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World Energy

Employment

The IEA examines the full spectrum of

energy issues including oil, gas and

coal supply and demand, renewable

energy technologies, electricity

markets, energy efficiency, access to

energy, demand side management

and much more. Through its work, the

IEA advocates policies that will

enhance the reliability, affordability

and sustainability of energy in its 31

member countries, 11 association

countries and beyond.

Please note that this publication is

subject to specific restrictions that

limit its use and distribution. The

terms and conditions are available

online at www.iea.org/t&c/

This publication and any map included herein are

without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty

over any territory, to the delimitation of

international frontiers and boundaries and to the

name of any territory, city or area.

International Energy Agency

Website: www.iea.org

IEA member countries:

Australia

Austria

Belgium

Canada

Czech Republic

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

Italy

Japan

Korea

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Mexico

Netherlands

New Zealand

Norway

Poland

Portugal

Slovak Republic

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Republic of Türkiye

United Kingdom

United States

IEA association countries:

Argentina

Brazil

China

Egypt

India

Indonesia

Morocco

Singapore

South Africa

Thailand

Ukraine

Revised version, August

2022. Information notice

found at: www.iea.org/

corrections

World Energy Employment

PAGE | 3

Abstract

The inaugural edition of the World Energy Employment Report is –

to the best of our knowledge – the first comprehensive inventory of

the global energy workforce.

The report presents new estimates of the size and distribution of the

labour force, across regions and technologies, and increases the

granularity on the number of workers along the entire energy value

chain. This includes fossil fuel and bioenergy production; power

sector generation, transmission, distribution and storage; and end

uses, including vehicles and energy efficiency for buildings and

industry. It also details segments of the value chain where these

jobs are located, including raw materials, manufacturing,

construction, utilities, and wholesale, as well as how many are

employed for building new projects versus operating existing energy

facilities, which includes those working in operating and

maintenance of plants. It also provides estimates for emerging

segments for energy, including clean energy innovation.

This mapping can serve as a much-needed foundation for global

energy decision makers, and provides important insights about the

potential opportunities and impacts to labour markets under

different drivers, particularly the transitions to clean energy, as well

as shifting or development of supply chain capacities. How these

labour markets evolve will be explored in depth by scenarios

presented in our World Energy Outlook series.

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WorldEnergyEmploymentTheIEAexaminesthefullspectrumofenergyissuesincludingoil,gasandcoalsupplyanddemand,renewableenergytechnologies,electricitymarkets,energyefficiency,accesstoenergy,demandsidemanagementandmuchmore.Throughitswork,theIEAadvocatespoliciesthatwillenhancethereliability,affordabilityandsustainabilityofenergyinits31membercountries,11associationcountriesandbeyond.Pleasenotethatthispublicationissubjecttospecificrestrictionsthatlimititsuseanddistribution.Thetermsandconditionsareavailableonlineatwww.iea.org/t&c/Thispublicationandanymapincludedhereinarewithoutprejudicetothestatusoforsovereigntyoveranyterritory,tothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundariesandtothenameofanyterritory,cityorarea.Source:IEA.Allrightsreserved.InternationalEnergyAgencyWebsite:www.iea.orgIEAmembercountries:AustraliaAustriaBelgiumCanadaCzechRepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIrelandItalyJapanKoreaLithuaniaLuxembourgMexicoNetherlandsNewZealandNorwayPolandPortugalSlovakRepublicINTERNATIONALENERGYAGENCYSpainSwedenSwitzerlandRepublicofTürkiyeUnitedKingdomUnitedStatesIEAassociationcountries:ArgentinaBrazilChinaEgyptIndiaIndonesiaMoroccoSingaporeSouthAfricaThailandUkraineRevisedversion,August2022.Informationnoticefoundat:www.iea.org/correctionsWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE3AbstractIEA.Allrightsreserved.AbstractTheinauguraleditionoftheWorldEnergyEmploymentReportis–tothebestofourknowledge–thefirstcomprehensiveinventoryoftheglobalenergyworkforce.Thereportpresentsnewestimatesofthesizeanddistributionofthelabourforce,acrossregionsandtechnologies,andincreasesthegranularityonthenumberofworkersalongtheentireenergyvaluechain.Thisincludesfossilfuelandbioenergyproduction;powersectorgeneration,transmission,distributionandstorage;andenduses,includingvehiclesandenergyefficiencyforbuildingsandindustry.Italsodetailssegmentsofthevaluechainwherethesejobsarelocated,includingrawmaterials,manufacturing,construction,utilities,andwholesale,aswellashowmanyareemployedforbuildingnewprojectsversusoperatingexistingenergyfacilities,whichincludesthoseworkinginoperatingandmaintenanceofplants.Italsoprovidesestimatesforemergingsegmentsforenergy,includingcleanenergyinnovation.Thismappingcanserveasamuch-neededfoundationforglobalenergydecisionmakers,andprovidesimportantinsightsaboutthepotentialopportunitiesandimpactstolabourmarketsunderdifferentdrivers,particularlythetransitionstocleanenergy,aswellasshiftingordevelopmentofsupplychaincapacities.HowtheselabourmarketsevolvewillbeexploredindepthbyscenariospresentedinourWorldEnergyOutlookseries..WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE4ForewordIEA.Allrightsreserved.ForewordThecurrentenergycrisisbroughtonbyRussia’sinvasionofUkraineispromptingcountriesandcompaniestoacceleratetheircleanenergytransitionsandurgentlyshiftandsecuretheirenergysupplychains.Thesuccessoftheseeffortswillrestontheshouldersofthe65millionworkerscurrentlyemployedintheenergysectorandtheabilityoftheenergysectortoattractandtrainnewworkers.AspresentedintheIEA’sGlobalRoadmaptoNetZeroEmissionsby2050,realisingthispivotrequiresmanymoreworkersthantoday,andwhilesomejobswillbelost,manymorewillbecreated.Thenewjobswillnotalwaysbeintheplaceswherejobsarelost,buttheymaysuittheworkersandskillsetsfromindustriesthataredownsizing.Withstrategicforesightandcommitmenttoachievingjustandpeople-centredtransitions,policymakersandindustrydecisionmakerscanprovidethesupportworkersneedtotransitionoutofdecliningindustriesandmaximiseopportunitiesforadditionalgoodqualityjobsacrossdifferentregions.Thiscanbedonebycapitalisingonexistingstrengths,infrastructureandskillsets;promotinginnovation;andidentifyingopportunitiesinnewandemergingareas.ThisiswhyIconvenedtheGlobalCommissiononPeople-CentredCleanEnergyTransitionstodevelopactionablerecommendationsforgovernments,companiesandcivilsocietytomaximisethebenefitsofthetransitionforpeopleandworkers.Buildingpublicsupportforcleanenergytransitionsismoreessentialthaneverifwearetomakeconsistent,enduringprogressonfulfillingtheworld’senergyandclimatecommitments.Creatingwell-paid,qualityjobsisacorepillarofthis.ItiswhytheIEA’sCleanEnergyLabourCouncilbringstogetherenergyleadersandlabourunionrepresentativesfromaroundtheworldtounderstandthechallengestheenergysectorfacesandfindwaystoaddressthemwhileimprovingconditionsforworkersandattractingamoreskilledanddiverseworkforce.ThemostimmediaterecommendationfromtheCommissionandCouncilwastodevelopacomprehensivebaselineofglobalenergyemploymentbyregionandbytechnology.ThisinauguraleditionoftheWorldEnergyEmploymentReportdoesjustthatbyprovidingafirst-of-its-kindpictureofglobalenergyemployment.ThisworkisjustastartingpointfortheIEAandwillbeupdatedannually,divingdeeperintodifferentsectorsandregionseachyear.TheIEA’sWorldEnergyOutlookserieswillalsodeepenitsexaminationofenergysectorlabourneedsandhowtheyshiftunderdifferentscenarios.Thetransitiontoasecureandsustainableenergyfutureforallrequiresunprecedentedshiftsintheglobalenergysector.Itssuccesswilldependagreatdealontheactionsgovernments,industry,labourrepresentativesandeducatorstaketopreparetheenergyworkforceoftomorrow.Aboveall,itwilldependonthecapableworkersresponsiblefordesigning,building,operatingandoverseeingthenewenergyeconomy.Dr.FatihBirolExecutiveDirectorInternationalEnergyAgencyWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE5TableofcontentsIEA.Allrightsreserved.TableofcontentsOverview........................................................................................8Introduction..................................................................................9Totalenergyemployment,2019.................................................10Box:Scopeanddriversofglobalenergyemployment................14Energyemploymenttrends,2019-2022......................................19Skills,trainingandwages...........................................................20Energyemploymentandgender................................................22Fuelsupply..................................................................................22Oilsupply...................................................................................24Coalsupply................................................................................26Box:Qualityofenergyjobs.........................................................28Naturalgassupply......................................................................29Bioenergysupply........................................................................31Powersector................................................................................32Powergeneration.......................................................................33SolarPV.....................................................................................34Coalpower.................................................................................36Windpower................................................................................38Oilandgaspower......................................................................40Powertransmission,distributionandstorage.............................41Box:Accesstoelectricityandcleancooking..............................42Energyenduseandefficiency...................................................43Vehiclesmanufacturing..............................................................44Efficiencyinbuildingsandindustry.............................................46Lookingforward..........................................................................48EmploymentgrowthinIEAscenarios.........................................49People-centredtransitions..........................................................50Innovativecleanenergytechnologies.........................................51Box:Improvementofenergyemploymentdata..........................52Nextsteps..................................................................................53Annexes.......................................................................................54Methodology...............................................................................55Glossary.....................................................................................58Acknowledgments......................................................................61WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE6ExecutivesummaryIEA.Allrightsreserved.ExecutivesummaryEnergyemploymentissettoshiftrapidlyascountriesandcompaniesaccelerateeffortstodecarboniseandmeetnetzeroemissionspledges.Todate,thereisnoglobalbenchmarkdatasetforemploymentacrosstheenergysector.Thisreportaimstoprovidethisbaselinebysector,region,andvaluechainsegment.Theseestimateswerecalibratedagainstmorethan15000datapointsonemploymentandwagesgatheredfromnationallabouraccounts,companyreports,in-countryexperts,internationaldatabasesandacademicliterature.Theendproductisafirst-of-its-kindassessmentofglobalenergyemployment,whichcanserveasafoundationforpolicymakersandcompaniestounderstandthelabour-relatedopportunitiesandchallengesofanevolvingglobalenergysector.Theenergysectoremployedover65millionpeoplein2019,equivalenttoaround2%ofglobalemployment.Thesejobsareroughlyequallydistributedacrossfuelsupply(21million),inthepowersector(20million),andinenduses(24million)suchasenergyefficiencyandvehiclemanufacturing.Energysectoremploymenthasrecoveredstrongly,afteraturbulentfewyearsingloballabourmarkets.AttheonsetoftheCovid-19pandemic,layoffswerecommonacrossgeographies,especiallyinoilandgassupply.Yet,energyemploymentexceedspre-pandemiclevelstodaythankstoresilientgrowthincleanenergy.Fossilfuelemployment,however,isonlysettoreturntopre-pandemiclevelsthisyear.Hiringgapsandtightlabourmarketshavecontributedtosupplychaindisruptionsandprojectdelaysinmanypartsoftheenergysector,notablyoffshorewind,oilandgas,andenergyefficiencyretrofits.Today’sglobalenergycrisiscouldpromptgovernmentsandindustrytorethinktheirglobalsupplychainexposuresespeciallyvis-à-visdependenceonRussia’sfossilfuels.Thismayportendanotherfewyearsoflarger-than-normalshiftsinenergyemployment.Cleanenergyemploysover50%oftotalenergyworkers,owingtothesubstantialgrowthofnewprojectscomingonline.Mostregionshavesurpassedthisthresholdalready,thoughtheMiddleEastandRussiaarenotableexceptions.Manycleanenergysegmentsrivaltheworkforceinconventionalenergysegments.Low-carbonpowergeneration,mainlysolarandwind,employs7.8million,onparwithoilsupply.Vehiclemanufacturingemployment,whichstandsat13.6millionglobally,alreadyemploys10%ofitsworkforceinthemanufactureofEVs,theircomponentsandbatteries.OverhalfofenergyemploymentisintheAsiaPacificregion.RapidenergyinfrastructureexpansioninAsiaPacificisoutpacingotherregions,andlower-costlabourisenablingtheemergenceofsignificantcleanenergymanufacturinghubsthatsupplyprojectsworldwide,notablyforsolar,electricandhybridvehicles,andbatteries.Chinaaloneaccountsforalmost30%oftheglobalenergyworkforce.However,establishedenergycompaniesinNorthAmericaandEuropemaintainglobalmarketstrengthandanchorasizeableemploymentbaseworkingondomesticandoverseasprojects,asisthecaseinoilandgas,wind,andvehicleengineering.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE7ExecutivesummaryIEA.Allrightsreserved.Theconstructionofnewprojects,includingthemanufactureoftheircomponents,isthelargestdriverofenergyemploymentacrossthevaluechain.Over60%oftheworkforceisemployedtodevelopnewprojects,includingbuildingpowerplants,bringingoilwellsonlineandlayingpipelines,manufacturingcars,carryingoutefficiencyretrofitsandinstallinghigh-efficiencyelectricheatpumps.Theenergysectorrequireshigher-skilledworkersthanotherindustries.Around45%ofenergyworkerstodayareinhigh-skilledoccupations,comparedtoonlyone-quarteracrosstheeconomy.Thisshareisevenhigherforjobsinresearchanddevelopmentfornewenergyinnovations,manyofwhicharesettogrowrapidlyto2030.Strategicplanningcanensurethatscalingisnothamperedbyashortageofskilledworkers.Establishingmarketstrengthinthesesegmentsreliesonnewtrainingandcertification,andcanbeafocusforindustryalongwithministriesofenergy,labour,andeducation.Workersincoalandotherfossilfuelshavemanyoftheskillsneededtofillpositionsingrowingcleanenergysectors.Fossilfuelsemployalmost32milliongloballytoday.Somecompaniesaretransferringtheirworkerstolow-carbonsegmentsinternallytoretaintalent,andallowforflexibilitytoshiftworkersbetweendifferentbusinesssegmentsasneedsarise.However,thisisnotanoptioneverywhere,andensuringajusttransitionforaffectedworkersisagrowingfocusforpolicymakersinmanyregions,especiallyforcoal,whichhasalreadyseenconsistentdeclinessince2015.Thereistremendousgrowthforenergyemploymentonthehorizon,drivenprimarilybynewinvestmentstodecarbonise.InallIEAscenarios,energyemploymentissettogrow,outweighingdeclinesinfossilfueljobs.IntheIEA’sNetZeroEmissionsby2050Scenario,weestimatethat14millionnewcleanenergyjobsarecreatedby2030,whileanother16millionworkersshifttonewrolesrelatedtocleanenergy.Around60%ofthesenewjobsrequiresomedegreeofpost-secondarytraining.Makinggrowthinemploymentpeople-centrediskeytoglobalenergytransitions.Maximisingjobqualityhelpstoattractworkers,includingthosemovingfromotherpartsoftheenergysector.Energysectorwagestypicallyseeapremiumovereconomy-wideaveragewages,thoughthispremiumrangessubstantiallyfrom10%to50%acrossadvancedeconomiesalone.Establishedindustriessuchasnuclear,oilandgastypicallyofferthehighestwages.Newersegments,suchassolar,donothavethesamelabourprotectionsandunionrepresentationasestablishedfossilfuelindustries,especiallyinemergingmarketanddevelopingeconomies.Thepercentageofwomenintheenergyworkforceisalsoconsistentlylowwhencomparedtoeconomy-wideaverages,withlessthan15%inseniormanagementpositions.EnergyemploymentiscentraltotheIEA’sworkonacceleratingcleanenergytransitionsglobally.Wewillcontinuetoanalyseandmodelglobalenergyemployment,includingwithanincreasedfocusonskills,workerdemographics,andbestpracticesforensuringasecureandjusttransition.However,allcountrieshavearoleinimprovingenergylabourforcedata.Betterdataisessentialtogroundconversationsonenergypolicyandtosupportworkers,governments,labourunions,andcompaniesastheypreparetoseizetheopportunitiesofthenewenergyeconomy.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE8OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.OverviewWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE9OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.IntroductionCleanenergytransitionsandeffortstodecarboniseenergyaretheprevailingtrendreshapingglobalenergyemployment.Countriesrepresentingover70%ofglobalemissionstodayhavecommittedtonetzeroemissionstargetsbymid-century,whichwillcreatemillionsofnewcleanenergyjobsaroundtheworld.Aparadigmshiftintheenergyworkforcewillrequirestrategicforesighttotrainuptherequisiteworkforcefordeployingcleanenergyatscaleaswellasjusttransitionpoliciesthatprovideforemployeesnegativelyaffectedbythesechanges.TheIEA’sseminalreport,NetZeroby2050:ARoadmapfortheGlobalEnergySector(NZEScenario),projectsthattheenergytransitionwillcreate14millionnewjobsrelatedtocleanenergytechnologiesandrequiretheshiftofaround5millionworkersawayfromfossilfuelsectors.Inadditiontothesenewroles,16millionworkerswillrequireshifttoworkincleanenergysegments,requiringadditionalskillsandtraining.However,thisreportalsocomesoutamidstanenergycrisisincurredbyRussia’sinvasionofUkraine.Thiscreatesurgentimperativesfortheenergysector,someofwhichareacceleratingtheswitchofffossilfuels,andotherswhicharefocusedonshoringupsecurityofsupply.Governmentsareworkingwiththeprivatesectortolocaliseproductionandaddressglobalsupplychainweaknesses,bothwithinfossilfuelsandkeycleanenergysegments,includingthemineralscriticaltotheirmanufacture.ThisbuildsontheunprecedentedUSD710billiongovernmentsmadeavailabletocleanenergyinthewakeoftheCovid-19pandemicinthenameofsustainablerecoveries.Companiescannotrespondtothesemarketandpolicysignalswithouttheskilledworkforceneededtodelivertheseprojectsintheregionstheyarebeingdeveloped.Shortagesofskilledlabouracrossenergysupplychainsarealreadytranslatingintoprojectdelaysandimpactinginvestmentdecisionsinsomesectors,suchasoil,gas,andoffshorewind.WhileworldwidelabourmarketsremaininfluxsincethestartoftheCovid-19pandemic,energyhasbeenamongthefastestevolvingindustriesgloballyinthelastfiveyears.Tonavigatetheevolutionsintheworkforceonthehorizon,decisionmakersrequirebettervisibilityintoenergyemploymenttoday.TheWorldEnergyEmploymentReportaimstodeliverthemostcomprehensiveassessmentoftheglobalenergylabourmarkettodate,andprovideafoundationalresourceforpolicymakers,industry,jobseekersandstudents.Ouranalysisfocusesonestablishinga2019baseline,giventhetumultuouslastfewyearswithinthegloballabourmarket,butgives2021estimateswherepossible.Italsoprovidesanindicationofhowtheselabourdemandsmayevolvein2022.Itcoversallpartsoftheenergyvaluechain,fromfossilfuelstocleanenergyandkeyend-usesectors,andenumeratesemploymentbysubsector,byregion,andbyeconomicsector.Theindustryisfacingaperiodofunparalleledchange,buthasnumerousopportunitiestoexpandeconomicgrowth,improvelabourconditions,continuetocultivateahighly-skilled,inclusiveworkforce,andensurepeopleareatthecentreofthecleanenergytransition.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE10OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Energyemploys65millionpeopleworldwideandaccountsfor2%ofglobalemployment,relativelyevenlydistributedacrossfuelsupply,powersector,andendusesEnergyemploymentasashareofglobalemployment,andbyenergysector,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Note:Endusesreferstoindustry,buildingsandtransportenergy-relatedjobs.Fuelsupply21millionPowersector20millionEnduses24millionEnergyemployment2%WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE11OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Theenergysectoremployedaround41millionworkersin2019,withanadditional24millionworkinginenergyendusesincludingvehiclemanufacturingandefficiencyOver65millionpeoplewereemployedintheenergyandrelatedsectorsin2019,accountingforalmost2%offormalemploymentworldwide.Halfoftheenergyworkforceisemployedincleanenergytechnologies.Energysectoremploymentin2019isdividedapproximatelyintothirdsamongfuelsupply(coal,oil,gasandbioenergy),thepowersector(generation,transmissionanddistribution),andenergyenduses(vehiclesmanufacturingandenergyefficiencyforbuildingsandindustry).Infuelsupply,oilhasthelargestlabourforce,totallingalmost8million.Thisisfollowedby6.3millionincoalsupplyand3.9millioningassupply.Inthepowersector,generationemploysaround11.3millionwhiletransmission,distributionandstoragecombinedaccountforapproximately8.5million.Inenduses,13.6millionareemployedinvehiclemanufacturing,whileanother10.9millionareemployedinenergyefficiency.Roughly65%oftheenergysectorworkforceisconnectedtodevelopingnewenergyinfrastructure,while35%areinvolvedinoperatingandmaintainingexistingenergyassets.Cleanenergyemploymentisrapidlygrowingalongsideeffortstodecarboniseenergysystems—thesesectorsaccountfor50%oftheglobalenergylabourforcetoday,andrepresentthehighestemploymentcreationpotential.Energyemploymentisspreadglobally,withagreaterconcentrationinmanufacturinghubsandproducereconomies.ThePeople’sRepublicofChina(hereafter‘China’)hasthelargestnumberofenergyworkers,near20million,whichrepresentsaround2.5%oftheemployedinChina.IntheMiddleEastandEurasia,theenergyworkforcemakesuparelativelyhighshareofeconomy-wideemployment,averaging3.6%.NorthAmericahas7.9millionworkersinenergy,equivalentto3.4%oftotalemployment;Europehas7.5millionworkersinenergy,or2.4%oftotalemployment.Thesejobsspantheenergyvaluechainandarecapturedindifferenteconomicactivities.Thoseworkingintheproductionofrawmaterials,whichincludesminingandextractivesectorsforfuelsandagriculturefortheproductionofbioenergy,totalover8.5million.Intheminingsectorinparticular,energyworkersmakeup15%ofglobalemployment.Over21millionenergysectoremployeesworkinmanufacturingandapproximately15millionareinconstruction,makingup5-6%oftheirrespectivesectors.Anestimated14millionworkinutilitiesandotherprofessionalservices.Othertypesofjobs,suchaswholesaletradersandenergytransport,makeupthebalance.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE12OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Energyemploymentspansmanyeconomicsectors,withmanufacturingandconstructionofnewprojectsdominatingtoday’senergyworkforceEnergyemploymentbyregionandeconomicsector,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:CandSAmerica=CentralandSouthAmerica.PleaseseetheAnnexfordefinitionsofregionalgroupingsandeconomicsectors.0510152025FuelsupplyPowersectorEndusesMillionemployeesRestofworldOtherAsiaPacificIndiaChinaAfricaEuropeCandSAmericaNorthAmerica0510152025FuelsupplyPowersectorEndusesWholesaleandtransportProfessionalandutilitiesConstructionManufacturingRawmaterialsWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE13OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Fuelsupply,powerandendusesectorsarekeysourcesofemploymentacrosseveryregionEmploymentbyregionandenergysectorinthousandsofemployees,2019NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOtherAsiaPacificRestofworldGlobalSupply:coal100<50100200340014008003006300Supply:oilandgas19001100600160011007001100380011800Supply:bioenergy100800300600300500600<503300Power:generation10006001400400380012001800100011300Power:grids90040012005002300150012006008500Enduses:vehicle1800600270020045001200210060013600Enduses:efficiency2000300110040038001500140040010900Allenergy79003800750038001920079008900660065700Notes:Gridsincludestransmission,distribution,andstorage.Vehiclesincludesthemanufacturingofallroadvehicles(two-andthree-wheelers,passengervehicles,light-dutycommercialvehicles,buses,andtrucks)andbatteriesforelectricvehicles.Efficiencyreferstoenergyefficiencyinbuildings(coveringretrofits,heating,ventilationandairconditioningequipment,aswellasappliances);andinindustry.Valuesmaynotsumduetorounding.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE14OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.UnderstandingthescopeanddriversofglobalenergyemploymentTheenergysectorisacapital-intensiveindustry,gearedtomeet,asefficientlyaspossible,theworld’sexpandingenergyneeds.Giventhis,alargeportionofitsworkforceisfocusedonnewandexpandingprojects—buildingenergyefficientpowerplants,expandingandupgradinggrids,andtappingintoadditionaldepositsoffossilfuels.Accordingly,developinganestimateofglobalenergyemploymentneedsdependsheavilyonplannedenergyinvestmentsinthecomingyears,aswellascurrentandnewcapacityandproduction.OuremploymentestimatesaredevelopedusingtheIEA’scomprehensivedataonglobalinvestments,energyproductionanddemand.Ourassessmentsarealsocalibratedtodatafromnationallabourstatistics,corporatefilings,companyinterviews,internationalorganisations’databasesandacademicliterature.Numbersinthisreportareshownfor2019,thelatestyearofcomprehensivehistoricdata,toestablishapre-pandemicbaseline,accompaniedbyhigh-levelestimatesfor2021and2022.Inthisreport’saccounting,energyemploymentencompassesalljobsdirectlyrelatedtotheoperationofenergyfacilitiesandtheirconstruction,aswellasindirectjobsinmanufacturingofdirectinputsspecifictotheenergyindustry.Indirectjobsassociatedwithproductionofgeneralgoodssuchascementarenotcounted,norareinducedjobs.Jobsarenormalisedtofull-timeequivalent(FTE)employmentforconsistentaccounting.Numbersincludeinformalworkersinordertobetterreflecttheimpactsofenergypolicyonthelabourforce.TheAnnexshowsfurtherdetailonthemethodology.Theregionaldistributionofenergyjobsdependsonmultiplefactors.First,jobsareconcentratedwhereenergyfacilitiesarebeingbuiltmorethanwheretheycurrentlyexist.Giventhelabourintensityofbuildingnewfacilities,fast-growingmarketstendtodominatetheworkforce.Second,today’sglobalsupplychainsforsomeupstreamcomponentsareconcentratedincertaincountries.Notably,manufacturingofsolarPViscentredinChina.Theproductionoffossilfuelsspanstheglobeamongresource-richeconomies,butknow-howonareassuchasexploration,development,productionandservicesareconcentratedinregionslikeHouston,TexasintheUnitedStates,withcompaniesbasedthereprovidingexpertiseforprojectsworldwide.Third,workercompensationdifferswidelyacrosscountries,byafactorofupto20.Differencesinlabourcostsbeyondearnings,suchasbenefitsandpensions,addasecondarylayerofcountryvariations.Wherecompensationislow,likeinIndia,theconstructionofthesameprojectmayemploymany-foldtheworkersastheydoinadvancedeconomies.Finally,theprevalenceofpart-time,temporary,andinformalworkcreateswidedisparitiesinhowmanypeopleworkinasector,evenwhennormalisingtoFTEs,aswedointhisreport.Short-termprojects,suchastheinstallationofrooftopsolarPV,oftenrelyonpart-timeworkers.Inemergingmarketsanddevelopingeconomies(EMDEs),informalworkiscommon.Deploymentordecommissioningofaprojectcancreatejobsonlyforafewweeksbutwagesearnedcanrepresentanimportantshareofworkers’annualincome,eveniftheyworkinfarmingorotherjobsformostoftheyear.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE15OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Asiaishometoenergy’slargestandfastest-growingworkforce,drivenbyrapidlyexpandingenergyinfrastructureandasignificantshareofglobalcleanenergymanufacturingcapacityEnergyemploymentinfossilfuelandcleanenergysectorsbyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:Thismapiswithoutprejudicetothestatusoforsovereigntyoveranyterritory,tothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundariesandtothenameofanyterritory,cityorarea.PleaseseetheAnnexfordefinitionsofregionalgroupings.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE16OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.EmploymentinnewsectorsalreadyrivalslevelsinconventionalenergysectorsEmploymentinselectedenergysubsectors,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:ICEvehicles=internalcombustionenginevehicles.Powergridsincludestransmission,distributionandstorage.Low-carbonpowergenerationincludesnuclearandrenewables.Electricvehiclesincludesthemanufacturingofbatteries.024681012ICEvehiclesPowergridsOilsupplyPowergeneration:low-carbonIndustryefficiencyCoalsupplyBuildingretrofitsandheatpumpsGassupplyPowergeneration:fossilfuelsBioenergysupplyElectricvehiclesMillionemployeesWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE17OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Newenergyprojectsarethemajordriverofemployment,witharound65%ofenergyworkersemployedtobuildanddeploynewsolarplants,wellheads,heatpumps,cars,andmoreEnergyemploymentbyeconomicsector,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:Jobslabelled“buildingnewprojects”includethoseconstructionofnewpowerplants,buildingnewwellheadsinexistingornewoilandgasfields,manufacturingupstreamcomponentsforthesenewprojects(includingITsystemsandsoftware),implementingnewenergyefficiencyretrofitsinbuildingsorupgradestoindustrialprocesses,manufacturingnewvehicles,andothers.“Operatingexistingassets”includesjobsinoperationsandmaintenance,administrationatenergyfirms,energytraders,transportandshippingoffuels,andinwholesaletrade.Thesejobsarecommonlyatelectricityandgasutilities,powerplants,refineriesandotherfuelprocessingfacilities,attradingdecksandofficesandports,etc.PleaseseetheMethodologysectionandtheAnnexfordefinitionsofeconomicsectors.0510152025RawmaterialsManufacturingConstructionUtilitiesandprofessionalWholesaleandtransportMillionemployeesOperatingexistingassetsBuildingnewprojectsWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE18OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Energyemploymentreboundedin2021andissettorisefurtherin2022,buttightlabourmarketsremainacross-cuttingbarrierAlldriversofenergyemploymentaresettorisein2022,buttheturbulenceafootinglobalmarketsisreshapingwhichregionsareseeinginvestmentandhowmuchoftheincreasedeconomicactivityflowstoworkers.Energyinvestmentissettopickupby8%in2022,reachingUSD2.4trillion,butalmosthalfoftheincreaseincapitalspendingislinkedtohighercosts.Totalenergydemandalsoclimbedhigherthanpre-pandemiclevelsin2021,withincreasedproductiondrivingagreaterneedforworkers.Higherlevelsofcapitalspendingandenergydemandarenotnecessarilycorrelatingtoincreasesinlabour.Multiplesupplychainpressuresandhigherenergypricesaredrivingupthecostsofconstructioninputslikesteelandcement,meaningmoreprojectcostsaregoingtomaterials.Keycomponentsforenergyprojectsarealsoseeingcostinflationforservicesandoperations,notablyinoilandgas,transmissionanddistribution,windandsolar.Tightmarketsforspecialisedandhighlyskilledlabourhaveledtoincreasedworkerturnoverinresponsetomorecompetitionandescalatingwages,hinderinghiring.Weestimatethattotalenergyemploymentin2021wasuparound1.3millionfrom2019,andcouldincreasebyanother6percentagepointsby2022.Cleanenergyaccountsforvirtuallyallofthegrowthinenergyemployment.Majornewmanufacturingfacilitieshavecomeonlinesince2019,mostnotablyforsolarandEVs.Thesefacilitiesarelargerandincreasinglyautomated,improvinglabourefficiency,especiallyinEMDEs.Advancedeconomiesprovidedthelargestincreasesininvestmentin2021and,alongwithChina,aresettodrivenearly60%ofthegrowthin2022.Employmentconstructingnewprojectshasgrownstronglyintheseregions,whereasEMDEshavestruggledtofindtheinvestmentresourcesneeded.Inparticular,energyefficiencyprogrammeshavebeenallocatedanextraUSD165billioninthewakeofthepandemic.Newprogrammes,notablytheEuropeanUnion’sREPowerEU,putincreasingemphasisonenergyefficiencytargets,drivingupdemandforworkerstoretrofitbuildingsandtoadministertheseprojects.Employmentinfuelproductionhasrecoveredsomewhatamidstthescrambletosecureenergysupply,butremainsbelowpre-pandemiclevels.Employmentgrowthisconcentratedinnaturalgas,withthebuildoutofnewLNGfacilitiesandexpandingproduction.Thecoalminingworkforce–whichhadbeendecreasingrapidlywithincreasedmechanisation–sawthistrendletupwithcoalminingontheriseinChinaaftershortagesin2021,andcouldclimbinIndiawithmountingconcernsforenergysecurityin2022.However,severalriskscouldderailthismomentuminexpandingenergyemployment.Concernsaboutcostinflationareactingasabrakeonthewillingnessofcompaniestoincreasespending,despitethestrongpricesignals.Ongoinglabourshortagesandincreasedworkerturnoverarecreatingchallengesforhiringandrecruitment.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE19OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Inrecentyears,theshareofenergyemploymentrelatedtocleanenergytechnologieshasgrownsteadilyandhasprovenmoreresilientthroughtheCovid-19pandemicEnergyemploymentinfossilfuelandcleanenergysectors,2019-2022IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:Cleanenergyemploymentincludesworkersinbioenergysupply,nuclearandrenewablesforpowergeneration,gridsandstorage,electricvehiclesmanufacturing,andenergyefficiency.Estimatesaremodelledfor2020to2022basedonlatestIEAenergybalancesandinvestmentdata,undertheassumptionthatlabourintensityandthejobcreationpotentialofnewinvestmentremainconstantacrossyears.LabourmarketdisruptionsassociatedwiththeCovid-19pandemicmade2020employmentdifficulttoassess.Accordingly,2020estimatesareindicative.0%25%50%75%100%02040608020192020E2021E2022EMillionemployeesFossilfuelsCleanenergyShareofenergyemploymentrelatedtocleanenergyWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE20OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Theenergysectorhasalargeshareofhigh-skilledlabourandoffershigherthanaveragewagesTheenergysectordemandsmorehigh-skilledworkersthanotherindustries,with45%oftheworkforcerequiringsomedegreeoftertiaryeducation,fromuniversitydegreestovocationalcertifications.Lessthan10%ofenergyemploymentisinlow-skilledlabour,andisconcentratedinEMDEs,althoughmaybemissingmanyinformalworkersinthoseregions.Variationsarelargerbetweengeographiesthanacrosssectors,withEMDEsemployingmorelow-skilledorinformalworkersinmanualtasks,whereasinadvancedeconomies,manylabour-intensivepartsoftheenergybusinesshavebeenmechanisedorautomated.Globalemploymentbyskilllevel,20191Thisemploymentincludespassengercars,commercialvehicles,buses,andtrucks.Employmentinotherformsoftransportationsuchasrail,aviation,andshippingisnotincluded.Jobsintheretailandmaintenanceofvehiclesarenotincluded.IEA.Allrightsreserved.Thishighdegreeofskillingfetcheshigherwagesonaverage.Energysectorwagestypicallyseeapremiumovereconomy-wideaveragewages,thoughthispremiumrangessubstantiallyfrom10%to50%acrossadvancedeconomiesalone.Thesepremiumsremaintrueacrossallregions,butthedifferencesbetweenwagesinadvancedeconomiesandEMDEsremainpronounced,withtherangeofwagesbetweengeographiesbeinglargerthantherangeofjobswithintheenergysectorwithinthesameregion.Establishedindustriessuchasnuclear,oilandgastypicallyofferthehighestwages.Industrieswithahighshareofworkersinconstruction,suchasinstallingsolarpanelsorcarryingoutenergyefficiencyretrofits,typicallyhavelowerwagepremiums.Newerenergysectorsectors,suchassolar,alsohavelessunionrepresentationthanestablishedfossilfuelindustries,especiallyinEMDEs.Labourrepresentationhasledtohigherwagesinpartsoftheenergysector.Forexample,coaljobsinIndiareceivecompensationaroundthreetofourtimesthenationalaverage.InallIEAscenarios,energyemploymentissettogrow,creatingagrowingdemandforworkerswithenergy-sectorspecificskillsets.Meetingagrowingneedforskillsisaconcernraisedininterviewsweconductedwithcompanies,1wellasindialoguesheldinIEA’s5%50%45%Energyemployment16%60%24%LowMediumHighEconomy-wideemploymentWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE21OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.CleanEnergyLabourCouncilbetweengovernmentsandlabourleaders.Manyoftheskillsneededexistinadjacentindustries.Forinstance,projectmanagersinresidentialconstructionhavesomeofthesameskillsneededtomanagetheconstructionofsolarfarms.Companiesalsoindicateanintentiontotransitionexistingemployeesfromcarbon-intensiveactivitiestootherpartsoftheirportfolio,insteadofexclusivelypursuingnewhiresordismissinganyworkers.Thisisparticularlytrueintheelectricityandothercleanenergysectors,whereallfirmsinterviewedsaweitherrisingemploymentorwerereallocatingtheirworkforceinternallyratherthandismissinganyworkers.Tosupportthis,companieshavecreatedinternalupskillingandreskillingprogrammesinpartnershipwithuniversities.Manyfirmsinterviewedsaidtheyfacedaverycompetitiveenvironmentforhiringcandidateswiththerequisiteskillsets.Thiswasparticularlytrueforpositionsinfieldsforscience,technology,engineering,andmathematics(STEM),followedbyprojectmanagersandothertechnicalroles.Companiesalsoexpressedconcernaboutthehighturnoverofworkerswiththemostin-demandcompetences,whichhasincreasedthroughouttheCovid-19pandemic.Stronglinksbetweenemployersanduniversitiesorvocationaltrainingprogrammescanfilltalentpipelines,ascanresearchgrantsforPhDs,internshipsandapprenticeships.Newgraduaterotationprogrammeswerecitedaswaystocultivate,attractandretainkeytalent.Companieshighlightedagrowingneedtorevampteachingcurriculaofdegreeswiththehighestdemand,namelyengineering,followedbyeconomicsandinformationtechnology.Surveyedcompaniesalsowelcomeopportunitiestoworkwithuniversitiestoshapenewcurricula.Averageannualearningsperemployeebyenergysector,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.TheIEAintendstodeepenouranalysisongrowingskillingneedsinenergy,aswellasthetransferabilityofskillsfromenergysectorsindeclineandfromadjacentindustries.20000400006000080000100000CoalsupplyOilandgassupplySolarPVWindFullrangeAdvancedeconomiesEmergingmarketanddevelopingeconomiesEarnings(USDperyear)RegionalaveragesWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE22OverviewIEA.Allrightsreserved.Femalerepresentationinenergyisfarbeloweconomy-wideaveragesWomenarestronglyunder-representedintheenergysector.Despitemakingup39%ofglobalemployment,womenaccountforonly16%oftraditionalenergysectorscapturedindedicatedlabourclassifications.Asineconomy-wideemployment,womenmakeupaverysmallshareofseniormanagementinenergy,justunder14%onaverage.However,thereissubstantialvariationamongenergysectors,withthepercentagesharesinnuclearandcoalthelowestat8%and9%,respectively,whereaselectricutilitiesareamongthehighestwithnearly20%.Thiscompareswith16%ofwomeninseniormanagementeconomy-wide.Whileratiosarebetterinregionswithpolicyframeworksandstrongprivatesectoreffortstoimprovegenderbalance,allgeographiesshowtheenergysectorlagsbehindtheeconomy-wideaveragewhenitcomeswomen’sparticipationinseniormanagementrolesinthesector.Therearenomajordifferencesintheshareoffemaleemploymentbetweenfossilfuelsandcleanenergyglobally.However,cleanenergystart-upsshowsignsofchange,withagreatershareofwomenfoundersandinventorsincleanenergy,evenifstillfarshortofparity.Thismarksanopportunityforthesegrowingsegmentstohelpincreasefemalerepresentation.However,furtherstepsmustbetakeninallenergysectorsifwomen’srolesinenergycompaniesistoimprove.IntheIEA’sNZEScenario,asmanyas14millionnewjobsincleanenergyarecreatedby2030.Introducingnewpublicsectorpolicyframeworkssupportingdiversehiringpractices,aswellasprivatesectorinitiatives,couldmaketheenergyemploymentgrowththisdecadeanopportunitytoachieveabettergenderbalance,withspecialfocusneededparticularlyinmanagement.Numerousstudiesshowthatimproveddiversityenhancesfirmperformance,long-termcompetitivenessandgreaterinnovation,allofwhichcontributetotheenergysectoradvancesneededtomeetglobalchangegoals.Employmentbygender,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:EmploymentsharesarefromtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)covering48countriesfortheenergysector.SeniormanagementsharesareIEAglobalcalculationsbasedontheRefinitivPermIDdatabase.TheIEA’sGenderDiversityInitiativehasbeendevelopingfurtherindicatorsonthetopicofgenderandenergy,includingenergyemployment,recentlypublishedinadedicateddataexplorer.0%20%40%60%80%100%Economy-wideEnergysectorShareofemploymentMenWomenWomeninseniorleadershipWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE23FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.FuelsupplyWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE24FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Oilsupplyemploysalmost8million,butcompaniesfacechallengeshiringandretainingstaffAround95millionbarrelsperday(mb/d)ofcrudeoilwereproducedin2019,withtheMiddleEastandNorthAmericamakingupoverhalfofglobalproduction.Oilsupplyhasincreasedbyanannualaverageofaround1.6%from2010to2019,thoughglobalinvestmentdeclinedoverthesameperiod,beforereboundingtoUSD440billionin2021.Employmentinoilsupplybyregion,2019.IEA.Allrightsreserved.Oilsupplyhasthehighestemploymentamongfossilfuels,atalmost8millionworkersin2019,ofwhich5millionworkinextractionandproduction,andaround1.4millioneachintransportandrefineries.Nearly20%ofthejobsareintheMiddleEast,followedbyalmost15%eachinNorthAmericaandAfrica.Refiningemploys1.4million,concentratedintheAsiaPacificregion.ThehistoricplungeinoilpricesatthestartoftheCovid-19pandemicin2020ledtoasharpdeclineinoilindustryemploymentaslayoffsforcedworkersfleetootherindustries.Astrongreboundinoildemandhasnotledtoacommensurateincreaseininvestmentorstaffinglevels,withemploymentfallingto7.1millionin2021andisonlyrecoveringslightlyin2022.Oilandgascompaniesseesignificantchallengesinhiringnewstaff,andfaceanageingworkforce.Agrowingnumberofoilandgasworkersindicateinterestinshiftingtheircareerstocleanenergy.Companieshavebeenincreasingwagestoattracttalent.Somehavealsopublishedjusttransitionstrategiestoupskillandretainexistingstaffinanefforttoaddressemployees’worriesaboutdecliningcareerdevelopmentopportunities.Manyskillsofoilandgasworkersareinstrongdemandbyotherenergysectors.Forexample,petroleumandgasengineeringskillsarehighlyapplicabletogeothermal,includingseismicinterpretation,drillingandcompletions,reservoirmappingorflowassurance.Chemicalengineersinrefineriescanapplytheirknowledgeofcommonrawmaterialsandequipmenttowardstheproductionofgreenfuelsandhydrogen.Skilledworkerscantransfertodeepwateroffshorewind,carboncaptureandstorage,ormidstreamhydrogenpipelineinfrastructure,amongmanyotherjobdisciplines.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeEurasiaMiddleEastAfricaChinaOtherAsiaPacificWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE25FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Drillingnewwellsanddevelopinginfrastructureoccupiesmostoilsupplyworkers,thoughoperatingexistingplatformsandrefineriesprovideasizeableshareofemploymentaswellEmploymentinoilsupplybyeconomicsectorandassetlifestage,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:Thesefiguresincludeemploymentinoilproduction,transportation,andrefining.Ourestimatesdonotcontainemployeeswhoworkatretailfuellingstations,asmanyofthesejobsareconnectedtoserviceandretail,andarenotlinkedexclusivelytooilwithdifferentfuellingsources(biofuels,CNG,electriccharging,etc.).00.51.01.52.02.53.0RawmaterialsManufacturingConstructionProfessionalandutilitiesWholesaleandtransportMillionemployees70%30%BuildingnewprojectsOperatingexistingassetsWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE26FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Coalsupplyemploys6.3millionworkers,buttheindustryisfocusedonthecomingtransitionGlobalcoalproductiontotalled5.7billiontonnesin2021,followingadecadeatsimilarlevels.ProductionhasshiftedtowardsAsiaPacificcountriessince2010,where77%ofglobalcoalisnowmined,whileoutputinEuropeandNorthAmericacontinuestofall.Investmentincoalsupplyhasdeclinedby4%peryearfrom2010,toUSD95billionin2021,withfurthercontractionsprojectedineveryIEAscenario.Employmentincoalsupplybyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.In2019,around6.3millionemployeesworkedincoalsupply—3.4millioninChina,1.4millioninIndia,andanother790000inotherAsiaPacificcountries.Thesejobsarepredominatelyinmining,andalsocoverthetransport,washing,andprocessingofcoal,aswellasthemanufacturingofspecialisedminingandconveyingequipment.Coalminingislabour-intensive,despitesignificantimprovementsinproductivitythankstoautomation,includinganear-halvingofworkerspertonneproducedinChinaoverthelastdecade.Assuch,miningjobsmakeup60%ofemploymentincoalsupply,followedby20%ofjobsinwholesaleandtransport.Withglobalcoaldemandflatoverthelastdecade,mostworkersareengagedinexistingoperations.Coalsupplyjobsoftenprovidemorebenefitsandworkerprotectionthancompetingindustries.IntheUnitedStates,coalworkersseeawagepremiumoveraveragejobsofabout50%.InIndia,coalistheonlysectorwithitsownpensionschemecoveringbothpermanentandcontractworkers.Thesebenefitshavebeenestablishedtocompensateforthehealthandsafetyhazardsofmining.Coalsupplyjobstendtobeconcentratedinremoteareas,withlocalcommunitieshighlydependentoncoalforincomeandemployment.RegionssuchasMpumalangainSouthAfrica,CesarinColombia,andEastandSouthKalimantaninIndonesiahaveupto10%oftheiremploymentand35%oftheirGDPdirectlypredicatedoncoal.Giventheemissionsintensityofcoal,bothdirectandindirectjobsincoal-dependentcommunitiesareamongthemostatriskinenergytransitions.Low-skilledandinformalcoalsupplyworkers,particularlyinEMDEs,willrequireretrainingaswellasproductiveinclusionprogrammes.Severalcountrieswherehistorictransitionsfromcoalhavetakenplaceprovidedpolicyandfinancialsupportforminerstoassumenewemployment.IntheUnitedStates,formerminershavebeenupskilledtoworkonwindturbinesandrooftopsolarinstallation,andinIT.Coalminerscanalsotransfertojobsinthegrowingcriticalmineralsindustryifthegeographiesofresourcesarecompatible.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOtherAsiaPacificRestofworldWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE27FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Mostcoalsupplyemployeesareminers,whosejobsarehighlygeographicallyconcentrated,makingtheseworkersparticularlyvulnerableintheenergytransitionEmploymentincoalsupplybyeconomicsectorandassetlifestage,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Note:Thisfigureincludescoalproductionandtransportation,butexcludescoaltransformationforblastfurnacesandcokeovens.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.0RawmaterialsManufacturingConstructionProfessionalandutilitiesWholesaleandtransportMillionemployees35%65%BuildingnewprojectsOperatingexistingassetsWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE28FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Thequalityofenergyjobsisanimportantfactor,especiallywhentransitioningworkersWhenassessingthejusttransition,thequalityofcleanenergyjobsisasimportantastheirquantity.Keycriteriadeterminingjobqualityincludewages,medicalinsurance,retirementandotherbenefits,jobsecurity,termsofemployment,occupationalsafetystandards,unionmembership,andoverallscopeoflabourrights.Globally,energyjobspaymorethanthemediannationalwage,howevertherearedisparitiesbetweensegments.Workersinless-establishedcleanenergyindustriestypicallyearnlessthanjobsinthefossilfuelornuclearindustries.Forinstance,intheUnitedStates,themedianhourlywagepremiumabovethenationalmedianforworkersinwindandsolaris36%and28%,respectively,comparedto39%inoil,58%innaturalgas,andover100%innuclear.Thisisinpartduetothehigherskillrequirementsformanyofthesejobs,aswellasstrongandlonger-standingunionrepresentation,whereascleanenergyjobstendtooffermoreopportunitiestoworkerswithlowerlevelsofpost-secondaryeducationandformalqualifications.Cleanenergyjobsarerelativelysaferthanothersectors,especiallycomparedtominingjobs,andassuchthereislesscompensationforoccupationalhazards.Cleanenergyemployment,especiallysolar,alsohasalargershareofpart-timeorcontractwork,andoftenrequireworkerstotraveltoworksitesfarfromtheirhomes.Theyhaveahigherunionmembershipthanthenationalprivatesectorworkforceaverage,buttheyremainfarlessunionisedthanfossilfueljobsinmostgeographieswithdata.ThesedynamicsarenotalwaysconsistentinEMDEs.Energyjobsremainonaveragebetterpaid,however,manyaretemporaryandinformal.Thisincludesawide-rangeofwork,fromcoalandcriticalmineralsmining,construction,harvestingcropsforbiofuelsormakingcharcoal,andtemporaryworkatenergyfacilities,likecleaningcoalpowerplantsduringannualmaintenance.Thisworkmayonlyrepresentasmallportionoftheirtotallabourhoursinayear,butcanbeasizeableportionoftheirformalincome.Manycountrieshavecleanenergypovertyalleviationprogrammesinruralareas,suchasinChina.Programmesforcleancookingandelectricityaccesssolutionsoftenprovidetrainingforlocalworkers,andoffermoresecureemploymentandasteppingstoneintotheformaleconomy.InEMDEs,cleanenergysectorsalsohavelowerratesofunionrepresentation.InIndia,forexample,thecleanenergysectorispredominantlyprivateandlackslabourunions,whichstandsinstarkcontrasttotheheavilyunionisedcoalsectorwherewagesandbenefitsarenegotiatedwithincommitteesformallyestablishedthroughthegovernment.Sectorsthatrelyheavilyoncontractorpart-timestaffoftendonotoffertheseworkersthesamelabourprotectionsaspermanentemployees.Thisiscommoninconstructionforefficiencyretrofits,rooftopsolarinstallations,bioenergyharvesting,andcoalmining,especiallyinEMDEs.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE29FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Naturalgassupplyemploys3.9millionworkers,withgrowthinLNGdrivinghiringGlobalnaturalgasproductionhasgrownsteadilysince2010,andin2019exceeded4100billioncubicmetres(bcm).Followingadipin2020,productionreboundedin2021,whileinvestmentalmostrecovered.NorthAmerica,Eurasia,andtheMiddleEastremaintheregionswiththelargestsharesofproduction.Employmentingassupplybyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Gassupplyemploymentwas3.9millionin2019,withlargesharesintheAsiaPacific(31%),NorthAmerica(17%),Eurasia(15%)andtheMiddleEast(15%).NationaloilandgascompaniesincountriessuchasNigeria,Iraq,andSaudiArabiacontributetoadisproportionatelyhighshareofnaturalgasemployment,becauserelativelyhighratesofpublicsectoremploymentareassociatedwithlowerlevelsoflabourproductivity.However,manyupstreamoperationsarestilloutsourcedtocompaniesinNorthAmericaandEurope.Withthereboundofproductionfollowingthepandemic,globalnaturalgasemploymentisestimatedat4.5millionin2021,up600000over2019levels.Theindustryisbracingfortheprospectsofradicallyshiftingglobaltradedynamicsinthecomingyears,takingstockoftheirabilitytorampupproductionwithflexibility.Thisislikelytodriveuptheprevalenceofcontract-basedemploymentviaconsultanciesandservicescompanies.Employmentinproductionandextraction(denotedasrawmaterials),followedbyutilities,dominatethenaturalgasvaluechain,withoveramillionineach.Around767000peopleworkinliquefiednaturalgas(LNG)globally,whichisexpectedtogrow,drivenbynewfacilities.FocusonseabornetradeofLNGhasincreasedsincetheRussiaFederation(hereafter“Russia”)’sinvasionofUkraine,with8bcmofnewprojectsfast-trackedin2022.InCanada,wherearound0.7%ofworkersareemployedinoilandgas–andover5%ofworkersintheprovinceofAlberta–governmentcareerservicesemphasisejobsinLNGtoattractoiandgasworkerstowardsagrowingindustryshortonneededskillsinoperationalmanagement.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeEurasiaMiddleEastAfricaChinaOtherAsiaPacificWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE30FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Alargeshareofjobsinnaturalgassupplyareinextractingandproducinggas,althoughLNGisdrivinggrowthinnewassetconstructionEmploymentingassupplybyeconomicsectorandassetlifestage,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Note:Thisfigureincludesemploymentinnaturalgasproduction,transportation,andliquefaction(LNG).00.20.40.60.81.01.21.4RawmaterialsManufacturingConstructionProfessionalandutilitiesWholesaleandtransportMillionemployees45%55%BuildingnewprojectsOperatingexistingassetsWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE31FuelsupplyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Bioenergysupplyemploysroughly3.3million,withalargeshareworkinginagriculturalrolesGlobalbiofuelenergysupplywas2millionbarrelsofoilequivalentperday(mboe/d)in2019,andcombinedbiogasandbiomethanesupplywere2exajoules(EJ),withastablepipelineofnewproductionfacilitiescomingonlineinthenextfewyears.Modernsolidbiomasssupply,whichincludescharcoal,pellets,cropresiduesandwaste,reached31EJin2019.Around3.3millionpeoplegloballyworkedinbioenergysupplyin2019.Theproductionofcommercialbiofuelsisamajordriverforemploymentinagriculture,especiallyincountrieslikeBrazil,Indonesia,andtheUnitedStates.BiogasandbioenergyforpowerandheatplayalargerroleinEurope.ThecollectionoffirewoodandotheragriculturalresiduesplaysanimportantroleinEMDEsforthetraditionaluseofbioenergyincooking,whichwearenotabletofullycaptureinouremploymentestimates.Almostone-thirdofworkersarededicatedtoproducingandcollectingagriculturalfeedstockandanotherone-thirdareinthedevelopmentandoperationsofprocessingfacilities.Employmentinfeedstockprocessingvariesbyregionsandoftenfeaturesseasonallabour.InEMDEstheseactivitiesareconsiderablymorelabour-intensivethaninadvancedeconomies,wherethesetasksaremoremechanised.Three-quartersofbioenergyjobsareconnectedtooperatingexistingsupplychains,withtheconstructionofnewfacilitiesdrivinglessthanaquarterofnewjobs.TheCovid-19pandemicimpactedfeedstockharvestandbiofuelsshippingglobally,withMalaysialosinguptoaquarterofitspalmoilyieldduetoalabourforceshortfallworsenedbytravelrestrictionsformigrantworkers.TheongoingglobalpricespikesbroughtonbyRussia’sinvasionofUkrainearereinforcingpoliticalsupportforbioenergyproduction,asisthecaseinBrazilandIndonesia,althoughglobalfoodsecurityconcernsarecreatingcountervailingpressuresaswell.Employmentinbioenergysupplybyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Themajorityofbioenergyemploymentisinruralareas,andreliesonworkersskilledwithoperatingagriculturalmachinery,aswellasmanuallabourfortheprocessingoffeedstocks.Theproductionofliquidbiofuelsisoftencoincidentwithexistingrefineryoperations,anddrawsheavilyuponexistingpetrochemicalindustryexpertiseandemploymentbase.Thesameappliestobiomethaneproduction,ofwhichalargeshareisintegratedwithexistinggasbusinesses.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOtherAsiaPacificRestofworldWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE32PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.PowersectorWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE33PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Powergenerationemploys11.3millionworldwide,ofwhich6.8millionareinrenewablesGlobalpowercapacityneared7500GWin2019,spanning30000powerplantsandamultitudeofdistributedgenerationsources.Capacityhasgrownatanaverageof4%peryearoverthepastdecade,withnewadditionsshiftingquicklytowardrenewables.Thepowersectorhasthepotentialtoreshapeglobalenergydemandandsupplythroughtheelectrificationofendusescombinedwiththeongoingtransitiontowardslow-emissionssourcesofelectricity.Therealisationofthistransformationwilldependonhavingtherequisiteworkforcetodeploynewcapacityandretrofitexistingcapacity,andontrainingworkersadequatelywhenshiftingbetweendifferentpowersectors.Powergenerationemploymenttotalled11.2millionin2019,comprisedof3millioninsolarPV,2millionincoalpower,and1.9millioninhydro.Windpower,includingonshoreandoffshore,employed1.2millionandnuclearpower1million.Employmentinotherrenewablestotalledsome710000employees.Over60%ofworkersareemployedinthedeploymentofcapacityadditions,whiletheotheralmost40%workintheoperationsandmaintenanceofexistingfacilities.Abouttwo-fifthsofpowersectoremploymentisfortheoperationsandmaintenance(O&M)ofexistingcapacity,acrosstheutilities,professional,wholesaleandtransporteconomicsectors.CoalandhydropowerhavethehighestnumbersofO&Memployees,whilenuclearisamongthemostlabour-intensiveintermsofstaffworkinginO&MperGWinstalled.Overall,powergenerationemploymentincludes2.6millionworkersinmanufacturingtransformers,turbines,compressors,andsolarpanels;4.0millionconstructionworkersbuildingpowerplants,dams,mountingsystems;and3.8millioninutilitiesandinprofessionalrolessuchasprojectfinanceandprocurement.Employmentinpowergenerationbytechnology,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.5OtherrenewablesNuclearWindOilandgasHydroCoalSolarPVMillionemployeesWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE34PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.SolarPVhas3millionemployees,withmanufacturingjobshighlyconcentratedinChinaSolarPVcapacityworldwidestoodat740GWin2019,comprising425GWofutility-scalesolarPVinstallationsand315GWofbuildingpanels.GlobalinvestmentinsolarPVreachedUSD215billionin2021,havingseenover5%annualaveragegrowthoverthepreviousdecade.ThisburgeoningsectorisexpectedtoseecontinuedgrowthinannualcapacityinstallationsgloballyineveryIEAscenario.Asof2019,therewereover3millionemployedinsolarPVvaluechains,andincreasedtoanestimated3.4millionin2021.AlmosthalfwereemployedinChina.NorthAmericahadalmost280000solarPVworkers,andEuropehadmorethan260000.Africahadaround50000workinginsolarPV,andthisnumberhashighpotentialforgrowthasbothon-andoff-gridsolarsolutionsproliferatetoprovideelectricityaccess.Correspondingly,alargemajorityofemployeesinsolarPVareengagedinthemanufacturingandinstallationofnewcapacity.Thenewinvestmentsareexpectedtocreatejobssplitbetweenmanufacturingandconstruction.Manufacturingjobsarestronglyconcentratedinjustafewcountries,withChinaintheleadwith260000workersintheproductionofpolysilicon,wafers,cells,andmodulesalone.Researchandinnovationarepoweringthelatest-generationPVpanelfactoriesacrossothercountries.Theemploymentimpactsofinstallingbuilding-scaleversusutility-scalesolarPVdiffer.Theinstallationofbuilding-scalesolarPVisaboutfourtimesmorelabour-intensivethanutility-scalesolarPV.Residentialsolarpanelsareofteninstalledbyconstructionworkersandelectricianswhoalsoworkonotherprojects,suchthatmanysolarPVjobsarenotfull-time,anditcanbedifficulttocountemployeesaccurately.Forexample,theUnitedStatesEnergyandEmploymentReport(USEER)reported28%ofsolarPVworkersspentlessthanhalfoftheirtimeonsolarPV-relatedwork.Theshortageofaskilledlabourforceisprevalentinthisindustryaswell,forinstancehinderingthedevelopmentoflarge-scalesolarinAustralia.EmploymentinsolarPVbyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOtherAsiaPacificRestofworldWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE35PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.SolarPVemployeesareprimarilyengagedinbuildingandinstallingnewcapacity,inlinewiththesector’ssteadygrowthEmploymentinsolarPVbyeconomicsectorandassetlifestage,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.0250500750100012501500ManufacturingConstructionProfessionalsandutilitiesWholesaleandtransportThousandemployeesExistingcapacityNewinvestmentWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE36PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Coalpoweremploys2millionglobally,largelyconcentratedinemergingmarketanddevelopingeconomiesinAsia,includingahighshareofinformalworkersCoalcapacityworldwidestandsat2100GWin2021,ofwhichthree-quartersislocatedintheAsiaPacificregion.CoalmeetsaroundhalfoftheelectricitydemandinEMDEs.CapacityadditionsthatarecurrentlyplannedcorrespondtoprojectedinvestmentaveragingUSD40billionperyearto2025.Globalcoalpoweremploymenttotalled2millionin2019andwaslargelyconcentratedinAsianEMDEs.Anestimated740000wereemployedinChinaandanother600000inIndia,wherearoundoneinfourareinformalworkers,notincludedincompanyrecordsbutcontributingasplantoperatorsandinelementaryoccupations.Despitethedecreaseincoal-firedpowergenerationinEurope,150000werestillemployedasof2019.Withanunprecedentednumberofcountriescommittingtophaseoutunabatedcoal-firedpoweratCOP26,750plantsaroundtheworld(550GW)nowhaveeffectiveclose-bydates.China,Japan,andKoreahaveallpledgedtoendpublicsupportfornewunabatedcoalplantsoverseas.Assuch,weestimatethatalmost20%ofjobsincoalpowerO&Mareatriskgloballyinthecleanenergytransition.However,asignificantshareofintegratedutilitiesorpowergenerationcompaniesarelookingtoredeploytheircurrentstaffworkingatcoal-firedpowerplantselsewhereintheirbusinesses,withmanypossessingtransferableskillsforoperatingotherpowerplantfacilities,orabletobeupskilledasneeded.Manufacturersofcoalpowerequipmentcanalsofindnewopportunitiesinotherpartsofthepowergenerationvaluechain,suchasturbinemanufacturingandengineering,includingredesigningpowerplantequipmentforco-firingorrunningwithcarboncapture,utilisationandstorage(CCUS),whicharebeingpursuedatpilotscaleincertainregions.Employmentincoalpowergenerationbyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.However,foresightisrequiredtopreventandminimisethenegativeimpactsofpotentialtransition-relatedlayoffs.Manygovernmentsarepreparingstrategiestoprotectaffectedcoalpowerworkers.Forexample,Japanisdevelopingammoniaco-firingtechnology,whichwillhelpplantstoavoidrapidclosure.Similarly,somecoalpowerplantsinRomaniawillbereplacedwithgasunits,althoughthesetendtobelesslabour-intensivetooperateandmaintain.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOtherAsiaPacificRestofworldWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE37PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Coalpoweremploymentisconcentratedinoperations,whichposestransitionrisksascoal-firedplantscloseEmploymentincoalpowergenerationbyeconomicsectorandassetlifestage,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.025050075010001250ManufacturingConstructionProfessionalsandutilitiesWholesaleandtransportThousandemployeesExistingcapacityNewinvestmentWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE38PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Windpoweremploys1.2million,withsupplychainsconcentratedinEuropeandChinaWindcapacityworldwidestoodataround625GWasof2019,comprising600GWonshoreand30GWoffshore.Thesector’sgrowthhasprovenrelativelyresilienttorecentdisruptions.Capacityadditionsgrewin2020despitetheCovid-19crisis,andreachedaround95GWin2021,60%morethanin2019.GlobalinvestmentinwindtotalledUSD145billionin2021.Asof2019,therewere1.2millionemployedinwindpower—over500000employedinChina,300000inEurope,and144000inNorthAmerica.By2021,anestimated1.3millionwereemployedinwindpower.Onshorewindaccountsforaboutfour-fifths,correspondingtoitshighershareofexistingcapacityaswellasgreaterplannedcapacityadditions.AswithsolarPV,themostlabour-intensivepartofthedeploymentofwindpoweristhebuild-outofnewassets.Over80%ofthoseemployedinwindpowerworkinthemanufacturingandinstallationofnewturbines.Windmanufacturingcapacityworldwideofnacelles,blades,towers,generators,gearboxesandbearingsisalreadycloselyalignedwithexpectedcapacityadditionsinthecomingyears,suchthatwindislesslikelytoseealargeuptickinmanufacturingcapacityandcorrespondingemploymentinthecomingyearsassolarPV.ChinaandDenmarkareamongthefewcountrieswhichhavethecapacityformanufacturingalloftheabovecomponents,withjobssustainedbyexportstoothercountries.Employmentinwindbyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Employmentinoffshorewindtotalsaround210000globally,andismainlyconcentratedinEuropeandinChina.Trainingneedsareaparticularconcernfortheoffshorewindindustry,especiallyforworkerstolearnsafetyprotocolsrelevanttoworkingatheightsandsurvivalatsea.Theconstructionofdedicatedportandshipinfrastructureforoffshorewinddevelopmentisalsoadriverofnewemployment,whichhasreceivedgovernmentsupportunderseveralrecoveryplans.Oilandgasworkerscantransfertheirskillstooffshorewindifproperlyretrained.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOtherAsiaPacificRestofworldWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE39PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Windmanufacturingemploymentcapacityislargelyinlinewithexpectednewinstallationsinthecomingyears,butgrowthinoffshorewindwilldemandmorediverseskillsetsEmploymentinwindbyeconomicsectorandassetlifestage,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.0100200300400500ManufacturingConstructionProfessionalsandutilitiesWholesaleandtransportThousandemployeesExistingcapacityNewinvestmentWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE40PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Oilandgaspoweremploymenttotals1.4million,withthemostworkersintheMiddleEast,NorthAmerica,andAsiaPacificGlobally,thetotalinstalledcapacityofnaturalgaspowerplantswas1790GWin2019,whereasoilpowergenerationcapacity,comprisingbothpowerplantsanddieselgensets,stoodat430GW.Capacityhasgrownby75GWanddeclinedby20GW,respectively,sincethen.Together,theyaccountforalmost30%ofglobalpowercapacity.NorthAmericaandtheMiddleEasthaveover40%ofthiscapacity,whilegrowthisexpectedintheAsiaPacific,MiddleEast,andAfrica.Investmentforoilandgaspowerin2021wasaroundUSD65billion,asmallshare(7%)oftotalpowergenerationinvestment,reflectiveoflowupfrontcosts.Employmentforgas-firedpowergenerationwasaround1.2millionworldwidein2019.Fewerpeopleareneededonsitefornaturalgasgenerators,suchthatemploymentrelatedtonewinvestmentversusoperatingexistingcapacityaccountsfor44%and56%,respectively.Upstreammanufacturingofgeneratorsandspecialisedpumpsandcompressorsisconcentratedinadvancedeconomies.Oil-fuelledpowergenerationhasasmallerlabourforceof200000employees,withalmostone-thirdlocatedintheMiddleEast.However,inplaceswherelowreliabilityplaguesthegrid,suchasinAfrica,thereareafairnumberofpeopleinformallyemployedintheresale,maintenance,andoperationofdieselgensets.Employmentinoilandgaspowergenerationbytechnologyandregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Duringtheenergytransition,thejobsofoilandgaspowerplantworkersmaybeatrisk,thoughwithamoregradualshiftthancoalplantworkers.Manufacturersofturbinesaswellasconstructionworkerscanlikelytransfertheirskillstothedeploymentofotherpowertechnologies,andtowardsupdatingexistingturbinedesignstouseahighermixofhydrogenandothercleanfuelsinthefuture.020040060080010001200OilpowergenerationGaspowergenerationThousandemployeesEurasiaMiddleEastAsiaPacificAfricaEuropeCandSAmericaNorthAmericaWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE41PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Powertransmission,distribution,andstorageemploy8.5millionwithstrongdemandforexpansionprojectsexpectedtodrivegrowthinthelabourforceGridoperatorscurrentlymanagearound80millionkmofelectricitynetworksglobally.In2021,USD310billionofinvestmentwentintoexpandingandupgradingexistingnetworks.Investmentinelectricitynetworksdeclinedfrom2016to2020,butrecoveryplansafterCovid-19aresharplydrivingupdemandfornewgridexpansionprojects,especiallyinChina,Europe,andtheUnitedStates.Around8.5millionareemployedinthepowertransmissionanddistribution(T&D)sector,excludingstorage.Overhalfofthesejobsareintheutilitiessector,whichisthedominanteconomicactivityinallregionsexceptChina,wherecontinuedexpansionofnewT&Dnetworksresultedinslightlymoreworkersinconstruction.Globally,around40%ofT&Djobsareintheconstructionofnewgrids.OveraquarterofallT&DworkersareemployedinChina.However,theoperationofexistinggridsmeansthattotalemploymentisspreadrelativelyevenlyacrossregions,somewhatproportionatetotheirsize.InAfrica,powersectoremploymentisalsodrivenbyobjectivestoachieveuniversalaccesstoelectricity,makingtheproductionanddistributionofmini-oroff-gridsolutionsmajordriversofemployment.Thebulkofgrid-relatedemploymentisfocusedontheoperationofdistributionsystems,whichinvolvesmaintainingpowerlinesandcustomersupportformeterreadingandbilling.TheuptickinsmartmeteringandothergriddigitalisationisreducingthelabourintensityofoperatingandmaintaininggridswhileincreasingtheneedforITskills.Regionswithlowlevelsofsmartgriddeploymentseethree-timeshigherlabourintensitythanregionswithhigherlevels.Employmentinpowergridsbytechnologyandregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:CandSAmerica=CentralandSouthAmerica.Distributioninthisfigureincludesemploymentforbatterystorage.Utility-scalebatterystorageinstallationsreachedalmost10GWworldwidein2020,andareexpectedtoexpandinthecomingyears.Electricitystorageemployedaround65000peoplein2019,withover40%locatedinChina.JobsinmanufacturingbatterycellsandcomponentsaregeographicallyconcentratedinChina,asistheprocessingofupstreammaterials,althoughcriticalmineralsreserves,particularlyoflithium,aremoregeographicallydiverse.01234567TransmissionDistributionMillionemployeesRestofworldOtherAsiaPacificIndiaChinaAfricaEuropeCandSAmericaNorthAmericaWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE42PowersectorIEA.Allrightsreserved.Providinguniversalaccesstoelectricityandcleancookingisamajordriverofenergyemploymentindevelopingregions,especiallyinAfricaApproximately770millionpeopleintheworldstilllackaccesstoelectricityand2.5billiondonothaveaccesstocleancookingasof2021.Reachinguniversalaccessby2030isagoalcanonisedintheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,andworkingtowardthiscreatessizeableemploymentopportunitiesinEMDEs.Access-relatedjobscanoftenprovideanimportantsteppingstoneintoformalisedemploymentforthosewithoutformaljobtraining.ThreeineveryfourpeoplewithoutaccesstoelectricityliveinAfrica.Thepursuitofuniversalaccessby2030inthisregionwouldcreatearound1.8millionfull-timeequivalentjobsbetween2021and2030,aspresentedintheIEA’sSustainableAfricaScenario.Thesejobsincludeelectriciansandconstructionworkersextendinggridinfrastructure(includingputtinguppoleswhichcanbedonebyuntrainedworkers),wiringhousesforgridconnections,andinstallingnewgenerationfacilities.However,over60%ofthosejobsarerelatedtothedistribution,sale,assembly,andinstallationofdistributedaccesssolutions,especiallysolarhomesystemswhichhavegrownatsimilarpacesassolarPVoverthe2015-2019periodandareexpectedtoplayamajorroleinprovidingdistributedaccessinAfrica.Improvingcleancookingsolutionscansignificantlyreducehealthandenvironmentaldamages,whilecreatingasignificantnumberofjobs,andthuspromotingcommunitydevelopment.Cleancookingjobsincludemanufacturingandsaleofmoderncookstoves,infueldistributionandretailing,andalsoinupstreamfueldeliverysupplychains,whetherthatbeforterminalsandfillingstationsforliquifiedpetroleumgases(LPG)orcharcoalproduction.Biogasdigestermanufacturing,installation,andmaintenancearealsoagrowingareaofinterestinthecleancookingspace.Therolescreatedarediverse,requiringbothskilledandunskilledlabour.However,atalllevelstechnicalandmanagerialskillsarerequired.Safetytrainingisparticularlypertinentgiventherisksassociatedwithmanyofthesefields,suchasthetransportandfillingofLPGcanisters,andelectricalwiring.Trainingfortheserolescanhelpimproveaccesstogainfulemploymentforpeopleinruralareas,particularlywomenandyouth.ManyofAfrica’sanddevelopingAsia’smostprominentaccess-orientedcompaniesarerunbyfemaleentrepreneurs,whooftenbetterunderstandthechallengesfacedwhenworkingwithhouseholdsfirstgainingaccesstoelectricityandcleancookingsolutions.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE43EnergyenduseandefficiencyIEA.Allrightsreserved.EnergyenduseandefficiencyWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE44EnergyenduseandefficiencyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Around2.5%ofmanufacturingworkersworldwideareemployedtoproduceroadvehicles,withEVspoweringgrowthinemploymentGlobalroadvehiclesalestotalledaround175millionin2021.Ofthesesales,almost110millionwereintheAsiaPacific,andover20millioneachinNorthAmericaandEurope.Followingadipduringthepandemic,salesofelectricvehicles(EVs),whichincludebatteryelectricandplug-inhybrids,havealsoreboundedexponentially,reachinganewrecordof18million—10%oftotalvehiclesalesin2021.Despitestrainsalongglobalsupplychains,salescontinuedtorisestronglyinto2022.ManufacturingofEVsandbatterychargersisexpectedtobeoneofthelargestareasofemploymentgrowthfortheenergysectorinthecomingyears.Around12.7millionwereemployedinroadvehiclemanufacturingin2019,1constitutingaround2.5%oftotalmanufacturingemploymentworldwide.Beyonddirectemployees,uptofivetimesmoreareindirectlyemployedinrelatedmanufacturingandserviceprovisionsuchasvehiclemaintenance,whichisoutsidethescopeofthisreport.Includingthosemanufacturingbatteriesforelectricvehicles,employmenttotalsalmost13.6million.Priortothepandemic,globalvehiclesmanufacturingemploymentincreasedsteadilyyear-on-year,withthegrowthinAsiaPacific.Currently,aroundone-thirdofvehiclemanufacturingjobsareinChina,withanother16%intherestofAsiaPacific.Europefollows1Thisemploymentincludespassengercars,commercialvehicles,buses,andtrucks.Employmentinotherformsoftransportationsuchasrail,aviation,andshippingisnotincluded.Jobsintheretailandmaintenanceofvehiclesarenotincluded.with20%.Followingthedipduringthepandemic,2021globalemploymentinvehiclemanufacturingisestimatedtohavereboundedto12million.Employmentinvehiclemanufacturingbyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:CandSAmerica=CentralandSouthAmerica.Ofthe12.7millionworkersinthevehiclessectorin2019,around460000wereemployedinEVsmanufacturing,whichishighlyregionallyconcentrated,withover60%inChina.Decisionsacross02.55.07.510.012.5InternalcombustionenginevehiclesElectricvehiclesMillionemployeesRestofworldOtherAsiaPacificIndiaChinaAfricaEuropeCandSAmericaNorthAmericaWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE45EnergyenduseandefficiencyIEA.Allrightsreserved.countriesaboutwhetherornottoincreasedomesticmanufacturingcapacityofEVsandtheirbatterieswilldeterminehowemploymentbyregionshiftsinthecomingyears,asexponentiallymoreEVsaredeployed.AsEVshavefewercomponentsandaresimplertoassemble,thelabourintensityformanufacturingthemmaybelowerthanthatofvehicleswithinternalcombustionengines.However,whenaccountingforthemanufactureoftherequisitebatteriesandrelatedcharginginfrastructure,EVscouldberoughlyaslabour-intensiveacrosstheentirevaluechain.Weestimatearound850000jobsareintheEVbatteriesvaluechains.Beyonddirectmanufacturing,automakersareincreasinglyfocusingtheirR&DanddesignteamstowardnewlinesdominatedbyEVs,withmanyannouncingexpandedEVline-upsinthecomingyears.AccountingfortheseworkersmeansthattheEVworkforceisdisproportionatetotheirtotalsalestoday.Ontopofthis,thedevelopmentofEVchargingnetworksrequiresjobsinmanufacturing,installation,andupkeep.Electricutilitiesandfuellingstationsareincreasinglyplayingaroleinthissegment,asareEVautomobilemanufacturerslikeTesla.BasedonprojectedEVsalesfor2022,EVandbatterymanufacturingaresettobeoneofthelargestareasofemploymentgrowthforenergyinthecomingyears.MajorEVbatterymanufacturersarereportingashortfallintheskilledlabourforcetostafftheirfacilities,highlightinganimportantgapinthegrowingsector,andpromptingcompaniestoimprovetheiremploymentpackagestoattracttalent.Thisisalsodrivingfurtherautomationinvehiclemanufacturingaswellasanincreaseintheuseoftemporaryworkerstoachieveflexibilityinthelabourforce.Thismayleadtodecreasedjobsecurity,butcanimprovejobqualityforworkers,forexampleviatheadoptionofexoskeletons(roboticsuitsthatreducethephysicalstraincausedbyrepetitivetasks).AutomobilelabourunionsarecallingforincreasedsupporttoretrainworkersonmanufacturingEVs,anddemandinghigherwagesandworkerprotectionsduringthetransition.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE46EnergyenduseandefficiencyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Efficiencyinbuildingsandindustryemploys10.9millionwithChinaaccountingforone-thirdGlobalinvestmentinbuildingretrofitsandefficientnewconstruction,aswellasformoreenergy-efficientappliances,vehiclesandindustrialequipment,nearedUSD330millionin2021,ariseofaround14%from2019levels.Mostenergyefficiencymeasures,inparticularinthebuildingssector,arehighlylabour-intensive.Inthisreport,weassessthejobcreationfrombuildingretrofits,constructionofenergyefficientnewbuildings(theincrementalemploymentcomparedtostandardpractice),heatpumps,industrialefficiencyretrofits,energymanagementsystemsandthemanufactureofefficientbuildingmaterials.Whiledifficulttodisentangledata,wetrytoisolatethejobsthatrequireenergyefficiencyskillsetsandknowledgetobecompleted.Worldwide,around10.9millionpeopleworkedinenergyefficiencyinbuildingsandindustryin2019,withChinaaccountingforjustoverone-thirdofthesejobsfollowedbyaround2millioninNorthAmerica.Nearlyhalfofallefficiencyjobsworldwideareintheconstructionsector.TheCovid-19pandemicinitiallyreducedthoseworkinginenergyefficiencyassocialdistancingrequirementspreventedcontractorsfromgainingaccesstoresidentialpropertiestoperformretrofits,leadingtonotabledeclinesinefficiencyemploymentintheUnitedStatesandelsewhere.However,energyefficiencyhasfeaturedprominentlyineconomicrecoverypackagestargetingbothpublicandprivateresidentialbuildingsoverthelasttwoyears,totallingmorethanUSD72billionworldwideasofMarch2022.Manyefficiencyjobsrelyheavilyonlocalsupplychains,suchascontractorsandlocalprogrammeadministrators.Thelackoftrainedpersonnelcanbedetrimentaltothequalityofinstallationsorretrofitsandnegativelyaffecttheenergysavingpotentialofanintervention.Thismakestrainingandvettingvendorsamajorchallenge,andthereisagrowingfocusformanyefficiencyprogrammestoprovidetheappropriateskillingandcertifications.Technicalandvocationaleducationandtrainingcanbehelpfulforworkforcepreparation.Employmentinenergyefficiencybyregion,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.NorthAmericaCentralandSouthAmericaEuropeAfricaChinaIndiaOtherAsiaPacificRestofworldWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE47EnergyenduseandefficiencyIEA.Allrightsreserved.Energyefficiencymeasuresaretypicallyverylabour-intensiveinconstructionEmploymentinbuildingsenergyefficiency,2019Employmentinindustryenergyefficiency,2019IEA.Allrightsreserved.Notes:HVAC=Heating,ventilation,andairconditioning.Otherincludesemploymentinutilities,professional,wholesale,andtransportsectors.00.51.01.52.02.53.0ManufacturingConstructionOtherMillionemployees00.51.01.52.02.53.0ManufacturingConstructionOtherWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE48LookingforwardIEA.Allrightsreserved.LookingforwardWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE49LookingforwardIEA.Allrightsreserved.EmploymentwillgrowastheworlddecarbonisestheenergysectorinlinewithglobaltargetsEmploymentincleanenergyissettogrowinallIEAscenarios.IntheWorldEnergyOutlook2021,employmentimpactswereevaluatedintwoscenarios:theAnnouncedPledgesScenario(APS)whereallannouncedclimatepledgesweremetintimeandinfull,andtheNetZeroEmissionsby2050Scenario,whichisconsistentwithlimitingglobalsurfacetemperaturewarmingto1.5°Cby2100.Inbothscenarios,jobgrowthmorethanoffsetsadeclineintraditionalfossilfuelsupplysectors.Weestimatethatanadditional13millionworkersareemployedincleanenergyandrelatedsectorsby2030intheAPS,andthisfiguredoublesintheNZE.Manyofthejobslostarenotnecessarilywherenewjobsarecreated.Skillsetsarealsonotautomaticallytransferable,andnewskillsareneeded.Thisistruebothwithincountriesandinternationally.Quantifyingtheemploymenteffectsofenergytransitionsfacilitatesproperplanningofsupportmeasuresincludingtrainingandeducationprogrammes.Countriesaredesigningprogrammesthatseektotakeadvantageofexistingstrengthsinfossilfuelsectorstosupportemergingareassuchasoffshorewind,CCUS,geothermalandhydrogen.TheUnitedKingdom’sNorthSeaTransitionDealisonesuchexample.Othercountries,includingSouthAfrica,haveinstitutedbroadsocialdialogueonjustandinclusivetransitions,encompassingcompanies,tradeunions,regionalandlocalgovernments,civilsocietyandthefinancialsector.Employmentbyscenarioandbysubsector,2019-2030IEA.Allrightsreserved.Astransitionsgainpace,therewillbeincreasedcompetitionforcleanenergysupplychainsandrelatedjobs.Mostcleanenergyjobsarecreatedinthesamelocationofaproject,whetheritisasolarfarmconstructionorenergy-efficiencyretrofits.However,cleanenergysupplychainsextendaroundtheglobe.Somegovernmentsarelookingtolocalisethesesupplychains,andaremakingstrategicinvestmentsinlow-carbontechnologiessuchasadvancedbatteriesandlow-carbonfuels.Favouringdomesticmanufacturingcapacitycanleadtomoresecuresupplychains,butcanalsodriveupcleanenergytechnologycostsifitposesbarrierstotradeandreduceseconomiesofscale.-4-202468PowergenerationEfficiencyGridsCarsInnovativetechnologiesBioenergyEnd-userenewablesCriticalmineralsOilandgasCoalAPSNZEAPSNZEGainsorlossesNetjobs-16-808162432TotalMillionjobsWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE50LookingforwardIEA.Allrightsreserved.GovernmentsandcompaniesarelookingtobetterequiptheirworkersandindustriesforenergytransitionsTheIEA’sGlobalCommissiononPeople-CentredCleanEnergyTransitionsbroughttogethergloballeaderstoenumeratekeyprinciplesformaximisingthebenefitsofcleanenergytransitionsforpeople.Theirrecommendationsrelatedtoenergysectoremploymentinclude:1)maximisingthecreationofdecentjobs,2)developingtailoredgovernmentsupportforcommunitiesandworkersaswellasopportunitiesforreskillingandtraining,and3)usingrobuststakeholderengagement,socialdialogue,andpolicyco-ordinationacrossministriesofenergy,employment,andeducationtodeliverbetteroutcomes.Policiesembodyingtheseprinciplesdifferacrossregions,butbestpracticesarebeginningtoemerge.Workertraining—anomnipresentneed—intensifieswithcleanenergytransitions.Well-craftedtrainingprogrammesareafirstresponsetoequipemployeeswithanenergytransition-readyknowledgebase,leveragingtheirexistingcompetencies.IntheIEA’sNetZeroEmissionsby2050Scenario,60%ofenergyemploymentgrowthto2030requiresatleasttwoyearsofpost-secondaryeducation.Reskillingthroughprogrammesofferingcertificationsandon-the-jobtrainingisakeyalternativetoformaleducationforexperiencedenergyworkersconsideringacareerswitch.Developingeffectivetrainingnecessitatestighterco-ordinationbetweenpublicinstitutions,privatesector,andacademiatokeepcurriculumuptodate.Expandingworkertrainingprogrammesanddesigningnewcurriculum,inparticularforso-called“greenjobs”,requiresabetterunderstandingoftheskillsheldbyenergysectorworkerstodayandtheskillsneededinthefastestgrowingcleanenergysegments.Justtransitionpolicymakingisanincreasinglycommonpracticetosupportworkersandcommunitiesinfossilfuelindustriessetforclosureaspartofeffortstodecarbonise.Sofar,themajorityoftheseplanstargetcoalcommunities,butlong-termsupportforoilandgasproducerstodiversifyarealsobecomingmoreprevalent.Companieswhoseeadecliningworkforcehaveworkedwithlabourrepresentationtoestablishlong-termplans,andofferearlyretirementpackagestoworkers.Internationalsupportforjustenergytransitionsplans(JETP)isbecomingamuch-discussedtool,withadvancedeconomiescommittingclimatefinancetohelpproducereconomiesacceleratetheirtransitionsawayfromfossilfuels,aswasdoneinSouthAfricaandasisunderdiscussioninotherEMDEs.Finally,socialdialoguewithunions,employers,civilsocietyandgovernmentisacross-cuttingthemeforalldecisionmakinginthisspace.Thisincludesrobuststakeholderengagement–suchaswithcommunities,internationalorganisations,academiaandcivilsociety,includingyouthparticipation–inthedesignoflabourtransitionplans,collectivebargainingagreements,developinglabourstandards,andontopicsofdiversityandinclusion.Large-scaleengagementcanbetime-consuming,butcansavetimelateron,andhelpsarriveatmoredurableoutcomesforcleanenergypolicydesignandworkerarrangementswithinenergyemployment.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE51LookingforwardIEA.Allrightsreserved.CleanenergyinnovationdemandshighlytrainedworkersandcouldgrowimmenselythisdecadeEmergingcleanenergyindustriessuchashydrogenandCCUSconstitutesmallportionsoftheenergyworkforcetoday,buttheyareimportantareasofgrowth,demandinghighlyskilledworkerstoestablishandexpandtheseindustries.Cleanenergyinnovationislabour-intensiveandissupportedbygrowinginvestmentinresearchanddevelopment(R&D).In2020,around750000peopleworkedinenergyR&D,ofwhomhalfwereinChina,Japan,theUnitedStates,France,andGermany.Governmentsupportcanhelpinnovativestart-upstoexpandoperations,sinceearly-stageR&Drequiresonlyalimitednumberofhighlyskilledworkersandtendstobegeographicallyconcentratedarounduniversitycentresortechhubs.Around35000workinhydrogenproductiontoday,byestimatesbasedonIEAinvestmentdataandenergybalances,andotherinputs.Thissectorisalsoexpectedtoseehighgrowthratesinanetzeroworld,requiringskillsthatarepotentiallycompatiblewiththoseofoilandgasworkers,butrequiringspecialisedsafetytraining.TheEuropeanHySafeconsortiumhasdevelopedtheworld’sfirstengineeringcoursesinhydrogensafety.Similarworkertrainingwillbeimportantforensuringthelaboursupplyrequisitetoscale-uphydrogenproductionrapidly.CCUSdemonstrationprojectshavecreatedmanyjobs,particularlyduringtheconstructionphaseofnewpilotplants.Anaveragestand-aloneCCUSplantcancreateupto1200jobsforanestimatedthree-yearconstructionphaseandupto60jobsduringthesubsequentdecadesofoperations.RetrofittingplantstouseCCUSmayalsoprovidecontinuityofemploymentforexistingplants.Forexample,developersoftheUnitedKingdom’sNetZeroTeessideindustrialhubenvisionthatCCUSinfrastructurecouldsafeguardbetween35%and70%ofexistingpowerplantmanufacturingjobsintheregion.However,only12CCUSprojectsforgaspowerplantsarecurrentlyunderdevelopment,mostlylocatedinNorthAmerica.Amongthecriticalminerals,copper,cobalt,nickelandlithiumarevitalinputsforbatteries,hydrogenelectrolysers,grids,solarpanelsandwindturbines.Weestimatearound800000peopleworkedintheminingofthesefourmineralsin2019.Demandforthesefourmineralsisexpectedtogrowbetweentwo-and16-foldfrom2020to2030underscenariosconsistentwithglobalclimateambitions.Minersfacesubstantialoccupationalhealthhazardsandrisksofhumanrightsviolations,especiallyinartisanalandsmall-scaleoperationswhereregulatorystandardsareweakandhealthcareorcompensationintheeventofanaccidentareoftennon-existent.Increasedcommitmentstoenvironmental,social,andgovernance(ESG)standardsalongtheentirevaluechaincanimprovesafetyandlabourconditions.Effortstorecyclethesematerialsarealsoincreasingandfurthermechanisationofminingprocessesmayreducetheneedforunskilledminers.Automationcanalsoenableremoteminingoperationsfromoffices,greatlyimprovingsafety,whileemployinglesslabour.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE52LookingforwardIEA.Allrightsreserved.ImprovingenergyemploymentdataprovidesafoundationforbetterenergyandlabourpolicyImprovedenergyemploymentdataprovidesanimportantbasisforestimatinghowenergypoliciesaffectworkersandafoundationforassessingboththepotentialrisksoflabourshortagesaswellasthegrowingneedsforeducationandskilling.NationallabourstatisticsaretypicallystructuredbasedoncodesconsistentwiththeInternationalStandardIndustryClassification(ISIC)system.AsshownintheInternationalRecommendationsforEnergyStatistics,ISICcodesalignwellwithtraditionalenergyindustries,butdonotmapdirectlyontoemergingenergyindustriessuchassolarandwind.Furthermore,manyjobsimpactedupstreambychangingdynamicsinenergyproductionarenotlistedwithinasinglecode,butratherseparatelyaccountedforundergeneralcodeslikemanufacturingorconstruction.Onewaytosystematicallyimproveenergyemploymentdataistocreatenewcodesspecifictoemergingenergysegments.Forinstance,inJune2022,theChineseMinistryofHumanResourcesandSocialSecurityupdateditsoccupationclassificationschemetoincludenewcategoriesforjobsrelatedtothegreeneconomy,suchascarbonsinkassessorsandintegratedenergyserviceworkers.CodeshavealsobeenaddedintheUnitedStatestoachieveaholisticandconsistentviewofenergyjobsacrossemergingtechnologies.Additionally,theUSgovernmentadministersasurveythatcutsacrossindustryclassifications.ThissurveyyieldstheUnitedStatesEnergyandEmploymentReport(USEER),oneoftheearliestresourceswhichprovidesannualnationalaccountingforenergyjobsandwages.Thesesurveysareexpensivetoadminister,buthaveatrackrecordofsecuringfundingindifferentcountries.Forexample,thereareongoingeffortsintheAustraliangovernmenttoestablishagranularenergylabourreport,tobecompletedinJune2023.Thesesurveysenableaccurateprojectionsnecessaryforgovernmentsandtrainingproviderstodesignadequateworkforcedevelopmentprogrammes,andtoensurethatlabourshortagesdonothindercleanenergydeployment.Surveyoutcomesarealsousefulforcompaniestenderingprojectsaswellaslocalpolicymakersassessingex-posthowtheirspendingsupportedjobcreationintheircommunities.Beyondestablishingabaselineonemployment,dataonwagesandlabourcost,skillingneeds,anddemographicsalsohelptoenhancedecisionmakingforkeyenergystakeholders.Thisdatainformsmasterplansforskillingandeducationwithinenergyandlabourministries,andhelpstoassesstheimpactsofdiversityandinclusioninitiatives.Italsocontributestothegooddesignofjusttransitionplans,includingappropriateworkersupportandcompensation.Whilethisreportprovidesmanyoftheabove-mentioneddatapoints,itisnotasubstituteforbetterdatacollection,especiallywhenitcomestosubnationaldata.Enhancingthesedatafoundationscanbeanear-termpriorityforpolicymakerslookingtotakeconcretestepsrelatedtoadvancingpeople-centredenergytransitions.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE53LookingforwardIEA.Allrightsreserved.NextstepsAspartofourcontinuedeffortstoinformgovernmentsandotherstakeholdersintheirdesignofenergypoliciesandtheirunderstandingofthehumanimpactofthesepolicies,theIEAwillpublishforward-lookingprojectionsonenergyemploymentbyscenariooverthenextdecadeintheWorldEnergyOutlook2022.TheprojectionswillshowtheexpectedmagnitudeofchangesinenergysectoremploymentasanincreasingnumberofcountriescommittonetzeroemissionstargetsandasenergyvaluechainsshiftinresponsetomajordisruptionssuchastheCovid-19pandemicandRussia’sinvasionofUkraine.Additionally,theIEAaimstoupdatethisassessmentofenergyemploymentannuallytocontinuetoprovideabaselineforunderstandinghowglobalenergyemploymentisshiftingovertime.Aswecontinuetodevelopthisareaofwork,wewelcomesuggestionsandcollaboration.Pleasedirectinquiriestoweo@iea.org..WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE54AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.AnnexesWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE55AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.MethodologyModellingisbasedonIEA’senergybalancesaswellasenergyinvestmentdata,andcalibratedbasedonarichcollectionofemploymentdatainthe2010sfromthefollowingsources:•Nationalstatisticsforallmajorcountries•InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)employmentdatabases•UnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization(UNIDO)IndStatandMinStatdatabases•Reportsbyinternationalorganisationsandindustryassociations•Academicliterature•Annualreportsofmajorcompaniesineachsector•CompanyinterviewsTheemploymentnumbersinthisreportrepresentourbestestimatesofemploymentacrosstheenergysectorbasedoncurrentlyavailabledata.Theyarepublishedtohelpgovernmentsandotherstakeholderstounderstandthemagnitudeoftheimpactsofenergypolicyandinvestmentonworkers,butgiventheuncertaintythatexists,theyareclearlynotthelastword.Weaimtoupdateourestimatesasnewandimproveddatabecomeavailable.Wheredatawasmissingforcertainyears,energysubsectors,orcountries,employmentmultiplierswereappliedbasedonthecorrespondingvolumesandinvestmentvaluesinIEAenergybalances.Regionalmultiplierswereconstructedbasedonwagedifferences.Thestepsincluded:•IdentifyingthecostcontributionbreakdownforUSD1millionspentonnewprojectsorproductsforregionswithexistingmultipliers(e.g.10%labour,50%materials,10%equipmentcosts).Thesebreakdownswerederivedusingdetailedmanufacturersurveys,primarilyfromtheUSAnnualSurveyofManufacturersdatawhichprovideinformationonthecontributiontocostsofaveragewages,labourandmaterials.Industryevaluationwasusedtoconfirmbreakdownsorprovidemoregranulardetailforspecifictechnologytypes.•Adaptingthecostcontributionbreakdowntoeachregion,takingspecificaccountofhowdifferencesinwagesandmaterialcostsshifttherelativesharesoflabourandmaterial.AveragewagesandbasicmaterialcostswereindexedonthebasisofUScosts,andthesewereappliedtothelabourandmaterialcostsforaUSD1millionprojectorpurchasetocalculatehowmuchthatsamepurchasewouldcosttoproduceinalow-wageeconomy.Weutilisedlocalwages,averagecostdifferentialofinputmaterials,shareofimportsinproductionandthecostsofthoseimportstoarriveatadjustedcostcontributionbreakdownsforvariousregions.•Findingaveragewagesforrelevantjobsinaregionbyusingnationalaveragesalaryinformationspecifictoasubsector.Whereinformationonwagesspecifictoasubsectorwasnotavailable,averagewagesfromsalaryreportingwebsiteswereused,splittingthelabourcoststodistinguishbetweenthoseassociatedwithproductionandmanufacturingandthoseassociatedwithoverheads(e.g.researchanddevelopment,procurementandmarketing).•Calculatingjobspermilliondollarsfortheexpenditurebydividingtheportionspentonsalariesbyaveragesalaries.TheindirectmultiplierforadvancedeconomieswasusedasabasisforWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE56AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.indirectjobs,andtherectificationmultiplierforeachcountrywasappliedtocalculateindirectjobs.ThefinalemploymentmultiplierswereintegratedwiththeWorldEnergyModelbyapplyingthemultiplierstotheappropriatesectorandregionalinvestments.DefinitionandscopeofemploymentThedefinitionsusedinthisreportare:•Direct:Jobscreatedtodeliverafinalprojectorproduct.Thesearecountedinthisreport.•Indirect:Supplychainjobscreatedtoprovideinputstoafinalprojectorproduct.Onlyinputsthatarepredominantlydemandedbytheenergyindustryarecountedinthisreport.•Induced:Jobscreatedbywagesearnedfromtheenergysectorandspentinotherpartsoftheeconomy,therebycreatingadditionaljobs.Thesejobsarenotcountedinthisreport.Inthisreport’saccounting,employmentencompassesalldirectjobsandtheindirectjobsfromsuppliersprovidingimmediateinputstothesectorconsidered.Inducedjobsarenotincluded.Thissetsaclearboundaryaroundthejobsthattheupfrontinvestmentwouldpayfortodelivertheproject.Jobsarenormalisedtofull-timeequivalent(FTE)employmentforconsistentaccounting.AnFTEjobrepresentsoneperson’sworkforoneyearatregulatednorms(e.g.40hoursaweekfor52weeksayear,excludingholidays).Wheredataisavailableforhoursworked,wecalculatepart-timeworkerswithaproportion.Otherwisepart-timeemploymentisassumedas0.5FTE.Employmentnumbersincludeinformalworkers,withthehopethatournumbersreflectthescopeofenergypolicyimpactmorecompletely.InalignmentwithILOdefinitions,informalworkerscompriseown-accountworkersandallthoseemployedininformalsectorenterprises;contributingfamilyworkers;employeesholdinginformaljobs;membersofinformalproducers’cooperatives;andown-accountworkersengagedintheproductionofgoodsexclusivelyforownfinalusebytheirownhousehold.Estimatesarebasedonaliteraturereviewofinformalityratesbyregionandsector.Thisreportdoesnotaddressemploymentinthefollowingenergysectors,amongothers,whichwillbecoveredinforthcomingreports:•Coaltransformationforblastfurnacesandcokeovens•Fossilfueldownstreamdistribution,forexampleworkersinpetrolstationsandworkersingasutilities•Uraniumminingandprocessingfornuclearpower•End-userenewablessuchasgeothermalorsolarheatingforbuildingsorbiomassboilers•Efficiencyjobsrelatedtoappliancesandlightinginbuildings•Manufacturingofnon-roadvehicles,aswellastheservicingandmaintenanceofvehiclesWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE57AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.EconomicsectorsEmploymentinthisreportispresentednotonlybyenergysectors,butalsobyeconomicsectors(asdefinedbytheISICRevision4classificationsystem),withsignificantnumbersofworkersinthefollowingsectors:•Agriculture(codeA),inparticularforbioenergyproduction•Miningandquarrying(codeB)•Manufacturing(codeC)•Electricity,gas,steam,andairconditioningsupply(codeD)•Construction(codeF)•Wholesaleandretailtrade(codeG)•Transportationandstorage(codeH)•Professional,scientific,andtechnicalactivities(codeM)Throughoutthereport,theeconomicsectorsareaggregatedtofivegroupingsforsimplicity:•Rawmaterials(codesAandB)•Manufacturing(codeC)•Construction(codeF)•Professionalsandutilities(codeDandM)•Wholesaleandtransport(codesGandH)1Whilesomeofthecodeslistedcorrespondinscopedirectlytotheirrespectiveenergysubsectors,othersarereferencedwiththeunderstandingthatonlyasubsetoftheemployeesenumeratedundertheseISICcodesworkonenergyinfrastructureandvaluechains.SampleofISICcodesreferencedinemploymentmodelling1CodeName0510Miningofhardcoal0520Miningoflignite0610Extractionofcrudepetroleum0620Extractionofnaturalgas0892Extractionofpeat0910Supportactivitiesforpetroleumandnaturalgasextraction1920Manufactureofrefinedpetroleumproducts2710Manufactureofelectricmotors,generators,transformersandelectricitydistributionandcontrolapparatus2720Manufactureofbatteriesandaccumulators2731Manufactureoffibreopticcables2732Manufactureofotherelectronicandelectricwiresandcables2733Manufactureofwiringdevices2815Manufactureofovens,furnacesandfurnaceburners2824Manufactureofmachineryformining,quarryingandconstruction2910Manufactureofmotorvehicles2920Manufactureofbodiesformotorvehicles;manufactureoftrailersandsemi-trailers2930Manufactureofpartsandaccessoriesformotorvehicles3510Electricpowergeneration,transmissionanddistribution4321Electricalinstallation4322Plumbing,heatandairconditioninginstallation4661Wholesaleofsolid,liquidandgaseousfuelsandrelatedproducts4930TransportviapipelineWorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE58AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.GlossaryCleanenergy:Inpower,cleanenergyincludesgenerationfromrenewablesources,nuclearandfossilfuelsfittedwithCCUS;batterystorage;andelectricitygrids.Inefficiency,cleanenergyincludesenergyefficiencyinbuildings,industryandtransport,excludingaviationbunkersanddomesticnavigation.Inend-useapplications,cleanenergyincludesdirectuseofrenewables;electricvehicles;electrificationinbuildings,industryandinternationalmarinetransport;useofhydrogenandhydrogen-basedfuels;CCUSinindustryanddirectaircapture.Infuelsupply,cleanenergyincludeslowemissionsfuelsliquidbiofuelsandbiogases,low-carbonhydrogenandhydrogen-basedfuels.Fossilfuels:Includecoal,naturalgas,oilandpeat.Informalemployment:Includesallremunerativework(employees,self-employedworkers)thatisnotregistered,regulatedorprotectedbyexistinglegalorregulatoryframeworks,aswellasnon-remunerativeworkundertakeninanincome-producingenterpriseinaccordancewithguidelinesconcerningastatisticaldefinitionofinformalemploymentbythe17thInternationalConferenceofLabourStatisticians.Labourforce:Allindividualswhofulfiltherequirementsforinclusionamongtheemployedortheunemployed.Theemployedaredefinedasthosewhoworkforpayorprofitforatleastonehouraweek.Theunemployedaredefinedaspeoplewithoutworkbutactivelyseekingemploymentandcurrentlyavailabletostartwork.EconomicsectorsConstruction:Referstoeconomicactivitiesrelatedtobothgeneralconstructionandspecialisedconstructionactivitiesforbuildingsandcivilengineeringworks;inalignmentwithISICRev.4sectionF.Thisincludeselectricalcontractors.Economicsectors:Referstoindustrygroupingssuchasminingandquarrying,manufacturingandconstruction,whicharecategorisedinaccordancewithRevision4oftheInternationalStandardIndustrialClassificationofAllEconomicActivities(ISICRev.4)–theinternationalreferenceclassificationofproductiveactivities.Manufacturing:Economicactivitiesrelatedtothephysicalorchemicaltransformationofmaterials,substances,orcomponentsintonewproducts;inalignmentwithISICRev.4sectionC.Mining:Economicactivitiesrelatedtotheextractionofmineralsoccurringnaturallyassolids(coalandores),liquids(petroleum)orgases(naturalgas),aswellasthesupplementaryactivitiesaimedatpreparingthecrudematerialsformarketing;inalignmentwithISICRev.4sectionBnamed“Miningandquarrying.”Professionals:Economicactivitiesrelatedtospecialisedservicesincludinglegalandaccounting,activitiesinheadofficesandmanagementconsulting,architectureandengineering,scientificresearchanddevelopment,advertisingandmarketresearch,etc.;inalignmentwithISICRev.4sectionMtitled“Professional,scientificandtechnicalactivities.”WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE59AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.Utilities:Economicactivitiesrelatedtotheoperationofelectricandgasutilities,whichgenerate,controlanddistributeelectricpowerorgas;inalignmentwithISICRev.4sectionDthatisnamed“Electricity,gas,steamandairconditioningsupply.”Wholesale:Economicactivitiesrelatedtowholesaleandretailsale(i.e.salewithouttransformation)ofanytypeofgoodsandtherenderingofservicesincidentaltothesaleofthesegoods;inalignmentwithISICRev.4sectionG,named“Wholesaleandretailtrade;repairofmotorvehiclesandmotorcycles.”RegionalgroupingsAdvancedeconomies:Australia,Austria,Belgium,Bulgaria,Canada,Chile,Colombia,CostaRica,Croatia,Cyprus1,2,CzechRepublic,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Israel,Italy,Japan,Korea,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Mexico,Netherlands,NewZealand,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,SlovakRepublic,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Turkey,UnitedKingdomandUnitedStates.Africa:Algeria,Angola,Benin,Botswana,Cameroon,Côted’Ivoire,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Egypt,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Gabon,Ghana,Kenya,Libya,Mauritius,Morocco,Mozambique,Namibia,Niger,Nigeria,Tunisia,RepublicoftheCongo(Congo),Senegal,SouthAfrica,SouthSudan,Sudan,UnitedRepublicofTanzania(Tanzania),Togo,Zambia,ZimbabweandotherAfricancountriesandterritories.AsiaPacific:Australia,Bangladesh,BruneiDarussalam,Cambodia,ChineseTaipei,DemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea(NorthKorea),India,Indonesia,Japan,Korea,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic(LaoPDR),Malaysia,Mongolia,Myanmar,Nepal,NewZealand,Pakistan,People’sRepublicofChina(China),Philippines,Singapore,SriLanka,Thailand,VietNamandotherAsiaPacificcountriesandterritories.CentralandSouthAmerica(CandSAmerica):Argentina,PlurinationalStateofBolivia(Bolivia),Brazil,Chile,Colombia,CostaRica,Cuba,Curaçao,DominicanRepublic,Ecuador,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Haiti,Honduras,Jamaica,Nicaragua,Panama,Paraguay,Peru,Suriname,TrinidadandTobago,Uruguay,BolivarianRepublicofVenezuela(Venezuela),andotherCentralandSouthAmericancountriesandterritories.China:Includesthe(People’sRepublicof)ChinaandHongKong,China.Emergingmarketanddevelopingeconomies(EMDEs):Allcountriesnotincludedintheadvancedeconomiesregionalgrouping.Eurasia:Armenia,Azerbaijan,Georgia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,RussianFederation(Russia),Tajikistan,TurkmenistanandUzbekistan.Europe:Albania,Austria,Belarus,Belgium,BosniaandHerzegovina,Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus1,2,CzechRepublic,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Gibraltar,Greece,WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE60AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Israel,Italy,Kosovo,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Montenegro,Netherlands,NorthMacedonia,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Serbia,SlovakRepublic,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,RepublicofMoldova,RepublicofTürkiye(Türkiye),UkraineandUnitedKingdom.NorthAmerica:Canada,MexicoandUnitedStates.MiddleEast:Bahrain,IslamicRepublicofIran(Iran),Iraq,Jordan,Kuwait,Lebanon,Oman,Qatar,SaudiArabia,SyrianArabRepublic(Syria),UnitedArabEmiratesandYemen.1NotebyRepublicofTürkiye:Theinformationinthisdocumentwithreferenceto“Cyprus”relatestothesouthernpartoftheisland.ThereisnosingleauthorityrepresentingbothTurkishandGreekCypriotpeopleontheisland.TürkiyerecognisestheTurkishRepublicofNorthernCyprus(TRNC).UntilalastingandequitablesolutionisfoundwithinthecontextoftheUnitedNations,Türkiyeshallpreserveitspositionconcerningthe“Cyprusissue”.2NotebyalltheEuropeanUnionMemberStatesoftheOECDandtheEuropeanUnion:TheRepublicofCyprusisrecognisedbyallmembersoftheUnitedNationswiththeexceptionofTürkiye.TheinformationinthisdocumentrelatestotheareaundertheeffectivecontroloftheGovernmentoftheRepublicofCyprus.WorldEnergyEmploymentPAGE61AnnexesIEA.Allrightsreserved.AcknowledgementsTheWorldEnergyEmploymentReportwaspreparedbytheWorldEnergyOutlookDivisionoftheDirectorateofSustainability,TechnologyandOutlooksoftheInternationalEnergyAgency.TheprojectwasdesignedanddirectedbyLauraCozzi,ChiefEnergyModeller.DanielWetzel,HeadoftheTrackingSustainableTransitionsUnitco-ordinatedtheanalysisandproductionofthereport.TheleadauthorswereOliviaChenandDanielWetzel.Otherprincipalauthorswere:AshleyAcker(gender),JustinaBodláková(jobquality,skills),YannickMonschauer(efficiency),andJeremyMoorhouse(bioenergy).ThereportreliedonmodellingbyMarcoBaroni.DianeMunrocarriededitorialresponsibility.MarinadosSantosprovidedessentialsupport.ValuablecommentsandfeedbackwereprovidedbyseniormanagementandcolleagueswithintheIEA,includingEdithBeyer,StéphanieBouckaert,SwatiDsouza,CarlosFernandezAlvarez,PabloGonzalez,TimothyGoodson,NickJohnstone,Tae-YoonKim,LauraMaiolo,ChristopheMcGlade,BrianMotherway,ToruMuta,TakashiNomura,RyszardPospiech,MatthieuPrin,HiroyasuSakaguchi,RebeccaSchulz,ThomasSpencerandBrentWanner.ThanksalsotoJadMouawad,HeadoftheCommunicationsandDigitalOffice(CDO),andtoCDOcolleaguesAstridDumond,TanyaDyhin,GraceGordon,AllisonLeacu,JethroMullen,GregoryViscusiandThereseWalsh.TheworkcouldnothavebeenachievedwithoutthesupportandanalyticalcontributionprovidedbyEnelFoundation,inparticularbyCarloPapa,MirkoArmiento,MariaLelli,andClaudioPregagnoli.DatafromILO,UNIDO,andnationallabourstatisticswereessentialforthisanalysis.Additionally,contactsfromcompaniesincludingBaxEnergy,Bitron,COGEPA,Enel,EnertronicaSanterno,ENI,Hitachi,Iberdrola,InfrastructureandEnergyAlternatives,ShellandSoltecsharedvaluableindustryinsights.ManyexpertsfromoutsideoftheIEAprovidedinputandreviewedpreliminarydraftsofthereport.Theircommentsandsuggestionswereofgreatvalue.Theyinclude:HarmeetBawaHitachiEnergyNicolaCantoreUNIndustrialDevelopmentOrganisationMikeHowardEnelFoundationPhilipJordanBWResearchSandeepPaiCenterforStrategicandInternationalStudiesStefanoPianoOECDDebraRoweUSPartnershipforEducationforSustainableDevelopmentJayRutowitzUniversityofTechnologySydneyHollyTaylorAustraliaEnergyEfficiencyCouncilAlessandroTerzulliSACETaoYeChinaNationalRenewableEnergyCentreRyanYoungBWResearchYingZhangChineseAcademyofSocialSciencesThispublicationreflectstheviewsoftheIEASecretariatbutdoesnotnecessarilyreflectthoseofindividualIEAmembercountries.TheIEAmakesnorepresentationorwarranty,expressorimplied,inrespectofthepublication’scontents(includingitscompletenessoraccuracy)andshallnotberesponsibleforanyuseof,orrelianceon,thepublication.Unlessotherwiseindicated,allmaterialpresentedinfiguresandtablesisderivedfromIEAdataandanalysis.Thispublicationandanymapincludedhereinarewithoutprejudicetothestatusoforsovereigntyoveranyterritory,tothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundariesandtothenameofanyterritory,cityorarea.IEAPublicationsInternationalEnergyAgencyWebsite:www.iea.orgContactinformation:www.iea.org/about/contactIEA.Allrightsreserved.TypesetinFrancebyIEA–September2022Coverdesign:IEA;IEApossiblecorrigendaon:www.iea.org/corrections/Revisedversion,September2022.Informationnoticefoundat:www.iea.org/corrections

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