1.TextileandgarmentproductionWeareawareofonlyonestudythathasattemptedtomeasureemissionsacrossthegarmentsectorglobally.The2018studybyQuantisfoundthelargestshareofemissionsarefromthedyeingandfinishingprocesses(36percent),followedbyyarnpreparation(28percent),fibreproduction(15percent)andfabricpreparation(12percent).Thisstudyfoundthatassemblywasonlyresponsiblefor7percentofemissions,anddistributionanddisposalatend-of-lifefornegligibleamounts(Quantis2018).Thatstudydidnotincludetheusephaseortransporttothecustomerbecauseofthedifficultyofanalysingthevariabilityinconsumerbehaviour(Quantis2018).TheseresultsareconsistentwithaSwedishstudybasedonemissionsfromsixtypesofgarments,whichfoundwettreatment(dyeingandfinishingprocesses)accountedforthelargestportionofemissions(23.5percent),followedbyfibreproduction(16.3percent),confectioning(cuttingandsewing)(15.6percent)andfabricproduction(14.1percent)(Sandinetal.2019).Acomparisonoftheresultsofthesetwostudiesispresentedinfigure2.TheSwedishstudyassumedbestavailabletechnologieswereusedinthetextilemanufacturingprocesses,whichisnotthecaseinrealityandlikelyleadstounaccountedemissionsinthegarmentproductionprocess.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia14XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia13XFigure2.ComparisonofthedistributionofemissionsinthegarmentsectorvaluechainbetweentwokeystudiesStudiesfocusedonparticularfactories,brandsorgarmentsalsofoundsimilarresults.Forexample,a2019studyofasewingassemblylineformen’sshirtsinChinafoundthatfabricsarethemainsourceofcarbonemissions(ZhangandChen2019).AnotherstudyfromChinaontheimpactsofacottonTshirtproductionalsofoundthatthelargestcontributorstocarbonemissionsinthelifecyclewasthedyeingprocess(35percent);however,thisstudyalsofoundsignificantemissionsinthegarmentassemblystage(32percent)(Zhangetal.2015).H&M(2019)foundthatfabricproduction(whichinthisstudyincludedyarnproductionanddyeing/finishing)wasbyfarthelargestsourceofemissions(48percent),followedbytheusephase(13percent),garmentassembly(12percent)andrawmaterials(11percent).Thehighshareofemissionsinthesestagesareadirectresultofthehighenergydemandoftheseprocessesandtherelianceonfossilfuelsforenergyincountriesofproduction.Wettextileprocessing,commonlyusedfordyeing,isahighlyenergyintensiveprocessandtypicallyinvolvesthedirectuseofcoalornaturalgasonsitefortheproductionofsteam.Forexample,astudyofacottonmillinTurkeyfoundthatthelargestenergyconsumptionwasnaturalgasforsteamgeneration(46percent),almostallofwhichisusedforheatingwaterforthewetprocessing,andthesecond-largestenergyusewasfordrying(30percent)(AlkayaandDemirer2014).AstudyfromBangladeshfoundsignificantenergyuseinthewetprocessingunit,whichusesbothsteamandheatenergy,andintheweavingmachines(looms),whichconsume50–60percentoftheenergyattheweavingplant(Hasanetal.2019).IntheproductionofcottonT-shirtsinChina,emissionsinthedyeingphaseweremainlyattributedtotheuseofcoalburnedonsitetoproducesteam,andemissionsinthegarmentassemblystagewereindirectemissionsfromelectricityconsumptionatthefactory(Zhangetal.2015).Althoughnotthefocusofthisreview,studieshavefoundthatforfootwear,themanufacturingphasehasthelargestimpactoncarbonemissions,accountingfor63–68percent,followedbytheproductionofrawmaterials,accountingfor20–29percent(Cheahetal.2013;Quantis2018).2.1.2.ConsumerusephaseItislesscommonforstudiestoassessthecontributionofthe“usephase”byconsumersoftextilesandgarmentstothecarbonemissionsoveragarment’slifecycle.Calculatingemissionsfromtheusephaseischallenging,asthereisalackofdataonbehaviourssuchasthefrequencyofwashing,washingtemperature,detergenttypesanddryingmethods,whichvarygreatlybetweencultures(Yasinetal.2016).Somestudiessuggesttheusephasemaybethelargestcontributortoemissionsinthevaluechain.AstudyundertakenfortheUKbrandMarks&Spencer(M&S)foundthattheusephasehadthelargestconsumptionofenergyacrossthelifecycle,responsiblefor81percentofenergyuseformen’scottonbriefsand76percentforpolyestertrousers.Washinganddryingwerethemajorenergyconsumers,andthereforesourcesofemissions.Inbothexamples,productmanufacturewasresponsiblefor13percentandretailoperations4percent,andcottonfibreproductionwasresponsibleforonly3percentcomparedto7percentforpolyester(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002).LeviStrauss&Coalsofoundthattheusephasehadthelargestshareofemissions(34percent),higherthanfabricproduction(31percent)andcottoncultivation(10percent)(LeviStrauss&Co.2018).AstudyinChinaalsofoundsignificantemissionsintheusephase,assessingitasthethird-highestcontributortoemissions.However,thisstudywasbasedonwashinghabitsinChinathatarelessenergyintensivethaninothermajoreconomies,soemissionsarelikelytobehigherinothercountries(Zhangetal.2015).2.1.3.Distributionandend-of-lifeThestudiesdiscussedaboveallfoundthattransportisnotasignificantconsumerofenergy,withestimatesof1–6percentofthevaluechain.However,theM&Sstudynotesthattransportbyaconsumerfromthestoreusesmoreenergythanallothertransportinthevaluechain(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002),andthiswasnotaccountedforintheQuantisstudy.TheSwedishstudyonsixgarmentsfoundasignificantshareofemissionsfromtransportintheusephase,accountingforjustover10percentofemissions(Sandinetal.2019).Disposalwasalsofoundtohaveaninsignificantimpactonemissions,withestimatesbetween0and2.8percentacrossthestudiesreviewed.However,lifecycleassessment(LCA)hasbeenusedinseveralstudiestoinvestigatetheenvironmentalimpactsofclothingsharing,reuseandrecycling.Forexample,astudyinFinlandfoundthatincreasingthecollectionofdiscardedtextilesforreuseandrecyclingcancreateanenvironmentalbenefitbyoffsettingvirgintextileproduction.However,thereareuncertaintieswhetherrecycledfibrescanreplacevirginfibres,andwhetherthereuseandresaleoftextilesreducesdemandfornewproductionoraddstooveralldemandandconsumption(Dahlboetal.2017).TheM&Sstudyshowedtheenvironmentalbenefitofclothingreuse.Itfoundthatprocessinganddistributionofsecond-handclothingconsumes1.7kilowatthours(kWh)ofenergyperkg,andeachkgofclothingdisplacedbysecond-handclothingcouldsave65kWhforcottonand90kWhforpolyester(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002).AstudyofclothinglibrariesinSwedenfoundthatinsomescenariosthetransportationemissionscansurpasstheenvironmentalbenefitsofreducedproductionofnewclothing.Thekeyvariablestoensureanenvironmentalbenefitareextendingthelifespanofthegarmentandlowimpacttransportation(Zamani,SandinandPeters2017).2.1.4.VariationsbetweenfibresThetypeoffibrealsohasanimpactonGHGemissions;however,therearelimitedpublisheddata.ThePulseoftheFashionIndustryreportundertookananalysisoftextilesbasedonfibretypeandfoundthatleather,silkandwoolhadthehighestemissionsbykgofmaterial;whilepolypropyleneandacrylicfibreshadthelowestemissions(GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup2017).Infact,thesenaturalfibreshavethehighestenvironmentalimpactwhenwealsoincludewateruseandpesticideuseinthegrowingofrawmaterials(seefigure3).Syntheticfibresarenotwithoutimpact,althoughcarbonemissionsarelower.Otherissueswiththesesyntheticfibresincludebeingmadeofnon-renewableresources,andbeingasourceforgrowinglevelsofmicro-plasticpollution.ThephaseofthevaluechainthatcontributesmosttoGHGemissionscandependonthefibretypeaswellastheproductionprocess.AUKstudyfoundthatlaundryprocessesintheusephasehasthehighestenergyconsumptionwithinthelifecycleofacottonT-shirt,whereasforaviscosegarment,thematerialproductionphasehasthehighestenergyconsumption(Allwoodetal.2006).InasimilarresulttothePulseoftheFashionIndustryreport,thisstudyfoundthatgarmentsmadefromnon-syntheticfibresusedtwiceasmuchenergyasthosemadefromsyntheticfibres.Quantis,201816%28%12%36%7%Sandinetal.,201916%10%14%24%16%14%3%0%3%1%FibreproductionYarnproductionFabricproductionWettreatment/dyeing&finishingGarmentassemblyDistribution&retailUsephaseEndoflifeXReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia16XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia15Theemissionsassociatedwithdifferentfibresarealsoimpactedbythetypeofgarmentsthesefibresaremadeintoandtheuseofthesegarments.Fibressuchaswool,silkandleatheraremorelikelytobemadeintohigher-qualityandlonger-lastinggarments,withsyntheticgarmentsusedmoreinfastfashionitems.XFigure3.ComparisonofemissionsbyfibretypeSource:GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup2017.2.2.GeographicallocationofemissionsTherearelimiteddataonthegeographicallocationofemissionsfromthetextileandgarmentsectors.However,wecaninferwheresignificantemissionsoccurbylookingatthecentresforproductionandconsumptionoftextilesandgarments.2.2.1.EmissionsfromproductionInChina,thelargestglobalproduceroftextilesandgarments,theapparelindustryisthesixth-largestindustrysectorintermsofenergyconsumption(ZhangandChen2019).InBangladesh,thetextileandgarmentsindustryisthetopexportearner,generating81percentofgrossdomesticincome.Theindustrialsectoraccountsfor27percentofthecountry’stotalenergyconsumption,andthetextilesectorisapproximatelyone-thirdofthis(Hasanetal.2019).InTurkey,anothertextileproducingcountry,thesectoristhethird-mostenergyintensivesectorafteriron/steelandcement(AlkayaandDemirer2014).Theenergysourcesincountriesofproductionhavealargeimpactontheemissionintensityoftextilesandgarmentproduction.Forexample,Bangladeshisheavilydependentonnaturalgas,withlessthan2percentrenewableenergy(Hasanetal.2019).Asummaryoftheprimaryenergyconsumptionbyfueltypeacrossfiveimportantcountriesinthevaluechainisgivenintable1.XTable1.Primaryenergyconsumptioninselectedcountriesbyfueltypein2019(%)Source:BP2019Incountrieswithoutlargegarmentproductioncentres,theemissionsfromthetextileandgarmentsectorareverylow.Forexample,intheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandthetextileandgarmentindustryisestimatedtoberesponsibleforlessthan1percentoftotalemissions(Allwoodetal.2006).2.2.2.EmissionsfromconsumptionApartfromemissionsfortransporttofinalconsumer,whichasnotedabovearenotaverysignificant,GHGemissionsaregenerallyconsideredtobetheresponsibilityofthecountrywherethegoodsorservicesareproduced.However,thereareargumentsthatemissionsshouldbeallocatedtothecountriesthatconsumethesegoodsorservices(PetersandHertwich2008).Takingthisapproach,itisestimatedthatpercapitaemissionsfromclothingconsumptionwere1,450kgCO2e1peryearintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1,210kgCO2einEuropeand41.8kgCO2einChina(Quantis2018).AstudyinSwedenestimatedemissionsfromclothingconsumptiontobe330kgCO2eperpersonperyear,approximately3percentofthecarbonfootprintperperson(Sandinetal.2019).1Theterm“kgCO2e”refersto“kilogramsofcarbondioxideequivalent”,astandardunitformeasuringcarbonfootprintsbyexpressingtheimpactofdifferentGHGsintermsoftheamountofcarbondioxidethatwouldhaveanequivalentglobalwarmingimpact.CountryShareoffossilfuelsOilNaturalgasCoalHydroelectricRenewablesBangladesh99.4%20.8%70.3%8.2%0.4%0.2%China85.1%19.7%7.8%57.6%8.0%4.7%India91.0%30.1%6.3%54.7%4.2%3.5%Indonesia93.9%38.0%17.7%38.2%1.7%4.4%VietNam84.8%25.9%8.6%50.3%14.2%1.0%XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia18XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia173.ApproachestomeasuringemissionsTherearetwostandardizedapproachestomeasuringgreenhousegasemissionsacrossthegarmentsector:Xlifecycleassessment;andXGreenhouseGasProtocolaccounting.Lifecycleassessment(LCA)isusedtomeasurecarbonemissions(orenergyuseandotherenvironmentalimpacts)foraproduct(suchasanitemofclothing)oraprocess(suchaproductionline).Theseimpactscanthenbescaleduptounderstandenvironmentalimpactsofproductionandconsumptionofcertainproductsandsectors.Bycontrast,theGreenhouseGas(GHG)Protocolisusedbycompaniesandorganizationstomeasuretheircorporate-levelemissions,includingtheirvaluechainandoperations.3.1.LifecycleassessmentLCAisaframeworkmethodologyforquantifyingtheenvironmentalimpactsofproducts,processesorservices.LCAprovidesastandardizedwaytoquantifytheenvironmentalperformanceofproducts,suchasenergyuse,greenhousegasemissions,waterfootprintandpollutants.LCAisusedinteraliawithinindustryforoptimizingtheeco-efficiencyofproductionprocessesandsupplychains,andformakingmaterialselectionandprocurementdecisions.TheprocessforundertakinganLCAbeginswithdefiningthesystemboundary(thatis,whatwillbeincludedinthesystem)andthefunctionalunit(thatis,whatunittheenvironmentalimpactwillbemeasuredfor–forexample,oneT-shirt).Thenextphaseistodevelopalifecycleinventory(LCI)thatdescribestheflowstoandfromnatureinrelationtothefunctionalunit.DataarefromprimarysurveysofcompaniesorfactoriesinconjunctionwithsecondarydatafromLCIdatasets.TherearealargenumberofLCIdatabasesspecifictoproductsorregions.AlifecycleimpactassessmentcanthenbeundertakenwithexistingmodelsandLCAsoftwaretoquantifyenvironmentalimpactsbasedontheflowsidentifiedintheLCIphase.StandardsforLCAhavebeendevelopedthroughtheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(14040:2006,LifeCycleAssessment:PrinciplesandFramework,and14044:2006,LifeCycleAssessment:RequirementsandGuidelines)anddetailedmethodologicalguidanceforLCAisprovidedthroughorganizationssuchastheLifeCycleInitiativehostedbyUNEnvironment1.AtypicalLCAofaproductcancoveralllifecyclestagesfromrawmaterialsextractionorproduction,manufacturing,distribution,useandend-of-life.AnLCAisreferredtoas“cradle-to-grave”ifitincludesthefullproductlifecycle,or“cradle-to-gate”ifitonlyquantifiesemissionsuntiltheproductleavesthe1Formore,see:https://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia20XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia19factory.EnvironmentalProductDeclarations(ISO14025)havebeendevelopedasastandardizedmethodtocommunicateLCAresultstoconsumers.GreenhousegasemissionsaredefinedinLCAstudiesasthosewith“globalwarmingpotential”andaremeasuredinkilogramsofcarbondioxideequivalent(kgCO2e).Thismeasurementisusedtoaccountforthedifferentimpactsofvariousgreenhousegases(suchasmethaneandnitrousoxide)inacommonunit,bycalculatingtheamountofcarbondioxidethatwouldhavetheequivalentglobalwarmingimpact.Forexample,1kgofmethanecanbeexpressedas25kgCO2e.3.1.1.LCAuseinthetextileandgarmentsectorLCAhasbeenusedtoquantifyenvironmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsector,primarilybyresearchersandglobalfashionbrands.LCAcanbeusedtohighlighttheenvironmentalimpactsinagarment’slifecycle,andtoaiddecision-makinginthedesignprocesstousematerialsandprocesseswithlowerenvironmentalimpact.Itisalsoausefultooltomakecomparisonsbetweenproductstofindwhichhavethelowestenvironmentalimpacts;however,thisislimitedbythequalityofthedataandassumptionsused,asmostLCAsundertakenontextilesorgarmentsarebasedonexistingsecondaryLCIdatabasesratherthanonprimarydata(Zhangetal.2015).MostLCAsarefocusedon“cradle-to-gate”impactsofgarmentsanddonotaccountfortheimpactsoftheusephaseoratend-of-life(Chapman2010;Zhangetal.2015).Forexample,acradle-to-gateLCAforacottongarmentwouldincludetheuseofenergy,waterandmaterialsandtheproductionofemissionsforcottoncultivation,cottonfibreproduction,textilesmanufacturing(includingspinning,knitting,dyeing)andgarmentassembly(cutting,sewingandpackaging).Theusephasewouldincludedataonthegarmentlifetime,usefrequency,washinghabits,andtheenergy,waterandmaterialsusedinwashing,dryingandironing.Theend-of-lifephasewouldincludeemissionsfromlandfillorinputsandemissionsfromrecycling.Anoverviewofatypicalboundaryfora“cradle-to-gate”LCAanda“cradle-to-grave”LCAforthetextileandgarmentsectorisgiveninfigure4.XFigure4.Typicalboundariesfor“cradle-to-gate”and“cradle-to-grave”LCAsforthetextileandgarmentsectorSource:authors3.2.SpecificexamplesofLCAuseinthesectorLCAhasbeenusedbyresearcherstounderstandtheemissionsinthesectoratvaryingscales.Forexample,LCAhasbeenusedtoshowemissionsinthelifecycleofgarmentviaaT-shirtinChina(Zhangetal.2015);toshowtheemissionsintheproductionprocessinordertoimproveenvironmentalperformancethroughoptimizingtheassemblyline(ZhangandChen2019);andtounderstandthepotentialofgarmentreuseandrecyclingthroughaclothinglibraryinSweden(Zamani,SandinandPeters2017).LCAhasalsobeenusedtolookattheentireglobalapparelsystem,includingfibreproduction,yarnpreparation,fabricpreparation,dyeingandfinishing,assembly,distributionandend-of-life(Quantis2018).AsimilarapproachwasusedtoevaluatethetextileandgarmentsectorinSweden,butalsoincludedtransportandlaundryintheusephase(Sandinetal.2019).LCAhasalsobeenusedbyindustry.Forexample,M&ScommissionedastreamlinedLCA(asimplifiedversion)todeterminetheenergyfootprintsfortwoM&Sgarments.Thisanalysiswasusedtodevelopasoftwaretooltoallowthecompanytoassessthelifecycleenergyconsumption(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002).FibreproductionYarnproductionFabricproductionDyeingandfinishingGarmentassemblyDistributionandretailUsephaseTransporttoenduserLaunderingEndoflifeLandfillorincinerationReuse/resaleRecyclingCradle-to-gateCradle-to-graveXReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia22XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia213.2.1.LCA-basedtoolsThetwomostwidelyusedtoolsthathavebeendevelopedinordertosimplifyundertakingLCAsforthetextileindustryaretheHiggMaterialSustainabilityIndex(HiggMSI)andtheMADE-BYFiberBenchmark(Laitala,KleppandHenry2018).Bothofthesetoolsfocusonthesustainabilityoffibretypes,focusingonlyonthematerialsbutexcludingtheusephase.TheHiggMSIisacustomtoolthatispartoftheHiggIndexseriesoftoolsdevelopedbytheSustainableApparelCoalition(SAC),anallianceofmorethan250organizations,includingbrands,retailers,manufacturersandacademics,governmentsandNGOs2.TheHiggMSIwasdevelopedforthetextileindustrytoenablecommonmethodologyandproceduresforLCA.3TheMADE-BYFiberBenchmarkisasimilartool,butonlyincludesrawmaterialsbeforetheyarespunintoyarn,excludingthephasesofdyeing,knitting,weavingandfinishing.Ananalysisofthesetoolsfoundthatthetypeoffibrecontributestotheenvironmentalimpactsoftheusephase,asitimpactshowlongclothinglastsandhowuserstakecareofandusetheirclothing(Laitala,KleppandHenry2018).ThisreviewarguesthatLCAtoolsbasedonlyonmaterialproductionimpactsomitmajorenvironmentalimpactsintheusephase,suchasGHGemissionsfromwashingandthespreadofmicroplasticsfromsyntheticfibres.TheHiggMSIwasusedinthePulseoftheFashionIndustryreport,andfoundthatnaturalmaterials–particularlyleather,silkandwool–hadthehighestemissionsbykgofmaterial(GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup2017).Thisreportrecommendspreferencingplasticandman-madecellulosicfibresinsteadofnaturalmaterials.However,althoughnaturalmaterialshavehigherenvironmentalimpactsintherawmaterialproductionstage,thismaynotbethecaseoncethelifespananduseofthegarmentsistakenintoconsideration(Laitala,KleppandHenry2018).AreviewoftheHiggMSIagainstinternationalLCAstandardsandguidelinesfoundthatthereareanumberofinconsistenciesandimprovementsthatcouldbeimplementedtoensureitprovidesrobust,accurateandtrustworthyresults.ThisreviewconcludedthatinitscurrentformtheHiggMSIhadlimitedcapabilitytohelpstakeholderscomparefabrictypesinordertoselectthosewithlowerenvironmentalimpacts(WatsonandWiedemann2019).3.2.2.LCIdatabasesThereareseveraldatabasesthathavebeendevelopedspecificallyforthetextileandgarmentsector.Theseinclude:XTheWorldApparelandFootwearLifeCycleAssessmentDatabase(WALDB)foundedbyQuantiswithagroupofindustrypartners.Theprojectisplanningtodevelopmorethan300regionally-specificdatasetsforwool,cotton,leather,silkandman-madefibresupplychainsforshirts,pullovers,trousersandshoes.4TheSustainableApparelCoalition(SAC)isapartneroftheWALDB,anddatasetsfromtheWALDBareusedintheSAC’sHiggMSI.XCottonIncorporated,anassociationforAmericancottonproducersandimporters,commissionedthedevelopmentofglobalLCIsforcottonfibreproductionandtextileprocessing.52FormoreabouttheSAC,see:https://apparelcoalition.org/.3FormoreabouttheHiggMSI,see:https://msi.higg.org/page/msi-home.4FormoreabouttheWALDB,see:https://quantis-intl.com/metrics/databases/waldb-apparel-footwear/.5FormoreabouttheCottonIncorporatedLCIs,see:CottomIncorporated,LCAUpdateonCottonFiberandFabricLifeCycleInventory,2017.3.2.3.LimitationsLCAstudiesaredesignedtobeveryaccurate,andarethereforecomplexandveryresource-intensive,requiringasubstantiveinvestmentoftimeandmoneyforthecompany.Theyusuallycannotbedonein-housebyfashioncompanies,whichhaslimitedtheuptakeofLCAsintheindustry(FashionUnited2017).Asdiscussedabove,anumberofsimplifiedtoolshavebeendevelopedtoaddressthislimitation,butthesetoolsarestillindevelopmentandhavebeencriticizedfornotprovidingreliabledatatothestandardrequiredforLCA.3.3.GreenhouseGas(GHG)ProtocolTheGHGProtocolisapartnershipoforganizationsthataimstodevelopinternationallyacceptedstandards,toolsandguidanceforGHGaccounting.TheGHGProtocolwasestablishedinthelate1990sbytheWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI)andtheWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment(WBCSD),togetherwithlargecorporatepartners.TheCorporateAccountingandReportingStandard(alsoreferredtoasthe“CorporateStandard”)isastandardizedglobalframeworkformeasuringGHGemissions.TheCorporateStandardwasreleasedin2001,andprovidesrequirementsandguidanceforcompaniesandorganizationstoprepareacorporate-levelGHGemissionsinventory.ItiswidelyusedasthebasisfororganizationstoreportemissionstovoluntaryGHGprogrammes,suchastheCDP(formerlytheCarbonDisclosureProject)andtheGlobalReportingInitiative,aswellasnationalandregionalindustryinitiatives(WBCSDandWRI2004).Thestandarddefinesemissionsunderthree“scopes”foraccountingandreporting(figure5):XScope1–DirectGHGemissions:Directemissionsfromsourcesthatareownedorcontrolledbyacompany,includingtheburningoffuelsforelectricity,heat,steamortransport,oremissionsfromphysicalorchemicalprocesses.XScope2–ElectricityindirectGHGemissions:Indirectemissionsfromthegenerationofpurchasedelectricity,steam,heatingorcoolingthatareconsumedbythecompany.XScope3–OtherindirectGHGemissions:Indirectemissionsthatoccurinthevaluechainofthecompany(upstreamanddownstream)asaconsequenceoftheactivitiesofthecompany(suchas,purchasedmaterials,goodsandservices).XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia24XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia23XFigure5.OverviewofGHGProtocolscopesandemissionsacrossthevaluechainSource:ReproducedfromWBSCDandWRI2011a,figure1.1.TheprocessforundertakingaGHGinventoryusingtheGHGProtocolbeginswithsettinganorganizationalboundary.Inmanycasesthisissimple,butifacompanyisaparentcompanyforvariousoperations,itneedstodecidewhetheremissionsarecalculatedbasedonequityinanoperation,oronwhethertheparentcompanyhasfinancialand/oroperationalcontrol.Theoperationalboundarythenneedstobedefined.AllcompaniesarerequiredtoaccountforScope1and2emissionsataminimum,andneedtodeterminewhethertoincludeScope3emissions.TheGHGProtocolCorporateValueChain(Scope3)AccountingandReportingStandard(alsoreferredtoasthe“Scope3Standard”)providesfurtherguidanceonaccountingforScope3emissions(WBCSDandWRI2011a).ThecriteriaforwhichScope3emissionsshouldbeincludedareoutlinedintable2below.XTable2.CriteriaforinclusionofScope3emissionsSource:WBSCDandWRI2011a,table6.1.TheGHGProtocolhasalsodevelopedtheProductLifeCycleAccountingandReportingStandard(referredtoasthe“ProductStandard”)whichbuildsontheISOLCAstandardstoproviderequirementsandguidanceforconsistentlymeasuringandreportingGHGemissionsassociatedwithaproduct(WBCSDandWRI2011b).3.4.GreenhousegasassessmentsinthetextileandgarmentsectorTheemissionsbyscopeforupstreamsuppliers,includingtextileandgarmentmanufacturers,ishighlyvariabledependentonthetypeofcompany.Fortheseupstreamsuppliers,Scope1and2emissionsmaybesignificant,andaregenerallyahigherportionoftotalemissionsthantheyareforbrandsandretailers.Forconsumer-facingbrandsandretailers,Scope3emissionsaretypicallythemajorityoftotalemissions.Forexample,C&ACorporationfoundthat96percentofemissionsareScope3,includingnearly76percentoftotalemissionsfrompurchasedgoodsandservices(C&A2019).DatafromH&MGroup’s2019sustainabilityreportshowsthatScope3emissionsaccountfor99.6percentoftotalemissions,almosthalfofthesefromfabricproduction.Scope3emissionsaremorechallengingtomeasureandmanage,asbrandsorretailersmaynothavedetaileddataonemissionsrelatedtotheirupstreamsuppliersandthereforehavelimitedinfluenceoveremissionsreductionactivitiesofthesesuppliers(WRI2019).Giventhecriteriaintable2,mostbrandsandretailersarelikelytoincludeScope3emissionsfromtheirupstreamsupplierswhenundertakingaGHGinventoryoftheirbrand.Thisisbecausetheseemissionsareasignificantintermsofthecompany’semissions.CriteriaDescriptionSizeTheycontributesignificantlytothecompany’stotalanticipatedScope3emissions.InfluenceTherearepotentialemissionsreductionsthatcouldbeundertakenorinfluencedbythecompany.RiskTheycontributetothecompany’sriskexposure(forexample,climatechange-relatedriskssuchasfinancial,regulatory,supplychain,productandcustomer,litigation,andreputationalrisks).StakeholdersTheyaredeemedcriticalbykeystakeholders(suchas,customers,suppliers,investors,orcivilsociety).OutsourcingTheyareoutsourcedactivitiespreviouslyperformedin-houseoractivitiesoutsourcedbythereportingcompanythataretypicallyperformedin-housebyothercompaniesinthereportingcompany’ssector.SectorguidanceTheyhavebeenidentifiedassignificantbysector-specificguidance.OtherTheymeetanyadditionalcriteriafordeterminingrelevancedevelopedbythecompanyorindustrysector.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia26XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia253.4.1.Science-basedtargetsTheScienceBasedTargetsinitiative(SBTi)isacollaborationbetweentheCDP,theUnitedNationsGlobalCompact,WRI,andtheWorldWideFundforNature(WWF).Theaimoftheinitiativeistoencouragecompaniestosetambitiousscience-basedtargets(SBTs)forGHGemissionsreduction,inlinewiththeaimsoftheParisAgreementtolimitwarmingtoawithin1.5°Corwell-below2°Cpathway(ScienceBasedTargets,n.d.-a).SBTsareencouragedforsignatoriesoftheUNFashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction.TheCharter,whichhasbeensignedbyalargenumberofcompaniesandsupportingorganizations,includesacommitmenttoreduceindustryemissionsby30percentby2030,fromabaselineofnoearlierthan2015.ThiscommitmentisbasedonreductionsinScope1,2and3GHGemissionsinlinewiththeGreenhouseGasProtocolCorporateStandard.TheChartersetsacommitmenttosettingadecarbonizationpathwayfortheindustrybasedontheSBTi.AsofMay2020,thereare14textileandapparelcompaniesthathaveapprovedSBTs,andafurther34thathavecommittedtosettingtargets(ScienceBasedTargets,n.d.-b).TheSBTihasdevelopedguidancefortheapparelandfootwearsectoronappropriatetarget-settingmethodsandonbestpracticesintargetsettingandemissionsreduction.GiventhesignificanceofScope3emissionsandthebarrierstoaddressingthem,theSBTiprovidesspecificguidanceonmeasuringandreducingScope3emissions(WRI2019).Thisguidanceincludesthefollowingcriteriaandrecommendations:XIfacompany’sScope3emissionsaremorethan40percentoftotalemissions,atargetisrequiredforScope3emissions.MostbrandsandretailerswillexceedthisthresholdandberequiredtosetaScope3target.XIfaScope3targetisrequired,companiesmustsetoneormoreemissionreductiontargetsand/orsupplierorcustomerengagementtargetsthatcoveratleasttwo-thirdsoftheirScope3emissionsinlinewiththeScope3Standard.XTargetsmustcoveraminimumoffiveyearsandamaximumof15yearsfromthedatethetargetissubmittedtotheSBTi.XCompaniesshouldengagetheirsuppliersandrecommendtheyusetheSBTiguidancetosettargets.XCompaniesareencouragedtosettargetsforindirectemissionsintheusephase(emissionsgeneratedbycustomersorend-users)ifthesearesignificant;however,thesetargetsneedtogobeyondthetargetthatcoverstwo-thirdsofScope3emissions.CompanyScope1,2and3targetsneedtomeetacertain“levelofambition”throughoneofseveralmethods,outlinedintable3below.Thesemethodsdifferastowhethertargetsaresetasapercentagereductioninabsoluteemissions(the“absolutecontraction”approach)orareductioninemissionsintensitybasedonphysicaloreconomicindicators(the“physicalintensity”or“economicintensity”approaches).TheSBTiguidanceencouragestheapparelsectortousetheabsolutecontractionapproachforScope1and2emissions.Thephysicaloreconomicintensityapproachescanalsobeused,butthetargetsmustnotresultinabsoluteemissionsgrowthandmustleadtolinearannualintensityimprovementsequivalenttotheabsolutecontractiontargets.XTable3.TargetsettingmethodsforreducingScope1,2and3emissionsSource:AdaptedfromWRI2019.MethodDescriptionExamplesofapprovedtargetsAbsolutecontractionReduceabsoluteemissionsconsistentwithlevelofdecarbonizationrequiredtokeepglobalwarmingat:•2°C:minimum1.23%annuallinearreduction(Scope3emissionsonly);•Wellbelow2°C:min.2.5%annuallinearreduction;•1.5°C:min.4.2%annuallinearreduction.LeviStrauss&CocommitstoreduceabsoluteScope1andScope2GHGemissionsby90%by2025(froma2016baseyear).LeviStrauss&Co.commitstoreduceabsoluteScope3emissionsfrompurchasedgoodsandservicesby40%by2025(froma2016baseyear).PhysicalintensityReduceemissionsintensityperunitofphysicalproduction.H&MGroupcommitstoreduceScope3GHGemissionsfrompurchasedrawmaterials,fabric,andgarmentsby59%perpieceby2030(froma2017baseyear).Physicalintensity(Scope3emissionsonly)SettargetsthatmaintainScope3emissionsatbaseyearleveloverthetargetperiod.ASICScommitstoreduceScope3GHGemissionsfrompurchasedgoodsandservicesandend-of-lifetreatmentofsoldproductsby55%perproductmanufacturedby2030(froma2015baseyear).EconomicintensityReduceGHGemissionsperunitofvalueaddedbyatleast7%year-on-year.KeringcommitstoreduceScope1,Scope2andScope3emissionsfromupstreamtransportationanddistribution,businessairtravel,andfuel-andenergy-relatedemissionsby50%perunitofvalueaddedby2025(froma2015baseyear).KeringcommitstoreduceScope3emissionsfrompurchasedgoodsandservicesby40%perunitofvalueaddedby2025(froma2015baseyear).XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia28XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia274.ConclusionsandimplicationsforreducingemissionsinthegarmentindustryThisreportexaminedhowandwherecarbonemissionsaccrueacrossthesupplychain.Thefindingshighlightthatemissionsoccurallalongthevaluechain,butaremostsignificantintheyarnandfabricproductionphase,whichisconsistentwithotherenvironmentalimpacts,suchaswaterconsumptionandchemicalsuse.Althoughtherearefewstudiesthatlookattheusephaseofgarments(becauseofthechallengesincalculatingemissionsbasedonbehaviourssuchaswashing,transportanduse),theevidencethatisavailablesuggeststhattheconsumerusephasecontributessignificantlytoemissionsinthevaluechain.TheimplicationsforachievingcarbonneutralityindicateenergyuseisthemajorcontributortoGHGemissionsinthetextileandgarmentsector,althoughemissionsalsooccurfromnon-energysourcessuchaslandclearingforagriculture,chemicalproductionandtheraisingoflivestockforleather.Highenergydemandcomesfromthewetprocessingstages(dyeingandfinishing),whereenergyisusedtocreatesteamtoheatwaterandalsofordryingfabrics.Thecarbonintensityoftheenergysourcesusedinproductioncentres(coalornaturalgas)translatestohighemissionsintensityfortextileproduction.Energycanalsoaccountforasignificantportionofcostswithinenergy-intensivepartsofthevaluechain,suchastextilemillsandgarmentfactories;sothereisaneconomicandaswellanenvironmentaldrivertoreduceemissionsinthesector.Thereportexaminesthetwomethodologiesforcalculatingemissionsacrossthesector,andprovidesinsightintowhereandwhythecarbonintensityoftextilesandgarmentsvariesacrossthesupplychainandacrossproductioncentres.Itischallengingtoquantifythedistributionofcarbonemissionsacrossthevaluechain,asitisdependentonthespecificproductandmaterials,aswellastheemissionsintensityofthecountryofproduction(WRI2019).ThetwostandardizedapproachestomeasuringGHGemissionsarethroughlifecycleassessment(LCA)andcarbonaccountinginlinewiththeGreenhouseGasProtocol(GHGProtocol).LCAisparticularlyusefulformeasuringemissionsfromaparticularproductorprocess,thenidentifyingopportunitiesforeco-efficiencyinproductionprocessesandsupplychains,andformakingmaterialselectionandprocurementdecisions.However,LCAsareresourceintensiveandrequirespecifictechnicalskillstoundertake,factorsthathavelimitedtheiruptakebytheindustry.Severaltoolshavebeendevelopedinordertoprovideasimplifiedoption,suchastheHiggMSI,whichmeasuresfabricsustainabilitybyfibretype,butthesehavebeencriticizedfornotprovidingreliableenoughdatatobeusedtomakematerialselections.TheHiggMSI,forexample,doesnotaccountfortheimpactthefibretypehasonemissionsduringtheusephase.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia30XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia29TheGHGProtocolisastandardizedmethodfororganizationstomeasuretheiremissions.Thechallengeforthetextileandgarmentsectorinmeasuringemissionswiththisapproachisthatforconsumer-facingbrandsandretailersmostemissionsareindirectemissions,suchasfrompurchasedgoodsandservicesfromupstreamsuppliers.Theseemissionsarechallengingtomeasureandmanage,asbrandsorretailersmaynothavedetaileddataonemissionsandlimitedinfluenceoveremissionsreductionsactivities.TheScienceBasedTargetsinitiative(SBTi)hasdevelopedspecificguidancetohelpthesectorinmeasuringandsettingtargetsfortheseemissionsinlinewiththeGHGProtocol.However,sofarthereareonly14companieswithapprovedtargetsand34othersthathavecommittedtosettargets.Theimplicationsfordecarbonizationinthesector,andtheambitionandtimelineforthisdecarbonizationtocontributetotheParisAgreementandcommitmentsintheUNFCCCFashionIndustryCharteronClimateActionareclear.WhatislesscleararetheadjustmentsthatneedtobemadetoworkingprocessesbymanufacturersinAsiaandtotheirsupplychaininordertoreduceemissions.Astheanalysispresentedinthisreportshows,itisintheproductionandmanufacturingoffibres,textilesandgarmentsthatmostcarbonemissionsaccrue,andthereforeitwillbetheseprocessesandactivitiesthatneedtodecarbonize.Decarbonizationactivitieswillfocusonswitchingtocleaner,moreefficientenergysources–includingrenewableenergy–aswellasreducingtheenergyintensityofproduction(forprocessesusingheatandsteam).Momentumfromotherareasinthesupplychainwillalsoimpactoncarbonemissionsinproduction,anddesigndecisionsconcerningtextilecompositionandthequalityandlongevityofagarmentwillhaveasignificantimpactonhoweachgarmentanditsusecontributetocarbonemissionsoveragarment’slifetime.Therearebrandsandmanufacturersalreadyworkingtoreducetheiremissions(Scopes1,2and3),andhowthesecompaniesaremanagingthisprocessneedstobebetterunderstood,soastobereplicatedandscaled.Keyquestionsthatneedtoconsideredinclude:XHowdoconsumer-facingbrandsworkwiththeirsupplychainstoreduceScope3emissions?XHowdobrandsandmanufacturersuseLCAinformationindecision-makingforproduction?XWhoarethekeyintermediariesandwhatarethekeytoolsthatareusedinthesechangeprocesses?Small-andmedium-sizedenterprisesareasignificantcohortoffirmsinthetextileandgarmentproductioncentresacrossAsia.Thesefirmssubcontractandsupplytomajorbrandsbutoftennotasthefirstsupplier,butratherastwotothreesubcontractsawayfromthesebrandsandtheireffortstoreduceScope3emissions.Howwillthesefirmsbereachedandsupportedtoreducetheiremissions?HowdoweincorporatesupplychainactivitieswithinnationalemissionreductioneffortsthroughNDCs1andwithinevolvingnationalenergypoliciesinproductioncentrecountriesacrossAsia?Thescaleandpaceofsystemwidechangeintextileandgarmentmanufacturingthatisrequiredtomeettargetsforclimateactionmeanthattherewillalsobesignificantimpactsontheworldofworkinthesecomponentsofthesupplychain.Theseimpactswillincludechangesinthetechnologicalintensityofthesector,andthereforeincreaseddemandforfinancialcapitalanddemandfornewskillsandknowledge.This,inturn,maypotentiallyleadtolessoveralldemandforlabourintheproductionprocess.Thegeographicalcompositionofthesupplychainmeansthattherewillbe“hotspotsofimpact”acrossthesectorandacrosstheAsiaregion.Furtherworkisneededtoanalysetheimpactsofdecarbonizationintheseareasofthesupplychain,andtoascertaintheneedforjusttransitionplanningtomanagethesechanges.1NDCs,ornationallydefinedcontributions,aretheemissionreductionplansthatindividualcountriescommittoastheircontributionstoachievingtheParisAgreement.XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia32XReducingthefootprint?HowtoassesscarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia31XReferencesAlkaya,Emrah,andGökselN.Demirer.2014.“SustainableTextileProduction:ACaseStudyfromaWovenFabricManufacturingMillinTurkey.”JournalofCleanerProduction65:595–603.Allwood,Julian,SørenLaursen,CeciliaMalvidodeRodriguez,andNancyBocken.2006.“Welldressed?ThePresentandFutureSustainabilityofClothingandTextilesintheUnitedKingdom”.BP.2019.“StatisticalReviewofWorldEnergy–AllData,1965-2019”,Excelspreadsheet.Availableat:https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html.C&A.2019.GlobalSustainabilityReport2018.Chapman,Adrian.2010,ReviewofLifeCycleAssessmentsofClothing.OakdeneHollins.Cheah,Lynette,NataliaDuqueCiceri,ElsaOlivetti,SeikoMatsumura,DaiForterre,RichardRoth,andRandolphKirchain.2013.“Manufacturing-FocusedEmissionsReductionsinFootwearProduction.”JournalofCleanerProduction44:18–29.Dahlbo,Helena,KristiinaAalto,HannaEskelinen,andHannaSalmenperä.2017.“IncreasingTextileCirculation—ConsequencesandRequirements.”SustainableProductionandConsumption9:44-57.Drejet,Rebecca,andAnnRappaport.2014.“EnergyEfficiencyandWorkingConditionsinVietnameseApparelFactories.”TheFletcherForumofWorldAffairs38(2):167–184.EMF(EllenMacArthurFoundation).2017.ANewTextilesEconomy:RedesigningFashion’sFuture(2017).EnvironmentalResourcesManagement.2002.StreamlinedLifeCycleAssessmentofTwoMarks&SpencerplcApparelProductsFashionUnited.2017.“CantheFashionIndustryCalculateItsWaytoSustainability?–ThePotentialofLCA.”19June.GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup.2017.PulseoftheFashionIndustry2017.H&MGroup.2019.SustainabilityPerformanceReport2019.Hasan,A.S.M.Monjural,MohammadRokonuzzaman,RashedulAminTuhin,andShahM.Salimullah,MahfuzUllah,TaiyebSakib,andPatrikThollander.2019.“DriversandBarrierstoIndustrialEnergyEfficiencyinTextileIndustriesofBangladesh.”Energies12(9).IPCC(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange).2018.SummaryforPolicymakers:GlobalWarmingof1.5°C–AnIPCCSpecialReportontheImpactsofGlobalWarmingof1.5°CabovePre-IndustrialLevelsandRelatedGlobalGreenhouseGasEmissionPathways,intheContextofStrengtheningtheGlobalResponsetotheThreatofClimateChange,SustainableDevelopment,andEffortstoEradicatePoverty.Laitala,Kirsi,IngunGrimstadKlepp,andB.K.Henry.2018.“DoesUseMatter?ComparisonofEnvironmentalImpactsofClothingBasedonFibreType.”Sustainability10(7):2524.LeviStrauss&Co.2018.ClimateActionStrategy2025.Madsen,Jacob,BryanHartlin,ShahilaPerumalpillai,SarahSelby,andSimonAumônier.2007.MappingofEvidenceonSustainableDevelopmentImpactsthatOccurinLifeCyclesofClothing:AReporttotheDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs.DepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs.Niinimaki,Kirsi,GregPeters,HelenaDahlbo,PatsyPerry,TimoRissanen,andAlisonGwilt.2020.“TheEnvironmentalPriceofFastFashion.”NatureReviews:EarthandEnvironment1:189–200.Peters,GlenP.,andEdgarG.Hertwich.2008.“Post-KyotoGreenhouseGasInventories:ProductionVersusConsumption.”ClimaticChange86(1):51–66.Quantis.2018.MeasuringFashion:EnvironmentalImpactoftheGlobalApparelandFootwearIndustriesStudy–FullReportandMethodologicalConsiderations.Sandin,Gustav,SandraRoos,BjörnSpak,BaharehZamani,andGregPeters.2019.EnvironmentalAssessmentofSwedishClothingConsumption–SixGarments,SustainableFutures.ScienceBasedTargets.n.d.-a.“Step-by-StepGuide”,availableat:https://sciencebasedtargets.org/step-by-step-guide/.———.n.d.-b.“CompaniesTakingAction”,availableat:https://sciencebasedtargets.org/companies-taking-action/.Sharpe,Samantha.2017.EnvironmentalScopingStudy:DecentWorkintheGarmentSectorSupplyChainsinAsia.ILO.Sumner,Mark.2019.“WrittenEvidenceSubmittedbyDr.MarkSumner,UniversityofLeeds”,submissiontotheUKParliamentFixingFashion:ClothingConsumptionandSustainabilityhearings,availableat:http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocument/environmental-audit-committee/sustainability-of-the-fashion-industry/written/88396.html.UNFCCC(UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange).2018.“FashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction”.———.n.d.“AbouttheFashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction”,availableat:https://unfccc.int/climate-action/sectoral-engagement/global-climate-action-in-fashion/about-the-fashion-industry-charter-for-climate-action.UnitedKingdom,HouseofCommons,EnvironmentalAuditCommittee.2019.FixingFashion:ClothingConsumptionandSustainability,HC1952.Watson,KatherinaJ.,andS.G.Wiedemann.2019.“ReviewofMethodologicalChoicesinLCA-BasedTextileandApparelRatingTools:KeyIssuesandRecommendationsRelatingtoAssessmentofFabricsMadefromNaturalFibreTypes.”Sustainability11(14):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