SummaryforPolicymakersMethodologicalandTechnologicalIssuesinTechnologyTransferASpecialReportofIPCCWorkingGroupIIIPublishedfortheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange©2000,IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeISBN:92-9169-112-7ThisreportisdedicatedtoJohnTurkson,GhanaLeadAuthor,Chapters4and5DrJohnTurksondiedattheageof46yearsonaplanecrashwhilehewasenroutetoestablishaCDMPilotprojectinUganda.HewasaSeniorEnergyEconomistattheUNEPCollaboratingCentreforEnergyandEnvironmentatRISØNationalLaboratoryinDenmark.BeforejoiningRISØ,hewasalecturerattheUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Kumasi,Ghana.Johnwasoneofthefewwell-knownenergyeconomistsontheAfricancontinentwhopublishedextensivelyininternationaljournals,conferenceproceedingsandbooksintheinternationalforaonenergyeconomicsandclimatechange.HeinitiatedseveralregionalprojectsinenergyandclimatechangeinAfricabecauseofhisbeliefthattheclimatechangedebateprovidesanopportunityfortransformingAfricaneconomiestomoresus-tainabledevelopmentpaths.HiskeensenseofdutyearnedhimrespectofcolleagueshehadworkedwithandhelpedhimtobuildanetworkofeminentenergyspecialistsandeconomistsnotonlyfromGhana,butfromalloverAfricaandbeyond.HewasmarriedtoGiftywhonodoubthadtobeartheintensitywithwhichJohnnormallytookhiswork.Hewillbemissed,buthiscontributiontoIPCCwillalwaysberememberedbyhiscolleaguesandfriends.ContentsForeword...................................................................................vPreface....................................................................................vii1.Introduction..............................................................................3Background...............................................................................3Theroleoftechnologytransferinaddressingclimatechange.......................................3Whatdowemeanbytechnologytransfer?......................................................3Trendsoftechnologytransfer.................................................................4Stakeholders,pathways,stagesandbarriers.....................................................42.Increasetheflow;improvethequality..........................................................4Buildingcapacity..........................................................................4Enablingenvironmentandextraefforttoenhancetechnologytransfer...............................5Mechanismsfortechnologytransfer...........................................................63.Sectorialactions...........................................................................7Buildings.................................................................................7Transport................................................................................7Industry..................................................................................8Energysupply.............................................................................8Agriculture...............................................................................8Forestry..................................................................................8Wastemanagement.........................................................................8Humanhealth.............................................................................8Coastaladaptation.........................................................................8ForewordTheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)wasjointlyestablishedbytheWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO)andtheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)toassesavailableinformationonthescience,impactsandtheeconomicsofclimatechangeandofmitigationoptionstoaddressit.Itprovidesalso,onrequest,scientific/technical/socio-economicadvicetotheConferenceoftheParties(COP)totheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC).SinceitsinceptiontheIPCChasproducedaseriesofAssessmentReports,SpecialReports,TechnicalPapers,methodologiesandotherproductswhichhavebecomestandardworksofreference,widelyusedbypolicymakers,scientistsandotherexperts.ThisSpecialReporthasbeenpreparedbyIPCCWorkingGroupIIIinresponsetoarequestbytheSubsidiaryBodyforScientificandTechnologicalAdvice(SBSTA)totheUNFCC.Innovationandenhancedeffortstotransferenvironmentallysoundtech-nologytolimitgreenhousegasemissionsandtoadapttoclimatechangewillberequiredtomeettheobjectiveoftheClimateConventionandtoreducevulnerabilitytoclimatechangeimpacts.Thereportaddressesthetechnologytransferprobleminthecontextofclimatechangewhileemphasizingthesustainabledevelopmentperspective.Technologytransferisdefinedasthebroadsetofprocessescoveringtheflowsofknow-how,experienceandequipmentandistheresultofmanyday-to-daydecisionsofthedifferentstakeholdersinvolved.Anumberofsocial,economic,political,legal,andtechnologicalfactorsinfluencetheflowandqualityoftechnologytransfer.Essentialelementsofsuccessfultransfersincludeconsumerandbusinessawareness,accesstoinformation,availabilityofawiderangeoftechnical,business,managementandregulatoryskillslocally,andsoundeconomicpolicyandregulatoryframeworks.Technologytransfersthatmeetlocalneedsandprioritiesaremorelikelytobesuccessful.Butthereisnopre-setanswertoenhancingtechnologytransfer.Interactionsandbarriersvaryaccordingtosector,typeoftechnologyandcountry,andrecenttrendsininternationalfinancialflowsthatdrivetechnologytransferarealteringtherelativecapacitiesandrolesofdifferentstakeholders.Policyactionsthereforeneedtobetailoredtothespecificcontextandinterests.ThereportelaboratesonwhatgovernmentscandotofacilitateandenhancethetransferofEnvironmentallySoundTechnologies,butitalsoaimsatreach-ingdecisionmakersintheprivatesector,lendinginstitutions,multilateralagencies,non-governmentalorganizations,andtheinterestedpublic.AsusualintheIPCC,successinproducingthisReporthasdependedfirstandforemostontheenthusiasmandcooperationofscientistsandotherexpertsworldwide.TheseindividualshavedevotedenormoustimeandefforttoproducingthisreportandweareextremelygratefulfortheircommitmenttotheIPCCprocess.Wewouldliketoexpressoursincerethanksto:•RobertT.Watson,theChairmanoftheIPCC;•TheCo-chairsofWorkingGroupIII,BertMetzandOgunladeDavidson;•TheSectionCoordinators,KilapartiRamakrishna,JayantSathaye,YoubaSokona,WilliamChandler,StephenO.AndersenandAjayMathur;•ThestaffoftheWorkingGroupIIIandIITechnicalSupportUnits,includingRobSwart,MsSaschavanRooijen,Jan-WillemMartens,MsLauravanWie-McGrory,MsFloOrmondandMarliesKamp;•N.Sundararaman,SecretaryoftheIPCC,RenateChrist,DeputySecretaryoftheIPCCandthestaffoftheIPCCSecretariatRudieBourgeois,ChantalEttoriandAnnieCourtin.G.O.P.ObasiSecretary-GeneralWorldMeteorologicalOrganizationKlausTöpferExecutiveDirectorUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandDirector-GeneralUnitedNationsOfficeinNairobiPrefaceTheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)wasestablishedjointlybytheWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO)andtheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)toassessperiodicallythescience,impactsandsocio-economicsofclimatechangeandofadaptationandmitigationoptions.TheIPCCprovides,onrequest,scientificandtechni-caladvicetotheConferenceofParties(COP)totheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)anditssubsidiarybodies.TheCOP,atitsfirstsessioninBerlinin1995,requestedtheIPCCtoincludeinitsassessmentsanelaborationofthetermsunderwhichtransferofenvironmen-tallysoundtechnologiesandknow-howcouldtakeplace.AsafurtherelaborationoftheCOP-1request,IPCCwasrequestedbytheSubsidiaryBodyforScientificandTechnologicalAdvice(SBSTA)toprepareaTechnicalPaperonmethodologicalandtechnologicalaspectsoftechnologytransfer(seeFCCC/SBSTA/1996/8,AnnexIII).TheobjectiveofthepaperwouldbetosynthesizeinformationfromtheSecondAssessmentReportonexperienceswith:(i)typesoftransfer,technologyevaluation,andoptions;(ii)sectorstargeted;(iii)roleofparticipants(forexamplegovernments,privatesector,inter-governmentalorganizations,non-govern-mentalorganizations);(iv)approachestopromotecooperation;(v)issuesrelatedtocapacitybuilding.AccordingtoIPCCprocedures,TechnicalPapersshouldbebasedonmaterialalreadypresentintheIPCCreports.However,theSecondAssessmentReportdidnotcontainsufficientinformationtoprepareaTechnicalPaperthatwouldaddressthequestionsraised.Therefore,theIPCCdecidedatitsTwelfthPlenarySessioninMexicoCitytoprepareaSpecialReportonMethodologicalandTechnologicalIssuesinTechnologyTransfer.Inordertoprovidestructureinthewidevarietyofsubjects,thewritingteamchosetodividetheReportinthreesections:SectionIprovidesaframeworkforanalysisofthecomplexandmulti-facettednatureofthetechnologytransferprocess,empha-sizingthesustainabledevelopmentperspective.Itexaminesbroadtrendsoftechnologytransferinrecentyears,explorestheinternationalpoliticalcontext,discussespolicytoolsforover-comingkeybarriersandcreatingenablingenvironmentsandprovidesanoverviewoffinancingandpartnerships.SectionIIprovidesasectoralperspectiveonthetransferofadaptationandmitigationtechnologies.Everychapterdiscussestheprevalentclimatemitigationandadaptationtechnologies,themagnitudeofcurrentandfuturetransfers,technologytransferissueswithinandbetweencountriesandthelessonslearnedinthatparticularsector.SectionIIIincludesawidevarietyofcasestudiestoillustratetheissuesdiscussedinsectionsIandIIanddemonstratesthedistinctiveproblemsandspecialopportunitiesthatstakeholdersarelikelytoencounterindealingwithtechnologytransfer.Inaccordancewiththewidescopeoftechnologytransfer,theteamofauthorsputtogethertopreparethereportrepresentedamultitudeofdisciplinesandabroadgeographicaldistribution.Thewritingteamconsistedof8SectionCoordinators,24CoordinatingLeadAuthors,120LeadAuthorsand53ContributingAuthors.InaccordancewiththerevisedIPCCProcedures,20ReviewEditorswereappointedtooverseethereviewprocess.Over180ExpertandGovernmentReviewerssubmittedvaluablesuggestionsforimprovementduringthereviewprocess.AllthecommentshavebeenaffordedappropriateconsiderationbythewritingteamandgenuinescientificcontroversieshavebeenreflectedadequatelyinthetextofthereportasconfirmedintheReviewEditorsreport.ThereviseddocumentwassubmittedtotheWorkingGroupIIIPlenaryinKathmandu,Nepal,thattookplacefrom8to10March2000.There,theSummaryforPolicymakerswasapprovedindetailandtheunderlyingreportaccepted.TheIPCCPlenaryfinallyacceptedtheReportandtheSummaryforPolicymakersduringitsSixteenthSessionthattookplaceinMontreal,Canada,from1to8May2000.WewishtocommendallSectionCoordinators,CoordinatingLeadAuthors,LeadAuthors,ContributingAuthorsandallReviewEditorsforalltheefforttheyputintothecompilationofthisReportanddeeplyappreciatethecommitmenttheyhaveshown.Itiswithprofoundsadnessandregretthatwehavetoconveythemessagethatthreeofourdearcolleaguesandteammem-berspassedawayduringthewritingprocessofthisReport:KatsuoSeiki(August1998),DavidHall(August1999)andJohnTurkson(January2000).Theywerehighlyappreciatedmembersoftheteam,JohnTurksonasLeadAuthorofChapters4and5andDavidHallasReviewEditorofChapter12.KatsuoSeikiwasenvisagedCoordinatingLeadAuthorofthenChapter18andshowedasaVice-ChairofIPCCmuchinterestintheissueoftechnologytransfer.Wewillremembertheirexcellentworkandenjoyablepersonalities.Wearegratefulto:•TheTataEnergyResearchInstituteinNewDelhi,India,andinparticularDrPachauri,theDirectorandvice-chairofIPCCforhostingthefirstLeadAuthorsmeeting;•TheUnitedKingdomClimateImpactProgrammeoftheEnvironmentalChangeUnitattheUniversityofOxford,UnitedKingdom,forhostingthesecondLeadAuthorsmeetingwiththesupportoftheUnitedKingdomDepartmentofEnvironment,TransportandtheRegions;•TheDepartmentofHydrologyandMeteorologyoftheGovernmentofNepal,forhostingtheFifthPlenaryoftheIPCCWorkingGroupIIIfrom8to10March2000,wheretheSummaryforPolicymakerswasapprovedlinebylineandtheunderlyingReportaccepted.Wewouldfinallyliketoexpressourgratitudetothethreesuc-cessiveReportCoordinatorsattheTechnicalSupportUnits:LauravanWie-McGrory(TSUWGII),andSaschavanRooijenandJan-WillemMartens(TSUWGIII)fortheirnever-endingdedicationtogetthereportinitscurrentshape.WethankFloOrmondoftheTechnicalSupportUnitofWorkingGroupIIandMarliesKampoftheTechnicalSupportUnitofWorkingGroupIIIfortheirinvaluablesupportthroughoutthepreparationoftheReport.AlsoothermembersoftheTechnicalSupportUnitsofWorkingGroupIIandIIIhaveprovidedmuchappreciatedassistance,includingRobSwart,AnitaMeier,JiahuaPan,RemkoYbemaandDaveDokken.DrN.Sundararaman,SecretaryoftheIPCC,andthestaffoftheIPCCSecretariatinGenevaensuredtheessentialservicesofprovidinggovernmentliaisonandtravelofexpertsfromthedevelopingandtransitionaleconomycountriesaswellasmak-ingthearrangementswiththeGovernmentofNepal.WearealsogratefultoRenateChrist,DeputySecretaryoftheIPCC,forhersubstantiveinputsonvariousoccasionsduringthepreparationoftheReport.Wewouldliketoencouragethereaders,whichincludepolicy-makers,scientists,managers,professionalsandacademics,toevaluatethecontentsofthiswork,adjustittotheirowncondi-tionsandensurearapidandwidespreadreplicationofitslessonsacrosstheworld.WesincerelyhopethatthisReportwillthuscontributetothewidespreaduseofenvironmentallysoundtechnologiesandassistinachievingtheobjectivesoftheClimateConvention.OgunladeDavidson,Co-chairofWorkingGroupIIIBertMetz,Co-chairofWorkingGroupIIIMethodologicalandTechnologicalIssuesinTechnologyTransferviiiSUMMARYFORPOLICYMAKERSMETHODOLOGICALANDTECHNOLOGICALISSUESINTECHNOLOGYTRANSFERASpecialReportofWorkingGroupIIIoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeBasedonadraftpreparedby:StephenO.Andersen(USA),WilliamChandler(USA),RenateChrist(Austria),OgunladeDavidson(SierraLeone),SukumarDevotta(India),MichaelGrubb(UK),JoyeetaGupta(TheNetherlands),ThomasC.Heller(USA),MaithiliIyer(India),DanielM.Kammen(USA),RichardJ.T.Klein(TheNetherlands/Germany),DinaKruger(USA),RituKumar(India),MarkLevine(USA),LinErda(China),PatriciaIturregui(Peru),MerylynMcKenzieHedger(UK),AnthonyMcMichael(UK),MarkMansley(UK),Jan-WillemMartens(TheNetherlands),EricMartinot(USA),AjayMathur(India),BertMetz(TheNetherlands),JohnMillhone(USA),JoseRobertoMoreira(Brazil),TongrojOnchan(Thailand),MarkRadka(USA),KilapartiRamakrishna(India),N.H.Ravindranath(India),SaschavanRooijen(TheNetherlands),JayantSathaye(USA),YoubaSokona(Mali),SergioC.Trindade(Brazil),DavidWallace(UK),ErnstWorrell(TheNetherlands)1.IntroductionBackgroundArticle4.5oftheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)statesthatdevelopedcountryPartiesandotherdevelopedPartiesincludedinAnnexII“shalltakeallpracticablestepstopromote,facilitateandfinance,asappropri-ate,thetransferof,oraccessto,environmentallysoundtech-nologiesandknow-howtootherParties,particularlydevelopingcountryParties,toenablethemtoimplementtheprovisionsoftheConvention.”TheSubsidiaryBodyforScientificandTechnologicalAdvice(SBSTA)identifiedatitsfirstsessionalistofareasinwhichitcoulddrawupontheassistanceoftheIPCC.ThisSpecialReportwaspreparedinresponsetothisrequest.Itaddressesthetechnologytransferprobleminthecontextofallrel-evantUNFCCCprovisions,includingdecisionsoftheConferenceofParties(COP),andChapter34inAgenda21.ItattemptstorespondtorecentdevelopmentintheUNFCCCdebateontech-nologytransfer,byprovidingavailablescientificandtechnicalinformationtoenablePartiestoaddressissuesandquestionsidentifiedinDecision4/CP.4adoptedbyCOP-4.TheroleoftechnologytransferinaddressingclimatechangeAchievingtheultimateobjectiveoftheUNFCCC,asformulatedinArticle21,willrequiretechnologicalinnovationandtherapidandwidespreadtransferandimplementationoftechnologies,includingknow-howformitigationofgreenhousegas(GHG)emissions.Transferoftechnologyforadaptationtoclimatechangeisalsoanimportantelementofreducingvulnerabilitytoclimatechange.Thistechnologicalinnovationmustoccurfastenoughandcon-tinueoveraperiodoftimetoallowgreenhousegasconcentrationstostabilizeandreducevulnerabilitytoclimatechange.Technologyformitigatingandadaptingtoclimatechangeshouldbeenvironmentallysoundtechnology(EST)andshouldsup-portsustainabledevelopment.Sustainabledevelopmentonaglobalscalewillrequireradicaltechnologicalandrelatedchangesinbothdevelopedanddevel-opingcountries.Economicdevelopmentismostrapidindevel-opingcountries,butitwillnotbesustainableifthesecountriesfol-lowthehistoricgreenhousegasemissiontrendsofdevelopedcountries.Developmentwithmodernknowledgeoffersmanyopportunitiestoavoidpastunsustainablepracticesandmovemorerapidlytowardsbettertechnologies,techniquesandasso-ciatedinstitutions.Theliteratureindicatesthattoachievethisdevelopingcountriesrequireassistancewithdevelopinghumancapacity(knowledge,techniquesandmanagementskills),devel-opingappropriateinstitutionsandnetworks,andwithacquiringandadaptingspecifichardware.Technologytransfer,inparticu-larfromdevelopedcountriestodevelopingcountries,mustthere-foreoperateonabroadfrontcoveringthesesoftwareandhard-warechallenges,andideallywithinaframeworkofhelpingtofindnewsustainablepathsforeconomiesasawhole.Thereis,how-ever,nosimpledefinitionofa“sustainabledevelopmentagenda”fordevelopingcountries.Sustainabledevelopmentisacontextdrivenconceptandeachsocietymaydefineitdifferently,basedonAgenda21.Technologiesthatmaybesuitableineachofsuchcontextsmaydifferconsiderably.Thismakesitimportanttoensurethattransferredtechnologiesmeetlocalneedsandprior-ities,thusincreasingthelikelihoodthattheywillbesuccessful,andthatthereisanappropriateenablingenvironmentforpro-motingenvironmentallysoundtechnologies(ESTs).TheReportanalysesthespecialchallengesoftransferringESTstoaddressclimatechangeinthecontextofsustainabledevelop-ment.Theliteratureprovidesampleevidenceofthemanyprob-lemsincurrentprocessesoftechnologytransferwhichmakesitveryunlikelytomeetthischallengewithoutadditionalactionsforthetransferofmitigationandadaptationtechnologies.Whatdowemeanbytechnologytransfer?TheReportdefinestheterm“technologytransfer”asabroadsetofprocessescoveringtheflowsofknow-how,experienceandequipmentformitigatingandadaptingtoclimatechangeamongstdifferentstakeholderssuchasgovernments,privatesectorenti-ties,financialinstitutions,non-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)andresearch/educationinstitutions.Therefore,thetreat-mentoftechnologytransferinthisReportismuchbroaderthanthatintheUNFCCCorofanyparticularArticleofthatConvention.Thebroadandinclusiveterm“transfer”encom-passesdiffusionoftechnologiesandtechnologycooperationacrossandwithincountries.Itcoverstechnologytransferpro-cessesbetweendevelopedcountries,developingcountriesandcountrieswitheconomiesintransition,amongstdevelopedcoun-tries,amongstdevelopingcountriesandamongstcountrieswitheconomiesintransition.Itcomprisestheprocessoflearningtounderstand,utilizeandreplicate2thetechnology,includingthecapacitytochooseitandadaptittolocalconditionsandintegrateitwithindigenoustechnologies.TheReportgenerallymakesadistinctionbetweendevelopedanddevelopingcountries.AlthougheconomiesintransitionareincludedasdevelopedcountriesundertheUNFCCC,theymayhavecharacteristicsincommonwithbothdevelopedanddevel-opingcountries.3SummaryforPolicymakers2Thefinalstageofthefivebasicstagesoftechnologytransfer(assess-ment,agreement,implementation,evaluationandadjustment,replica-tion)asdefinedintheReportasacombinationofactionsthatleadtothedeploymentofagiventechnology,oncetransferred,tomeetanewdemandelsewhere.1“TheultimateobjectiveofthisConventionandanyrelatedlegalinstrumentsthattheConferenceofPartiesmayadoptistoachieve,inaccordancewiththerelevantprovisionsoftheConvention,stabilisationofgreenhousegasconcentrationsintheatmosphereatsuchalevelthatwouldpreventdangerousinterferencewiththeclimatesystem.Suchalevelshouldbeachievedwithinatimeframesufficienttoallowecosys-temstoadaptnaturallytoclimatechange,toensurethatfoodproductionisnotthreatenedandtoenableeconomicdevelopmenttoproceedinasustainablemanner.”TrendsoftechnologytransferItisdifficulttoquantifyhowmuchclimate-relevanthardwareissuccessfullytransferredannually.Whensoftwareelementssuchaseducation,trainingandothercapacitybuildingactivitiesareincluded,thetaskofquantificationisfurthercomplicated.Financialflows,oftenusedasproxies,allowonlyalimitedcom-parisonoftechnologytransfertrendsovertime.The1990shaveseenbroadchangesinthetypesandmagnitudesoftheinter-nationalfinancialflowsthatdrivetechnologytransfer.OfficialDevelopmentAssistance(ODA)experiencedadownwardtrendintheperiodfrom1993to1997,bothinabsolutetermsandasapercentageoffundingforprojectswithsignificantimpactontechnologyflowstodevelopingcountries.However,in1998therewasanincreaseinODAfunding.ODAisstillimportantforthosepartsoftheworldandsectorswhereprivatesectorflowsarecomparativelylow,likeagriculture,forestry,humanhealthandcoastalzonemanagement.Moreover,itcansupportthecreationofenablingconditions,whichmayleveragelargerflowsofpri-vatefinanceintoESTsinthecontextofoverallsustainabledevel-opmentgoalsintherecipientcountries.Levelsofforeigndirectinvestment(FDI),commerciallending,andequityinvestmentallincreasedgreatlyinrecentyears.Thesearethedominantmeansbywhichtheprivatesectormakestech-nology-basedinvestmentsindevelopingcountriesandeconomiesintransition,oftenintheindustry,energysupplyandtrans-portationsectors.However,privatesectorinvestmentintheformofFDIindevelopingcountrieshasfavouredEastandSouthEastAsia,andLatinAmerica.Thesetrendsarealteringtherelativecapacitiesandrolesofdifferentstakeholders.Theimportanceoftheprivatesectorhasincreasedsubstantially.However,thereisadefiniteroleforgovernmentsbothinprovidinganenablingenvironmentforthetechnologytransferprocessaswellasparticipatingdirectlyinit.ManyNGOssupporttechnologytransferactivities.Stakeholders,pathways,stagesandbarriersTechnologytransferresultsfromactionstakenbyvariousstake-holders.Keystakeholdersincludedevelopers;owners;suppliers,buyers,recipientsandusersoftechnology(suchasprivatefirms,stateenterprises,andindividualconsumers);financiersanddonors;governments;internationalinstitutions;NGOsandcom-munitygroups.Sometechnologyistransferreddirectlybetweengovernmentagenciesorwhollywithinverticallyintegratedfirms,butincreasinglytechnologyflowsdependalsoonthecoordina-tionofmultipleorganizationssuchasnetworksofinformationserviceproviders,businessconsultantsandfinancialfirms.Althoughstakeholdersplaydifferentroles,thereisaneedforpart-nershipsamongstakeholderstocreatesuccessfultransfers.Governmentscanfacilitatesuchpartnerships.Thereisalargenumberofpathwaysthroughwhichstakeholderscaninteracttotransfertechnologies.Theyvarydependingonsectors,countrycircumstancesandtypeoftechnology.Pathwaysmaybedifferentfor“closetomarket”technologiesandfortechnologyinnovationsstillinthedevelopmentphase.Commonpathwaysincludegovernmentassistanceprogrammes,directpur-chases,licensing,foreigndirectinvestment,jointventures,cooper-ativeresearcharrangementsandco-productionagreements,educationandtraining,andgovernmentdirectinvestment.Whiletechnologytransferprocessescanbecomplexandinter-twined,certainstagescanbeidentified.Thesemayincludetheidentificationofneeds,choiceoftechnology,assessmentofcon-ditionsoftransfer,agreementandimplementation.Evaluationandadjustmenttolocalconditions,andreplication2areotherimpor-tantstages.BarrierstothetransferofESTsmayariseateachstageoftheprocess.Thesevaryaccordingtothespecificcontext,forexamplefromsectortosector,andcanmanifestthemselvesdifferentlyindevelopedcountries,developingcountriesandcountrieswitheconomiesintransition.Thesebarriersrangefromlackofinfor-mation;insufficienthumancapabilities;politicalandeconomicbar-rierssuchaslackofcapital,hightransactioncosts,lackoffullcostpricing,andtradeandpolicybarriers;lackofunderstandingoflocalneeds;businesslimitations,suchasriskaversioninfinancialinstitutions;andinstitutionallimitationssuchasinsufficientlegalprotection,andinadequateenvironmentalcodesandstandards.3Thereisnopre-setanswertoenhancingtechnologytransfer.Theidentification,analysisandprioritizationofbarriersshouldbecountrybased.Itisimportanttotailoractiontothespecificbarriers,interestsandinfluencesofdifferentstakeholdersinordertodevelopeffectivepolicytools.2.Increasetheflow;improvethequalityGovernmentactionscantransformtheconditionsunderwhichtechnologytransfertakesplace.ThespreadofprovenESTsthatwoulddiffusethroughcommercialtransactionsmaybelimitedbecauseofthebarrierslistedabove.Thethreemajordimensionsofmakingtechnologytransfermoreeffectivearecapacitybuilding,anenablingenvironmentandmechanismsfortechnologytransfer,allofwhicharediscussedinmoredetailinthesubsectionsbelow.BuildingcapacityCapacitybuildingisrequiredatallstagesintheprocessoftech-nologytransfer.Socialstructuresandpersonalvaluesevolvewithasociety’sphysicalinfrastructure,institutions,andthetech-nologiesembodiedwithinthem.Newtechnologicaltrajectoriesforaneconomythereforeimplynewsocialchallenges.Thisrequiresacapacityofpeopleandorganizationstocontinuouslyadapttonewcircumstancesandtoacquirenewskills.Thisappliesbothformitigationandadaptationtechnologies.MethodologicalandTechnologicalIssuesinTechnologyTransfer42Seepreviouspage.3SeeTechnicalSummaryandChapters3,4and5ofthemainreport.Comparativelylittleconsiderationhasbeengiveninasystematicwaytowhatcapacitybuildingisrequiredforadaptationtoclimatechange.HumancapacityAdequatehumancapacityisessentialateverystageofeverytransferprocess.ThetransferofmanyESTsdemandsawiderangeoftechnical,business,managementandregulatoryskills.Theavailabilityoftheseskillslocallycanenhancetheflowofinternationalcapital,helpingtopromotetechnologytransfer.Developedcountrygovernments,inparticular,canensurethattrainingandcapacitybuildingprogrammestheysponsorconsiderthefullrangeofinformation,financial,legal,andbusinesscon-sultingandengineeringservicesthattechnologytransferrequires,aswellasthelocalconditionsunderwhichthesemaybeprovided.Thisrequirescooperationwithlocalgovernments,institutionsandstakeholders,commercialorganizationsandconsumers/users.Developingcountrygovernmentscanbuildlocalcapacitiestogearthemfortechnologytransfer.Trainingandhumanresourcedevelopmenthavebeenpopulardevelopmentassistanceactivities.Futureapproachescanbemoreeffectivebybetterstressingtheintegrationofatotalpackageoftechnologytransfer,focusinglessexclusivelyondevelopingtechnicalskillsandmoreoncreatingimprovedandaccessiblecompetenceinassociatedservices,organizationalknow-how,andregulatorymanagement.OrganizationalcapacityItisimportanttorecognizetheneedforparticipatoryapproachesandtostrengthenthenetworksinwhichdiverseorganizationscontributetotechnologytransfer.Intechnologyintensiveeconomies,technologyincreasinglyflowsthroughprivatenet-worksofinformationandassessmentservices,managementcon-sultants,financialfirms,lawyersandaccountants,andtechnicalspecialistgroups.Localgovernmentagencies,consumergroups,industryassociationsandNGOsmayensurethattechnologymeetslocalneedsanddemand.Thisorganizationalinfrastructurecanhelpreducebutwillnoteliminaterisksarisingfromdefi-cienciesinlegalsystems.Althoughmanyactionsthatfacilitatethegrowthofsuchnetworksarealreadyunderway,initiativesofparticularimportancetoESTtransferinclude:•Expansionofopportunitiestodevelopfirmsforman-agementconsulting,accounting,energyservice,law,investmentandproductrating,trade,publishingandprovisionforcommunication,accesstoandtransferofinformation,suchasInternetservices;•Encouragementofindustryassociations,professionalassociationsanduser/consumerorganizations;•Participatoryapproachestoenableprivateactors,publicagencies,NGOsandgrassrootsorganizationstoengageatalllevelsofenvironmentalpolicy-makingandprojectformulation;•Whereappropriate,decentralizationofgovernmentaldecision-makingandauthority,inrelationtotechnologytransfer,toeffectivelymeetcommunityneeds.InformationassessmentandmonitoringcapacityInformationaccessandassessmentareessentialtotechnologytransfer.However,focusingtoonarrowlyoninformationbarrierswhileignoringthelaterstagesofthetransferprocesscanbelessproductive.Therolesofgovernmentsandprivateactorsintech-nologyassessmentarechanging.PrivateinformationnetworksareproliferatingthroughspecializedconsultingandevaluationservicesandovertheInternet.IncreasingFDIalsodemonstratesthatmanyESTscandiffuserapidlywithoutdirectgovernmentaction.Governmentsindevelopingcountries,developedcountries,andcountrieswitheconomiesintransitionmaywishtoconsider:•Developingimprovedindicatorsandcollectingdataonavailability,qualityandflowsofESTstoimprovemon-itoringofimplementation;•DevelopingtechnologyperformancebenchmarksforESTstoindicatethepotentialfortechnologicalimprovements;•Improvinginformationsystemsandlinkingthemtointer-nationalorregionalnetworks,throughwell-definedclear-inghouses(suchasenergyefficiencyandrenewableenergycentres),informationspecialityfirms,tradepub-lications,electronicmedia,orNGOsandcommunitygroups.EnablingenvironmentandextraefforttoenhancetechnologytransferGovernments,through,interalia,soundeconomicpolicyandregulatoryframeworks,transparencyandpoliticalstability,cancreateanenablingenvironmentforprivateandpublicsectortechnologytransfers.AlthoughmanyESTsareincommonuseandcouldbediffusedthroughcommercialchannels,theirspreadishamperedbyriskssuchasthosearisingfromweaklegalpro-tectionandinadequateregulationindevelopedcountries,devel-opingcountriesandcountrieswitheconomiesintransition.Butmanytechnologiesthatcanmitigateemissionsorcontributetoadaptationtoclimatechangearenotasyetcommerciallyviable.Beyondanenablingenvironment,itwilltakeextraeffortstodevelopandenhancethetransferofthosepotentiallyviableESTs.ThefollowingactionscouldincreasetheflowofESTsandimproveitsquality.Allgovernmentsmaythereforewishtoconsider:•Enactingmeasures,includingwell-enforcedregulations,taxes,codes,standardsandremovalofsubsidies,tointer-nalizetheexternalitiestocapturetheenvironmentalandsocialcosts,andassistthereplicationofESTs;•Reforminglegalsystems.Uncertain,slowandexpensiveenforcementofcontractsbynationalcourtsorinternationalarbitrationandinsecurepropertyrightscandiscourageinvestment.Reformingadministrativelawtoreducereg-ulatoryriskandensuringthatpublicregulationisacces-sibletostakeholdersandsubjecttoindependentreview;•Protectingintellectualpropertyrightsandlicensesinsuchawaythatinnovationisfostered,whileavoidingmis-application,whichmayimpedediffusionofESTs;•Encouragingfinancialreforms,competitiveandopennationalcapitalmarkets,andinternationalcapitalflows5SummaryforPolicymakersthatsupportforeigndirectinvestment.GovernmentscanexpandfinanciallendingforESTsthroughregulationthatallowsthedesignofspecializedcreditinstruments,capitalpools,andenergyservicecompanies;•Simplifyingandmakingtransparentprogrammeandprojectapprovalproceduresandpublicprocurementrequirements;•PromotingcompetitiveandopenmarketsforESTs;•StimulatingnationalmarketsforESTstofacilitateeconomyofscaleandothercostreducingpractices;•Encouragingmultinationalcompaniestoshowleadershipandusethesamestandardsforenvironmentalperfor-mancewherevertheyoperate;•Creatingawarenessaboutproducts,processesandservicesthatuseESTsthroughmeanssuchaseco-labelling,prod-uctstandards,industrycodes,andcommunityeducation;•Usinglegislation,enhancingtransparency,andincreasingparticipationbycivilsocietytoreducecorruptioninconformitywithinternationalconventions.Governmentsofdevelopedcountriesandcountrieswitheconomiesintransitionsmaywishtoconsider:•StimulatingfaircompetitioninESTmarketsbydiscour-agingrestrictivebusinesspractices;•Reformingexportcredit,politicalriskinsuranceandothersubsidiesfortheexportofproductsorproductionprocessestoencourageforeigndirectinvestmentinESTs;•Developingenvironmentalguidelinesforexportcreditagen-ciestoavoidabiasagainst,andpromotethetransferof,ESTs,anddiscouragethetransferofobsoletetechnologies;•Reducingtheuse,astradepolicymeasuresappliedtoESTs,oftiedaid;•Developingmodalitiesand/orpoliciestoimprovethetransferofESTsthatareinthepublicdomain;•Increasingpublicfundingforresearchanddevelopment(R&D)incleanertechnologiestoreflectthehighrateofsocialreturnand,whereverpossible,enhancingtheflowsofESTsarisingfromtheirpubliclyfundedR&Dpro-grammesbyenteringintocooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinR&Dpartnershipsandinternationalresearchinstitutions;•Increasingflowsofnationalandmultilateralassistance,includingfunding,especiallyinprogrammestargetedtoenvironmentaltechnologies,includingpatentlicensingofESTswhereappropriate.AttentionshouldalsobepaidtosupportingpathwaysfortransferofESTsamongdevel-opingcountries.Governmentsofdevelopingcountriesmaywishtoconsider:•EnsuringassessmentoflocaltechnologyneedsandsocialimpactoftechnologiessothattransferofandinvestmentinESTsmeetlocaldemands;•ExpandingR&Dprogrammes,aimingatthedevelop-mentofESTsparticularlyappropriateindevelopingcountriesandadjustmenttolocalconditions;promotingcomplementarypoliciesforESTs;•ImprovingpathwaysfortechnologytransferamongdevelopingcountriesthroughinformationregardingtheperformanceofESTsindevelopingcountries,jointR&D,demonstrationprogrammes,andopeningmarketsforESTs;•DevelopingphysicalandcommunicationsinfrastructuretosupportprivateinvestmentsinESTsandtheoperationsofintermediaryorganizationsprovidinginformationservices;•Improvingtheidentificationofspecificbarriers,needsandstepstowardsintroductionofESTsbyconsultingwithprioritystakeholders;•Continuingtoimprovemacroeconomicstabilitytofacil-itateESTstobetransferred.MechanismsfortechnologytransferNationalSystemsofInnovationTheliteratureshowsthatNationalSystemsofInnovation(NSIs)whichintegratetheelementsofcapacitybuilding,accesstoinformationandanenablingenvironmentintocomprehensiveapproachestoESTtransferadduptomorethantheindividualcomponentsandsupportthecreationofaninnovationculture.Subsystemsandthequalityofinterconnectionswithinthemcansuccessfullyinfluencetechnologytransfer.TheconceptofNSIscanbeenhancedthroughpartnershipswithinternationalconsortia.Partnershipswouldbesystemoriented,encompassallstagesofthetransferprocess,andensuretheparticipationofpri-vateandpublicstakeholders,includingbusiness,legal,financialandotherserviceprovidersfromdevelopedanddevelopingcountries.NSIactivitiesmayinclude:•Targetedcapacitybuilding,informationaccess,andtrain-ingforpublicandprivatestakeholdersandsupportforprojectpreparation;•Strengtheningscientificandtechnicaleducationalinsti-tutionsinthecontextoftechnologyneeds;•Collectionandassessmentofspecifictechnical,com-mercial,financialandlegalinformation;•Identificationanddevelopmentofsolutionstotechni-cal,financial,legal,policyandotherbarrierstowidedeploymentofESTs;•Technologyassessment,promotionofprototypes,demon-strationprojectsandextensionservicesthroughlinkagesbetweenmanufacturers,producersandendusers;•Innovativefinancialmechanismssuchaspublic/privatesectorpartnershipsandspecializedcreditfacilities;•Localandregionalpartnershipsbetweendifferentstake-holdersforthetransfer,evaluationandadjustmenttolocalconditionsofESTs;•MarketintermediaryorganizationssuchasEnergyServiceCompanies.OfficialDevelopmentAssistance(ODA)OfficialDevelopmentAssistance(ODA)isstillsignificantfordevelopingcountriesandsuccessfultransfersofESTs.ODAcanalsoassisttheimprovementofpolicyframeworksandtakeonlong-termcapacitybuilding.ThereisincreasingrecognitionthatODAcanbestbefocusedonmobilizingandmultiplyingaddi-tionalfinancialresources.MethodologicalandTechnologicalIssuesinTechnologyTransfer6GlobalEnvironmentFacilityTheGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF),anoperatingentityoftheUNFCCCFinancialMechanism,isakeymultilateralinstitutionfortransfersofESTs.Comparedtothemagnitudeofthetechnologytransferchallenge,theseeffortsareofmodestscale,evenwhenaddedtothecontributionsfrombi-lateraldevelopmentassistance.TheGEFcurrentlytargetsincremental,one-timeinvestmentsinmitigationprojectsthattestanddemonstrateavarietyoffinancingandinstitutionalmodelsforpromotingtechnologydiffusion,thuscontributingtoahostcountry’sabilitytounderstand,absorbanddiffusetechnologies.GEFalsosupportscapacitybuildingprojectsforadaptationconsistentwithlimitationscurrentlyimposedbyConventionguidance.ContinuedeffectivenessofGEFprojectfundingfortechnologytransfermaydependonfactorssuchas:•SustainabilityofmarketdevelopmentandpolicyimpactsachievedthroughGEFprojects;•Duplicationofsuccessfultechnologytransfermodels;•Enhancedlinkswithmultilateral-bankandotherfinanc-ingofESTs;•FundingfordevelopmentandlicensingofESTs;•Coordinationwithotheractivitiesthatsupportnationalsystemsofinnovationandinternationaltechnologypartnerships;•Attentiontotechnologytransferamongdevelopingcountries.MultilateralDevelopmentBanksGovernmentsmayusetheirleveragetodirecttheactivitiesofMultilateralDevelopmentBanks(MDBs)throughtheirrespec-tiveBoardsandCouncilsinorderto:•StrengthenMDBprogrammestoaccountfortheenvi-ronmentalconsequencesoftheirlending;•Developprogrammaticapproachestolendingthatremoveinstitutionalbarriersandcreateenablingenvironmentsforprivatetechnologytransfers;•EncourageMDBstoparticipateinNSIpartnerships.TheKyotoProtocolMechanismsandtheUNFCCCTheanalysisoftheliteratureontheKyotoProtocolMechanisms,basedonthepreliminarystageofdevelopmentoftherulesforthese,suggeststhatiftheyareimplemented,theMechanismsmayhavepotentialtoaffectthetransferofESTs.TheextenttowhichArticle4.5oftheUNFCCChasbeenimplementedisbeingreviewedbytheUNFCCC.Giventhisevolvingprocess,theIPCChasnotbeenabletoassessthismatter.3.SectoralactionsThekeyactionsforthetransferofmitigationandadaptationtechnologiesvaryacrosssectors.Governments,privateactorsandcommunityorganizationsareallinvolvedintechnologytransferineachsector,althoughtheirrolesandtheextentoftheirinvolvementdifferwithinandacrosssectors.Itisimportanttonotethespecialcharacteristicsofadaptationtechnologies.Adaptationinanticipa-tionoffutureclimatechangeisfacedwithuncertaintyaboutlocation,rateandmagnitudeofclimatechangeimpacts.Adaptationtechnologiesoftenaddresssite-specificissuesandtheirbenefitsareprimarilylocal,whichcouldhamperlarge-scalereplication.Ontheotherhand,theycouldreducevulnerabilitynotonlytoanticipatedimpactsofclimatechangebutalsotocontemporaryhazardsasso-ciatedwithclimatevariability.Centrallessonslearnedthroughthesectoralstudiesare:(1)net-workingamongstakeholdersisessentialforeffectivetechnologytransfer;and(2)mosteffectivetechnologytransfersfocusonprod-uctsandtechniqueswithmultiplebenefits.ActionsthathavebeeneffectiveintechnologytransferinthesectorsevaluatedintheReportare:BuildingsWorld-wide,themixofrelevantESTswillvary,dependingupontheclimate,rural-urbandistribution,andhistoricalcontext.TheeffectiveactionsforthetransferofESTsmayinclude:(1)gov-ernmentfinancingforincentivesfortheconstructionofmoreenergy-efficientandenvironmentally-friendlyhomes;(2)build-ingcodesandguidelines,andequipmentstandardsdevelopedinconsultationwithindustrytominimizeadverseimpactsonmanufacturers;(3)energyandenvironmentalperformancelabelsonconsumerproducts;(4)governmentprogrammesformoreenergyefficientandenvironmentally-friendlybuildings,officeappliancesandotherequipment;(5)demand-sidemanagementprogrammestopromoteenergy-efficientlightingandequip-ment;and(6)R&Dtodevelopproductsinthebuildingsectorthatmeetcommunitypriorities.TransportTechnologicaloptions—improvedtechnologydesignandmain-tenance,alternativeorimprovedfuels,vehicleusechange,andmodalshifts—aswellasnon-technicaloptions,transportdemandreduction,andimprovedmanagementsystemscanreduceGHGemissionssignificantly.Therearealsonon-transportoptionssuchasurbanplanningandtransportdemandsubstitution,suchastelematicsandimprovedtelecommunications.Resourceavailability,technicalknow-how,andinstitutionalcapacityareamongthefactorsthataffectthecostandtransferoftheseoptions.Governmentpoliciescanpromotecooperativetechnologyagree-mentsamongcompaniesofdifferentcountries,jointR&D,jointinformationnetworks,improvedtechnicalandmanagementskills,andspecializedtrainingprogrammes.Adoptionofappro-priatestandardsandregulationscanstimulateandfacilitatetech-nologytransferwithinandamongcountries.Partnershipbetweengovernmentandtheprivatesectorandamongcountriescanalsohelppromotetechnologytransferwithinandamongcountries.IndustryNewprocesses,efficientenergyandresourceuse,substitutionofmaterials,changesindesignandmanufactureofproductsresult-inginlessmaterialuse,andincreasedrecycling,cansubstantially7SummaryforPolicymakersreduceGHGemissions.Environmentallegislation,regulationandvoluntaryagreementsbetweengovernmentandindustrycanstimulatethedevelopmentofefficienttechnologiesandcanleadtoincreaseduseofESTs.Publictechnologyassessmentcapa-bilitiesareimportanttoprovideinformationandcapabilitiestosuccessfullytransferESTs.Well-definedclearinghousescanbeusefulindisseminatinginformationtoimproveenergyefficiency,especiallywithrespecttosmall-andmedium-sizedenterprisesthatoftendonothavetheresourcestoassesstech-nologies.Long-termsupportforcapacitybuildingisessential,stressingtheneedforthecooperationofequipmentandsoftwaresuppliersandusers.ExperiencehasshownthatinvestmentindevelopinglocalcapabilitytoundertakeadjustmenttoindigenousconditionsiscrucialtothesuccessofindustrialESTtransfer.EnergysupplyIngeneral,theprivatesectorplaysastrongroleinthetransferofenergysupplytechnologiesbasedinoilandgassourcesandtechnologytransfermechanismshavebeenestablishedforsometime.Restructuringoftheelectricitysectorworld-wideisrapidlychangingthedirectionofinvestmentsinthepowersectorwithgrowingparticipationoftheprivatesector.Atthesametime,thetransferofenergysupplytechnologiesforsomeotherconventionalandrenewablesources,whichoftendependonthegovernmenttopreserveorincreasetheirpresenceinthemarket,isrestrictedduetoinstitutionalandsocio-economicbarriers.Nevertheless,theroleofthegovernmentandmultilateralbanksisimportantineverysectortofosterandensureconditionsforinternationalfinancing,establishappropriateregulatoryframe-worksandcreateconditionstocouplenewenergyinvestments,environmentallysoundprojectsandsustainabledevelopment.Enablingactionsbygovernmentstopromoteenergyoptions,includingrenewableresources,thatareassistingtomitigateclimatechange,canbecrucialtomobilizeprivatecapitalforESTsandraiseincreasedattentiontoenergyefficiency.AgricultureDevelopmentofappropriateinformationbaseson,interalia,improvedcropspeciesandvarieties,irrigationfacilities,differenttillageandcropmanagementsystems,andlivestockmanuretreat-ment,includingbiogasrecoverysystems,canfacilitateandpromotethetransferofadaptationandmitigationtechnologieswithinandacrosscountriesandintegrationwithindigenoussolutions.GovernmentscancreateincentivesforthetransferofESTsbyimprovingnationalagriculturalinformationsystemstodisseminateinformationonESTs,andexpandingcreditandsavingsschemestoassistfarmerstomanagetheincreasedvariabilityintheirenvi-ronment.TheexistingConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)systemmaybeonepossiblemodelforanR&Dnetworkamongcountriestobuildsuchaninformationbase.Capacitiestodealwithclimatechangetech-nologiesandnationalagriculturalresearchsystemsincludingthosethatinvestigatecarbonstorage,andearlywarningsystems,areimportantelements.Effortsbydevelopedcountriesandmulti-lateralagenciescanbeimprovedtoenhancethisR&Dsystem.ForestryGovernment,community,andinternationalorganizations,includ-ingconservationorganizations,havedominatedtechnologytrans-ferintheforestrysector.Morerecently,privateestablishmentshavebeenmakinginroads.Transferofpracticessuchassus-tainableforestmanagement(includingreduced-impactlogging,certificationtechniquesandsilviculturalpractices),recycling,bio-energytechnologiesandagroforestrycancontributetothemitigationofcarbondioxideemissions.Establishingclearpropertyrights,participatoryforestmanagement,useoffinancialincentivesanddisincentives,optimaluseofregulations,andstrengtheningofmonitoringandevaluatinginstitutionsaregovernmentactionsthatcanpromotetheirtransfer.WastemanagementMitigationtechnologiesareavailableandcanbereadilydeployed.Rolesofgovernments,privatesector,andotherorganizationsarechanging.Nationalgovernmentscanactasfacilitatorsofmunici-pal,privatesector,andcommunity-basedinitiatives.Theprivatesectorplaysanincreasingrole,becausemeetingfuturewastemanagementneedsdependsonexpandedprivateinvestment.Theinvolvementofcommunityorganizationsisalsoincreasingasthelinkbetweencommunitysupportandprojectsustain-abilityhasbecomeclear.Itisimportantthatprojectsemphasizethedeploymentoflocally-appropriatetechnologies,andminimizethedevelopmentofconventionallarge,integratedwastemanage-mentsystemsinsituationswherelowercost,simpleralternativescanbeusedwithoutcompromisingpublichealthandenviron-mentalstandards.HumanhealthAneffectivehealthsystemcanhelptoaddresstheadversehealthimpactsofclimatechange.Transferofexistinghealthtech-nologieswithinandacrosscountriescanassistinachievingthisobjective.Raisingpublicawarenessoflikelyhealthimpacts,closemonitoringofhealthoutcomesandtrainingofhealthprofessionalsaresuitableactions.Thus,intermsoftechnologytransferthereisaneedtoensurethattechnologiesareavailableatnationalandlocallevelsforcopingwithanychangesintheburdenofdiseasethatmightbeassociatedwithclimatechange.CoastaladaptationTechnologytransfershouldfocusonproventechnologiesforcoastaladaptation,includingindigenoussolutions.Wetlandrestorationandpreservationareexamplesofsuchprovenadap-tationtechnologies.Effectivetransfersofadaptationtech-nologiesarepartofintegratedcoastal-managementplansorprogrammes,thatutilizelocalexpertise.Becausecoastalmanagementispredominantlyapublicactivity,technologytransferincoastalzonesisdrivenbygovernments.Fragmentedorganizationalandinstitutionalrelationships,andlackofaccesstofinancialmeansaremajorbarrierstothetransferofcoastaladaptationtechnologies.Coastaladaptationprogrammes,basedonstrongpartnershipbetweenexistinginstitutions,canprovideaneffectiveresponse.MethodologicalandTechnologicalIssuesinTechnologyTransfer8I.IPCCFIRSTASSESSMENTREPORT,1990a)CLIMATECHANGE—TheIPCCScientificAssessment.The1990reportoftheIPCCScientificAssessmentWorkingGroup(alsoinChinese,French,RussianandSpanish).b)CLIMATECHANGE—TheIPCCImpactsAssessment.The1990reportoftheIPCCImpactsAssessmentWorkingGroup(alsoinChinese,French,RussianandSpanish).c)CLIMATECHANGE—TheIPCCResponseStrategies.The1990reportoftheIPCCResponseStrategiesWorkingGroup(alsoinChinese,French,RussianandSpanish).d)OverviewandPolicymakerSummaries,1990.EmissionsScenarios(preparedbytheIPCCResponseStrategiesWorkingGroup),1990.AssessmentoftheVulnerabilityofCoastalAreastoSeaLevelRise—ACommonMethodology,1991.II.IPCCSUPPLEMENT,1992a)CLIMATECHANGE1992—TheSupplementaryReporttotheIPCCScientificAssessment.The1992reportoftheIPCCScientificAssessmentWorkingGroup.b)CLIMATECHANGE1992—TheSupplementaryReporttotheIPCCImpactsAssessment.The1992reportoftheIPCCImpactsAssessmentWorkingGroup.CLIMATECHANGE:TheIPCC1990and1992Assessments—IPCCFirstAssessmentReportOverviewandPolicymakerSummaries,and1992IPCCSupplement(alsoinChinese,French,RussianandSpanish).GlobalClimateChangeandtheRisingChallengeoftheSea.CoastalZoneManagementSubgroupoftheIPCCResponseStrategiesWorkingGroup,1992.ReportoftheIPCCCountryStudyWorkshop,1992.PreliminaryGuidelinesforAssessingImpactsofClimateChange,1992.III.IPCCSPECIALREPORT,1994CLIMATECHANGE1994—RadiativeForcingofClimateChangeandAnEvaluationoftheIPCCIS92EmissionScenarios.IV.IPCCSECONDASSESSMENTREPORT,1995a)CLIMATECHANGE1995—TheScienceofClimateChange(includingSummaryforPolicymakers).ReportofIPCCWorkingGroupI,1995.b)CLIMATECHANGE1995—Scientific-TechnicalAnalysesofImpacts,AdaptationsandMitigationofClimateChange(includingSummaryforPolicymakers).ReportofIPCCWorkingGroupII,1995.c)CLIMATECHANGE1995—TheEconomicandSocialDimensionsofClimateChange(includingSummaryforPolicymakers).ReportofIPCCWorkingGroupIII,1995.d)TheIPCCSecondAssessmentSynthesisofScientific-TechnicalInformationRelevanttoInterpretingArticle2oftheUNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange,1995.(TheIPCCSynthesisandthethreeSummariesforPolicymakershavebeenpublishedinasinglevolumeandarealsoavailableinArabic,Chinese,French,RussianandSpanish.)V.IPCCMETHODOLOGIESa)IPCCGuidelinesforNationalGreenhouseGasInventories(3vol-umes),1994(alsoinFrench,RussianandSpanish).b)IPCCTechnicalGuidelinesforAssessingClimateChangeImpactsandAdaptations,1995(alsoinArabic,Chinese,French,RussianandSpanish).c)Revised1996IPCCGuidelinesforNationalGreenhouseGasInventories(3volumes),1996.d)GoodPracticeGuidanceandUncertaintyManagementinNationalGreenhouseGasInventories,IPCCTaskForceonNationalGreenhouseGasInventories,2000.VI.IPCCTECHNICALPAPERSTECHNOLOGIES,POLICIESANDMEASURESFORMITIGATINGCLIMATECHANGE—IPCCTechnicalPaper1,1996(alsoinFrenchandSpanish).ANINTRODUCTIONTOSIMPLECLIMATEMODELSUSEDINTHEIPCCSECONDASSESSMENTREPORT—IPCCTechnicalPaper2,1997(alsoinFrenchandSpanish).STABILIZATIONOFATMOSPHERICGREENHOUSEGASES:PHYSICAL,BIOLOGICALANDSOCIO-ECONOMICIMPLICATIONS—IPCCTechnicalPaper3,1997(alsoinFrenchandSpanish).IMPLICATIONSOFPROPOSEDCO2EMISSIONSLIMITATIONS—IPCCTechnicalPaper4,1997(alsoinFrenchandSpanish).VII.IPCCSPECIALREPORTSTHEREGIONALIMPACTSOFCLIMATECHANGE:ANASSESSMENTOFVULNERABILITY(includingSummaryforPolicymakers,whichisavailableinArabic,Chinese,English,French,RussianandSpanish).ASpecialReportofIPCCWorkingGroupII,1997.AVIATIONANDTHEGLOBALATMOSPHERE(includingSummaryforPolicymakers,whichisavailableinArabic,Chinese,English,French,RussianandSpanish).ASpecialReportofIPCCWorkingGroupsIandIII,1999.METHODOLOGICALANDTECHNOLOGICALISSUESINTECH-NOLOGYTRANSFER(includingSummaryforPolicymakers,whichisavailableinArabic,Chinese,English,French,RussianandSpanish).ASpecialReportofIPCCWorkingGroupIII,2000.EMISSIONSSCENARIOS(includingSummaryforPolicymakers,whichisavailableinArabic,Chinese,English,French,RussianandSpanish).ASpecialReportofIPCCWorkingGroupIII,2000.LANDUSE,LAND-USECHANGE,ANDFORESTRY(includingSummaryforPolicymakers,whichisavailableinArabic,Chinese,English,French,RussianandSpanish).ASpecialReportoftheIPCC,2000.LISTOFIPCCOUTPUTS(unlessotherwisestated,allIPCCoutputsareinEnglish)
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