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XTaking climate action

Measuring carbon emissions in the garment sector in Asia

Authors / Samantha Sharpe, Elsa Dominish, Maria Cristina Martinez Fernandez

February / 2022

ILO Working Paper 53

This is an open access work distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO License (http://

creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo). Users can reuse, share, adapt and build upon the original work,

even for commercial purposes, as detailed in the License. The ILO must be clearly credited as the owner

of the original work. The use of the emblem of the ILO is not permitted in connection with users’ work.

Translations – In case of a translation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with the

attribution: This translation was not created by the International Labour Oce (ILO) and should not be consid-

ered an ocial ILO translation. The ILO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation.

Adaptations – In case of an adaptation of this work, the following disclaimer must be added along with

the attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by the International Labour Oce (ILO). Responsibility

for the views and opinions expressed in the adaptation rests solely with the author or authors of the adaptation

and are not endorsed by the ILO.

All queries on rights and licensing should be addressed to ILO Publications (Rights and Licensing), CH-1211

Geneva 22, Switzerland, or by email to rights@ilo.org.

ISBN: 9789220353233 (print)

ISBN: 9789220353240 (web-pdf)

ISBN: 9789220353257 (epub)

ISBN: 9789220353264 (mobi)

ISBN: 9789220365847 (html)

ISSN: 2708-3446

The designations employed in ILO publications, which are in conformity with United Nations practice, and

the presentation of material therein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of

the International Labour Oce concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory or of its author-

ities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.

The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other contributions rests solely with

their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour Oce of

the opinions expressed in them.

Reference to names of rms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement

by the International Labour Oce, and any failure to mention a particular rm, commercial product or pro-

cess is not a sign of disapproval.

ILO Working Papers summarize the results of ILO research in progress, and seek to stimulate discussion of a

range of issues related to the world of work. Comments on this ILO Working Paper are welcome and can be sent to

GreenJobsAP@ilo.org, samantha.sharpe@uts.edu.au.

Authorization for publication: Mr Graeme Buckley, Director for ILO DWT for East and South-East Asia and

the Pacic

ILO Working Papers can be found at: www.ilo.org/global/publications/working-papers

Suggested citation:

Sharpe, S., Dominish, E., Martinez Fernandez, M. 2022. Taking climate action: Measuring carbon emissions

in the garment sector in Asia, ILO Working Paper 53 (Geneva, ILO).

01 ILO Working Paper 53

Abstract

This paper examines carbon emissions across the garment sector as counted using the two prominent

methodologies for calculating emissions – the life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon accounting in line

with the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. The purpose of this paper is to provide insight into where and why the

carbon intensity of textiles and garments varies across the supply chain and where activities to decarbon-

ize the sector should be prioritized.

About the authors

The paper was prepared by Ms Elsa Dominish, Research Principal, and Dr Samantha Sharpe, Associate

Professor, of the Institute of Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney, and Dr Maria Cristina

Martinez Fernandez, Senior Specialist, Environment and Decent Work and Asia-Pacic Coordinator - Green

Jobs & Just Transition for the International Labour Organization’s Regional Oce for Asia and the Pacic.

The paper also draws on valuable points raised during the Strategies on Reducing and Utilizing CO2 for Cost

Eective Business Roundtable hosted by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and

the Pacic (ESCAP) Sustainable Business Network1.

1https://www.ilo.org/asia/events/WCMS_781625/lang--en/index.htm

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XXTakingclimateactionMeasuringcarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsiaAuthors/SamanthaSharpe,ElsaDominish,MariaCristinaMartinezFernandezFebruary/2022ILOWorkingPaper53Copyright©InternationalLabourOrganization2022ThisisanopenaccessworkdistributedundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0IGOLicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo).Userscanreuse,share,adaptandbuildupontheoriginalwork,evenforcommercialpurposes,asdetailedintheLicense.TheILOmustbeclearlycreditedastheowneroftheoriginalwork.TheuseoftheemblemoftheILOisnotpermittedinconnectionwithusers’work.Translations–Incaseofatranslationofthiswork,thefollowingdisclaimermustbeaddedalongwiththeattribution:ThistranslationwasnotcreatedbytheInternationalLabourOffice(ILO)andshouldnotbeconsid-eredanofficialILOtranslation.TheILOisnotresponsibleforthecontentoraccuracyofthistranslation.Adaptations–Incaseofanadaptationofthiswork,thefollowingdisclaimermustbeaddedalongwiththeattribution:ThisisanadaptationofanoriginalworkbytheInternationalLabourOffice(ILO).ResponsibilityfortheviewsandopinionsexpressedintheadaptationrestssolelywiththeauthororauthorsoftheadaptationandarenotendorsedbytheILO.AllqueriesonrightsandlicensingshouldbeaddressedtoILOPublications(RightsandLicensing),CH-1211Geneva22,Switzerland,orbyemailtorights@ilo.org.ISBN:9789220353233(print)ISBN:9789220353240(web-pdf)ISBN:9789220353257(epub)ISBN:9789220353264(mobi)ISBN:9789220365847(html)ISSN:2708-3446ThedesignationsemployedinILOpublications,whichareinconformitywithUnitedNationspractice,andthepresentationofmaterialthereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheInternationalLabourOfficeconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,areaorterritoryorofitsauthor-ities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiers.Theresponsibilityforopinionsexpressedinsignedarticles,studiesandothercontributionsrestssolelywiththeirauthors,andpublicationdoesnotconstituteanendorsementbytheInternationalLabourOfficeoftheopinionsexpressedinthem.ReferencetonamesoffirmsandcommercialproductsandprocessesdoesnotimplytheirendorsementbytheInternationalLabourOffice,andanyfailuretomentionaparticularfirm,commercialproductorpro-cessisnotasignofdisapproval.ILOWorkingPaperssummarizetheresultsofILOresearchinprogress,andseektostimulatediscussionofarangeofissuesrelatedtotheworldofwork.CommentsonthisILOWorkingPaperarewelcomeandcanbesenttoGreenJobsAP@ilo.org,samantha.sharpe@uts.edu.au.Authorizationforpublication:MrGraemeBuckley,DirectorforILODWTforEastandSouth-EastAsiaandthePacificILOWorkingPaperscanbefoundat:www.ilo.org/global/publications/working-papersSuggestedcitation:Sharpe,S.,Dominish,E.,MartinezFernandez,M.2022.Takingclimateaction:MeasuringcarbonemissionsinthegarmentsectorinAsia,ILOWorkingPaper53(Geneva,ILO).01ILOWorkingPaper53AbstractThispaperexaminescarbonemissionsacrossthegarmentsectorascountedusingthetwoprominentmethodologiesforcalculatingemissions–thelifecycleassessment(LCA)andcarbonaccountinginlinewiththeGreenhouseGasProtocol.Thepurposeofthispaperistoprovideinsightintowhereandwhythecarbonintensityoftextilesandgarmentsvariesacrossthesupplychainandwhereactivitiestodecarbon-izethesectorshouldbeprioritized.AbouttheauthorsThepaperwaspreparedbyMsElsaDominish,ResearchPrincipal,andDrSamanthaSharpe,AssociateProfessor,oftheInstituteofSustainableFutures,UniversityofTechnologySydney,andDrMariaCristinaMartinezFernandez,SeniorSpecialist,EnvironmentandDecentWorkandAsia-PacificCoordinator-GreenJobs&JustTransitionfortheInternationalLabourOrganization’sRegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific.ThepaperalsodrawsonvaluablepointsraisedduringtheStrategiesonReducingandUtilizingCO2forCostEffectiveBusinessRoundtablehostedbytheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP)SustainableBusinessNetwork1.1https://www.ilo.org/asia/events/WCMS_781625/lang--en/index.htm02ILOWorkingPaper53Abstract01Abouttheauthors01Acronyms06ExecutiveSummary07XXIntroduction09TheILOJustTransitionToolkitfortheTextilesandGarmentSector10Method10Structureofthispaper10Backgroundcontext–environmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsupplychain11XX1Carbonemissionsinthetextileandgarmentsector121.1.Distributionofemissionsacrossthevaluechain121.1.1.Textileandgarmentproduction121.1.2.Consumerusephase131.1.3.Distributionandend-of-life131.1.4.Variationsbetweenfibres141.2.Geographicallocationofemissions151.2.1.Emissionsfromproduction151.2.2.Emissionsfromconsumption16XX2Approachestomeasuringemissions172.1.Lifecycleassessment172.1.1.LCAuseinthetextileandgarmentsector182.2.SpecificexamplesofLCAuseinthesector192.2.1.LCA-basedtools192.2.2.LCIdatabases202.2.3.Limitations202.3.GreenhouseGas(GHG)Protocol202.4.Greenhousegasassessmentsinthetextileandgarmentsector222.4.1.Science-basedtargets22XXConclusion24Tableofcontents03ILOWorkingPaper53References26Acknowledgements2904ILOWorkingPaper53ListofFiguresFigure1.Comparisonofthedistributionofemissionsinthegarmentsectorvaluechainbe-tweentwokeystudies12Figure2.Comparisonofemissionsbyfibretype15Figure3.Typicalboundariesfor“cradle-to-gate”and“cradle-to-grave”LCAsforthetextileandgarmentsector18Figure4.OverviewofGHGProtocolscopesandemissionsacrossthevaluechain2105ILOWorkingPaper53ListofTablesTable1.Primaryenergyconsumptioninselectedcountriesbyfueltypein2019(%)16Table2.CriteriaforinclusionofScope3emissions21Table3.TargetsettingmethodsforreducingScope1,2and3emissions2306ILOWorkingPaper53AcronymsCO2eCarbondioxideequivalentGHGgreenhousegasHiggMSIHiggMaterialSustainabilityIndexkWhkilowatthourLCAlifecycleassessmentLCIlifecycleinventoryM&SMarks&SpencerNDCnationallydefinedcontributionSACSustainableApparelCoalitionSBTsscience-basedtargetsSBTiScienceBasedTargetsinitiativeUNFCCCUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeWALDBWorldApparelandFootwearLifeCycleAssessmentDatabaseWBCSDWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopmentWRIWorldResourcesInstitute07ILOWorkingPaper53ExecutiveSummaryThetextileandgarmentsectoraccountsforasignificantproportionofglobalcarbonemissions,estimatesrangebetween6and8percentoftotalglobalcarbonemissions,orsome1.7billiontonnesincarbonemis-sionsperyear.TheParisAgreementsetsouttolimitglobalwarmingtolessthan2degreesabovepre-in-dustriallevels,withthepreferabletargetoflimitingwarmingto1.5degrees.Theemissionreductionsas-sociatedwithachievingthisgoalaresignificant–toreachthistarget,globalemissionswillneedtodeclinebyabout45percent(on2010levels)by2030andbeatnetzeroby2050.Garmentsectorstakeholderscametogetherin2018tocommittoclimateactionthroughtheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)FashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction.SignatoriestotheChartercommitto30percentgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionreductionsby2030(froma2015baseline)andnet-zeroemissionsby2050.Thisisasignificantchallenge–realizingthis30percentreductioninthesector’semissionswouldrequireareductionofmorethanhalfabilliontonnesofcarbondioxideacrossthesectorperyearby2030.Meetingthischallengewillrequiresystem-levelchangesintheproductionandconsumptionoftextilesandgar-ments,andwilllikelyhavesignificantimpactsonhowandwheregarmentsareproducedandtheemploy-mentassociatedwiththisproduction.Thispaperprovidesanexplaineronhowandwherecarbonemissionsaccrueacrossthetextileandgar-mentsectorsupplychainasaprecursortoidentifyingwhereinthesupplychainactionshouldbemosttargeted.Thefindingsshowthatemissionsoccurallalongthevaluechain,butaremostsignificantintheyarnandfabricproductionphase,whichisalsoconsistentwithotherenvironmentalimpactssuchaswa-terconsumptionandchemicalsuse.EnergyuseisthemajorcontributortoGHGemissionsinthetextileandgarmentsector.Highenergyde-mandcomesfromthewetprocessingstages(dyeingandfinishing),whereenergyisusedtocreatesteamtoheatwaterandalsofordryingfabrics.Thecarbonintensityoftheenergysourcesusedinproductioncentres(coalornaturalgas)translatestohighemissionsintensityfortextileproduction.Energycanalsoaccountforasignificantportionofcostswithinenergy-intensivepartsofthevaluechain,suchastextilemillsandgarmentfactories;sothereisaneconomicandaswellanenvironmentaldrivertoreduceemis-sionsinthesector.Thepaperexaminescarbonemissionsacrossthegarmentsectorascountedusingthetwoprominentmethodologiesforcalculatingemissions,withthepurposetoprovideinsightintowhereandwhythecar-bonintensityoftextilesandgarmentsvariesacrossthesupplychainandwhereactivitiestodecarbonizethesectorshouldbeprioritized.ThetwostandardizedapproachestomeasuringGHGemissionsarethroughlifecycleassessment(LCA)andcarbonaccountinginlinewiththeGreenhouseGasProtocol.Thispaperhighlightsthecarbonemissionimplicationsof:●●usingdifferentfabricsandtextiles(specificallynaturalversusman-made);●●thecarbonintensityofenergysourcesinproductioncentres;●●theoverallvolumeofproduction;and●●thelengthandintensityoftheusephase(includingwashingandwearingbehavioursofconsumers).Thescaleandpaceofsystem-widechangeingarmentmanufacturingrequiredtomeettargetsforclimateactionmeansthattherewillalsobesignificantimpactsontheworldofworkinthesecomponentsofthesupplychain.Reducingcarbonemissionwillrequirechangestobusinessmodelsalongsidetechnological08ILOWorkingPaper53andprocessinnovations.Toachievethesechangeswillrequireinvestmentsinhumanandfinancialcapitaloverasustainedamountoftimetoensureajusttransitiontakesplace.09ILOWorkingPaper53XXIntroductionTheParisAgreementsetsouttolimitglobalwarmingtolessthan2degreesabovepre-industriallevels,withthepreferabletargetof1.5degrees.Theemissionreductionsassociatedwithachievingthesetargetsaresignificant–toreachthem,globalemissionswillneedtodeclinebyabout45percent(of2010levels)by2030andbeatnetzeroby2050(IPCC2018).Garmentstakeholderscametogetherin2018tocommittoclimateaction,forgingtheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)FashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction.TheCharterisanindustry-widecommitmenttosupportthegoalsoftheParisAgreement,launchedinDecember2018atthe24thConferenceofthePartiesinKatowice,Poland(UNFCCC2018).SignatoriestotheChartercommitto30percentgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionreductionsby2030(froma2015baseline)andnet-zeroemissionsby2050.Thisisasignificantchallenge–globallythegarmentandtextilesectoraccountsfor6–8percentofemis-sions(Niinimaki2020),orsome1.7billiontonnesofcarbonemissionsperyear.A30percentcutmeansemissionsreductionofsomehalfabilliontonnesofcarbondioxideperyearby2030,andthisambitiousgoalraisessomeimmediatequestions:Howwillthesectorachievethesetargets?Whatincentives,supportandpoliciesneedtobeinplace?Whateffectswilltheseemissionreductionsandtheresultingchangesinproductionandconsumptionsystemshaveonemploymentandtheworldofwork?FortheILO,theimplicationsfortheworldofworkareclear.AsdiscussedattheGoverningBodyinNovember2020,climatechangewillsignificantlyimpactjobsandlivelihoodsandchallengeourabilitytoachievesus-tainabledevelopment(ILO2020).Thetransitiontoalow-carbon,environmentallysustainableeconomyandsocietywillprovidedemandfornewemploymentandskills,andallowfortheachievementofpovertyeradicationandsocialjustice.However,incertaincircumstances,geographies,communitiesandsectors,itwillhavenegativeimpactsonemploymentandlabourmarkets.Asindustrialactivitiesmoveawayfromcarbon-intensiveproduction,employmentandeconomicactivitywillalsoneedtochange,andindustrialchangeatthisscaleisrarelysmooth.Alow-carbontransitionthatisalsojust–leavingno-onebehind–willrequiretheongoingengagementofstakeholders,andthedevelopmentandimplementationofspecificpoliciestosupportemploymentcreationandskilldevelopment,sustainableenterprisedevelopment,so-cialprotection,rightsatworkandsocialdialogue(ILO2020).Specifically,theILOGoverningBodyprovidedILOwithamandateforactionto:a)promotefurtherdiscussion,research,knowledgeandunderstandingoftheimplicationsofclimatechangefortheworldofwork,focusingonallrelevantsectors;b)advancetheapplicationoftheILOGuidelinesforaJustTransitiontowardsEnvironmentallySustainableEconomiesandSocietiesforAll,withafocusonassistinggovernments,workers’organizationsandem-ployers’organizationsinthedevelopmentofpoliciesthroughsocialdialoguetoimplementtheirclimatechangecommitments,includingthroughtheClimateActionforJobsInitiative;c)promotecollaborationbetweentheILO,itsconstituentsandrelevantinternationalinstitutionsaddressingclimatechangeandrelatedkeyenvironmentalissues,suchasdeforestation,desertification,risingsealevelsandbiodiversityloss,adaptationandreductionofemissions,aswellasimplementingtheDecadeofActiontowardsachievingthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,inparticularSustainableDevelopmentGoal8,withaviewtoadvancingajusttransitionforall;d)continuetopursuecarbonneutralityattheILO,inlinewiththeUnitedNationstargettoreachcarbonneutralityby2020;ande)reportbacktotheGoverningBodyontheimplementationoftheabove-mentionedpoints.10ILOWorkingPaper53Thispapercontributestothiseffortinthegarmentsector.Toaddressdecarbonization,wefirstneedtoun-derstandwhereandhowemissionsaregenerated.Thispaperprovidesanoverviewofhowemissionsarecalculatedacrossthesector,highlightingimplicationsandlimitations.Thepaperconcludeswiththeimpli-cationsofthispatternofemissionsandthedecarbonizationneedsacrossthesector.TheILOJustTransitionToolkitfortheTextilesandGarmentSectorThispaperhasbeenproducedaspartoftheJustTransitionToolkitoftheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChainsinAsiaproject.TheJustTransitionToolkitfocusesonenhancingtheenvironmentalsustainabilityofthegarmentsupplychain.TheToolkitisbuiltfrominputsfromconstituents,includingamixofknowledgecreation,knowledgediffusionandcapacity-buildingactivitiesforkeysectoractorswiththeaimofdevelop-inganevidencebaseforhowenvironmentalsustainabilityandtheadoptionofmoresustainablepracticesinthetextileandgarmentsupplychainenhancedecentworkinthesector.TheToolkitconsistsofreports,briefs,highlights,videos,andinfographicsthatprovidespecificadviceforindustrystakeholderstoaddressgapsandweaknessesinnationalenvironmentalregulationoncountry-specificlevels,relevantguidanceandsupporttohelpmanufacturersunderstandandapplyenvironmentanddecentworkprinciples,andinformationoneco-innovationandgreenerproductioninthegarmentindustry.Throughoutthispaperweusetheterm“textileandgarmentsector”,aswearespecificallyinterestedingarmentproductionandthereforeinthetextilesmanufacturedasinputsintothesegarments.Textilesaremanufacturedforotherpurposesincludingfurniture,automotiveaccessoriesandhouseholddecoration,andwhiletheenvironmentalimpactsoftheproductionofthesetextilesmightbesimilartotextilespro-ducedforgarments,thesetextilesarenotthefocusofourworkinthisproject.TheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChainsinAsiaprojectisaregionalprojectwithcoverageofallcoun-triesacrosstheAsianregion,butactivitiesandevidencearedrawnfromfourtargetcountries:Bangladesh,Cambodia,IndonesiaandVietNam.MethodThispaperisbasedondesk-topreviewofexistingcarbonemissionsaccountingreportsandmethodolo-gies.Understandinghowcarbonemissionsaccrueoverthehighlyglobalizedandcomplexsupplychainsofthetextileandgarmentsectorisalsoacomplexandresource-intensiveactivity.Thereareafewfounda-tionalstudiesthathaveaccomplishedthismeasurementofemissionsacrossthesector(eachwithsomelimitations).InreviewingthesestudieswithaspecificfocusonthegeographyofemissionsinAsia,thepa-perhighlightswheretheimpactsofdecarbonizationwillbefelt;whereandinwhatsupplychainactivitiesemploymentimpactswillaccrue;andwhereshouldbethefocusofjusttransitionplanning.StructureofthispaperThispaperisdividedintofoursections.Section1includesthisintroductionandmethodsection,andalsothefollowingbackgroundcontextonthewiderenvironmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsector.Section2examinesindetailthecarbonemissionsinthesectorandidentifieswhichactivitiesinthesupplychainarethemostcarbon-intensive.Section3summarizesthetwomainmethodologiesforgreenhousegas(GHG)accounting–lifecycleassessmentandGHGaccounting.Section4presentsconclusionsandimplicationsofthisworkfortheDecentWorkintheGarmentSupplyChainsinAsiaprojectandthewidertextileandgarmentsector.11ILOWorkingPaper53Backgroundcontext–environmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsupplychainAsiaaccountsforsome60percentofglobalexportsofgarments,textilesandfootwear.Theindustryhasrapidlygrownoverthepasttwodecades,employingmorethan40millionworkers,themajorityinmanycountriesbeingwomen(Sharpe2017).Environmentalimpactsareconcentratedatcertainpointsinthesupplychain,particularlyinfourareas:a)theweaving,dyeingandfinishingprocessesintextilemanufacturing;b)energyusethroughoutthesupplychain,butconcentratedintextilemanufacturingandtoalesserex-tentingarmentassembly;c)textilewasteassociatedwithgarmentassembly;andd)thetransportemissionsthroughoutthesupplychainasmaterialsandthenfinalproductsareshippedglobally.Themostsignificantimpactshoweverarewithinthefirsttwoareas,withthemainimpactsbeingonuseintensityofwaterresources,chemicaluse(includingtoxicchemicals),wastewaterdischargesandlackoftreatmentprocesses,aswellasenergyuseandthecarbonintensityofelectricity.Textilemanufacturingisverywater-andchemical-intensive.Thegrowthandsustainabilityofthesectorishighlydependentonhowresourcesaremanaged.Thetextileindustryingeneralhasanenormouswaterfootprintrangingfromagriculturalwaterconsumptionforcottonfarming,towaterconsumptionintextileprinting,dyeingandfinishing.Thesectorisoneofthelargestusersoffreshwaterintheworld,consuminganestimated79billioncubicmetersoffreshwaterannuallyacrosstheentirevaluechain(UnitedKingdom2019).Astextileproductionislocatedinsomecountriesthatalreadyhaveinsecurewatersuppliers,watercrisesareforecastinanumberoftextileproducingcountries.Thesectorisalsoresponsibleforseverewaterpollutionbydischarginglargevolumesofwastewatercon-taininghazardoussubstancesintoriversandwatercourseswithoutappropriatetreatment.Itisreportedthat20percentofindustrialwaterpollutiongloballyisattributabletothedyeingandtreatmentoftextiles(EMF2017).Thecarbonfootprintfromthesectorisalsosignificantaswillbefurtherexaminedinthispaper.Asnotedabove,thesectoraccountsfor6–8percentoftotalglobalemissions(Niinimaki2020).In2015thisequatedtoemissionsof1.7billiontonnesofcarbondioxide(UnitedKingdom2019),whichismorethanallinterna-tionalflightsandmaritimeshippingcombined(Sumner2019).Thenumbersarenotsurprisinggiventhefactthatover60percentoftextilesareusedintheapparelindustry,andalargeproportionofapparelman-ufacturingoccursinChinaandIndia.Indiainparticularreliesheavilyonhardcoalandnaturalgasforelec-tricityandheatproduction,sharplyincreasingthecarbonfootprintofeachapparelproduct.Encouragingenergyefficiencyandswitchingtorenewableenergysources,suchassolar,hydroorwindpower,cansig-nificantlychangeemissionsandimprovethesustainabilityoftextileproduction.Moreover,theincreaseoffastfashionhasstimulateddemandforfast,cheapandlow-qualitygoods.Boththegrowingvolumeofgarmentproductionandhowthesegarmentsareusedanddisposedofthathaveresultedinincreasingclimatechangeimpactsstemmingfromthegarmentsector.Between2005to2016,theclimateimpactofvariousproductionstagesintheapparelsectorincreasedby35percentandispro-jectedtocontinuetoincreaseunderabusiness-as-usualscenario(Quantis2018).12ILOWorkingPaper53XX1Carbonemissionsinthetextileandgarmentsector1.1.DistributionofemissionsacrossthevaluechainItischallengingtoquantifythedistributionofcarbonemissionsacrossthevaluechain,asitisdependentonthespecificproductandmaterials,aswellastheemissionsintensityofthecountryofproduction(WRI2019).Thefollowingsectionsummarizesthefindingsfromstudiesthathaveanalysedcarbonemissionsinthesector.Itisimportanttonotethatthestudiesvaryinmethod,scopeandlocation,sothereisalackofconsensusamongresults.However,theoverallfindingshighlightthatitistheproductionofyarnandtextilesandtheusephasethathavethelargestshareofemissions,withasmallershareofemissionsintheproductionofrawmaterials,assembly,distributionanddisposal.1.1.1.TextileandgarmentproductionWeareawareofonlyonestudythathasattemptedtomeasureemissionsacrossthegarmentsectorglob-ally.The2018studybyQuantisfoundthelargestshareofemissionsarefromthedyeingandfinishingpro-cesses(36percent),followedbyyarnpreparation(28percent),fibreproduction(15percent)andfabricpreparation(12percent).Thisstudyfoundthatassemblywasonlyresponsiblefor7percentofemissions,anddistributionanddisposalatend-of-lifefornegligibleamounts(Quantis2018).Thatstudydidnotin-cludetheusephaseortransporttothecustomerbecauseofthedifficultyofanalysingthevariabilityinconsumerbehaviour(Quantis2018).TheseresultsareconsistentwithaSwedishstudybasedonemissionsfromsixtypesofgarments,whichfoundwettreatment(dyeingandfinishingprocesses)accountedforthelargestportionofemissions(23.5percent),followedbyfibreproduction(16.3percent),confectioning(cuttingandsewing)(15.6percent)andfabricproduction(14.1percent)(Sandinetal.2019).Acomparisonoftheresultsofthesetwostudiesispresentedinfigure2.TheSwedishstudyassumedbestavailabletechnologieswereusedinthetextilemanufacturingprocesses,whichisnotthecaseinrealityandlikelyleadstounaccountedemissionsinthegarmentproductionprocess.XXFigure1.ComparisonofthedistributionofemissionsinthegarmentsectorvaluechainbetweentwokeystudiesStudiesfocusedonparticularfactories,brandsorgarmentsalsofoundsimilarresults.Forexample,a2019studyofasewingassemblylineformen’sshirtsinChinafoundthatfabricsarethemainsourceofcarbonemissions(ZhangandChen2019).AnotherstudyfromChinaontheimpactsofacottonTshirtproduction13ILOWorkingPaper53alsofoundthatthelargestcontributorstocarbonemissionsinthelifecyclewasthedyeingprocess(35percent);however,thisstudyalsofoundsignificantemissionsinthegarmentassemblystage(32percent)(Zhangetal.2015).H&M(2019)foundthatfabricproduction(whichinthisstudyincludedyarnproductionanddyeing/finishing)wasbyfarthelargestsourceofemissions(48percent),followedbytheusephase(13percent),garmentassembly(12percent)andrawmaterials(11percent).Thehighshareofemissionsinthesestagesareadirectresultofthehighenergydemandofthesepro-cessesandtherelianceonfossilfuelsforenergyincountriesofproduction.Wettextileprocessing,com-monlyusedfordyeing,isahighlyenergyintensiveprocessandtypicallyinvolvesthedirectuseofcoalornaturalgasonsitefortheproductionofsteam.Forexample,astudyofacottonmillinTurkeyfoundthatthelargestenergyconsumptionwasnaturalgasforsteamgeneration(46percent),almostallofwhichisusedforheatingwaterforthewetprocessing,andthesecond-largestenergyusewasfordrying(30percent)(AlkayaandDemirer2014).AstudyfromBangladeshfoundsignificantenergyuseinthewetprocess-ingunit,whichusesbothsteamandheatenergy,andintheweavingmachines(looms),whichconsume50–60percentoftheenergyattheweavingplant(Hasanetal.2019).IntheproductionofcottonT-shirtsinChina,emissionsinthedyeingphaseweremainlyattributedtotheuseofcoalburnedonsitetoproducesteam,andemissionsinthegarmentassemblystagewereindirectemissionsfromelectricityconsumptionatthefactory(Zhangetal.2015).Althoughnotthefocusofthisreview,studieshavefoundthatforfootwear,themanufacturingphasehasthelargestimpactoncarbonemissions,accountingfor63–68percent,followedbytheproductionofrawmaterials,accountingfor20–29percent(Cheahetal.2013;Quantis2018).1.1.2.ConsumerusephaseItislesscommonforstudiestoassessthecontributionofthe“usephase”byconsumersoftextilesandgarmentstothecarbonemissionsoveragarment’slifecycle.Calculatingemissionsfromtheusephaseischallenging,asthereisalackofdataonbehaviourssuchasthefrequencyofwashing,washingtempera-ture,detergenttypesanddryingmethods,whichvarygreatlybetweencultures(Yasinetal.2016).Somestudiessuggesttheusephasemaybethelargestcontributortoemissionsinthevaluechain.AstudyundertakenfortheUKbrandMarks&Spencer(M&S)foundthattheusephasehadthelargestconsump-tionofenergyacrossthelifecycle,responsiblefor81percentofenergyuseformen’scottonbriefsand76percentforpolyestertrousers.Washinganddryingwerethemajorenergyconsumers,andthereforesourcesofemissions.Inbothexamples,productmanufacturewasresponsiblefor13percentandretailoperations4percent,andcottonfibreproductionwasresponsibleforonly3percentcomparedto7percentforpolyester(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002).LeviStrauss&Coalsofoundthattheusephasehadthelargestshareofemissions(34percent),higherthanfabricproduction(31percent)andcottoncultivation(10percent)(LeviStrauss&Co.2018).AstudyinChinaalsofoundsignificantemissionsintheusephase,assessingitasthethird-highestcontrib-utortoemissions.However,thisstudywasbasedonwashinghabitsinChinathatarelessenergyintensivethaninothermajoreconomies,soemissionsarelikelytobehigherinothercountries(Zhangetal.2015).1.1.3.Distributionandend-of-lifeThestudiesdiscussedaboveallfoundthattransportisnotasignificantconsumerofenergy,withestimatesof1–6percentofthevaluechain.However,theM&Sstudynotesthattransportbyaconsumerfromthestoreusesmoreenergythanallothertransportinthevaluechain(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002),andthiswasnotaccountedforintheQuantisstudy.TheSwedishstudyonsixgarmentsfounda14ILOWorkingPaper53significantshareofemissionsfromtransportintheusephase,accountingforjustover10percentofemis-sions(Sandinetal.2019).Disposalwasalsofoundtohaveaninsignificantimpactonemissions,withestimatesbetween0and2.8percentacrossthestudiesreviewed.However,lifecycleassessment(LCA)hasbeenusedinseveralstudiestoinvestigatetheenvironmentalimpactsofclothingsharing,reuseandrecycling.Forexample,astudyinFinlandfoundthatincreasingthecollectionofdiscardedtextilesforreuseandre-cyclingcancreateanenvironmentalbenefitbyoffsettingvirgintextileproduction.However,thereareun-certaintieswhetherrecycledfibrescanreplacevirginfibres,andwhetherthereuseandresaleoftextilesreducesdemandfornewproductionoraddstooveralldemandandconsumption(Dahlboetal.2017).TheM&Sstudyshowedtheenvironmentalbenefitofclothingreuse.Itfoundthatprocessinganddistributionofsecond-handclothingconsumes1.7kilowatthours(kWh)ofenergyperkg,andeachkgofclothingdis-placedbysecond-handclothingcouldsave65kWhforcottonand90kWhforpolyester(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002).AstudyofclothinglibrariesinSwedenfoundthatinsomescenariosthetransportationemissionscansurpasstheenvironmentalbenefitsofreducedproductionofnewclothing.Thekeyvariablestoensureanenvironmentalbenefitareextendingthelifespanofthegarmentandlowimpacttransportation(Zamani,SandinandPeters2017).1.1.4.VariationsbetweenfibresThetypeoffibrealsohasanimpactonGHGemissions;however,therearelimitedpublisheddata.ThePulseoftheFashionIndustryreportundertookananalysisoftextilesbasedonfibretypeandfoundthatleather,silkandwoolhadthehighestemissionsbykgofmaterial;whilepolypropyleneandacrylicfibreshadthelowestemissions(GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup2017).Infact,thesenaturalfibreshavethehighestenvironmentalimpactwhenwealsoincludewateruseandpesticideuseinthegrowingofrawmaterials(seefigure3).Syntheticfibresarenotwithoutimpact,althoughcarbonemissionsarelow-er.Otherissueswiththesesyntheticfibresincludebeingmadeofnon-renewableresources,andbeingasourceforgrowinglevelsofmicro-plasticpollution.ThephaseofthevaluechainthatcontributesmosttoGHGemissionscandependonthefibretypeaswellastheproductionprocess.AUKstudyfoundthatlaundryprocessesintheusephasehasthehighesten-ergyconsumptionwithinthelifecycleofacottonT-shirt,whereasforaviscosegarment,thematerialpro-ductionphasehasthehighestenergyconsumption(Allwoodetal.2006).InasimilarresulttothePulseoftheFashionIndustryreport,thisstudyfoundthatgarmentsmadefromnon-syntheticfibresusedtwiceasmuchenergyasthosemadefromsyntheticfibres.Theemissionsassociatedwithdifferentfibresarealsoimpactedbythetypeofgarmentsthesefibresaremadeintoandtheuseofthesegarments.Fibressuchaswool,silkandleatheraremorelikelytobemadeintohigher-qualityandlonger-lastinggarments,withsyntheticgarmentsusedmoreinfastfashionitems.15ILOWorkingPaper53XXFigure2.ComparisonofemissionsbyfibretypeSource:GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup2017.1.2.GeographicallocationofemissionsTherearelimiteddataonthegeographicallocationofemissionsfromthetextileandgarmentsectors.However,wecaninferwheresignificantemissionsoccurbylookingatthecentresforproductionandcon-sumptionoftextilesandgarments.1.2.1.EmissionsfromproductionInChina,thelargestglobalproduceroftextilesandgarments,theapparelindustryisthesixth-largestin-dustrysectorintermsofenergyconsumption(ZhangandChen2019).InBangladesh,thetextileandgar-mentsindustryisthetopexportearner,generating81percentofgrossdomesticincome.Theindustrialsectoraccountsfor27percentofthecountry’stotalenergyconsumption,andthetextilesectorisapprox-imatelyone-thirdofthis(Hasanetal.2019).InTurkey,anothertextileproducingcountry,thesectoristhethird-mostenergyintensivesectorafteriron/steelandcement(AlkayaandDemirer2014).Theenergysourcesincountriesofproductionhavealargeimpactontheemissionintensityoftextilesandgarmentproduction.Forexample,Bangladeshisheavilydependentonnaturalgas,withlessthan2percentrenewableenergy(Hasanetal.2019).Asummaryoftheprimaryenergyconsumptionbyfueltypeacrossfiveimportantcountriesinthevaluechainisgivenintable1.16ILOWorkingPaper53XXTable1.Primaryenergyconsumptioninselectedcountriesbyfueltypein2019(%)CountryShareoffossilfuelsOilNaturalgasCoalHydroelectricRenewablesBangladesh99.4%20.8%70.3%8.2%0.4%0.2%China85.1%19.7%7.8%57.6%8.0%4.7%India91.0%30.1%6.3%54.7%4.2%3.5%Indonesia93.9%38.0%17.7%38.2%1.7%4.4%VietNam84.8%25.9%8.6%50.3%14.2%1.0%Incountrieswithoutlargegarmentproductioncentres,theemissionsfromthetextileandgarmentsectorareverylow.Forexample,intheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandthetextileandgar-mentindustryisestimatedtoberesponsibleforlessthan1percentoftotalemissions(Allwoodetal.2006).1.2.2.EmissionsfromconsumptionApartfromemissionsfortransporttofinalconsumer,whichasnotedabovearenotaverysignificant,GHGemissionsaregenerallyconsideredtobetheresponsibilityofthecountrywherethegoodsorservicesareproduced.However,thereareargumentsthatemissionsshouldbeallocatedtothecountriesthatconsumethesegoodsorservices(PetersandHertwich2008).Takingthisapproach,itisestimatedthatpercapitaemissionsfromclothingconsumptionwere1,450kgCO2eperyearintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,1,210kgCO2einEuropeand41.8kgCO2einChina(Quantis2018).AstudyinSwedenestimatedemissionsfromclothingconsumptiontobe330kgCO2eperpersonperyear,approximately3percentofthecarbonfootprintperperson(Sandinetal.2019).17ILOWorkingPaper53XX2ApproachestomeasuringemissionsTherearetwostandardizedapproachestomeasuringgreenhousegasemissionsacrossthegarmentsector:a)lifecycleassessment;andb)GreenhouseGasProtocolaccounting.Lifecycleassessment(LCA)isusedtomeasurecarbonemissions(orenergyuseandotherenvironmentalimpacts)foraproduct(suchasanitemofclothing)oraprocess(suchaproductionline).Theseimpactscanthenbescaleduptounderstandenvironmentalimpactsofproductionandconsumptionofcertainprod-uctsandsectors.Bycontrast,theGreenhouseGas(GHG)Protocolisusedbycompaniesandorganizationstomeasuretheircorporate-levelemissions,includingtheirvaluechainandoperations.2.1.LifecycleassessmentLCAisaframeworkmethodologyforquantifyingtheenvironmentalimpactsofproducts,processesorser-vices.LCAprovidesastandardizedwaytoquantifytheenvironmentalperformanceofproducts,suchasenergyuse,greenhousegasemissions,waterfootprintandpollutants.LCAisusedinteraliawithinindus-tryforoptimizingtheeco-efficiencyofproductionprocessesandsupplychains,andformakingmaterialselectionandprocurementdecisions.TheprocessforundertakinganLCAbeginswithdefiningthesystemboundary(thatis,whatwillbeincludedinthesystem)andthefunctionalunit(thatis,whatunittheenvironmentalimpactwillbemeasuredfor–forexample,oneT-shirt).Thenextphaseistodevelopalifecycleinventory(LCI)thatdescribestheflowstoandfromnatureinrelationtothefunctionalunit.DataarefromprimarysurveysofcompaniesorfactoriesinconjunctionwithsecondarydatafromLCIdatasets.TherearealargenumberofLCIdatabasesspecifictoproductsorregions.AlifecycleimpactassessmentcanthenbeundertakenwithexistingmodelsandLCAsoftwaretoquantifyenvironmentalimpactsbasedontheflowsidentifiedintheLCIphase.StandardsforLCAhavebeendevelopedthroughtheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(14040:2006,LifeCycleAssessment:PrinciplesandFramework,and14044:2006,LifeCycleAssessment:RequirementsandGuidelines)anddetailedmethodologicalguidanceforLCAisprovidedthroughorgani-zationssuchastheLifeCycleInitiativehostedbyUNEnvironment.AtypicalLCAofaproductcancoveralllifecyclestagesfromrawmaterialsextractionorproduction,man-ufacturing,distribution,useandend-of-life.AnLCAisreferredtoas“cradle-to-grave”ifitincludesthefullproductlifecycle,or“cradle-to-gate”ifitonlyquantifiesemissionsuntiltheproductleavesthefactory.EnvironmentalProductDeclarations(ISO14025)havebeendevelopedasastandardizedmethodtocom-municateLCAresultstoconsumers.GreenhousegasemissionsaredefinedinLCAstudiesasthosewith“globalwarmingpotential”andaremeasuredinkilogramsofcarbondioxideequivalent(kgCO2e).Thismeasurementisusedtoaccountforthedifferentimpactsofvariousgreenhousegases(suchasmethaneandnitrousoxide)inacommonunit,bycalculatingtheamountofcarbondioxidethatwouldhavetheequivalentglobalwarmingimpact.Forexample,1kgofmethanecanbeexpressedas25kgCO2e.18ILOWorkingPaper532.1.1.LCAuseinthetextileandgarmentsectorLCAhasbeenusedtoquantifyenvironmentalimpactsofthetextileandgarmentsector,primarilybyre-searchersandglobalfashionbrands.LCAcanbeusedtohighlighttheenvironmentalimpactsinagar-ment’slifecycle,andtoaiddecision-makinginthedesignprocesstousematerialsandprocesseswithlowerenvironmentalimpact.Itisalsoausefultooltomakecomparisonsbetweenproductstofindwhichhavethelowestenvironmen-talimpacts;however,thisislimitedbythequalityofthedataandassumptionsused,asmostLCAsunder-takenontextilesorgarmentsarebasedonexistingsecondaryLCIdatabasesratherthanonprimarydata(Zhangetal.2015).MostLCAsarefocusedon“cradle-to-gate”impactsofgarmentsanddonotaccountfortheimpactsoftheusephaseoratend-of-life(Chapman2010;Zhangetal.2015).Forexample,acradle-to-gateLCAforacot-tongarmentwouldincludetheuseofenergy,waterandmaterialsandtheproductionofemissionsforcottoncultivation,cottonfibreproduction,textilesmanufacturing(includingspinning,knitting,dyeing)andgarmentassembly(cutting,sewingandpackaging).Theusephasewouldincludedataonthegarmentlifetime,usefrequency,washinghabits,andtheenergy,waterandmaterialsusedinwashing,dryingandironing.Theend-of-lifephasewouldincludeemissionsfromlandfillorinputsandemissionsfromrecycling.Anoverviewofatypicalboundaryfora“cradle-to-gate”LCAanda“cradle-to-grave”LCAforthetextileandgarmentsectorisgiveninfigure4.XXFigure3.Typicalboundariesfor“cradle-to-gate”and“cradle-to-grave”LCAsforthetextileandgarmentsec-torSource:authors19ILOWorkingPaper532.2.SpecificexamplesofLCAuseinthesectorLCAhasbeenusedbyresearcherstounderstandtheemissionsinthesectoratvaryingscales.Forexample,LCAhasbeenusedtoshowemissionsinthelifecycleofgarmentviaaT-shirtinChina(Zhangetal.2015);toshowtheemissionsintheproductionprocessinordertoimproveenvironmentalperformancethroughoptimizingtheassemblyline(ZhangandChen2019);andtounderstandthepotentialofgarmentreuseandrecyclingthroughaclothinglibraryinSweden(Zamani,SandinandPeters2017).LCAhasalsobeenusedtolookattheentireglobalapparelsystem,includingfibreproduction,yarnprepa-ration,fabricpreparation,dyeingandfinishing,assembly,distributionandend-of-life(Quantis2018).Asim-ilarapproachwasusedtoevaluatethetextileandgarmentsectorinSweden,butalsoincludedtransportandlaundryintheusephase(Sandinetal.2019).LCAhasalsobeenusedbyindustry.Forexample,M&ScommissionedastreamlinedLCA(asimplifiedver-sion)todeterminetheenergyfootprintsfortwoM&Sgarments.Thisanalysiswasusedtodevelopasoft-waretooltoallowthecompanytoassessthelifecycleenergyconsumption(EnvironmentalResourcesManagement2002).2.2.1.LCA-basedtoolsThetwomostwidelyusedtoolsthathavebeendevelopedinordertosimplifyundertakingLCAsforthetextileindustryaretheHiggMaterialSustainabilityIndex(HiggMSI)andtheMADE-BYFiberBenchmark(Laitala,KleppandHenry2018).Bothofthesetoolsfocusonthesustainabilityoffibretypes,focusingonlyonthematerialsbutexcludingtheusephase.TheHiggMSIisacustomtoolthatispartoftheHiggIndexseriesoftoolsdevelopedbytheSustainableApparelCoalition(SAC),anallianceofmorethan250organizations,includingbrands,retailers,manufac-turersandacademics,governmentsandNGOs.TheHiggMSIwasdevelopedforthetextileindustrytoenablecommonmethodologyandproceduresforLCA.TheMADE-BYFiberBenchmarkisasimilartool,butonlyincludesrawmaterialsbeforetheyarespunintoyarn,excludingthephasesofdyeing,knitting,weavingandfinishing.Ananalysisofthesetoolsfoundthatthetypeoffibrecontributestotheenvironmentalimpactsoftheusephase,asitimpactshowlongclothinglastsandhowuserstakecareofandusetheirclothing(Laitala,KleppandHenry2018).ThisreviewarguesthatLCAtoolsbasedonlyonmaterialproductionimpactsomitmajorenvironmentalimpactsintheusephase,suchasGHGemissionsfromwashingandthespreadofmicroplasticsfromsyntheticfibres.TheHiggMSIwasusedinthePulseoftheFashionIndustryreport,andfoundthatnaturalmaterials–par-ticularlyleather,silkandwool–hadthehighestemissionsbykgofmaterial(GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup2017).Thisreportrecommendspreferencingplasticandman-madecellulosicfi-bresinsteadofnaturalmaterials.However,althoughnaturalmaterialshavehigherenvironmentalimpactsintherawmaterialproductionstage,thismaynotbethecaseoncethelifespananduseofthegarmentsistakenintoconsideration(Laitala,KleppandHenry2018).AreviewoftheHiggMSIagainstinternationalLCAstandardsandguidelinesfoundthatthereareanum-berofinconsistenciesandimprovementsthatcouldbeimplementedtoensureitprovidesrobust,accu-rateandtrustworthyresults.ThisreviewconcludedthatinitscurrentformtheHiggMSIhadlimitedcapa-bilitytohelpstakeholderscomparefabrictypesinordertoselectthosewithlowerenvironmentalimpacts(WatsonandWiedemann2019).20ILOWorkingPaper532.2.2.LCIdatabasesThereareseveraldatabasesthathavebeendevelopedspecificallyforthetextileandgarmentsector.Theseinclude:●●TheWorldApparelandFootwearLifeCycleAssessmentDatabase(WALDB)foundedbyQuantiswithagroupofindustrypartners.Theprojectisplanningtodevelopmorethan300regionally-specificda-tasetsforwool,cotton,leather,silkandman-madefibresupplychainsforshirts,pullovers,trousersandshoes.TheSustainableApparelCoalition(SAC)isapartneroftheWALDB,anddatasetsfromtheWALDBareusedintheSAC’sHiggMSI.●●CottonIncorporated,anassociationforAmericancottonproducersandimporters,commissionedthedevelopmentofglobalLCIsforcottonfibreproductionandtextileprocessing.2.2.3.LimitationsLCAstudiesaredesignedtobeveryaccurate,andarethereforecomplexandveryresource-intensive,requir-ingasubstantiveinvestmentoftimeandmoneyforthecompany.Theyusuallycannotbedonein-housebyfashioncompanies,whichhaslimitedtheuptakeofLCAsintheindustry(FashionUnited2017).Asdiscussedabove,anumberofsimplifiedtoolshavebeendevelopedtoaddressthislimitation,butthesetoolsarestillindevelopmentandhavebeencriticizedfornotprovidingreliabledatatothestandardrequiredforLCA.2.3.GreenhouseGas(GHG)ProtocolTheGHGProtocolisapartnershipoforganizationsthataimstodevelopinternationallyacceptedstand-ards,toolsandguidanceforGHGaccounting.TheGHGProtocolwasestablishedinthelate1990sbytheWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI)andtheWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment(WBCSD),togetherwithlargecorporatepartners.TheCorporateAccountingandReportingStandard(alsoreferredtoasthe“CorporateStandard”)isastand-ardizedglobalframeworkformeasuringGHGemissions.TheCorporateStandardwasreleasedin2001,andprovidesrequirementsandguidanceforcompaniesandorganizationstoprepareacorporate-levelGHGemissionsinventory.ItiswidelyusedasthebasisfororganizationstoreportemissionstovoluntaryGHGprogrammes,suchastheCDP(formerlytheCarbonDisclosureProject)andtheGlobalReportingInitiative,aswellasnationalandregionalindustryinitiatives(WBCSDandWRI2004).Thestandarddefinesemissionsunderthree“scopes”foraccountingandreporting(figure5):●●Scope1–DirectGHGemissions:Directemissionsfromsourcesthatareownedorcontrolledbyacom-pany,includingtheburningoffuelsforelectricity,heat,steamortransport,oremissionsfromphysicalorchemicalprocesses.●●Scope2–ElectricityindirectGHGemissions:Indirectemissionsfromthegenerationofpurchasedelec-tricity,steam,heatingorcoolingthatareconsumedbythecompany.●●Scope3–OtherindirectGHGemissions:Indirectemissionsthatoccurinthevaluechainofthecompa-ny(upstreamanddownstream)asaconsequenceoftheactivitiesofthecompany(suchas,purchasedmaterials,goodsandservices).21ILOWorkingPaper53XXFigure4.OverviewofGHGProtocolscopesandemissionsacrossthevaluechainSource:ReproducedfromWBSCDandWRI2011a,figure1.1.TheprocessforundertakingaGHGinventoryusingtheGHGProtocolbeginswithsettinganorganization-alboundary.Inmanycasesthisissimple,butifacompanyisaparentcompanyforvariousoperations,itneedstodecidewhetheremissionsarecalculatedbasedonequityinanoperation,oronwhetherthepar-entcompanyhasfinancialand/oroperationalcontrol.Theoperationalboundarythenneedstobedefined.AllcompaniesarerequiredtoaccountforScope1and2emissionsataminimum,andneedtodeterminewhethertoincludeScope3emissions.TheGHGProtocolCorporateValueChain(Scope3)AccountingandReportingStandard(alsoreferredtoasthe“Scope3Standard”)providesfurtherguidanceonaccountingforScope3emissions(WBCSDandWRI2011a).ThecriteriaforwhichScope3emissionsshouldbeincludedareoutlinedintable2below.XXTable2.CriteriaforinclusionofScope3emissionsCriteriaDescriptionSizeTheycontributesignificantlytothecompany’stotalanticipatedScope3emissions.InfluenceTherearepotentialemissionsreductionsthatcouldbeundertakenorinfluencedbythecom-pany.RiskTheycontributetothecompany’sriskexposure(forexample,climatechange-relatedriskssuchasfinancial,regulatory,supplychain,productandcustomer,litigation,andreputation-alrisks).StakeholdersTheyaredeemedcriticalbykeystakeholders(suchas,customers,suppliers,investors,orciv-ilsociety).OutsourcingTheyareoutsourcedactivitiespreviouslyperformedin-houseoractivitiesoutsourcedbythereportingcompanythataretypicallyperformedin-housebyothercompaniesinthereport-ingcompany’ssector.22ILOWorkingPaper53CriteriaDescriptionSectorguidanceTheyhavebeenidentifiedassignificantbysector-specificguidance.OtherTheymeetanyadditionalcriteriafordeterminingrelevancedevelopedbythecompanyorin-dustrysector.Source:WBSCDandWRI2011a,table6.1.TheGHGProtocolhasalsodevelopedtheProductLifeCycleAccountingandReportingStandard(referredtoasthe“ProductStandard”)whichbuildsontheISOLCAstandardstoproviderequirementsandguidanceforconsistentlymeasuringandreportingGHGemissionsassociatedwithaproduct(WBCSDandWRI2011b).2.4.GreenhousegasassessmentsinthetextileandgarmentsectorTheemissionsbyscopeforupstreamsuppliers,includingtextileandgarmentmanufacturers,ishighlyvariabledependentonthetypeofcompany.Fortheseupstreamsuppliers,Scope1and2emissionsmaybesignificant,andaregenerallyahigherportionoftotalemissionsthantheyareforbrandsandretailers.Forconsumer-facingbrandsandretailers,Scope3emissionsaretypicallythemajorityoftotalemissions.Forexample,C&ACorporationfoundthat96percentofemissionsareScope3,includingnearly76percentoftotalemissionsfrompurchasedgoodsandservices(C&A2019).DatafromH&MGroup’s2019sus-tainabilityreportshowsthatScope3emissionsaccountfor99.6percentoftotalemissions,almosthalfofthesefromfabricproduction.Scope3emissionsaremorechallengingtomeasureandmanage,asbrandsorretailersmaynothavedetaileddataonemissionsrelatedtotheirupstreamsuppliersandthereforehavelimitedinfluenceoveremissionsreductionactivitiesofthesesuppliers(WRI2019).Giventhecriteriaintable2,mostbrandsandretailersarelikelytoincludeScope3emissionsfromtheirup-streamsupplierswhenundertakingaGHGinventoryoftheirbrand.Thisisbecausetheseemissionsareasignificantintermsofthecompany’semissions.2.4.1.Science-basedtargetsTheScienceBasedTargetsinitiative(SBTi)isacollaborationbetweentheCDP,theUnitedNationsGlobalCompact,WRI,andtheWorldWideFundforNature(WWF).Theaimoftheinitiativeistoencouragecompa-niestosetambitiousscience-basedtargets(SBTs)forGHGemissionsreduction,inlinewiththeaimsoftheParisAgreementtolimitwarmingtoawithin1.5°Corwell-below2°Cpathway(ScienceBasedTargets,n.d.-a).SBTsareencouragedforsignatoriesoftheUNFashionIndustryCharterforClimateAction.TheCharter,whichhasbeensignedbyalargenumberofcompaniesandsupportingorganizations,includesacom-mitmenttoreduceindustryemissionsby30percentby2030,fromabaselineofnoearlierthan2015.ThiscommitmentisbasedonreductionsinScope1,2and3GHGemissionsinlinewiththeGreenhouseGasProtocolCorporateStandard.TheChartersetsacommitmenttosettingadecarbonizationpathwayfortheindustrybasedontheSBTi.AsofMay2020,thereare14textileandapparelcompaniesthathaveapprovedSBTs,andafurther34thathavecommittedtosettingtargets(ScienceBasedTargets,n.d.-b).TheSBTihasdevelopedguidancefortheapparelandfootwearsectoronappropriatetarget-settingmeth-odsandonbestpracticesintargetsettingandemissionsreduction.GiventhesignificanceofScope323ILOWorkingPaper53emissionsandthebarrierstoaddressingthem,theSBTiprovidesspecificguidanceonmeasuringandre-ducingScope3emissions(WRI2019).Thisguidanceincludesthefollowingcriteriaandrecommendations:●●Ifacompany’sScope3emissionsaremorethan40percentoftotalemissions,atargetisrequiredforScope3emissions.MostbrandsandretailerswillexceedthisthresholdandberequiredtosetaScope3target.●●IfaScope3targetisrequired,companiesmustsetoneormoreemissionreductiontargetsand/orsup-plierorcustomerengagementtargetsthatcoveratleasttwo-thirdsoftheirScope3emissionsinlinewiththeScope3Standard.●●Targetsmustcoveraminimumoffiveyearsandamaximumof15yearsfromthedatethetargetissubmittedtotheSBTi.●●CompaniesshouldengagetheirsuppliersandrecommendtheyusetheSBTiguidancetosettargets.●●Companiesareencouragedtosettargetsforindirectemissionsintheusephase(emissionsgeneratedbycustomersorend-users)ifthesearesignificant;however,thesetargetsneedtogobeyondthetar-getthatcoverstwo-thirdsofScope3emissions.CompanyScope1,2and3targetsneedtomeetacertain“levelofambition”throughoneofseveralmeth-ods,outlinedintable3below.Thesemethodsdifferastowhethertargetsaresetasapercentagereduc-tioninabsoluteemissions(the“absolutecontraction”approach)orareductioninemissionsintensitybasedonphysicaloreconomicindicators(the“physicalintensity”or“economicintensity”approaches).TheSBTiguidanceencouragestheapparelsectortousetheabsolutecontractionapproachforScope1and2emis-sions.Thephysicaloreconomicintensityapproachescanalsobeused,butthetargetsmustnotresultinabsoluteemissionsgrowthandmustleadtolinearannualintensityimprovementsequivalenttotheab-solutecontractiontargets.XXTable3.TargetsettingmethodsforreducingScope1,2and3emissionsMethodDescriptionExamplesofapprovedtargetsAbsolutecon-tractionReduceabsoluteemissionsconsistentwithlevelofdecarbonizationrequiredtokeepglobalwarmingat:●●2°C:minimum1.23%annuallinearre-duction(Scope3emissionsonly);●●Wellbelow2°C:min.2.5%annualline-arreduction;●●1.5°C:min.4.2%annuallinearreduc-tion.LeviStrauss&CocommitstoreduceabsoluteScope1andScope2GHGemissionsby90%by2025(froma2016baseyear).LeviStrauss&Co.commitstoreduceabsoluteScope3emissionsfrompurchasedgoodsandservicesby40%by2025(froma2016baseyear).Physicalinten-sityReduceemissionsintensityperunitofphysicalproduction.H&MGroupcommitstoreduceScope3GHGemissionsfrompurchasedrawmaterials,fabric,andgarmentsby59%perpieceby2030(froma2017baseyear).Physicalin-tensity(Scope3emissionsonly)SettargetsthatmaintainScope3emis-sionsatbaseyearleveloverthetargetpe-riod.ASICScommitstoreduceScope3GHGemissionsfrompur-chasedgoodsandservicesandend-of-lifetreatmentofsoldproductsby55%perproductmanufacturedby2030(froma2015baseyear).Economicin-tensityReduceGHGemissionsperunitofvalueaddedbyatleast7%year-on-year.KeringcommitstoreduceScope1,Scope2andScope3emissionsfromupstreamtransportationanddistribution,businessairtravel,andfuel-andenergy-relatedemissionsby50%perunitofvalueaddedby2025(froma2015baseyear).KeringcommitstoreduceScope3emissionsfrompur-chasedgoodsandservicesby40%perunitofvalueaddedby2025(froma2015baseyear).Source:AdaptedfromWRI2019.24ILOWorkingPaper53XXConclusionThispaperexaminedhowandwherecarbonemissionsaccrueacrossthesupplychain.Thefindingshigh-lightthatemissionsoccurallalongthechain,butaremostsignificantintheyarnandfabricproductionphase,whichisconsistentwithotherenvironmentalimpacts,suchaswaterconsumptionandchemicalsuse.Althoughtherearefewstudiesthatlookattheusephaseofgarments(becauseofthechallengesincalculatingemissionsbasedonbehaviourssuchaswashing,transportanduse),theevidencethatisavail-ablesuggeststhattheconsumerusephasecontributessignificantlytoemissionsinthevaluechain.TheimplicationsforachievingcarbonneutralityindicateenergyuseisthemajorcontributortoGHGemis-sionsinthetextileandgarmentsector,althoughemissionsalsooccurfromnon-energysourcessuchaslandclearingforagriculture,chemicalproductionandtheraisingoflivestockforleather.Highenergyde-mandcomesfromthewetprocessingstages(dyeingandfinishing),whereenergyisusedtocreatesteamtoheatwaterandalsofordryingfabrics.Thecarbonintensityoftheenergysourcesusedinproductioncentres(coalornaturalgas)translatestohighemissionsintensityfortextileproduction.Energycanalsoaccountforasignificantportionofcostswithinenergy-intensivepartsofthevaluechain,suchastextilemillsandgarmentfactories;sothereisaneconomicandaswellanenvironmentaldrivertoreduceemis-sionsinthesector.Thepaperexaminesthetwomethodologiesforcalculatingemissionsacrossthesector,andprovidesin-sightintowhereandwhythecarbonintensityoftextilesandgarmentsvariesacrossthesupplychainandacrossproductioncentres.Itischallengingtoquantifythedistributionofcarbonemissionsacrosstheval-uechain,asitisdependentonthespecificproductandmaterials,aswellastheemissionsintensityofthecountryofproduction(WRI2019).ThetwostandardizedapproachestomeasuringGHGemissionsarethroughlifecycleassessment(LCA)andcarbonaccountinginlinewiththeGreenhouseGasProtocol(GHGProtocol).LCAisparticularlyusefulformeasuringemissionsfromaparticularproductorprocess,thenidentifyingopportunitiesforeco-effi-ciencyinproductionprocessesandsupplychains,andformakingmaterialselectionandprocurementde-cisions.However,LCAsareresourceintensiveandrequirespecifictechnicalskillstoundertake,factorsthathavelimitedtheiruptakebytheindustry.Severaltoolshavebeendevelopedinordertoprovideasimpli-fiedoption,suchastheHiggMSI,whichmeasuresfabricsustainabilitybyfibretype,butthesehavebeencriticizedfornotprovidingreliableenoughdatatobeusedtomakematerialselections.TheHiggMSI,forexample,doesnotaccountfortheimpactthefibretypehasonemissionsduringtheusephase.TheGHGProtocolisastandardizedmethodfororganizationstomeasuretheiremissions.Thechallengeforthetextileandgarmentsectorinmeasuringemissionswiththisapproachisthatforconsumer-facingbrandsandretailersmostemissionsareindirectemissions,suchasfrompurchasedgoodsandservicesfromupstreamsuppliers.Theseemissionsarechallengingtomeasureandmanage,asbrandsorretailersmaynothavedetaileddataonemissionsandlimitedinfluenceoveremissionsreductionsactivities.TheScienceBasedTargetsinitiative(SBTi)hasdevelopedspecificguidancetohelpthesectorinmeasuringandsettingtargetsfortheseemissionsinlinewiththeGHGProtocol.However,sofarthereareonly14compa-nieswithapprovedtargetsand34othersthathavecommittedtosettargets.Theimplicationsfordecarbonizationinthesector,andtheambitionandtimelineforthisdecarboniza-tiontocontributetotheParisAgreementandcommitmentsintheUNFCCCFashionIndustryCharteronClimateActionareclear.WhatislesscleararetheadjustmentsthatneedtobemadetoworkingprocessesbymanufacturersinAsiaandtotheirsupplychaininordertoreduceemissions.Astheanalysispresentedinthispapershows,itisintheproductionandmanufacturingoffibres,textilesandgarmentsthatmostcarbonemissionsaccrue,andthereforeitwillbetheseprocessesandactivitiesthatneedtodecarbonize.Decarbonizationactivitieswillfocusonswitchingtocleaner,moreefficientenergysources–includingrenew-ableenergy–aswellasreducingtheenergyintensityofproduction(forprocessesusingheatandsteam).25ILOWorkingPaper53Momentumfromotherareasinthesupplychainwillalsoimpactoncarbonemissionsinproduction,anddesigndecisionsconcerningtextilecompositionandthequalityandlongevityofagarmentwillhaveasig-nificantimpactonhoweachgarmentanditsusecontributetocarbonemissionsoveragarment’slifetime.Therearebrandsandmanufacturersalreadyworkingtoreducetheiremissions(Scopes1,2and3),andhowthesecompaniesaremanagingthisprocessneedstobebetterunderstood,soastobereplicatedandscaled.Keyquestionsthatneedtoconsideredinclude:●●Howdoconsumer-facingbrandsworkwiththeirsupplychainstoreduceScope3emissions?●●HowdobrandsandmanufacturersuseLCAinformationindecision-makingforproduction?●●Whoarethekeyintermediariesandwhatarethekeytoolsthatareusedinthesechangeprocesses?Small-andmedium-sizedenterprisesareasignificantcohortoffirmsinthetextileandgarmentproductioncentresacrossAsia.Thesefirmssubcontractandsupplytomajorbrandsbutoftennotasthefirstsupplier,butratherastwotothreesubcontractsawayfromthesebrandsandtheireffortstoreduceScope3emis-sions.Howwillthesefirmsbereachedandsupportedtoreducetheiremissions?HowdoweincorporatesupplychainactivitieswithinnationalemissionreductioneffortsthroughNDCs1andwithinevolvingna-tionalenergypoliciesincountrieswhereproductionisconcentratedacrossAsia?Thescaleandpaceofsystemwidechangeintextileandgarmentmanufacturingthatisrequiredtomeettargetsforclimateactionmeanthattherewillalsobesignificantimpactsontheworldofworkinthesecomponentsofthesupplychain.Theseimpactswillincludechangesinthetechnologicalintensityofthesector,andthereforeincreaseddemandforfinancialcapitalanddemandfornewskillsandknowledge.This,inturn,maypotentiallyleadtolessoveralldemandforlabourintheproductionprocess.Thegeo-graphicalcompositionofthesupplychainmeansthattherewillbe“hotspotsofimpact”acrossthesectorandacrosstheAsiaregion.Furtherworkisneededtoanalysetheimpactsofdecarbonizationinthesear-easofthesupplychain,andtoascertaintheneedforjusttransitionplanningtomanagethesechanges.1NDCs,ornationallydefinedcontributions,aretheemissionreductionplansthatindividualcountriescommittoastheircontributionstoachievingtheParisAgreement.26ILOWorkingPaper53ReferencesAlkaya,Emrah,andGökselN.Demirer.2014.“SustainableTextileProduction:ACaseStudyfromaWovenFabricManufacturingMillinTurkey.”JournalofCleanerProduction65:595–603.Allwood,Julian,SørenLaursen,CeciliaMalvidodeRodriguez,andNancyBocken.2006.“Welldressed?ThePresentandFutureSustainabilityofClothingandTextilesintheUnitedKingdom”.BP.2019.“StatisticalReviewofWorldEnergy–AllData,1965-2019”,Excelspreadsheet.Availableat:https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html.C&A.2019.GlobalSustainabilityReport2018.Chapman,Adrian.2010,ReviewofLifeCycleAssessmentsofClothing.OakdeneHollins.Cheah,Lynette,NataliaDuqueCiceri,ElsaOlivetti,SeikoMatsumura,DaiForterre,RichardRoth,andRandolphKirchain.2013.“Manufacturing-FocusedEmissionsReductionsinFootwearProduction.”JournalofCleanerProduction44:18–29.Dahlbo,Helena,KristiinaAalto,HannaEskelinen,andHannaSalmenperä.2017.“IncreasingTextileCirculation—ConsequencesandRequirements.”SustainableProductionandConsumption9:44-57.Drejet,Rebecca,andAnnRappaport.2014.“EnergyEfficiencyandWorkingConditionsinVietnameseApparelFactories.”TheFletcherForumofWorldAffairs38(2):167–184.EMF(EllenMacArthurFoundation).2017.ANewTextilesEconomy:RedesigningFashion’sFuture(2017).EnvironmentalResourcesManagement.2002.StreamlinedLifeCycleAssessmentofTwoMarks&SpencerplcApparelProductsFashionUnited.2017.“CantheFashionIndustryCalculateItsWaytoSustainability?–ThePotentialofLCA.”19June.GlobalFashionAgendaandBostonConsultingGroup.2017.PulseoftheFashionIndustry2017.H&MGroup.2019.SustainabilityPerformanceReport2019.Hasan,A.S.M.Monjural,MohammadRokonuzzaman,RashedulAminTuhin,andShahM.Salimullah,MahfuzUllah,TaiyebSakib,andPatrikThollander.2019.“DriversandBarrierstoIndustrialEnergyEfficiencyinTextileIndustriesofBangladesh.”Energies12(9).IPCC(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange).2018.SummaryforPolicymakers:GlobalWarmingof1.5°C–AnIPCCSpecialReportontheImpactsofGlobalWarmingof1.5°CabovePre-IndustrialLevelsandRelatedGlobalGreenhouseGasEmissionPathways,intheContext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