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Niger Country

Environmental

Analysis

NIGER COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS

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Contents

Acronyms ...................................................................................vii

Acknowledgments ......................................................................... ix

Executive Summary ....................................................................... xi

1 Introduction ............................................................................1

1.1. Overall environmental situation .....................................................1

1.2. Niger’s natural capital ...............................................................2

1.3. Government eorts on sustainable natural resources management .................5

1.4. Objective and structure of the CEA .................................................6

2 Land degradation ......................................................................9

2.1. Overview ...........................................................................9

2.2. Drivers of land degradation .........................................................11

2.3. Cost of land degradation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.4. The impact on food security and malnutrition ......................................18

2.5. The impact on food trade ..........................................................21

2.6. The impact on livelihoods ......................................................... 22

2.7. The impact on migration and fragility ...............................................24

2.8. Current eorts to address land degradation ........................................24

2.9. Conclusion ....................................................................... 26

3 Deforestation and forest degradation .............................................. 29

3.1. Overview ......................................................................... 29

3.2. Forest cover ...................................................................... 30

3.3. Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation ....................................31

3.4. Deforestation and forest degradation: extent and carbon loss ......................33

3.5. Current eorts to address key issues related to forests .............................34

3.6. Conclusion ........................................................................38

4 Climate change ........................................................................41

4.1. Overview ..........................................................................41

4.2. Expected impacts of climate change ...............................................42

4.3. Government eorts to address climatechange .....................................46

4.4. Conclusion ........................................................................46

/96

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NigerCountryEnvironmentalAnalysisPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorized©2023InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/TheWorldBank1818HStreetNWWashingtonDC20433Telephone:202-473-1000Internet:www.worldbank.orgThisworkisaproductofthestaffofTheWorldBankwithexternalcontributions.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthisworkdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofTheWorldBank,itsBoardofExecutiveDirectors,orthegovernmentstheyrepresent.TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracy,completeness,orcurrencyofthedataincludedinthisworkanddoesnotassumeresponsibilityforanyerrors,omissions,ordiscrepanciesintheinformation,orliabilitywithrespecttotheuseoforfailuretousetheinformation,methods,processes,orconclusionssetforth.Theboundaries,colors,denominations,andotherinformationshownonanymapinthisworkdonotimplyanyjudgmentonthepartofTheWorldBankconcerningthelegalstatusofanyterritoryortheendorsementoracceptanceofsuchboundaries.NothinghereinshallconstituteorbeconstruedorconsideredtobealimitationuponorwaiveroftheprivilegesandimmunitiesofTheWorldBank,allofwhicharespecificallyreserved.RightsandPermissionsThematerialinthisworkissubjecttocopyright.BecauseTheWorldBankencouragesdisseminationofitsknowledge,thisworkmaybereproduced,inwholeorinpart,fornoncommercialpurposesaslongasfullattributiontothisworkisgiven.Anyqueriesonrightsandlicenses,includingsubsidiaryrights,shouldbeaddressedtoWorldBankPublications,TheWorldBankGroup,1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433,USA;fax:202-522-2625;e-mail:pubrights@worldbank.org.Coverphoto:©mtcurado/iStockphoto.Usedwiththepermissionof©mtcurado/iStockphoto.Furtherpermissionrequiredforreuse.Coverdesign:WillKemp,GlobalCorporateSolutions,WorldBankGroup.ContentsAcronyms...................................................................................viiAcknowledgments..........................................................................ixExecutiveSummary........................................................................xi1Introduction.............................................................................11.1.Overallenvironmentalsituation......................................................11.2.Niger’snaturalcapital...............................................................21.3.Governmenteffortsonsustainablenaturalresourcesmanagement.................51.4.ObjectiveandstructureoftheCEA.................................................62Landdegradation......................................................................92.1.Overview...........................................................................92.2.Driversoflanddegradation.........................................................112.3.Costoflanddegradation...........................................................152.4.Theimpactonfoodsecurityandmalnutrition.......................................182.5.Theimpactonfoodtrade...........................................................212.6.Theimpactonlivelihoods..........................................................222.7.Theimpactonmigrationandfragility...............................................242.8.Currenteffortstoaddresslanddegradation........................................242.9.Conclusion........................................................................263Deforestationandforestdegradation...............................................293.1.Overview..........................................................................293.2.Forestcover.......................................................................303.3.Driversofdeforestationandforestdegradation.....................................313.4.Deforestationandforestdegradation:extentandcarbonloss......................333.5.Currenteffortstoaddresskeyissuesrelatedtoforests.............................343.6.Conclusion........................................................................384Climatechange.........................................................................414.1.Overview...........................................................................414.2.Expectedimpactsofclimatechange...............................................424.3.Governmenteffortstoaddressclimatechange.....................................464.4.Conclusion........................................................................46NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISiv5Recommendations....................................................................495.1.Enhancingoperations...............................................................515.2.Supportingpolicyreform...........................................................535.3.Buildingknowledge...............................................................55Annex1.MainactorsinvolvedinenvironmentalmanagementinNiger............59Annex2.Costofagriculturalproductivitylossduetolanddegradation............66References..................................................................................68BoxesBox2.1.Landdegradationmethodology.....................................................10Box2.2.ImprovedlivelihoodsthroughFMNRinMaradiandZinder...............................19Box2.3.Overviewofinstitutionalactorsengagedinsustainablelandmanagement...............25Box3.1.Differentialtaxation,afiscalinstrumenttoprotectforestresources......................36Box3.2.LandrestorationinitiativesinNiger..................................................37Box5.1.MaisonduPaysan.................................................................50Box5.2.TerriStories—Aninnovativeparticipatoryplanningtool.................................54FiguresFigure1.Costoflanddegradationbyregion...............................................xivFigure2.Costoflanddegradationbycrop(%)..............................................xivFigure3.Trendsinforestareaandotherwoodedlands.....................................xviFigure4.ProjectedmeantemperatureinNiger............................................xviiFigure5.Niger’semissionsprofile.......................................................xviiFigure1.1.NaturalcapitalinNiger...........................................................2Figure1.2.NaturalcapitalpercapitainNiger.................................................2Figure1.3.Shareofincomefromdifferentsources,perregion..................................3Figure2.1.Nigermeantemperatureannualtrends............................................11Figure2.2.AverageAnnualPDSIforNiger....................................................12Figure2.3.ChangeindistributionofprecipitationinNiger......................................13Figure2.4.WindspeedinNiger(m/s)........................................................13Figure2.5.EvolutionofTLUsinNigerbetween2005and2019.................................15Figure2.6.TLUsperregionin2019..........................................................15Figure2.7.Costoflanddegradationbyregion(US$)...........................................17Figure2.8.Costoflanddegradationbycrop(%)...............................................17Figure2.9.Foodinsecurityinruralareasbyregion,Niger......................................18Figure2.10.RegreeningusingZaipitsandhalf-moonwaterharvestingtechniques.................19Figure2.11.Estimatedpercapitaintakeingramsperdayoffruits,vegetables,wholegrains,legumes,nutsandseeds,andmilk,2000–2017....................................20CONTENTSvFigure2.12.Prevalenceofacutemalnutrition(global/severe)inchildren6–59monthsbyregionin2020.......................................................................20Figure2.13.FoodimportsinNiger—2014,2018,and2020(%)....................................21Figure2.14.FoodexportsinNiger—2014,2018,and2020(%)...................................22Figure3.1.TreesandshrublandsareasinNiger(ha)..........................................30Figure3.2.Forestarea(1,000ha)............................................................31Figure3.3.Areaofnaturalforests(1,000ha)..................................................31Figure3.4.Socialcostofcarbonduetoforestlossduring2015–2020..........................34Figure4.1.ProjectedmeantemperatureinNiger..............................................41Figure4.2.Niger’sGHGreferenceprofilefor2014............................................42Figure4.3.EconomicimpactofclimatechangeinNiger.......................................44MapsMap1.LanddegradationinNigerbetween2001and2015...................................xiiiMap2.1.Mapoflanddegradation2001–2015—SustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG)15.3targetindicator...............................................................10Map2.2.PDSIforNigerienregionsin1980and2020..........................................12Map2.3.Landuseandlandcovertimeseries,1975and2013...................................14Map2.4.Regionallanddegradationmaps....................................................16Map2.5.LivelihoodzonesinNiger..........................................................23Map3.1.CarbonstorageinNiger...........................................................33TablesTable1.KeyrecommendationsforNiger..................................................xxTable2.1.CharacteristicsofrurallivelihoodsinNiger,2012...................................23Table3.1.Additionalstrategicdocumentsandrelevanttexts..................................35Table4.1.Broad-scalesectoralvulnerabilitiesandpotentialclimatechangeimpactsinNiger......43TableA.2.1.Resultsoftheanalysisbyregionandcrop.........................................67NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISviPhoto:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupACRONYMSviiAcronymsAcronymDescription3NNigeriensNourishNigeriensABNNigerRiverBasinAuthority(AutoritéduBassinduFleuveNiger)AFOLUAgriculture,Forestry,andOtherLandUseANEBNationalAssociationofWoodHarvesters(AssociationNationaledesExploitantsdeBois)ANGANationalAssociationofProfessionalsofArabicGum(AssociationNationaledesProfessionnelsdelaGommeArabique)ARENAssociationfortheRevitalizationofLivestockinNiger(AssociationpourlaRedynamisationdel’ÉlevageauNiger)BEEEIEnvironmentalAssessmentandImpactStudiesBureau(BureauNationald’ÉvaluationEnvironnementaleEtdesEtudesd’Impact)CAPCommunityActionProgramCEACountryEnvironmentalAnalysisCNEDDNationalCouncilforEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment(ConseilNationaldel’EnvironnementetduDéveloppementDurable)CNSEENationalCenterforEcologicalandEnvironmentalMonitoring(CentreNationaldeSurveillanceÉcologiqueetEnvironnementale)CNSFNationalCenterforForestSeeds(CentreNationaldeSemencesForestières)DGEDDGeneralDirectoratefortheEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment(DirectionGénéraledel’EnvironnementetduDéveloppementDurable)DGEFGeneralDirectorateforWaterandForests(DirectorateGeneraldesEauxetForests)ECOWASEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStatesEPIEnvironmentalPerformanceIndexESAEuropeanSpaceAgencyESDSEconomicandSocialDevelopmentStrategy(PlandeDéveloppementEconomicetSocial)FAOFoodandAgricultureOrganizationFCVFragility,Conflict,andViolenceFMNRFarmer-ManagedNaturalRegenerationGDPGrossDomesticProductGEFGlobalEnvironmentFacilityGHGGreenhouseGasGoNGovernmentofNigerNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISviiiAcronymDescriptionICDPIntegratedCommunityDevelopmentPlanISFMIntegratedSoilFertilityManagementLPGLiquefiedPetroleumGasMPMaisonduPaysanNASANationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministrationNDCNationallyDeterminedContributionNEPADNewPartnershipforAfrica’sDevelopmentNGONongovernmentalOrganizationNTFPNon-TimberForestProductPANGIRENationalActionPlanfortheIntegratedManagementofWaterresources(Pland’ActionNationaldeGestionIntégréedesRessourcesenEau)PDCCommunalDevelopmentPlan(PlandeDéveloppementCommunal)PDSIPalmerDroughtSeverityIndexPIKPotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearchPNCCNationalPolicyonClimateChange(PolitiqueNationaleenmatièredeChangementsClimatiquesPNEDDNationalPlanfortheEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment(PlanNationalpourl’EnvironnementetleDéveloppementDurable)RCPRepresentativeConcentrationPathwaySDDCISustainableDevelopmentandInclusiveGrowthStrategy(StratégiedeDéveloppementDurableetdeCroissanceInclusive)SDDELSustainableLivestockDevelopmentStrategy(StratégiedeDéveloppementDurabledel’Élevage)SDGsSustainableDevelopmentGoalsSNPA-CVCNationalStrategyandPlanofActionforClimateChangeandVariability(StratégieNationaleetPland’Action/ClimatetVariabilitéClimatique)SPN2ANationalStrategyandPlanforAgriculturalAdaptationtoClimateChange(StratégieetPlanNationaldel’Adaptationdel’Agriculture)TLUTropicalLivestockUnitUNCCDUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertificationUNDPUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeUNFCCCUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeWHOWorldHealthOrganizationACKNOWLEDGMENTSixAcknowledgmentsThepreparationofthisreportwasledbyYasminaOodally(WorldBankTaskTeamLeaderandEnvironmentalSpecialist).ThereportwaspreparedbytheWorldBankAfricaWestEnvironment,NaturalResources,andBlueEconomyGlobalPractice(AFWENBGP),incoordinationwiththeGovernmentofNiger(GoN).Thereportwasco-authoredbyJoseDiegoHopkinsAlfaro,HerbertFranciscoCurryArceo,LeliaCroitoru,NourMasri,andSanneAgneteTikjoeb(WorldBankconsultants).ThispublicationwasproducedundertheguidanceofMariaSarraf,WorldBankPracticeManager.KeycontributorsincludedCarolinePlançon,MoctarSacande(FAOconsultants),OusmaneLaminouManzo,SitouLawali,andAbdoulayeDiouf(UniversityofNiameyconsultants).TheWorldBankpeerreviewersDorotheaHilhorst(SeniorLandGovernanceSpecialist)andAimeeMarieAngeMpambara(SeniorAgricultureEconomist),aswellasinternalunitreview-ersEllysarBaroudy(LeadNaturalResourcesManagementSpecialist)andMirkoSerkovic(SeniorEnvironmentalSpecialist)graciouslyagreedtoreviewthedraftreports,andthisfinalversionbenefitsfromtheircontributions.SpecialthankstoLeliaCroitoruandGraziaAtanasio(SeniorCommunicationConsultant)forsupportonthestakeholders’consultationandcom-municationaspects.WewouldliketothanktheWorldBankCountryOfficecolleaguesinNiamey:AissatouDicko(CountryManager),IbrahHachimou(EnvironmentalSpecialist),MouslimSidiMohamed(CommunicationSpecialist),andHadidiaDjimba(ProgramAssistant)andextendedcountryteamfortheiroperationalandadministrativesupportinorganizingthestakeholders’consultationworkshop.TheWorldBankacknowledgessupportreceivedfromofficialsoftheMinistèredel’EnvironnementetdelaLutteContrelaDésertificationandMinistereduPlan.Theseoffi-cialsincludeSeybouYacouba(DirectionGénéraledesEauxetForêts)andSanoussiGarba(DirectionGénéraledelaProgrammationduDéveloppement).ThereportalsobenefitedfromadviceandcommentsofcolleaguesintheNigerienGovernment,academiaandcivilsociety,aswellasoftheinternationaldevelopmentcommunity:MinistryofEnvironment,MinistryofAgriculture,InstitutNationalederecherchesAgronomiquesduNiger,SecrétariatExécutifduConseilNationaldel’environnementpourunDéveloppementDurable,UNDP,andmore.WewouldalsoliketothankthefollowingparticipantsattheconsultationworkshopheldinNiameyonMay12,2022:AbdouKaderSoumailaSina,AboubakarAlmouMani,AdamIssoufou,AwaissAboubacar,AyoubaDjibo,BarmoSoukouradji,BoubacarBako,BoukariElhAbdoulaye,HambaliAli,HarounaRamatouAbbaKiari,HassanaBabacar,IbrahimMikoAbdelNasser,IsmaelTinno,KantaAissaAmadou,MahamadouAmadou,MahamaneM.Lawali,MamanZanguinaSanouchi,MassatatchiMahamanSani,MassaoudouMoussa,MoutariOusmane,RabiouMahamadou,andSeyniSouley.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISxPhoto:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupEXECUTIVESUMMARYxiExecutiveSummaryWithagrossdomesticproduct(GDP)ofUS$568percapita(WorldBank2020),Nigerisoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworld.Ithasapopulationofabout24million,halfofwhicharechildrenunder15yearsofage.Thesocietydependsheavilyonitsnaturalcapital,par-ticularlycroplands,pasturelands,andprotectedareas(WorldBank2021).Agropastoralismistheeconomy’sbackbone,contributing40percentoftheGDPandemployingmorethan80percentoftheworkforce.Nonrenewableassets,suchasuraniumandoil,aresignificantcontributorstothecountry’sexportsandgovernmentrevenues.Despiteitsendowmentwithnaturalresources,Nigerfacessignificantchallenges:extremepovertyaffectsmorethan40percentofthepopulation;insecurityassociatedwithfragility,conflict,andviolence(FCV)marksparticularlytheregionsofTillaberi,Diffa,andTahoua;lowaccesstobasicservices,suchashealthcare,safedrinkingwater,andsanitation,affectsalargeshareofpopulation.Inaddition,Nigeristheworld’s7thmostvulnerablecountrytoclimatechange,accordingtotheNotreDameGlobalAdaptationInitiativecountryindex(ND-GAIN2019).Inthisfragilecontext,thecountry’srapidlygrowingpopulation—3.8percent,oneofthehighestintheworld—putsseverepressureonitsnaturalresources.Awareoftheseproblems,theGovernmentofNiger(GoN)madeimpressiveeffortstoimprovenaturalresourcemanagement,throughpoliciesandinvestmentsaimedatrestoringdegradedlands,expandingprotectedareas,andenhancingthevalueofforestproducts,forexample,Arabicgum,moringaleaves.However,scalinguplandrestorationandimprovingfoodsecurityareyettobeachieved.Moreover,theCOVID-19crisishasrecentlyworsenedtheeconomicsituation,increasedgenderinequality,andaddedevenmorepressureonthecountry’snaturalresources.Nowadays,Niger’senvironmentalsituationisconcerning:itranks152outof180countriesaccordingtoYale’sEnvironmentalPerformanceIndex(EPI).1Keyenvironmentalchallengesincludethefollowing:●Landdegradation.Rapidpopulationgrowthledtodoublingthecultivatedareainthepasttwodecades.2Atthesametime,inappropriateagriculturalpractices,poorwatermanage-ment,andhotterandirregularweatherpatternsreducedagriculturalyieldsinmanyareasandsiltedfertilebasins.Giventhatone-thirdoftheNigerienpopulationisalreadyatriskoffoodinsecurity,3thelossesduetolanddegradationarelikelytoheightenthisriskinthefuture.1EnvironmentalPerformanceIndex,2020.2Thecultivatedareasincreasedfrom12.6percentto24.5percentofthecountry’slandduring1975–2013(CILSS2016).3AccordingtotheNationalStatisticalInstitute,in2018,about29percentofthepopulationwasatriskoffoodinsecurity,while12percentwasaffectedbysevereandmoderateinsecurity.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISxii●Deforestationandforestdegradation.ForestsareapillarforNigeriens’livelihoodsintermsofbiomassproduction(67percentofthecountry’senergy),non-woodforestprod-ucts,andecosystemservices.Yet,currentdeforestationandintensivedegradationleadtofuturelossesforlocalcommunities(forexample,fodderandnon-woodforestproducts),nationalsociety(forexample,erosioncontrol),andglobalcommunity(forexample,carbonandbiodiversity).●Climatechange.Inthepastdecades,Nigerhaswitnessedincreasingtemperatures,andmulti-yeardroughts,floods,andstorms.Theseproblemsareexpectedtointensifyinthefuture,leadingtoharmfulimpactsonhealth(forexample,mortality),naturalresources(forexample,damagesduetofloods),andnutrition(forexample,lossoffoodduetodroughts).Asthecountryishighlydependentonrainfedagriculture,anticipatingandmanagingtheeffectsofclimatechangeiscriticaltosupportfoodsecurityandlivelihoodsinthefuture.ObjectiveandScopeTheobjectiveofthisCountryEnvironmentalAnalysis(CEA)istoanalyzecriticalenvironmen-talchallengesthatthreatensustainableeconomicgrowthinNigerandtoproposeactionstoaddressthem.Itfocusesonthreegovernmentprioritiesthatrequirein-depthanalysisandimmediateresponse:landdegradation,4deforestationandforestdegradation,andclimatechange.Duetotimeandresourceconstraints,thisreportdoesnotcoverothersignificanttopics,suchasminingandairpollution.AsthefirstCEAeverconductedforNiger,itsresultsareexpectedtobroadenthedialoguewiththeGovernment,toinformtheupdatedSystematicCountryDiagnosticandtoprovideconcreterecommendationsforstakeholderstoeffectivelyaddressenvironmentalsustain-abilityandnaturalresourcemanagement.Thereportreliesonawiderangeofpublications,includingofficialdocuments,scientificliterature,andlessonslearnedfrominternationalbestpractices.Itshouldbenotedthatthepandemicandthesecuritysituationrestrictedtheteam’sabilitytocollectlocalinformationinseveralcases(forexample,theextentofforestdegradation).Despitetheseconstraints,thisCEAidentifiesthemainchallengesandopportunitiestomiti-gatetheenvironmentalrisksfacedbythethreepriorityareasofanalysis.LandDegradationSincethe1980s,Nigertookstepstowardlandrehabilitationthroughtheadoptionofassistednaturalregeneration,cropimprovementpractices,andwatercapturetechniques.Theseeffortsledtoimprovedsoilandvegetation,especiallyintheregionsofMaradi,Zinder,andTahoua(Map1,ingreen).Despitetheseachievements,morethan6percentofthecountry’sareahassuffereddegradationduring2001–2015.ThisismostlyconcentratedalongtheNigerRiverValleyinthesouthwestandalongthesouth-centralborder(Map1,inred).In4Inthisreport,theanalysisoflanddegradationfocusesonlyontheproblemsrelatedtocroplandsandrangelands.Theforest-relatedissuesarediscussedinthechapterofdeforestationandforestdegradation.EXECUTIVESUMMARYxiiitheseareas,thedegradationtranslatedintoadeclineofagriculturalyields,soilstability,andnaturalbiodiversity.TherearemultipledriversoflanddegradationinNiger,including(a)naturalfactors,suchasincreaseofmeanannualtemperatureby0.6–0.8°Cbetween1970and2010;riseinthefre-quencyandseverityofextremerainfallevents,contributingtowatererosion;andincreasedintensityofsandwinds,particularlyduringtheharmattanseason,causingwinderosion(b)anthropogenicfactors,suchasrapidpopulationgrowth,whichincreasedthedemandforfoodandpromptedagriculturalexpansion,particularlyintheTillaberiregion;inappropriatefarmingpractices,forexample,cultivatingfallowlandandconversionofpastorallandtocrop-land;overgrazingduetohigherlivestockpopulationfeedingonlimitedgrasslandareas;andoverexploitationofwoodyvegetationtomeetenergydemandsoflocalcommunities.LanddegradationledtoseveralimpactsontheNigeriensociety,forexample,on-siteeffects,suchasyieldlossesofcroplandsandrangelands,andoff-siteeffects,suchassoilerosionandreducedwaterquality.Italsogeneratedimpactsontheglobalcommunity,forexample,carbonemissionsandreducedbiodiversityinareaswherevegetationwaslost.Anin-depthanalysisestimatedthecostoflanddegradationatUS$646millionor5percentofthecountry’sGDPin2019.5Tillaberiisthemostaffectedregion,bearingmorethan40percentof5Thisisaconservativeestimate,asitfocusesonlyontheon-siteeffectsoncroplands,withoutincludingtheoff-siteeffects,andnotthecostsrelatedtothedegradationofotherlanduses(forexample,grasslandsandforests).MAP1.LanddegradationinNigerbetween2001and2015Source:Trends.Earth,2016.Note:red=degraded,yellow=stable,green=improved,black=nodata.About70percentofthecountry’slandisdesert.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISxivthecost(Figure1).Thisisprimarilyduetothehighdemographicgrowth,agriculturalintensifi-cation,andextremelydryclimateinthewesternpartoftheregion.Thecostoflanddegrada-tionisnotablylowerinMaradiandZinder,wherelarge-scalelandrestorationprojectshavebeenimplementedsincethe1980s.Overall,cowpeasandmilletaccountedformostoftheyieldlossinNiger(Figure2).Withoutremedialaction,landdegradationcancontributetolong-lastingimpactsonseveralfronts:●Foodsecurity.FoodinsecurepopulationconcentratemostlyinAgadez,Diffa,Tillaberi,andTahoua.Moreover,inthenorthernpartsofTillaberiandTahoua,attheborderwithMali,foodinsecurityisincreasinglyprevalentandhumanitarianassistancecoverstheneedsofonly8–12percentofhouseholds.Landdegradationislikelytoamplifytheseverityoffoodinsecuritywithinandacrosstheseregions.FIGURE1.Costoflanddegradationbyregion350,000,000300,000,000250,000,000200,000,000150,000,000100,000,00050,000,0000USDTillaberiTahouaDossoMaradiZinderNiameyAgadezFIGURE2.Costoflanddegradationbycrop(%)CowpeaMilletSorghumRicePeanutSesameMaizeFonio1%3%7%14%31%44%Source:DatafromtheGoN,analyzedbytheWorldBank.EXECUTIVESUMMARYxv●Malnutrition.FoodinsecurityisamajorcauseofmalnutritioninNiger.Thehighestlevelsofmalnutritionoccurinremoteareas(suchasinDiffaregion)andinareashighlydepen-dentonsubsistencefarming(Maradi,Tahoua,andZinder).Inthiscontext,yieldlossesduetolanddegradationcanworsenpeople’snutritionandhealthinthelongrun.●Foodtrade.Thevaluechainsofdrycereals,suchasmilletandsorghum,arethebasisoffoodconsumptioninNiger.Giventhatlocalproductionisalreadyinsufficienttomeetdomesticfooddemand,landdegradationcanfurtherworsenthecountry’sfoodtradebalance,thatis,increasingfoodimportstocovercerealdeficitsanddecreasingearningsfromlivestockexports.●Livelihoods.Nigercoversthirteenlivelihoodzones,threeofwhichareathighriskofirregularrainfallandfrequentdroughts:theagropastoralbeltzone;therainfedmilletandsorghumbeltzone;andthecropping,herding,andworkmigrationzone(Map2.5fromChapter2).Astheresidentsoftheseareasdependhighlyonclimateforfoodandincome,theproblemoflanddegradationmayexacerbatefooddeficitsandincomesecurityinthelongrun.●Migration.Asmostoftheagricultureisrainfed,manyNigeriensmigrateduringthedryseasontoworkaslaborersinSouthernNigerorotherpartsofWestAfrica.Inaddition,theincreasinginsecurityandconflictsfromneighboringcountriesresultinincomingmigration,whichaffectsthealreadylimitedaccesstofood.Inthisfragilecontext,yieldlossduetolanddegradationwilllikelyaggravatetheoutmigrationofNigeriensforbetteropportunities.●FCV.Landdegradationandclimatechangearelikelytoexacerbatecurrentconflicts,forexample,betweenfarmersandpastoralistsoverlanduse,withnegativeimplicationsonthecountry’sfragility.DeforestationandForestDegradationForestsareanimportantsourceofwood,non-timberforestproducts(NTFPs)(moringaleavesandsoon),andecosystemservicesfortheNigerienpopulation.AccordingtotheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),Nigerienforestscoverabout1.1millionha.Nearly90percentoftheseforestsarenaturallyregeneratedandincludetheprimaryforestsoftheWnationalparkofNiger,whiletheremainingareplantations.Moreover,otherwoodedlandsextendonanadditional2.8millionha.Ananalysisofforest-relatedproblemswasconductedbasedoninternationaldatasets(FAO,EuropeanSpaceAgency[ESA]),intheabsenceofupdatedinformationfromnationalsources.6Deforestationandforestdegradation.During1990–2000,thedeforestationrateinNigerwashigh,about3.7percent(Figure3).Althoughitfellto1.1percentinthepastdecade,itisnearlytwicetheaveragedeforestationratefortheSub-SaharanAfrica(FAO2020a;WorldBank2020).Since2000,theGovernmenthasconductedimpressivereforestationefforts;6Forexample,thelatestStateoftheEnvironmentreports1991dataonforestareainNigerof16millionha(CNEDD2021).Asthisinformationdatesback30years,theteampreferredtorelyonmoreupdatedinformation,whichisderivedfrominternationalsources.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISxvihowever,theyfollowedamuchslowerrate(2,500haperyear)thanthedeforestationphenomena(14,920haperyear).Dataontheextentofforestdegradationarenotavailable,yettheforestsknownas‘forêtsclasses’havebeenseverelydegradedandmorethan50percentofthemhavelosttheirregenerationpotential(CNEDD2021).Thenaturalexpan-sionofforestsisunlikelyduetotheever-increasingpressureonlandforotherlanduses,suchascroppingandlivestockgrazing.ThereareseveraldriversofdeforestationandforestdegradationinNiger,including(a)expan-sionofcultivatedareasintoforestsduetofoodneedsassociatedwithpopulationgrowth;(b)woodharvestingatunsustainablerates;(c)overexploitationofnon-woodforestproductsandunsustainablesamplingofroots,bark,leaves,andfruitsofseveralforestspecies;and(d)intensiveexploitationofagroforestparksforfodder,particularlyduringtheleanseason.Theimpactofdeforestationparticularlyaffectsspecificlocalspecies:●AcaciaSenegal:ManyArabicgumstandsaredeterioratedduetoaging,bushfires,over-grazing,andaproliferationofinvasivespeciesinmostgumplantations.●Moringatree:Thesustainabledevelopmentofthisspeciesishamperedbyadefoliatorpestforwhichfarmerslackpracticalmanagementapproachesandbyoverharvestingofleaves.●Doumpalm:Droughts,intensiveharvestingofleaves,andearlycollectionofthegreenfruitsarethreateningtheregenerationofthisspecies.Socialcostofcarbon.Nigerisalowgreenhousegas(GHG)emittingcountry.Agriculture,forestry,andlanduse(AFOLU)changeisthetopcontributor,accountingfor88percentofNiger’sGHGemissions(RépubliqueduNiger2021a).Theeconomicvalueofcarbonassoci-atedwithforestlossbetween2015and2020wasestimatedatmorethanUS$205million.Whilethesearecoststotheglobalcommunity,deforestationandforestdegradationentailsignificantimpactsontheNigeriensociety,suchaslossesofwood,non-woodforestprod-ucts,andecosystemservices.Conductinganeconomicvaluationoftheimpactsofdefores-tationandforestdegradationwouldbeimportanttogainabetterunderstandingoftherealmagnitudeofcurrentlossesandtheneedsforfuturerestorationinNiger.FIGURE3.Trendsinforestareaandotherwoodedlands199001,0002,0003,0004,0005,00020002010201520162017201820192020Forests,1,079.90Otherwoodedlands,2,840.90Forestssurfaceareas(in1000ha)Source:FAO2020b.EXECUTIVESUMMARYxviiClimateChangeSince1968,Nigerhassufferedfromincreasinglyfrequentdroughts,storms,andfloods.Thesephenomenacausedsignificantdamagestoagriculture,foodsecurity,andlivelihoods.7Climatechangeisexpectedtoincreasetheaveragetemperaturebyupto6oCby2100,dependingonthescenario(Figure4).Highertemperatureextremesareprojectedforthecountry’ssouthwest(Röhrigetal.2022).IntermsofGHG,pastemissionshavebeenlow—about0.1tonscarbondioxideequivalent(CO2e)percapitain2018—andoriginatedfromtheAFOLUsector(Figure5).FIGURE4.ProjectedmeantemperatureinNiger262830323436200021002080202020402060Hist.Ref.Per.,1986-2005RCP2.6RCP4.5RCP6.0RCP8.5FIGURE5.Niger’semissionsprofileAgriculture,forestryandotherslandusechangesWasteEnergy88%9%2%123Sources:WorldBankGroupClimateChangeKnowledgePortalforfigure4,andCNEDD&AFDB.(2020)forfigure5.7Theyaffectedover3millionpeoplein2000and2001andover7millionpeoplein2002.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISxviiiUnderabusiness-as-usualscenario,thissectorisexpectedtoquadrupleitsemissionsduring2014–2030.8However,theGoNhasmadeafirmcommitmentthroughitsNationallyDeterminedContribution(NDC)totheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC),tomovethecountry’sdevelopmentpathwaytowardagreeneconomy.ThedocumentaimsforunconditionalreductionsfromAFOLUby13percentcomparedtothebusiness-as-usualscenarioforthesameyearandconditionalreductionsbyabout23percent.9Intheabsenceofremedialactions,theaboveprojectionscanbringsevereimpactsinNiger.ResultsofamodeldevelopedbytheUniversityofStanfordshowthatby2100,climatechangewilllikelyreduceNiger’sGDPpercapitaby80percent.10Otherstudiesaddressedtheeffectsofclimatechangeinspecificsectors:●Agriculture.ResultsofavailablestudiesindicatethatNigercouldpotentiallyloseitsentirerainfedagricultureby2100(USAID2017);apotentialincreaseinmeanannualprecipita-tionthroughoutthecenturycouldtranslateinimprovedsuitabilityofmillet(Röhrigetal.2022);yieldsofheat-anddrought-sensitivecropsareprojectedtodecline,whileyieldsoflesssensitivecropsareprojectedtoincrease,forexample,cowpeasby54percentandgroundnutsby52percent(2080versus2000;Tomalkaetal.2021).Notingtheuncertain-tiesofthemodelsusedabove,theseresultscallforadaptationstrategiesbasedonacautionaryapproach,withtheoverallgoalofimprovingfoodsecurityinthefuture.●Water.Mostoftheregion’swatersupplyisunevenlydistributed,ispoorlyaccessibleduetoundevelopedhydraulicsupplysystems,andoriginatesfromneighboringcountries.TheFoutaDjallonHighlandsinGuinea,WestAfrica’s‘watertower’,areexpectedtoexperi-encerainfallreductionsofupto26percentby2100,affectingbasinssuchasthatofNigerRiver.Inaddition,theexpectedincreasesintemperatureandmorefrequentdroughtsinNigerwilllikelycontributetofuturedeclinesinwatersupply.Thissituationhigh-lightstheurgencytoinvestinwatersavingmeasuresandtechnologiesforfuturewaterconsumption.●Health.Climatechangeisexpectedtoinduceseveralimpacts:heatwave-relatedmortal-ityispredictedtoincreasethreefoldby2080comparedto2000;inaddition,thecasesofmalaria,meningitis,andmalnutritionwilllikelyriseduetochangesintemperatures,rainfallpatterns,floods(particularlyinSouthernNiger),andmorefrequentdroughts.8Theyareprojectedtoincreasefrom24,000ktCO2ein2014to107,296ktCO2ein2030,accordingtothecountry’sNDC.9Thereisalevelofuncertaintyaboutfutureemissions,particularlybeyond2020.Predictionsarebasedonvariedassumptionsofeconomicgrowthandtheanticipatedcapacityandtechnicalsupportfromdevelopmentpartners.10BasedonBurke,Hsiang,andMiguel(2015);https://web.stanford.edu/~mburke/climate/map.php.EXECUTIVESUMMARYxixRecommendationsThisCEAdemonstratedthatenvironmentaldegradationisworrisomeinNiger.Landdeg-radationisapriorityproblem:lossesincropyieldsaffectparticularlyTillaberi,Tahoua,andDossoregions,withpotentialfutureimpactsonfoodsecurity,livelihoods,andmigration.DeforestationratesarenearlydoubletheSub-Saharanaverage,andforestdegradationthreatensthehealthoflocalspeciesthatareimportantforeconomicdiversification(AcaciaSenegal,Moringatree,Doumpalm).Moreover,climatechangeislikelytohavenegativeimplicationsonagriculture,waterresources,andpeople’shealth.Addressingtheserequiresintegratedeffortstotackleissuesneedingurgentattentionaswellaslong-termsolutionsofpersistentproblems.Inthislight,implementingactivitieswiththeparticipationofyouthandwomencanhighlycontributetoimprovingthesociety’swelfare.Table1providesasummaryofthekeyrecommendationsaimedtoaddresstheenvironmentalsustainability,poverty,andfragilityinNiger.Adetaileddescriptionoftherecommendationscanbefoundinchapter5.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISxxTABLE1.KeyrecommendationsforNigerCategoriesRecommendationsEnhancingoperations•Promotefarmers’accesstofinancingandtoFarmers’FieldSchoolslinkedtotheimplementationofSustainableLandManagement(SLM)techniques(e.g.,startupcapital,knowledgeexchange)•Supportsmartagriculturaltechnologies,suchasthefarmermanagednaturalregeneration(FMNR)•Scaleupwaterharvestingtechniquestofightcroplanddegradation(e.g.,contourstonebunds)•Introduceimprovedandclimateresilientcropvarietiestoincreaseproduction(e.g.,HKPmilletvariety)•Developandimplementafoodstoragesystemacrossregions•LinksmallholderfarmerstolocalmarketstocreatesincentivesforadoptingSLMandmovebeyondsubsistencefarming•Encourageruralyouthemploymentthroughvocationaltrainingandasameanstomodernizeagriculture•ExpandvaluechainsbypromotingNiger’sindustrialcapacitytotransformagriculturalproductsintofoodproducts(e.g.,localprocessingandsalesofanimalproducts)•InvestinthepromotionanddevelopmentoftheArabicgumindustry(includingexpansionandrehabilitationofexistingstands)•Upgradethewoodenergysubsector(e.g.,promoteparticipatoryforestmanagement,expandtheplantedarea,improvethetransportandmarketingofwood,testmodelsofimprovedhouseholdcookstoves)Supportingpolicyreform•Enhancelocalgovernancestructuresinplanningandmanagingnaturalresources•Instituteparticipatorylanduseplanningasitisanimportantpolicytoolforlong-termsustainabledevelopment•SupporttheimplementationoftheNationalNutritionalSecurityPolicy(PNSN)withexplicitattentiontoclimatechangevulnerability•Improvecountry’scapacitytosustainablyuseitsstockofnaturalcapitaltoachievetheobjectivesoftheNiger2035SustainableDevelopmentandInclusiveGrowthStrategy•Developregulations,includingmonitoringandenforcementprovisionsinpreparationforincreaseddemandonforestresources(includingfodder)•Promoteintegratedlandscapemanagementandlandscaperesilienceinrestorationstrategies•ImplementthenewlandpolicyandSLMactionplans,includingrequiredregulatoryandinstitutionalreformstohelppreventconflictslinkedtolandandnaturalresourcemanagementBuildingknowledge•Developnaturalaccountsforagriculturalland,water,andforeststoaddressthefivestrategicaxesnotedinEconomicandSocialDevelopmentStrategy(ESDS)2017–2021.•Assessandmonitorforestresourcestodrivesectorgrowth(forexample,conductforestinventoryandeconomicstudiestoestimateforests’contributiontothenationaleconomy).•Promotededicatedtechnicalentitiesforclimatedatacollectionanddissemination(forexample,improvedmeteorologicaldatatoenhancethepopulation’sresponsetodroughts).xxiPhoto:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSISxxiiPhoto:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroup1INTRODUCTION11Introduction1.1.OverallenvironmentalsituationNigerisafragilecountry,markedbyapoorlydiversifiedeconomyandextremepoverty.Thecountryhasapopulationof24.2millionandagrossdomesticproduct(GDP)percapitasignifi-cantlybelowtheSub-Saharanaverage(US$568versusUS$1,500).11Itseconomyisdominatedbytheagropastoralsector,whichcontributesnearly40percenttothecountry’sGDPandemploysmorethan80percentoftheworkforce(WorldBank2017a).Thecountry’sdemographicgrowthisamongthefastestintheworld(3.8percent12),andhalfofthepopulationisunder15yearsofage(UnitedNations,DepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,PopulationDivision2019).In2021,extremepovertyaffected42percentofthepopu-lation(WorldBank2022a),mostlyduetolossesinincomefromCOVID-relatedjoblayoffsandlowerremittances.PovertyaffectsespeciallygirlsandwomenandismostprevalentinDosso,Zinder,andMaradiregions.Inaddition,anestimated2millionpeoplearechronicallyfoodinsecure,while4.5millionpeopleareatriskoffoodinsecurity(GovernmentofNiger2017).Nigercurrentlyexpe-riencesmediumintensityconflictandlowaccesstobasicservices.Climatechange,rapiddemographicgrowth,andweakgovernancearemajorthreatstoNiger’sgrowth.Nigeristheworld’s7thmostvulnerable11Datareferto2020.WorldBank,“WorldBankOpenData,”2022.https://data.worldbank.org.12Idem.countrytoclimatechange,accordingtotheNotreDameGlobalAdaptationInitiative(ND-GAIN2019).Inthepasttwodecades,thecountryfacedshift-ingclimatepatterns,includingrainfallvariability,temperatureincreases,andextremeeventssuchasheatwaves.Thesechangeshaveledtohumanlosses,decreasedsoilproductivity,andincreasedcompetitionforaccesstoresources.Moreover,manyruralcommunitieshavegrappledwithalandtenuresystemwithoftenunclearandoverlappingrights,alackoflanduseclassificationandregistry,andanabsenceofmonitoringandenforcingbylocalinstitutions.ItisimportanttonotethattherapidpopulationgrowthandtherecentCOVIDpandemichaveputadditionalpressureonfoodsecurityandnaturalresources.Nowadays,theenvironmentalsituationinNigerisconcerning:itranks152outof180countries,accordingtothe2020EnvironmentalPerformanceIndex(EPI)(Wendling,Emerson,andSherbinin2020).Theabovechallengesareheightenedbythedominanceofnaturalassetsrelativetohumanandproducedcapital.Naturalcapitalcomprises38per-centofNiger’stotalwealth(WorldBank2021).ThisissubstantiallyhigherthantheSub-Saharanaver-age,wherenaturalcapitalrepresents19percentandhumancapitalissome60percentofthetotalwealth.Niger’sresiliencedependsonitsabilitytotransformitsnaturalcapitalintohumanorproducedcapitalatratessufficienttomeetitsdemographicgrowth.Thefollowingsectionsprovideabriefoverviewofthecountry’snaturalcapital,theGovernment’seffortstojudiciouslymanagetheseassets,andtheobjectiveandscopeofthisCountryEnvironmentalAnalysis(CEA).Photo:WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS21.2.Niger’snaturalcapitalNaturalcapitaliscrucialfortheNigeriens’liveli-hoodsandfoodsecurity.Croplands,pasturelands,andprotectedareasaccountformostofNiger’snaturalcapital.Althoughtheirtotalvaluehasincreasedovertime(Figure1.1),theirpercapitavaluehasdeclinedsince2010becauseofhighdemographicgrowth(Figure1.2).ThefollowingparagraphssummarizefourcomponentsofNiger’sassets:agriculturalland,forests,water,anduraniumandoil.AGRICULTURALLANDAgricultureisthemostimportantsourceofincomeineachofNiger’ssevenregions.Whenconsideredtogether,livestockandfarminggeneratebetween40percentand53percentoftheregions’income(Figure1.3).Thesectorisdominatedbyfoodcrops,particularlyrainfedcerealssuchasmillet,cowpea,sorghum,maize,andrice.Over1975–2013,cultivatedareasincreasedfromabout13percentto25percentofthecountry’sland,primarilyduetotherapidFIGURE1.1.NaturalcapitalinNiger019952000200520102015201810,00020,00030,00040,00050,00060,00070,000Constant2018US$,millionsForests,timberForests,ecosytemserviceFossilfuelenergyMangrovesFisheriesCroplandPasturelandFossilfuelenergyMineralsFIGURE1.2.NaturalcapitalpercapitainNiger01995200020052010201520185001,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,500Constant2018US$,millionsForests,timberForests,ecosytemserviceProtectedareaMangrovesFisheriesCroplandPasturelandFossilfuelenergyMineralsSource:WorldBank2021.1INTRODUCTION3populationgrowthandtheincreasingdemandforfood.Nowadays,approximately6.5millionhaarecultivatedintherainyseasonandafurther73,000haareusedforintensivehorticultureproductioninthedryseason(MinistereduDeveloppementAgricoleetMinisteredesRessourcesAnimales2017).Irrigationcoversabout87,870haoutofaneconomicallyirrigablelandpotentialofmorethan270,000ha(FAO2018).13DegradationofcroplandandpasturelandisakeyprobleminNiger.Sincethe1970s,croplandshaveexpandedeastwardintosuitablesoilsandencroachedtraditionalpastoralareas.However,inappropriateagriculturalpractices,poorwatermanagement,andhotterandirregularweatherpatternsreducedcropyieldsinmanyareasandsiltedfertilebasins.Moreover,thelivestockpopu-lationhasincreasedconsistently,exertinghigherpressureontheremainingpastoralland,likelycontributingtoreducedproductivity.Giventhatone-thirdoftheNigerienpopulationisalreadyatriskoffoodinsecurity,14thelossesofyieldsandotherecosystemservicesduetolanddegradation13Morethan52percentofthetotalislocatedaroundtheNigerRiver(FAOAquastatdatabase,2018).14AccordingtotheNationalStatisticalInstitute,in2018,about29percentofthepopulationwasatriskoffoodinsecurity,while12percentwasaffectedbysevereandmoderateinsecurity.arelikelytoheightenthisriskinthefuture.Withoutremedialaction,thissituationcanworseninthefuture—especiallyinacontextwheregenderinequalitycanleavewomen-ledhouseholdswithlittlechoicebuttoadoptenvironmentallyunsus-tainablecopingmechanismsandlanddegradationcanforcefarmerstomigrateonnewlands,thusaddingfurtherpressureonnaturalresources.FORESTSNigerienforestsprovideawiderangeofgoodsandservicesforlocalcommunitiesandnationalsociety.AccordingtotheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),Niger’sforestscoverabout1.1millionha,whileotherwoodedlandsextendonanadditional2.8millionha.Theseareasprovideavarietyofbenefits:wood,covering67percentofthecountry’senergyproduction(Ministèredel’Energie2019);non-timberforestproducts(NTFPs),someofwhichcouldbeintegratedinvaluechains,forexample,GumArabic(Ministeredel’EnvironnementdelaSalubriteUrbaineetduDeveloppementDurable2016);forestfodder,whichcontributesabout30percentoffodderneedsforNiger’sSahelianlivestock(Ministèredel’Hydrauliqueetdel’EnvironnementandFAO2012);andecosystemservicessuchaserosionFIGURE1.3.Shareofincomefromdifferentsources,perregion0PercentAgadezDiffaDossoMaradiTahouaTillaberiZinder16%22%26%24%11%11%25%25%24%14%5%5%41%24%23%11%23%26%16%13%22%44%9%9%14%7%34%31%24%34%6%9%46%7%11%20406080100120SalaryNon-employmentLivestockFarmEnterpriseRemittanceSource:WorldBank2021.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS4control.Thesebenefitsareparticularlyimportantforlocalcommunitiesascopingmechanismsduringtimesofdrought,whenagriculturalyieldsmaydecline.Forestsarealsoacriticalcomponentofthecountry’sstrategytoreducepovertyandenhanceresiliencetoclimatechange(Ministeredel’EnvironnementdelaSalubriteUrbaineetduDeveloppementDurable2016).Despitetheirimportance,Niger’sforestsarebeingdepletedatunsustainablerates.Arecentforestresourceassessmentindicatesthatbetween2015and2020,Nigerlostapproximately62,100haor5.4percentofits2015forestcover.Croplandexpansionaccountedforabout57percentofdeforestation,followedbygrasslandexpansion.Anearlierstudyestimatedthattheon-sitecostoflanddegradationwasnearly9percentofthecountry’sGDPin2015;additionally,landdegradationinwoodlandsandgrasslandsaccountedformorethan95percentofthiscost(Nkonya,Ru,andEdward2018).Climatechange,populationgrowth,andhumanencroachmentareexacerbatingtheunsustainabledepletionofNiger’sforestcoverandposesignificantriskstoitsecosystemservicesandbiodiversity.WATERTheagriculturalandpastorallandsaredepen-dentonrainfall,whichvariesacrossthecountry’sfiveclimaticzones.InNiger,thedeserticSaharaZonereceiveslessthan150mmperyear,andveg-etationisconcentratedinthevalleysandoasesofAïrandKawar.TheSaharan-Sahelian,character-izedbynomadicbreeding,receivesonaverage200–300mmannually.Higherrainfallsoccurintheotherzones:theSahelianZone(300–500mm),theSudano-SahelianZone(500–600mm),andtheSudaneseZone(600–800mm)(Ministèredel’Hydrauliqueetdel’Assainissement2017).Overtime,percapitawateravailabilityinNigerhasdroppedconsiderably,from2,300m3peryearin2004to1,360m3peryeartoday.15Thenationalrivernetworkisdividedintotwomajorsystems:theNigerRiverBasinandtheLakeChad.TheNigerRiverBasincoversthewesternpartofthecountryandismanagedbytheNigerBasinAuthority,basedinNiamey.Theriverisanimportantsourceofwaterforagricul-ture,drinking,andhydroelectricity.However,therainfallvariabilityhasledtochangesintheNigerRiversystem:watertablelevelshavedroppedconsiderablyinhumidregions,leadingtofurtherdeclinesinflows(MahéandPaturel2009),whileinSahelianregions,runoffcoefficientsareincreasing(MahéandPaturel2009).LakeChadcoverstheeasternpartofNigerandisoneofthelargestsedimentaryhydrogeologicalbasinsinAfrica.Annualrainfallvariessignificantlyacrossthebasinfrom1,500mmperyearinthesouthtolessthan100mmperyearinthenorth.Duetohightemperaturesthroughouttheyear,potentialevapotranspirationexceeds2,000mmperyearinthecenterofthebasin(CNEDD2021).Groundwateristhemainsourceofwatersupplyfortheagricultureandforthepopulationlivinginthebasin.Renewablegroundwaterresourcesareesti-matedat2.5billioncubicmeters.Thelong-termviabilityofthiswatersourcewillbeaffectedbytherechargerates,whichdependontherainfallspatternsandclimatevariability.Moreover,demo-graphicpressureandincreasedconversionoflandtoagriculturalusealsoposeriskstowateravail-ability.Nonrenewablegroundwaterresourcesareestimatedat2,000billioncubicmeters(Ministèredel’Hydrauliqueetdel’Assainissement2017).15AccordingtotheWaterStressIndex,absolutewaterscarcityisdefinedaslessthan500m3/capita/year,waterscarcityislessthan1,000m3/capita/year,waterstressislessthan1,700m3/year,andmorethan1,700m3/capita/yearisnowaterstress.1INTRODUCTION5URANIUMANDOILNiger’sextractiveindustriescontribute42per-centoftotalexportsandgenerate7percentofgovernmentrevenues(ITIENiger2021).Thecoun-tryistheworld’sfifthlargestproducerofuranium(ITIENiger2021).ArecentpositivedevelopmentwasthereadmissionofNigerasanExtractiveIndustriesTransparencyInitiativeimplementingcountryinFebruary2020.Thisshouldfacilitatetheinstitutionalreformneededtorecoverearliergainsandtheresolutionofkeyissuessuchastheenvi-ronmentalimpactofminingandlocalcommunities’appropriateshareofminingrevenuescollectedbytheGovernment.InJuly2020,NigeradoptedtheNationalMiningPolicy2020–2035thataimstodiversifyminingbeyonduraniumandimprovethecontributionoftheminingsectortothenationaleconomywhichhasvariedoverthepastthreedecades(RépubliqueduNiger2020a).Thecountryisalsoanimportantproducerofcrudeoil.Recentinvestmentsportendincreasedexportsasinfrastructurebecomesoperational.However,theeconomicandsocialbenefitsoffutureoilwindfallswillhingeonthetransparentandefficientgovernanceoftheseresourcestobenefittheentirepopulationandfuturegenerations(WorldBank2022b).Furthermore,thevariabilityofcom-moditypricesandsectorproductivitywillcontinuetoaccentuatevolatilityingovernmentrevenuesandinvestments,asweakearningsarelikelytoreducegovernmentrevenuesinthenearterm.Inaddition,increasedoilproductionisexpectedtocreateademandshockthatwillraisedomesticpricesandpotentiallyputothereconomicsectorsatacompetitivedisadvantage.Giventhevolatil-ityofcommodityprices,increasingagriculturalproductivityandfosteringthedevelopmentoftheprivatesectorarecriticalconditionsforNiger’ssustainablegrowth.1.3.GovernmenteffortsonsustainablenaturalresourcesmanagementTheGovernmentofNiger(GoN)recognizestheimportanceofmaintainingabalanceofitsfragileecosystemsandtheirservicesforthesocio-economicdevelopmentofthecountry.Niger’svisionwasenshrinedinakeypillarofthecoun-try’sEconomicandSocialDevelopmentStrategy(ESDS)for2017–2021.ThestrategyrecognizesthatNigerisfacingaprecariousenvironmentalsit-uationduetotheseverityofsoildegradation,lowpreservationofbiodiversity,obstaclestothesus-tainabledevelopmentoflandandwaterresources,andlimitedabilitytodealwiththeclimatecrisis.Inaddition,theRenaissanceProgram2(2016–2021)identifiedtherestorationandsustainableman-agementoflandasoneofthemainprioritiestoensurefoodandnutritionsecuritythroughthe‘NigeriensNourishNigeriens’(3N)Initiative.Thesedocumentsincludedambitioustargetstorestore1.065millionhaoflandandextendprotectedareas16aswellasincreasethecontributionofNTFPstohouseholdsbyacceleratingproductionofArabicgumandmoringa(RépubliqueduNiger2016a).Morerecently,theStrategicFrameworkforSustainableLandManagementfor2015–2029aimsatrestoring3.2millionhaoflandby2029.Nigerhasexpressedthesecommitmentsinter-nationally,forexample,throughitsNationallyDeterminedContribution(NDC)totheUNParisAgreementonClimateChangeandthroughtheBonnChallenge.17In1991,Nigerembarkedonavastinstitutional,legal,andadministrativereformtotransfercom-petenciesandexecutivepowerstolocalauthori-ties.Thisdecentralizationprocesshashadamajorimpactonthegovernanceofnaturalresources,promotingdynamicengagementatthegrassrootsleveltosupportandcomplementtheeffortsofthe16During2011–2015,Nigerreportedhavingrestored218,000haoflandagainstatargetof150,000hasanddoublingtheareaofprotectedareas.17AglobalplatformlaunchedbytheGovernmentofGermany,involving61countriestodate.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS6centralstatethroughsectoralpolicies.Despitetheseadvances,variouschallengesremain,inparticularrelatingtosustainablefinancing,efficientandtransparentmanagementofcommunitiesandregions,andtheprovisionofqualifiedstaff.Thedevelopmentofatransfermechanismcreatesfurtherchallenges.Thismechanismisintendedtosimplifytheallocationofsubsidies,enableinvest-ment,andshareoutfinancesequitablyamongcommunities.However,communitiesandregionsarenotyetabletoprovideefficientpublicser-vicesoroffercitizen-centricadministration,whilelocalpeopleandcommunitiesarenotsufficientlyinvolvedinmunicipaldecision-makingandthedevelopmentprocessestakingplacewithinthecontextofthedecentralizationreforms(GIZGmbH,n.d.).1.4.ObjectiveandstructureoftheCEATheobjectiveofthisCEAistoanalyzecriti-calenvironmentalandnaturalresourceissuesthreateningsustainableeconomicgrowthinNigerandproposepolicyactionsandinvest-mentstoaddressthem.TheresultsoftheanalysisaimtobroadenthedialoguewiththeGoNanditsengagementwiththepubliconimprovingenviron-mentandnaturalresourcemanagement.TheCEAaimstoeffectivelyanalyzeandcommunicatethelinksbetweengoodenvironmentalandnaturalresourcestewardshipinNiger,economicgrowthandpovertyreduction,andimprovedlivelihoods,togalvanizeinvestmentinenvironmentalmanage-ment,landconservationandrestoration,policyandregulatoryreform,institutionalstrengthening,andcapacitybuilding.Ultimately,theCEAwillinformtheupcomingupdatetoNiger’sSystematicCountryDiagnosticandallowtheGovernment,theWorldBank,developmentpartners,andotherstakeholderstoeffectivelyaddressenvironmentalsustainabilityandnaturalresourcemanagementquestionsthataffectNiger’sfuture.Thereportisstructuredaroundthreethematicareas:●Landdegradation●Deforestationandforestdegradation●Climatechange.TheseareasareinlinewiththehighprioritiesidentifiedbytheGoN,giventheirsignificancetothecountry’seconomyandtheintricatelinksbetweenthem.Otherimportantthemessuchaspollutionandmininggobeyondthescopeofthisreportandrequiretheirownseparateanalysis.ThisCEAleveragesexistingdataandresearchtocontextualizetheenvironmentalchallengestoNiger’ssustainabledevelopmentandbringsinnewanalysisonthecostoflanddegradationandlossofforestcarbon.Tobetterunderstandtheextentoftheenvironmentaldegradation,Chapter2presentsanin-depthanalysisoflanddegrada-tion,intermsofkeydrivers,economiccost,andpotentiallylong-lastingimpactsonthesociety.Further,theproblemofdeforestationandforestdegradationisexaminedinChapter3,focusingontrendsofforestareas,degradationdrivers,andtheeconomiccostofcarbonloss.Giventhecoun-try’svulnerabilitytoclimate-relatedrisks,Chapter4providesanoverviewoftheclimatechangeprojectionsandlikelyeffectsonspecificsectorsinNiger.Finally,concreterecommendationsaddress-ingNiger’senvironmentalsustainability,poverty,andfragilityarediscussedinChapter5.1INTRODUCTION7Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS8Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroup2LANDDEGRADATION92Landdegradation2.1.OverviewLanddegradation18isparticularlyvisibleinareasthathaveexperiencedexplosivepopulationgrowthandintensificationofagri-culturalactivities.TheseareascovertheNigerRiverValleyinthesouthwesterncornerandalongthesouth-centralborder(Map2.1).TheimpactofclimatechangeandanthropogenicactivitiesontheNigerienlandresultedinexten-sivedegradationofnaturalresources,leadingtosilting-upoffertilebasinsanddwellings,cerealdeficit,andareductionofforestandgrazingareas.Thissituationisaffectingthecountry’sfoodsecurity,conflict,andfragility,withpotentialimpactsontheentireNigerienpopulation.Between2001and2015,morethan6percentofNiger’soverallterritorysuffereddegradation.Today,thisdegradationaffectsmillionsoffarm-ers.Thecombinedpressureofunsustainablelandmanagementpractices,growinginsecurityinTillaberiandDossoregion,demographicchangesandmigration,andclimatechangeandvariabilityiscausingsevereenvironmentalandeconomicdamages.Consideringthatmorethan70percentofthecountryisdesert,thelanddegradationindicatorsshowedthat85percentofthelandisstable,meaningthatitneitherdeterioratednorimprovedbetween2001and2015.Box2.1pres-entsmethodologicaldetailsrelatedtoMap2.1.18Thischapterfocusesonthedegradationofcroplandsandrangelands.Thedeforestationandforestdegradationarediscussedinthefollowingchapter.Nigerhastakensuccessfulstepstowardlandrehabilitationinareasthreatenedbydesertifica-tion.Sincethe1980s,Nigerhasgainedsignifi-cantexperienceinassistednaturalregenerationthroughfarmer-ledinitiativestorestorethetreecoveroncroplands,increasecerealyields,andimprovewatercapture.FarmersfromMaradi,Zinder,andTahouahavewidelyadoptedsustain-ablelandandwatermanagementpracticesandaddedapproximately10milliontreeswithlimiteddonorsupport(1985–2005).Theimpactisnotice-able:theareaswithimprovedsoilandvegetationarevisibleasabeltagainstthedesertalongtheGreatGreenWall(Map2.1).Thischapterisbasedonneweconomicanalysisofthecostoflanddegradation.Itisoutlinedasfollows:first,itaddressesthedriversoflanddeg-radation,includinghistoricalclimateandhuman-inducedfactors.Further,thechapterpresentstheresultsofaneconomicanalysisofthecostoflanddegradation,basedonFAOdataandotherlocalinformation.Then,itexaminesthepotentialimpactsonfoodsecurity,malnutrition,foodtrade,locallivelihoods,migration,andfragility.Finally,itpresentsanoverviewofcurrenteffortstoaddresslanddegradation,followedbyconclusiveremarks.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS10MAP2.1.Mapoflanddegradation2001–2015—SustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG)15.3targetindicatorArea(km2)%oftotallandareaLandareaimproved:109,0388.8Landareastable:1,048,62884.9Landareadegraded:78,1336.3Landareawithnodata:1000.0TotalNiger:1,235,898100Source:Trends.Earth2016.BOX2.1.LanddegradationmethodologyMethodology:LanddegradationmapswereproducedusingTrends.Earth,whichisaplatformformonitoringlandchangebasedonearthobservations.TheTrends.Earthplatform,formerlytheLandDegradationMonitoringToolbox,tracksthreesub-indicatorsformonitoringachieve-mentofSDGtarget15.3,LandDegradationNeutrality:productivity,landcoverchange,andsoilorganiccarbon.Thedatapointsarecombinedusinga‘oneout,allout’principle,meaningthatadeclineinanyofthethreeindicatorsataparticularpixelcausesthatpixeltobemappedas‘degraded’.Thedatabaseallowsuserstoplottimeseriesofkeyindicatorsoflandchange(includ-ingdegradationandimprovement)toproducemapsandgraphicsthatcansupportmonitoringandreportingandtotracktheimpactofsustainablelandmanagement.ThetoolsupportscountriesinanalyzingdatatopreparefortheirreportingcommitmentstotheUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD).Trends.EarthwasproducedbyapartnershipofConservationInternational,LundUniversity,andtheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA),withthesupportoftheGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF).AdditionalinformationaboutthemethodologybehindthelanddegradationmapscanbefoundatTrends.Earth.2LANDDEGRADATION112.2.DriversoflanddegradationClimatechangeandvariabilitycombinedwithanthropogenicactivitiesresultedinextensivedegradationofnaturalresources.Risingtem-perature,irregularandheavyrain,andfrequentandoftenstrongwindsproducewaterandwinderosion,themainclimate-relateddriversoflanddegradation(UNCCD2017).Moreover,anthro-pogenicdriversoflanddegradationinNigeraremostcommoninareaswithhighpopulationden-sityandincludeovergrazing,clearingforestlandforagriculturalpurposes,uncontrolledexploitationofforeststosatisfyenergyneeds,andbushfires(CNEDD2018).CLIMATEDRIVERSMeanannualtemperatureincreasedby0.6–0.8°Cbetween1970and2010,accordingtoobservedhistoricaldataproducedbytheClimaticResearchUnitoftheUniversityofEastAnglia(Figure2.1).Thisisslightlyhigherthantheglobalaverage,andtherehasbeenanincreaseinthenumberofwarmdays/nightsandadecreaseinthenumberofcolddays/nights.AchangeindrynessinkeyregionsofNigerhasbeenobservedsince1980.AccordingtothePalmerDroughtSeverityIndex(PDSI),whichisastandardizedindexbasedonasimplifiedcalcula-tionofthesoilmoisturebalancefromprecipitationandtemperaturedata,itispossibletoobserveasignificantchangeintheannualdrynessinregionssuchasTahoua,Maradi,Agadez,andDiffaofNiger,thoughthePDSIremainsrelativelystableinpartsofTillaberi,Zinder,andDosso(seeMap2.2).ThemagnitudeofPDSIindicatestheseverityofdeparturefromnormalconditions.TheaverageannualPDSIforNigerbetween1981and2020registersmoderatetoextremedroughtbetween1983and1987,turningtoverywettoextremelywetconditionsfrom2016to2020(Figure2.2).Overall,47percentoftheyearsarenearnormalorFIGURE2.1.NigermeantemperatureannualtrendsMean-temperature(°C)24252627282919501960197019801990200020102020YearAnnualmean-temperatureTrend1991–2020Trend1951–2020Trend1971–2020Source:WorldBankGroupClimateChangeKnowledgePortal.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS12almostnormal,25percentareinthedroughtgroup,and28percentareinthewetgroupofyears,mostlyinthelast15years.Precipitationhasincreased,butrainfalleventsinNigerappeartobelessfrequentandofshorterdurationwithgreaterintensity(Figure2.3).Theprecipitationtrendbetween1981to2020indicatesanaverageincrementofalmost1mmofrainfallperyearthoughcumulativeprecipitationhasnotreturnedtopre-1960slevelsandcertaincharacter-isticshavechanged.Anincreaseinthefrequencyandseverityofextremerainfalleventsandflood-inghasbeenobserved(WorldBankClimateChangeKnowledgePortal,n.d.).Thecloserelation-shipbetweenrainfallandwatererosion(MohamadiandKavian2015)worsenslanddegradationinNiger.Dustandsandwindaffectagriculturalandpas-torallandsandsurfacewatercourses.TheeffectisparticularlyharmfulintheharmattanseasonfromNovembertoMarchwithahotanddrywindthatrangesinspeedfrom5to10m/s.Duringthemonsoonseason,windspeedisgenerallylow(2to8m/s)butcanreachinstantaneousmaximumintensitywindswithspeedofmorethan40m/s(CNEDD2019).MAP2.2.PDSIforNigerienregionsin1980and2020-2.8--0.95-0.94--0.19-0.18--00.001-11.01-22.01-33.01-54.01-55.01-66.01-8AnnualPDSI,1981AnnualPDSI,2020Source:DataretrievedfromTerraClimate2021,andanalysiscompletedbytheWorldBankteam.FIGURE2.2.AverageAnnualPDSIforNigerIndexPDSIclass4.0ormoreextremelywet3.0to3.99verywet2.0to2.99moderatelywet1.0to1.99slightlywet0.5to0.99incipientwetspell0.49to−0.49−0.5to−0.99nearnormalincipientdryspell−1.0to−1.99milddrought−2.0to−2.99moderatedrought−3.0to−3.99severedrought−4.0orlessextremedrought86420–2–4–61981198219831984198519861987198819891990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020Source:DataretrievedfromTerraClimate2021,andanalysiscompletedbyWorldBankteam.2LANDDEGRADATION13Theincreasingintensityofwindsproduceswinderosion,affectinglandproductivityinNiger(CNEDD2014).Windspeedvariesacrossregions,andchangesinthespeedalsoaffecteachregiondifferently(Figure2.4).WindspeedisgreaterinAgadez,Tahoua,andNiamey,butchangesinwindspeedforDecember2021aremoreextremeinDiffa,Maradi,andZinderregions.WindandwatererosionarethemaindriversoflanddegradationinNiger,buttheimpactattheregionallevelvariesacrossthecountry.ANTHROPOGENICDRIVERSDrivenbyrapidpopulationgrowthandtheincreas-ingdemandforfood,agriculturalexpansionisthemostdramaticchangeinNiger’slandscapeoverthepastfourdecades.Over1975–2013,cultivatedareashaveincreasedfrom12.6percentin1975to18.1percentin2000and24.5percentin2013(Map2.3).AgricultureexpansionmostlyoccurredontheproductivesandysoilsofthevalleysintheTillaberiregion,wherecroplandisnowencroachingonFIGURE2.3.ChangeindistributionofprecipitationinNigerDistribution00.0040.0080.0160.0120.02050100150200250Precipitation(mm)1951–19801971–20001991–2020Source:WorldBankGroupClimateChangeKnowledgePortal.FIGURE2.4.WindspeedinNiger(m/s)0246TillabériNiameyDossoTahouaAgadezMaradiZinderDiffa1991–20102021Source:DirectiondelaMétéorologieNationaleduNiger(DMN)—DivisionChangementClimatiqueetDéveloppement(DCCD)2021.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS14traditionalpastorallands.Inthisregion,anincreaseof50percentinirrigatedagricultureisobservedalongtheNigerRiver.Thesouth-centralregion,alreadyheavilycultivatedin1975,isnowahomoge-neousagriculturallandscape,andagricultureisstillexpandingeastwardontheremainingshortgrassSaheliansavannas.Inparallel,averageyieldsofmajorcropshavenotseenasignificantincreaseandsincethe1980s,percapitafoodproductionhasremainedstagnant(Ministèredel’EnvironnementdelaSalubritéUrbaineetduDéveloppementDurable2014).Landdegradationisanimportantfactorcontribut-ingtolowagriculturalproductivity,poverty,andotherenvironmentalproblems.Naturalvegetationsufferedasharpdecline,reducingnaturalbiodi-versityandexposingthesoiltowindandwatererosion.Inturn,sandyareashaveincreasedby24.8percentsince1975.Thistrend,whichappearstohavebecomemoreacutesince2000,isamajorconcernbecauseitindicatesadecreaseinsoilstabilityandalossofvegetationcover.Althoughgrasslandareasremainedrelativelystableinrecentyears,thelivestockpopulationhasincreasedconsistently(Figure2.5).Therefore,morepressureisexertedintheremainingpastoralareaswhereintensiveproductionpracticessuchasovergrazingoccurs,increasingtheriskoflanddegradation.LivestockiswidelydevelopedinZinder,Tahoua,Tillaberi,andMaradiregions,inwhichTropicalLivestockUnits19(TLUs)surpassed3millionin2019(Figure2.6).Inaddition,woodoverharvestforenergyandbushfirescontributedheavilytolanddegradation,particularlyinforestedareas,aspresentedinChapter3.19TropicalLivestockUnits(TLUs)arelivestocknumbersconvertedtoacommonunit.Camelswithanaverageweightof250kg.weredefinedas1TLU.Furtherconversionfactors:Cattle=0.8TLU,SheepandGoats=0.15TLU,Equines=1TLU,andMules=0.5TLU.MAP2.3.Landuseandlandcovertimeseries,1975and2013Source:CILSS2016.2LANDDEGRADATION15Insummary,climatechangeandvariability,coupledwithstrongdemographicgrowthandcroplandexpansion,poorlandandwaterman-agementpractices,anduncontrolledexploitationofforeststomeetfuelwoodandotherneeds,ledtoexcessiveexploitationoflandandconsiderablelossofproductivepotential.2.3.CostoflanddegradationThereiswidedisparityintheextentoflanddegradationacrosstheeightregionsofNiger.Toobtainmoreaccurateresultsoflanddegradationatthelocallevel,Figure2.7presentslanddegra-dationmapsforeachofNiger’sregions,basedonMap2.1.Theresultsshowthatinrelativeterms,degradationprimarilyaffectedNiamey(52percentoftheregion’sarea),Dosso(34percent),andTillaberi(34percent).Maradiregistered17percentofitsareaundertheprocessoflanddegradation,whilethedegradedlandinTahouarepresentedabout9percentofitsterritory.Onlyasmallpro-portionofZinderandDiffa’sareaswereaffectedbydegradation(3percentineach).TheeconomiccostduetolanddegradationwasestimatedatUS$646million,or5percentofNiger’sGDPin2019.Thiscorrespondstoabout12percentoftheagriculturalGDPinthesameyear.Theanalysisfocusesontheon-siteeconomiclossesoncroplands,thatis,agriculturalproductiv-ity.Sinceitdoesnotcoveroff-sitecostsrelatedtocroplanddegradationsuchaslossofwateravailabilityduetoerosion,andanycostrelatedtopasturelanddegradationsuchaslossinfodderyields,itrepresentsaconservativeestimate.TheFIGURE2.5.EvolutionofTLUsinNigerbetween2005and201911,467,54313,650,95715,829,81819,921,8110,000,00012,000,00014,000,00016,000,00018,000,00020,000,00022,000,000200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019FIGURE2.6.TLUsperregionin201901,000,0002,000,0003,000,0004,000,0005,000,000AgadezDiffaDossoMaradiTahouaTillaberiZinderNiameySource:MinistryofAgricultureandLivestock,GoN.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS16MAP2.4.RegionallanddegradationmapsDossoMaradiNiameyTillaberiZinderAgadezTahouaDiffaNodataDegradationStableImprovementSource:Trends.Earth2016.2LANDDEGRADATION17cropsselectedforthisstudywerecowpea,millet,sorghum,rice,peanut,sesame,maize,andfonio,whichtogetheraccountformorethan97percentofthetotalcropsproducedinNiger.Thevaluationrepresentsabroadestimatebasedonanaveragepercentyieldlossderivedfromtheliteratureanddoesnotconsiderdifferentlevelsoflanddegrada-tionseverityinNiger(seeAnnex2forthedetailedmethodologyandestimates).TheregionofTillaberialonebearsnearlyhalfthecostoflanddegradationinNiger.In2019,yieldlossinTillaberireachedUS$287million,or44percentofthetotalcostoflanddegradationinNiger.Lookingatthedriversoflanddegradation,itisnoticeablethatagriculturallandhasexpanded(Figure2.7),encroachingontothepastoralland,whichitselfhaswitnessedanimmenseintensifica-tionintermsofheadsoflivestock.Compoundingtheimpactofthesetrends,theregionhasbeenaffectedbyextremedrought,asindicatedbythePDSI(Figure2.2),andisoftenmarkedbyviolentconflict.ThehighcostoflanddegradationinTillabericanbeexplainedbytheproductionofhigh-valuecrops,suchascowpeasandrice,whichcombinedaccountfor60percentoftheforegonecropyieldlossintheregion.FIGURE2.7.Costoflanddegradationbyregion(US$)350,000,000300,000,000250,000,000200,000,000150,000,000100,000,00050,000,0000USDTillaberiTahouaDossoMaradiZinderNiameyAgadezFIGURE2.8.Costoflanddegradationbycrop(%)CowpeaMilletSorghumRicePeanutSesameMaizeFonio1%3%7%14%31%44%Source:RawdataretrievedfromGoNandanalyzedbyWorldBanktaskteam.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS18ThecostoflanddegradationinMaradiandZinder,wherelarge-scalelandrestorationproj-ectshavebeenimplementedsincethe1980s,isnotablylower.ConsideredthebreadbasketofNiger,theregionsarecentraltothemilletandsorghumbeltrunninghorizontallyacrossNiger(seeMap2.5)andeachyields20percentofmilletproductionand30percentofsorghumproductionnationally.Thoseareashaveseenanincreaseincropproduction,sincethe1980s,ofanadditional500,000tonsofcerealperyearduetofarmer-managednaturalregeneration(FMNR,Box2.1),whichmayinpartexplaintheloweryieldlossesinthoseregions.2.4.TheimpactonfoodsecurityandmalnutritionFOODSECURITYFoodinsecurityisasignificantthreatinseveralNigerienregions.ThenumberofNigeriensaffectedbymoderateandseverefoodinsecurityinruralareasin2018accountedfor9.8and2.6percent,respectively,whilethepercentageofpeopleatriskwas29.1percentatthenationallevel(Figure2.9).RegionaldatashowthatAgadez,Diffa,andTillaberiaretheregionsmostaffectedbymoderatefoodinsecurity.TheseregionsandTahouaarethemostaffectedbyseverefoodinsecurity.Foodsecurityisincrisisparticularlyinthenorth-ernpartsofTillaberiandTahoua.FoodassistanceallowsthemajorityofpeopleinNigertocovertheirfoodneeds.However,intheborderregionsofTillaberiandTahoua,humanitarianassistanceonlycovers8–12percentofhouseholdsduetodifficultyofaccesscausedbyconflictandinsecu-rity(FEWSNET2021).MALNUTRITIONFoodinsecurityisamajorcauseofmalnutritioninNiger(RépubliqueduNiger2016b).AsinmuchofWesternAfrica,foodavailabilitydoesnotsatisfythedailypercapitaminimumintakeasrecom-mendedbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)(MinistèreduPlan2021).ConsumptionpatternsinNigershowthatfoodintakeofmosttypesofnutri-tionisinsufficient(seeFigure2.11).However,thenutritiondeficitispartlycompensatedforthroughlegumes,suchascowpeas,majorlyproducedbyNiger.Malnutritionisparticularlyhighinremoteareasandinareashighlydependentonsubsistencefarming.Theprevalenceofacutemalnutrition,FIGURE2.9.Foodinsecurityinruralareasbyregion,Niger01020304050AgadezDiffaDossoMaradiNiameyTahouaTillaberiZinderSevereModerateAtRiskSource:InstitutNationaldelaStatistique.2018.Tableaudebordsocial.2LANDDEGRADATION19BOX2.2.ImprovedlivelihoodsthroughFMNRinMaradiandZinderInMaradiandZinder,yearsoflandrestorationandexpansionofagriculturalactivitiestocombatlanddegradationanddesertificationhaveprovedthatitispossibletoimprovelocallivelihoodsthroughenhancedecosystemhealthandfunction.Specifically,FMNRhaseffectivelyaddressedkeydriversoflanddegradation,includinglowsoilfertility,drought,destructivewinds,lowyields,periodiccropfailure,andfuelwoodshortage.Usingtraditionalandsmall-scalewatercapturestructures,suchasstonebunds,zaïpits,andhalf-moonplantingtechniques,farmersinMaradiandZinderhavebeenabletoincreasecerealyieldsby40to100percentinrainfedagriculture.Asaresultofthesesustainablelandandwatermanagementpractices,theseareasofNigerareproducinganadditional500,000tonsofcerealcropsannually,resultingin2.5millionpeoplebeingmorefoodsecure.IntheAguiedistrict,Niger,farmlandthatwasvirtuallytreelessintheearly1980snowsports103–122totreesperhaandsustainablyharvestedfuelwoodissoldlocallyandacrossthebordertoNigeria.Furthermore,grossincomeinMaradihasgrownbyUS$17–21million,equaltoanadditionalUS$1,000perhouseholdperyear.FIGURE2.10.RegreeningusingZaipitsandhalf-moonwaterharvestingtechniquesThesocialbenefitsofFMNRtolocallivelihoodshavealsobeenwelldocumented.BecauseFMNRcontributestoliftingyieldsandincome,ithasapositiveeffectonlivelihoods,foodsecu-rity,resilience,andriskreduction.Therearedocumentedreportsofreducedimpactofdroughtandreducedincidenceofflooding.Womenandchildren’sburdensbecomelighterasfuelwoodiseasiertogatherandiscloserathand.Womenhavemoretimetopursueeconomicandotheractivities,andtheirstatusinthecommunityisoftenliftedastheyparticipateindecision-makinggroupactivitiesandsometimesleadership.Childrenaremorelikelytogotoschool.Source:UNSDGs.https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=30735.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS20bothglobalandsevere,isabovethehighthresh-oldlevelforpublichealthat12.7percentand2.6percent,respectively(Figure2.12).InthecontextofNiger,malnutritionishighestinremoteareas,suchasinDiffaregion,whereoneinfivechildrenundersixyearssuffersfromacutemalnu-tritionattwicetheWHO’shighthresholdlevelforbothglobalandsevereacutemalnutrition.InMaradi,Tahoua,andZinder,wheremanyruralhouseholdsaredependentonsubsistencefarmingfortheirlivelihoodandthereforearevulnerabletoweather-relatedshocks,malnutritionratesareallabovethehighthresholdof10percent.Interestingly,malnutritionratesarelowestinsomeoftheareaswiththehighestlanddegradationrates,suchasTillaberiandDosso.ThisislikelyduetotheproximitytonearbyurbanareasaroundNiamey,whererural,food-insecurefamilieshavebetteraccesstobasicfoodstaplesandessentialservices.Overall,intheabsenceofremedialactions,landdegradationandhighpopulationgrowtharelikelytoworsenthefoodsecuritysituationandthenutritionaloutcomesinNigerinthelongterm.Moreover,growingpressureonthecapacityofFIGURE2.11.Estimatedpercapitaintakeingramsperdayoffruits,vegetables,wholegrains,legumes,nutsandseeds,andmilk,2000–2017250g360g125g60g20.5g435gMilkNutsandseedsLegumesWholegrainsVegetablesFruits870g41g120g250g720g500gNigerWesternAfricaWorldTargetValue20002017Source:GlobalBurdenofDisease.FIGURE2.12.Prevalenceofacutemalnutrition(global/severe)inchildren6–59monthsbyregionin20200510152025AgadezDiffaDossoMaradiNiameyTahouaTillaberiZinderGlobalAcuteMalnutritionSevereAcuteMalnutritionSource:InstitutNationaldelaStatistique.2018.Tableaudebordsocial.2LANDDEGRADATION21institutionalsystemstomeetfoodneedswillcontinue.Asincreasingpopulationdensityinagropastoralareasreduceslandavailabilityandhastenssoildegradation,theevolutionoffoodsystems,agriculturalproduction,andinstitutionalsafetynetsbecomesamajorconcern.2.5.TheimpactonfoodtradeNigerproducesaboutone-thirdoftheminimumdailypercapitafooddemandrecommendedbytheWHO.Processedfruitsandvegetablesaremainlyprovidedbycommercialimports.Thevaluechainsofdrycereals,includingmilletandsor-ghum,arethebasisoffoodinNigerandrepresentimportanteconomicopportunitiesforproducers(RépubliqueduNiger2021b).Inthiscontext,anannualyieldlossduetolanddegradationofabout13percentformilletand11percentforsorghumsignificantlyincreasestheriskoffoodinsecuritywhilestrainingdevelopmentopportunitiesforNigergoingforward.Aworseningnegativefoodtradebal-anceisobservedinNiger.Foodimportsincreasedfivefoldbetween1997and2017,fromUS$106milliontoUS$520million.Foodexportsalsoincreasedoverthisperiod,butmoremodestly,triplingfromUS$51milliontoUS$171million(FAO2021a).Consideringthatlocalproductionislargelyinsufficienttomeetdomesticdemand,particularlyinurbanareas,asmostproducersaresmallholdersubsistencefarmers,landdegradationposesathreattothefoodtradebalanceinNiger.Importsofcerealsaregrowingrelativetootherfoodcategories(Figure2.13).Approximately20percentofNiger’scerealneedsaremetthroughimports,primarilyfromNigeria.Inanaverageyear,50percentofimportscovercerealdeficits.Demandformilletexceedsproduction,eveninagoodyear.Thequantitiesofstaplefoods(primarilycereals)thatareproducedandtradedbothinternallyandacrossbordersaresmallscale,resultinginathinmarketsystemthatisvulnerabletoevenminorshocks.Cerealimportsincreasedfrom47to57percentofthevalueoffoodimportsduring2014–2020.Incomparison,theimportsofanimalproductsshowedadecreasingtrend,from12percentto5percentofthetotalimportsduringthesameperiod.Landdegradationisexpectedtoaffectfutureexportearningsofagriculturalproductsandlivestock.Nigerisamajorproducerandexporteroflivecattle.WhilethecountryhasasufficientquantityofliveanimalsofthebovinespeciestoFIGURE2.13.FoodimportsinNiger—2014,2018,and2020(%)0102030405060%oftotalvalueoffoodimportsCerealsAnimalproductsFruitsandvegetablesAnimalorvegetablefatsandoilsLivestockMiscellaneousfoodpreparationsOther201420182020Source:MinistryofPlanning2021.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS22satisfythepopulation’sdemandformeatandmilk(MinistèreduPlan2021),landdegradationislikelytoreducethefuturepotentialforexportoflive-stock.Thistrendcanalreadybeobservedasexportoflivestockhasbeendecreasingduring2014–2020(Figure2.14).Similarly,theimpactoflanddegradationontheprimaryfoodexportsourceofNiger—fruitsandvegetables—couldgenerateanegativefoodtradebalanceandmakeNigermoredependentonfoodimports.2.6.TheimpactonlivelihoodsNigerincludesthreelivelihoodzonesathighriskofirregularrainfallsandfrequentdroughts.Thecountryisdividedinto13livelihoodszones,illustratedinMap2.5.Threeofthemareathighriskofirregularrainfallsandfrequentdrought:theagropastoralbeltzone(NE04);therainfedmilletandsorghumbeltzone(NE05);andthecropping,herding,andworkoutmigrationzone(NE06),whichincludesmostofZinder,Maradi,Tillaberi,Dosso,andTahouaregions—theyareamongthemostdenselypopulatedareasofthecountry.Amongthethreezones,thesecondone(NE05)consistentlyfacesacutefoodinsecurityduetoitsvulnerabilitytoclimate,alongwithpopulationovercrowdingandreducedhouseholdplotsize.Landresourcesplayacriticalroleinshapingrurallivelihoodsaslocalcommunitiesarehighlyreliantonlivestockandrainfedsubsistencefarmingforfoodandincome.Formally,theagriculturalsectoremploysthreeoutoffourNigeriens,andlandcultivationandbreedingarethemainsourcesoflivelihoodsinNiger.However,thesectorisaffectedbyaneconomyunabletoabsorbthegrowinglaborforce,resultinginagrowingshareoftheworkforceengagedinformallyinthesector(FAO2021b).Atthehouseholdlevel,97percentofruralhouseholds’ownlivestockwithanaverageherdsizerangefrom13to16headsforcattleandsheep,respectively(Table2.1).Thelackofappropriateirrigationtechnologypre-ventsfarmersfromtappingintotheunderutilizedgroundwateraquifersandreducingtheirdepen-denceontraditionalrainfedfarmingmethods.Thisisacriticalproblem,particularlyduringtheprolongeddryseasonthatspansseventoeightmonthsoftheyear.Women,mostofwhomdonotownland,aredisproportionatelyaffectedbythelackofrainwaterforagricultureandoftenrelyonsinks,alabor-andtime-intensivemethod.SmallandmediumfarmersarealsoaffectedbyfinancingFIGURE2.14.FoodexportsinNiger—2014,2018,and2020(%)05101520253035404550CerealsAnimalproductsFruitsandvegetablesAnimalorvegetablefatsandoilsLivestockMiscellaneousfoodpreparationsOther%oftotalvalueoffoodexports201420182020Source:MinistryofPlanning2021.2LANDDEGRADATION23MAP2.5.LivelihoodzonesinNigerNE01-NortheastOases:Dates,SaltandTradeNE02-AirMassifIrrigatedGardeningNE03-TranshumantandNomadPastoralismNE03-TranshumantandNomadPastoralism—CamelsNE04-AgropastoralBeltNE05-RainfedMilletandSorghumBeltNE06-Cropping/HerdingwithHighWorkOutmigrationNE07-SouthernIrrigatedCashCropsNE08-SouthwesternCerealswithFan-PalmProductsNE09-NigerRiverIrrigatedRiceNE10-Dallols—SeasonalWater-CourseIrrigatedCropsNE11-SoutheasternNatronSaltandSmallBasinIrrigatedDatesNE12-KomadougouIrrigatedPeppersNE13-LakeChadFlood-RetreatCultivationwithFishingNotZoned(Desert)Source:FEWSNET2011.TABLE2.1.CharacteristicsofrurallivelihoodsinNiger,2012HouseholdcharacteristicsStatisticsOwnlivestock(%)97Milkproductionperdaypercow(liters),3monthsaftercalving1.4Practicerotationalgrazing(%)2.24Householdproductionsystems(%ofhouseholds)Cropproductiononly37Agropastoral38Pastoral26Householdsusingimprovedpasturemanagement(%)a4Averageherdsize(number)Shoats(goatsandsheep)herdsize16Cattleherdsize(numberofheads)13Source:NationalStatisticalInstitute2012.Note:a.Includesrotationalgrazingandmanagednaturalregeneration.Nofarmerreportedplantedpasture.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS24problems,suchaslimitedaccesstocreditforthepurchaseofefficientagriculturalinputsandequip-ment,includingirrigation.Highdependenceonrainfedagriculturemakesrurallivelihoodsparticularlyvulnerabletolanddegradation.Frequentshocks,decreasingland-holdingsizes,underutilizedwaterresources,overcrowding,poornaturalresourcemanage-ment,inefficientyields,andlimiteduseofmoderntechnologiesandinputsareconstraintstoproduc-tionfromyeartoyear.Poorhouseholdsoftensellagriculturallabor,engageincontractherding,andmarketcashcropstoaccessfood.Landdegradationcanleadtocerealproductiondeficits,20subsequentshockstofoodprices,andpoorlyregeneratedpastures,andthemostvulnerablelivelihoodzonesarelikelytobemostaffected.Whenlanddegradationaffectsagricul-turalproductivityandtheavailabilityoffodderforlivestock,itlikelyworsensfoodandincomesecu-rity.Inaviciouscircle,degradedlandoftenforcesfarmerstoadoptincreasinglyunsustainablelandandwatermanagementpractices,suchasover-grazingandcultivatingfallowland.Inturn,thismayincreasefoodinsecurity,destroylocallivelihoods,anddeepenpoverty.2.7.TheimpactonmigrationandfragilitySeasonalmigrationisatraditionalcopingmecha-nismwithunfavorableclimaticconditions,suchaserraticrainfallanddroughts.Duringthedryseason,manyNigeriensmigratetoSouthernNigerorotherpartsofWestAfricatoseekworkaslaborers(Funketal.2019).Forexample,in2015,one-thirdofthetotalNigerienmigrantsmovedtootherruralareasofthecountry,whiletwo-thirds20CommercializationratesofcropsaresmallinNiger.Millet,whichrepresents65percentofthetotalcultivatedarea(MinistryofEnvironment,UrbanSanitation,andSustainableDevelopment2020),andsorghum,registeringacommercializationrateofonly1percent,aremainlysubsistencecrops(WorldBank2017a).migratedtootherAfricandestinations,mainlytoneighboringcountries.Moreover,Nigersuffersfromspilloverduetocon-flictsinducedbynon-stategroupsinneighboringcountries(WFP2019).ThedeterioratingsecuritysituationintheborderareaswithNigeria,Mali,andBurkinaFasodisplaced567,000peoplein2020—comparedto187,000in2019and158,000in2018(FEWSNET2021).AconsiderableproportionofthesepeoplearrivedinTillaberi,Tahoua,andDiffa.Theinfluxofforeignmigrantsincreasesthereli-anceonhumanitarianassistance,decreasesfoodavailability,andraisesprices,especiallyinlocalcommunitiesunabletoabsorbnewpopulations(FEWSNET2021).TheabovemigrationpatternsoftenexacerbateexistingconflictsinNiger.InDiffa,theintensityofmigrationinfluxvariesaccordingtothelevelofsecurity(FAO2021b).Forinstance,insomeareaswithgrowinginsecurity,residentlivestockfarmersmigratetosaferareas,addingpressuretothosepastures.Cross-bordertranshumancecircuitsandtraderoutesforlivestockbetweenDiffaregionandChadaremodifiedtobypassareasthatarebesetbyinsecurity.Thischallengesthesustainableman-agementoftranshumancecorridorsandgrazingareasandoftenleadstoconflictbetweenpastoralfarmersandmigranttranshumantherdersoveraccessrightsfornaturalresources.Inthisfragilecontext,landdegradationislikelytoaggravatetheoutmigrationofNigeriensforbetteropportunitiesaswellasthecurrentconflictsbetweenfarmersandpastoralists.2.8.CurrenteffortstoaddresslanddegradationInSeptember2021,NigeradoptedanewLandPolicywithahistoriclandtenurereform.InformedbythekeyprinciplesrelatedtoVoluntaryGuidelinesontheResponsibleGovernanceofTenureofLand,FisheriesandForests,theLandPolicyincludedanoteworthyparticipatoryprocessknownasthe‘Étatsgénérauxdufoncierrural’.2LANDDEGRADATION25BOX2.3.OverviewofinstitutionalactorsengagedinsustainablelandmanagementThePresidencyoftheRepublic:Thiscomprehendsvariousspecializedsupport-advicedepartments,includingtheWaterandEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopmentunit,butalsootherstructuresthatstandoutforthepromotionofsustainabledevelopment,inparticulartheHighCommissiontothe‘NigeriensNourishNigeriens’(3N)InitiativeandtheHighCommissionfortheDevelopmentoftheNigerValley.TheNationalAssembly:ThisinstitutionistherepresentationofnationalelectedofficialswhovoteonalllawssubmittedbytheGovernment,includingthoseconcerningthesustainablemanagementofnaturalresourcesasdefinedbytheconstitution.TheCabinetofthePrimeMinister:Withintheframeworkofthecoordinationofgovernmentaction,inadditiontotheExecutiveSecretariat,theCabinethasspecializedstructuresinpromotingsustainabledevelopment,includingthefollowing:●TheNationalMechanismforthePreventionandManagementofCrisesandFoodDisasterswhichcarriesoutsustainablelandmanagementactions,intheformofcashandorfoodforwork,incollaborationwithlocalactorstomitigatevariouscrisesatthelocallevelandimproveresilienceclimatic.●TheNationalEnvironmentalCouncilforSustainableDevelopment:Nationalfocalpointforpost-RioConventions,whichisthenationalbodyforcoordinatingandmonitoringactivitiesrelatingtotheseconven-tionsandtheirprotocolsaswellasanyotherconventionthatNigermayratifyinthisarea.●TheMinistryofPlanning,RegionalPlanningandCommunityDevelopment:Itisinchargeofintersectoralcoor-dination,dialoguewithtechnicalandfinancialpartners,mobilizationofexternalresources,andmonitoringofdevelopmentprogramsandprojects.ItcoordinatestheexerciseofintegratingsustainablelandmanagementactionsintothenationalstrategiesadoptedbytheGovernment.●TheMinistryoftheEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment:Itdevelopsandimplementspolicies,plans,programs,andprojectsrelatingtothepreservationoftheenvironmentandthemanagementofnaturalresources.Theministryhastwogeneraldirectorates:TheGeneralDirectoratefortheEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment(DirectionGénéraledel’EnvironnementetduDéveloppementDurable,DGEDD)andtheGeneralDirectorateforWaterandForests(DirectorateGeneraldesEauxetForests,DGEF).Inaddition,theministryhassupporteddirectoratesincludingtheOfficeofEnvironmentalandImpactStudiesandAssessment(BureauNationald’ÉvaluationEnvironnementaleEtdesEtudesd’Impact,BEEEI),theNationalCenterforEcologicalandEnvironmentalMonitoring(CentreNationaldeSurveillanceÉcologiqueetEnvironnementale,CNSEE),andtheNationalCenterforForestSeeds(CentreNationaldeSemencesForestières,CNSF).●TheMinistryofAgricultureandLivestock:Itensuresthesupervisionofruralproducers,actsinsustainabledevelopmentthroughthefightagainstpovertyinruralareas,promotesagriculturalandpastoralproductionandthefightagainstfoodinsecurity,developsecosystems,andsecuresthelivingconditionsofruralpopula-tions.Itmanagesthebasesofagropastoralproduction.●TheMinistryofHydraulicsandSanitation,theMinistriesinchargeofFinance,ForeignAffairs,CooperationforAfricanIntegrationandNigeriensAbroadplayadecisiveroleinthesearchforpartnership,negotiation,andmobilizationoffinancialresourcesfortheimplementationofsustainablelandmanagementpractices.Localauthorities:Theyarerepresentedbymunicipalities(266)andregions(8).Eachcommunehasadevelop-mentplanningtool,theCommunalDevelopmentPlan(PlandeDéveloppementCommunal,PDC)withastrongsustainablelandmanagementcomponent.Highereducationandresearchinstitutions:Theyhaveoperationalunitsfortheconservationofcollectedseedsandconstituteplacesfortestingsustainablelandmanagementinnovationsandtechniquestobeappliedinruralareas.Civilsocietyorganizations:Theyarerepresentedbyaroundahundrednongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)andassociationsworkingintheenvironmentfield,whichhaveenabledincreasedaccountabilityofthepopulationintheimplementationofnaturalresourcesmanagementactivities.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS26Thisprocesswashighlyparticipatory,involvingalltheactorsofthevarioussectorsandregionsofthecountryduringregionalpreparatorywork-shops,allowingin-depthdiscussionsonthelandtenuresituationinthecountry.Itculminatedinahigh-levelforumin2018withmulti-stakeholderplatformsandmechanismsthatwereabletobuildconsensusaroundastrongandinclusivetenurereform.Theprocessalsohadapositiveeffectontheestablishmentofnationalandregionaltranshu-mancecommitteesinNiger.ThepreparationoftheLandPolicyhasbeenaccompaniedbyanactionplanfortheeffectiveimplementationofthenewlyadoptedpolicy.Nigerhasalongtraditionforparticipatoryfarmer-managedeffortstocounteractthetrendinlanddegradation.Supportedbypolicychanges,Nigerhassuccessfullybegunrestoringagroforestryparklandsontheheavilypopulated,agriculturalplainsofsouth-centralNiger.In2017,FMNRwasconductedonanestimated7millionha—ascaleandlongevitythatatteststotheeconomicviabilityoftheapproach(WouterseandBadiane2018).NigerhasalsoimplementedseveralsustainablelandmanagementprojectsandhasengagedinrestorationandrehabilitationinitiativessuchastheGreatGreenWall.Awidenumberofinstitutionalactorsareactivelyengagedinsustainablelandmanagement(Box3.3).TheGoNisplacingsignificantimportanceontherehabilitationanddevelopmentofirrigatedsystemsasameanstoincreaseproduction,improvefoodsecurity,andincreaseresiliencetowardclimatechange.WiththeadoptionofaStrategyforSmall-ScaleIrrigationinNigerin2015,thecountryhasfocusedonthedevelopmentofsmall-scaleirrigationtoproducevegetablessuchasonions,tomatoes,sweetpepper,maize,andout-of-seasonwheat.Thisformofirrigationhasarealdevelopmentpotential.Notwithstandingthearidnatureofthecountry,Nigerhasanestimatedirrigationpotentialof270,000ha,withsome140,000halocatedintheNigerRiverValley.In2015,onlyabout30percentofthatpotentialwasused(FAO,n.d.).Despiteprogressinlandrestoration,Nigerstillfacesgreatfinancialbarrierstoscaleupsuccess-fulapproachesandembraceacomprehensiveeffortofnewlandrehabilitationandsustain-ablemanagementprojects.BasedontheCadreStratégiquedelaGestionDurabledesTerresauNigeretsonPland’investissement2015–2029(November2014),therewasanenormousfinancialgaptocover.ThefinancialresourcesacquiredfortheimplementationoftheCadreStratégiquedelaGestionDurabledesTerresactivitieswereonly4percent,with96percentremainingtobeobtained.2.9.ConclusionLanddegradationinNigerisregionallyconcen-tratedalongtheNigerRiverintheregionsofNiamey,Tillaberi,andDossoandalongthesouth-ernagriculturalbeltontheborderwithNigeria.Thoseareashaveexperiencedwarmingtempera-tures,moreirregularandintensiverainfallevents,andhigherwindspeeds.Theyhavealsowitnessedapopulationexplosion,asteadyconversionofpastorallandtocropland,ariseinconflictsbetweenresidentfarmersandherders,andariseinmigrantsforcedintoNigerfromconflict-zonesofneighboringcountries.Thecostoflanddegradationisaburdenonthenationaleconomy,asthevalueofyieldlossaccountedfor5percentoftheoverallGDP.Landdegradationisanimportantfactoraffectingagriculturalproductivity,foodsecurity,andthetradebalance.Cerealimportsaregrowingrelativetootherfoodcategories:in2020,itrepresented57percentofthemonetaryvalueoftotalfoodimports,upfrom47percentin2014.Inaddition,theshareoflivestockintotalexportshasbeendecliningduringthesameperiod.Landdegradationerodeslocallivelihoodsandcausesmigrationandfragility.Localadapta-tiontechniquestoclimatevariabilityandchangeareinsufficienttosustaintraditionallivelihoods.2LANDDEGRADATION27Pastoralistsarepressuredbytheexpansionofagriculturalcroplandandbytranshumantherd-ersarrivingingrowingnumbersfromoutsideofNiger.Cropfarmersrelyingonrainfedagriculturearevulnerabletochangesinprecipitationwithoutlocalirrigationtomitigatetheimpact.Thisexacer-batesexistingvulnerabilitiesinhostcommunitiesandfurtherstrainsthenaturalresourcesbase,whichinsomecasesleadtofurtherdeteriorationofthelandasconflictbetweenusergroupsandaccessrightscomesattheexpenseofsustainablemanagementpractices.Nigerhastakenimportantproactivemeasurestoensureaparticipatoryandinclusiveapproachtobeginrehabilitationofthelandandthesharedaccesstonaturalresources.Throughfarmer-ledinitiativestoassistthenaturalregeneration,theadoptionofaLandPolicythataddressestheunderlyingissuesoflandtenure,andtheapprovalofanirrigationstrategytomakefarmerslessdependentonrainfedagriculture,Nigerhasshownagreatcommitmenttothesustainablelandandwatermanagementofitsnaturalresources.Supportfortheimplementationandenforcementofthosemeasureswillbecriticaltoaddressinglanddegradationonalargerscaleandreversingthetrendinthemostaffectedareas.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS28Photo:WorldBankGroup3DEFORESTATIONANDFORESTDEGRADATION293Deforestationandforestdegradation3.1.OverviewForestresourcesarenotableenvironmentalassetsforNiger.Theyprovideavarietyofgoodsandservices,forexample,woodforenergyandtimber,non-woodforestproducts,carbonseques-tration,aswellassocialbenefits,forexample,jobcreation.Moreover,certainspecieshavehighpotentialtoimprovethewelfareoflocalcommu-nities.TheseincludetheArabicgumtrees,mostofwhichconcentrateintheDossoandTillaberiregions;21moringatrees,whichareprimarilyfoundinMaradiandTillaberi(Niameyinparticular);andDoumpalm,whichismostlypresentintheGoulbiN’kabaValleyoftheMaradiregion.Deforestationandforestdegradationarepreva-lentintheSaheliandomainofthecountry.TheSahelianzonehasvegetationvaryingfromclearshrubformationsinthenorthtomorediffuseandoftendegradedwoodedformationsinthesouth.Here,manyareasarecharacterizedbytrees’die-back,oftenacceleratedbywaterstresswithlittleprospectsofreconstitutionduetocompetitionofthedominantspecies.Livestockproducershaveobservedthatthepalatablespeciesarebecomingincreasinglyrareintheplateau,whichisgrazedintherainyseasonandatthebeginningofthedry21Morethan90percentofArabicgumproductioniscommercializedunprocessed.season(FAO2001).Inaddition,climatechange,abusivecuts,andstrongpastoralpressurearethreateningmanyspeciesinthiszone(CNEDD2011).TheSahelo-Sudanesezone,accountingforabout1percentofthecountry’sarea,consistsofacontinuousherbaceousstratumdominatedbyperennialGramineaeandawoodystratumcon-tainingshrubsandtreeswithquitevariedrecoveryrates.Availableinformationonforestresourcesislimitedandofteninconsistentacrosssources.National-leveldatarelatedtohistoricaltrendsandcurrentextentofforestsinNigerarelimited,discontinuedintimeandspace,andoutdated.22Therefore,intheabsenceofupdatedinformation,thischapterprovidesananalysisofforest-relatedproblemsbasedoninternationaldatasets(FAO,EuropeanSpaceAgency[ESA]).Theanalysisencountereddifficultiesrelatedtodataincon-sistencyacrossthesesources,primarilyrelatedtodifferencesinforestdefinitionsandclassifica-tions.Againstthisbackdrop,thefollowingsec-tionsintroducetheNigerienforestcoverand22Forexample,thelatestStateoftheEnvironmentreports1991dataonforestareainNiger,of16millionha(CNEDD2021).Assessmentsareoftendiscontinuedintimeandspaceandwhenavailable,informationisoftenoutdated.Addingtothis,thevariousforestdefinitionsandclassificationshavemadecomparativeandtrendanalysisdifficult,beitforthequantificationorcharacterizationofforestsand/ortreecover.Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS30mainspecies,thekeydriversofdeforestationandforestdegradation,andtheknownextentofthesephenomena.Thisisfollowedbyasummaryofkeygovernmenteffortstoaddresstheaboveprob-lemsandconcludingremarks.3.2.ForestcoverBasedontheESAdata,Nigerienforestresourcesextendon1.3millionha.TheESAindicatesthattrees23arescatteredandcoverabout82,000ha,whiletheremainingareaiscoveredbyshrublands.23Thisclassincludesanygeographicareadominatedbytreeswithacoverof10percentormore.Otherlandcoverclasses(shrubsand/orherbsintheunderstorey,built-up,permanentwaterbodies,andsoon)canbepresentbelowthecanopy,evenwithadensityhigherthantrees.Areasplantedwithtreesforafforestationpurposesandplantations(forexample,oilpalm,olivetrees)areincludedinthisclass.Thisclassalsoincludestreecoveredareasseasonallyorpermanentlyfloodedwithfreshwaterexceptformangroves.Figure3.1showsthattreecoverisprimarilyfoundintheregionsofDiffa,Tillaberi,andAgadezwhileshrublands24arepredominantinTillaberi,Dosso,andTahoua(Figure3.1).TheseestimatesarebasedontheESA’sWorldCover10mclassification,asdefinedbyLandCoverClassificationSystemdevelopedbytheFAO.Itisimportanttonotethatdespitebeingdefaultdatasetsforlanddegrada-tionreportingperUNCCDguidancedocuments,theESAprovidesdifferentdatacomparedtotheFAOGlobalResourceAssessment2020report,mostlyduetoexistingdifferencesindefinitionsandclassifications.24Thisclassincludesanygeographicareadominatedbynaturalshrubshavingacoverof10percentormore.Shrubsaredefinedaswoodyperennialplantswithpersistentandwoodystemsandwithoutanydefinedmainstembeinglessthan5mtall.Treescanbepresentinscatteredformiftheircoverislessthan10percent.Herbaceousplantscanalsobepresentatanydensity.Theshrubfoliagecanbeeitherevergreenordeciduous.FIGURE3.1.TreesandshrublandsareasinNiger(ha)TreesShrublandsNiamey800500Agadez15,90066,600Diffa26,30023,900Dosso6,900319,700Maradi1,40052,800Tahoua7,800129,500Tillaberi17,100606,500Zinder5,70039,0000100,000200,000300,000400,000500,000600,000700,000haSource:ESAWorldCover10m—2020.Note:Areasshowninthetableareroundednumbers.3DEFORESTATIONANDFORESTDEGRADATION31AccordingtotheFAO,Niger’sforestresourcescover3.9millionha(FAO2020b).Theseincludethefollowing:●Naturalforests,whichaccountfor1.1millionhaandincludeforestformationsevolvingparticu-larlyalongwaterways,marshyareasandlowlands,anddunesoilswiththepredomi-nanceoftrees.About89percentarenaturallyregeneratingforestsandcomprisetheforestsoftheWPark,25whiletheremainingareplantations(Figures3.2and3.3).●Otherwoodedland,whichextendsonabout2.8millionhaandincludeswoodyformationscomposedmainlyofCombretaceaespecies.25Aprotectedareamaintainingasurfaceof220,000hasince1990.3.3.DriversofdeforestationandforestdegradationNigerienforestshavebeensubjecttomanydriv-ersofdeforestationandforestdegradation.Sincethe1970s,forestshavebeenaffectedbyseveralanthropogenicfactors,forexample,expansionofthecultivatedareasattheexpenseofforestsduetoincreasedfooddemand;overcuttingoftreesforfuelwood;unsustainableharvestingofnon-timberproductsandovergrazing.Moreover,naturalfactors,suchasclimatechangeandthenaturalprocessofaging,affectedthehealthofexistingforests.Theparagraphsbelowprovideananalysisofkeydrivers.FIGURE3.2.Forestarea(1,000ha)199001,0002,0003,0004,0005,00020002010201520162017201820192020Forests,1,079.90Otherwoodedlands,2,840.00FIGURE3.3.Areaofnaturalforests(1,000ha)19901,000-2,00020002010201520162017201820202019Plantedforests,122.50Naturallyregeneratingforests,957.00Source:FAOFRANiger2020.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS32UNSUSTAINABLEHARVESTINGOFFUELWOODWoodisharvestedatratesconsiderablyhigherthanforestproductivity.Unsustainableharvestingoffuelwoodaccountsformorethan93per-centofthebiomassusedfortheenergyneedsatthehouseholdlevel(UEMOA2019).Woodconsumptionisabout0.6kg/day/personforlargeurbancenters,0.7kg/day/personforaver-agecities,and0.8kg/day/personinruralareas.Theseconsumptionpatterns,exacerbatedbythepopulationgrowth,havecontributedtolarge-scaledeforestationandtoincreasingdesertification.Theneedforfuelwoodisnolongersatisfiedbywoodremovalintheareassurroundingcities.Forexample,forNiamey,Dosso,Maradi,Zinder,andDiffa,fuelwoodcomesfromremoteareasofneigh-boringcountriessuchasBurkinaFaso,Benin,andNigeria.Overall,woodsupplyislowerthanthedemand,suggestingapotentialregressivetrendinforestresources(Ministèredel’EnergieetduPétrole2015).OVEREXPLOITATIONANDPOORHARVESTINGPRACTICESOFNTFPsThesepracticescontributesignificantlytothereductionofbiodiversityinnaturalforestsandtoforestdecline.Forexample,unsustainablesam-plingofroots,bark,leaves,andfruitsofseveralforestspecieshasseriouseffectsonthehealthandvitalityoftreesoftenusedfortraditionalphar-macopoeia.Moreover,theintensiveexploitationofagroforestparksforfodder,particularlyduringtheleanseason,isanothermajorconcernthreat-eningthepotentialofforestnaturalregeneration(FAO2020a).Certainlocalspeciesareparticularlyaffected:●Gumtrees.Theyhavedeterioratedduetobothnaturalandanthropogenicpressures.Thedroughtof1973–74severelydecimatedthenaturalstandsofgumtrees.Atthesametime,treesareagingwithanincreasingmortalityrate,andnaturalregenerationisinsufficienttocompensateforthelossoftrees.Humanactivities,especiallybushfiresandovergrazing,havealsocontributedtothepoorconditionofgumplantations.Inaddition,theproliferationofotherlessdesirableinvasivespeciesinmostgumplantationsandreducedinfiltrationduetosoilcompactioncontributedsignificantlytothedegradationoftheseresources(Ministeredel’Hydrauliquedel’EnvironnementetdelaLutteContrelaDesertification2003).26●Moringatree.Theproductionofmoringaanditsby-productsishamperedbyadefoliatorpest,NoordablitealisWalkerforwhichfarm-erslackapracticalmanagementapproach.Accordingtofarmers,theperceivedyieldlossesrangedfrom4to99percentacrosstheregions,withthehighestlossesbeingrecordedintheSeptember–Novemberproduc-tionperiod.Inaddition,overharvestofmoringaleavesiscompromisingtheproductionandthequalityoftheseeds,whichareexpensiveforanaverageproducerinNiger.●Doumpalm.IntensiveharvestingofjuvenileleavesstronglyaffectsthedevelopmentoftheDoumpalmthroughoutthecountry.Thearborescenthabitchangesintoasubterraneancreepinghabit,andpalmstandsarereducedtodensecarpetsofleavesemergingfromtheground;thefieldresemblesanurseryofDoumpalms.Furthermore,theearlyharvestingofthegreenfruit,appreciatedbychildrenandwomen,iscompromisingtheregenerationofthetree(KahnandLuxereau2008).Inaddition,thedamsbuiltinNigerianegativelyinfluencethedoumareas,hencethedegradationinthedownstreampartoftheGoulbi(inthewest)despitetheremarkableadaptationcapacitytodroughtandresiliencetobushfires(Peltier,SerreDuhem,andIchaou2008).26Despitetheabsenceofawell-organizedsector,moreandmorelandowners,especiallytheofficialsandtraders,investingumtreeplantations.Acaciasenegalisoftenthespeciesofchoiceinlandrestorationoperationsasinterestingumproductionincreases.3DEFORESTATIONANDFORESTDEGRADATION33OTHERTHREATSOvergrazingisawidespreadphenomenononthenationalterritory,buttovaryingdegrees.Itisobservedespeciallyinpastoralandagropastoralareas,whereplants,particularlyherbaceous,areextremelydependentonannualrainfall.Bushfiresareanotherthreatthataffectespeciallypastoralzones.Inthepastdecade,burntareasdecreasedsubstantiallyfromnearly257,500hain2010toabout22,100hain2017.Overall,theaverageburntareaduringthisperiodwasabout131,700haperyear.Zinder,Tahoua,andMaradiwerethemostaffectedregions(CNEDDandAFDB2019).3.4.Deforestationandforestdegradation:extentandcarbonlossInthepastdecade,thedeforestationrateinNigerhasbeenclosetodoubletheSub-Saharanaverage.During1990–2000,theannuallossofnaturalforestswasashighas3.7percentperyear,accordingtotheFAO.Althoughduring2010–2020itfellto1.1percent,itremainedmuchhigherthantheaveragedeforestationrateforSub-SaharanAfrica,estimatedat0.6percent(FAO2020a;WorldBank2020).Availabledatasug-gestthattheregionsofDossoandDiffaaremostaffected.27Itisnoteworthythatduringthisperiod,theGovernmentmadeimpressivereforestationefforts,forexample,throughthesupportprovided27Hansen/UMD/Google/USGS/NASA.MAP3.1.CarbonstorageinNigerSource:ARIES.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS34totheassistednaturalregenerationandfarmermanagementnaturalregenerationpractices(FAO2020a).However,theseeffortswereconductedatamuchslowerrate(2,500haperyearonaver-age),comparedtotheaveragedeforestationrate(14,920haperyear).28Theextentofforestdegradationisnotknown.However,itwasreportedthattheforestsknownasforêtsclasséeshavebeenseverelydegradedandmorethan50percenthavelosttheirregenera-tionpotential(CNEDD2011).Atthesametime,thenaturalexpansionoftheforestseemsimprobablebecausethepressureonlandisonlyincreasing,makingfallowslesslikelytoappear(FAO2015).Thesocialcostofcarbonassociatedwithforestlossbetween2015and2020attainsoverUS$205million.Itrepresentsthesocialdamagethatwouldresultfromemittingcarbondioxideintheatmosphere.Theeconomicvaluationisbasedon(a)thelossofforestcoverduring2015–2020,derivedfromFAOdata;(b)theunitcarbonstorage28Thesamedocumentestimatesthenetforestlossof12,420haperyear,throughthedifferencebetweenthetwonumbers(FAO2020a).inbiomass,estimatedatabout23t/ha29(FAO2020b)andillustratedinMap3.1;and(c)theshadowpriceofcarbon,basedonthelow-boundpriceprovidedbytheWorldBankguidelines(WorldBank2017b).Figure3.4presentsthedistributionofthesocialcostperyearofanalysis.3.5.CurrenteffortstoaddresskeyissuesrelatedtoforestsTheGoNdevelopedstrategicdocumentsaimingatthesustainablemanagementofforestresources.ArecentcornerstoneinitiativeistheNationalForestryPlan2012–2020.Developedinlinewithnationalandinternationalcommitments,theNationalStrategyforSustainableDevelopment(2003),andthe‘3N—NigériensNourrissentlesNigériens’initiative,theNationalForestryPlanrecognizesthelivelihoods’dependenceonforests29AccordingtoFAO’slatestForestResourcesAssessmentforNiger,thecarbonstoredbynaturalforestsinNigerisestimatedat17.95t/hafortheabovegroundbiomassand5.14t/haforthebelow-groundbiomassin2020.FIGURE3.4.Socialcostofcarbonduetoforestlossduring2015–2020404443USDmillion424140393837362015-20162016-20172017-20182018-20192019-202041424339Source:RetrievedfromtheGoNandcalculatedbytheWorldBanktaskteam.3DEFORESTATIONANDFORESTDEGRADATION35andsetsaroadmaptoincreaseforestsarea,improvetheirmanagement,restoredegradedecosystems,andinvestinresearchanddevelop-mentforadaptationtoclimatechange(Ministèredel’Hydrauliqueetdel’EnvironnementandFAO2012).Inaddition,accordingtoNiger’sLandDegradationNeutralitytargets,theGoNhascommittedtohaltlandconversionofforests,shrublands,andwetlandsintootherlandusesandincreasecarbonstocksby292,000tby2030throughimprovedfarmingandagroforestrypractices(RépubliqueduNiger2017).Furthermore,recognizingtheimportanceofforestresourcesinrurallivelihoods,aStrategyandactionplanfortheprotectionandpromotionofNon-TimberForestProductswasdevelopedin2020withtheobjec-tiveofenhancingtheirpotential,sustainableexploitation,andcontributiontothehouseholds’andnationaleconomy.Table3.1quotesotherstrategicdocumentsaimingatthesustainableforestmanagementandimprovedlivelihoodsoflocalpopulations.In2014,theMinistryofEnvironmentputinplaceastrategicframeworkforsustainablelandmanagementandaninvestmentplanfor2015–2029.TheseinitiativeswereconductedwiththesupportoftheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP),WorldBank,UNCCD,TerrAfrica,andNewPartnershipforAfrica’sDevelopment(NEPAD).Thestrategyforeseestheimprovementofforestproductiononthebasisofmoreinformedinvestments.Inthislight,thecoun-tryhasadoptedcertainfiscaltoolstoincreaseTABLE3.1.AdditionalstrategicdocumentsandrelevanttextsStrategicdocumentsPromotedtechnologiesEconomicandSocialDevelopmentStrategy(PESDS2022–2026)updatingESDS,2012–2015FMNR,IntegratedSoilFertilityManagement(ISFM),irrigation,improvedfoddermanagementSustainableDevelopmentandInclusiveGrowthStrategy(StratégiedeDéveloppementDurableetdeCroissanceInclusive,SDDCI2021–2035)FMNR,ISFM,irrigation,improvedfoddermanagementNationalActionPlanfortheIntegratedManagementofWaterresources(Pland’ActionNationaldeGestionIntégréedesRessourcesenEau,PANGIRE2017)Irrigation,sustainablelandmanagement,reforestation,andrehabilitationofdegradedlandsNationalStrategyandPlanforAgriculturalAdaptationtoClimateChange(StratégieetPlanNationaldel’Adaptationdel’Agriculture,SPN2A2020–2035)FMNR,ISFM,irrigation,improvedfoddermanagementNationallyDeterminedContribution(NDC)FMNR,ISFM,irrigation,improvedfoddermanagementNationalEnvironmentalPlanforaSustainableDevelopment(PlanNationalpourl’EnvironnementetleDéveloppementDurable,PNEDD2000)FMNR,ISFM,irrigation,improvedfoddermanagementRuralLandPolicyinNiger—ActionPlan(2021–2027)FMNR,ISFM,irrigationSustainableLivestockDevelopmentStrategy(StratégiedeDéveloppementDurabledel’Élevage,SDDEL2013–2035)ImprovedfoddermanagementAssociationfortheRevitalizationofLivestockinNiger(AssociationpourlaRedynamisationdel’ÉlevageauNiger,AREN)ImprovedfoddermanagementStrategicFrameworkforSustainableLandManagement(SFLM)inNigeranditsInvestmentPlan(2015–2029)FMNR,ISFM,irrigation,improvedfoddermanagementNationalPolicyfortheManagementofWetlandsanditsActionPlan,2019–2021Irrigation,integratednaturalresourcesmanagementNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS36revenueswhileprotectingforestresources,suchasdifferentialtaxation(Box3.1).However,theavailabilityoffinancialresourcesremainsabottleneck;theeconomicpotentialoftheemerg-ingminingsector,ifsustainablyextracted,canmobilizetheneededresourcestoreversedegra-dationtrendsandoperationalizethestrategylaidoutin2014forsustainablelandmanagement,particularlyofforestsinNiger(RépubliqueduNiger2017).TheGoNdevelopedseveralregulatorytextsthataddresstheexploitationofforestresources.Forexample,theRuralCodeincludesprovisionsforforestmanagementinarticles58to107,inadditiontoitsprovisionsforthemanagementofagriculturalandanimalresources.TogetherwiththeForestLawn°2004-040datedJune8,2004,thesetextsplaceahighimportanceonmeetingthecom-munityneedswhilemaintainingforestresources,protectingbiodiversity,andaccountingforlocalinterests.Theformallocalmanagementstructuresarecreatedforthemanagementofforestprod-uctsfromextractiontotrade;andaprofit-sharingschemewaslaidouttoensurethatthelocalcommunities,traders,andtheGovernmentben-efitfromthesustainableexploitationofforestresources.Toreducepressureonforests,theGoNdecidedtoreducetherelianceontraditionalbiomassto67percentoftheenergymixinNiger(Ministeredel’Energie2019).Inthislight,itaimsatimprovingefficiencythroughtheNationalHouseholdEnergyPrograminitiatedin2015andtheProgramforthePromotionofImprovedStoves,aswellasotheralternativesincludingcarbonizedmineralcoal,biofuelenergygeneration,liquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG),solarcookingstoves,andtheuseofrenewableenergysourcesforelectricityproduc-tion(Adamouetal.2021).Inaddition,severallandrestorationprojectswereimplementedinNigertoreversedegradationandbuildcapacityandknowl-edgebaseatthenationallevel(Box3.2).Allocatedresources,thoughuseful,remaininsufficientinaddressingknowledgegapandreversedegrada-tiontrends.BOX3.1.Differentialtaxation,afiscalinstrumenttoprotectforestresourcesThetaxationschemeonfuelwoodharvestingstipulatestaxesdeclineasthedistancefromthetownincreases,whichincitestraderstolookforwoodoverlongerdistancesinthebushinsteadofoverharvesting.Assuch,foronestere1ofwoodpurchasedforCFAF1,315byatransporter,CFAF113isreinvestedinthesilvo-pastoralmanagementoftheharvestedforest(settingupmulchingwithbranchesandseedingtoregeneratethegrassyandwoodycover,andsoon),andCFAF295ispaidintothevillagefundtoservevariouspurposessuchasmaintainingtheschool,thedispensary,theplacesofworship,theroads;settingupaveterinarypharmacy;andbuildingastoreforcerealsorconcentratesforthelivestock;andsoon.Accordingly,ifallthewoodforNiameyweretocomefromthemanagedforests,CFAF150millionwouldbereinvestedeachyearforvillagedevelop-ment,andCFAF60millionforsilvo-pastoralmanagement.Lastly,CFAF15millionwouldgotothestateandCFAF40milliontothelocalcommunitiestoenhancetheiradministrationandmakethemindependentwithregardtocurrentoperations.Source:ExtractedfromFAO’sManagementofNaturalForestsofDryTropicalZonesCaseStudy4:Niger’sForestManagementExperience(fao.org).Thecasestudywascarriedoutbasedonthefollowingdocuments:Bertrand(1990);Hamadou(1994);Madon(1995);Montagneetal.(1994);Peltier(1991);Peltieretal.(1994a,1994b);SeedandCTFT(1991).1Thestereorstère(st)isaunitofvolumeintheoriginalmetricsystemequaltoonecubicmeter.3DEFORESTATIONANDFORESTDEGRADATION37BOX3.2.LandrestorationinitiativesinNigerCommunityActionProgram(CAP)Actualcost:US$52.41million(CAP-1),US$39.42million(CAP-2),US$70.4million(CAP-3).Status:Closed.TheWorldBankhasplayedakeyroleinhelpingNigerintheimplementationofitsRuralCodethroughoutitshistory.TheCAPisathree-phaseadjustableprogramloandesignedtoempowerlocalgovernmentsandcommunitiestoprogressivelyachievetheircollectivelocaldevelopmentaimsinaparticipatoryandsustainableway.ThefirstphaseCAP-1(2003–2010)wasdesignedtosupportlearningbydoing.Ithelpedestablishlocalplanningandfinancingmechanismsin54communeswithinstrumentsandprocessesdesignedtofosterparticipationandtransparencyandbuildtrustinthenewelectoralsystem.Itincludedawiderangeofactivities,forexample,capacitybuilding,transferoffinancialresourcestocommunesandcommunities,financialmanagementsystems,policiesandregulationsonnaturalresourcemanagement,andnaturalresourceandagriculturalextensionwork.ThesecondphaseCAP-2extendedthelocalplanningandfinancingmechanismsto164communes,or65percentofallcommunesinthecountry.Theprogrammainlyfinancedcommunitydevelopmentplans;alocalinvestmentfundthatincludedsupportforeconomic,social,andenvironmentalsubprojects;andtechnicalassistanceforinstitutionalstrengtheningatthecommunity,commune,andnationallevels.ThethirdphaseCAP-3facilitatedtheGoNandcommunesinstrengtheningitslocaldevelopmentplanningandimplementationcapacities,tosupportthetargetedpopulationinimprovingagriculturalproductivityandtorespondpromptlyandeffectivelytoaneligiblecrisisoremergency.Itaddressedsustainablemanagementoflanduse,landusechangeandforestry,agro-ecosystemservicesorforestecosystemservicesindrylandssustainingthelivelihoodsoflocalcommunitiesandpromotedclimate-smarttechnologiesandagriculture.TheCAPhelpedfinancetheplantingof7,000–8,000haofAcaciaSenegal,whichfacilitatedlandrestorationandshort-termvulnerabilityreductionindesignatedpartsoftheprogramarea.TheBiocarbonFund-financedplantationsincludedaspartofthisprojectweremanagedby26ruralcommunitiesandspreadacrosssixseparateadministrativeregionsinNiger.Intotal,NigeriencommunesreceivedUS$346,650inBiocarbonFundpaymentsduringtheCAP.CommunityActionProjectforClimateResilienceActualcost:US$74.68million.Status:ClosedIn2010,theGoNdevelopeditsStrategicProgramforClimateResiliencewiththegeneralobjectivetoincreasefoodsecurityinNigerbyimprovingresilienceofpopulationsandproductionsystemstoclimatechange.TheStrategicProgramforClimateResiliencerestedonfourcomplementaryinvestmentprojects,includingtheCommunityActionProjectforClimateResilience.Theprojectpromotedaninnovativeapproachbyaddressingclimate-resilientsustainablelandmanagementaswellassocialprotectionforthemostvulnerablepopulations.Itsoughttosupportclimateresilienceofpopulationsandtheirproductionsystemsintargetedcommunesbyenhancingtheabsorptivecapacityandpreparednessofpopulationsandtheirproductionsystemsagainsttheadverseimpactofclimatechange.Itincludedtechnicalassistanceandinvestmentstoimprovetheresilienceofagro-silvo-pastoralsystemsby(a)scalingupsustainablelandmanagementpracticestoreduceclimatechangeimpactsthroughcapacity-buildingactivitiesintheareasofagriculture,agroforestry,agropastoralism,andpastoralism,selectedwithagender-sensitiveapproachand(b)financingactivitiestoimproveagriculturalproductivity(40percent),sus-tainablemanagementofforestresources(30percent),andproductivityofgrazingareas(30percent).About125,400householdsbenefitedfrompastoralsupportand108,400householdsfromforestsupport.Source:CompiledfromWorldBankprojectreports.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS38Severalinstitutionsareinvolvedinforestman-agementinNiger.TheMinistryofEnvironmentistheleadingpublicinstitutionmandatedwiththemanagementofforestresources.Thesectorisalsosteeredbyseveralinter-ministerialcom-mitteesandbodieswhichoverseethedevelop-mentandimplementationofsectoralpolicies,strategies,andactionplans,forexample,theCommissionforthe3NInitiative,theCommitteefortheImplementationoftheRuralDevelopmentStrategy,theNationalCouncilforSustainableDevelopment,andotherinstitutionsoversee-ingNiger’sregionalandinternationalcommit-ments.Inaddition,theprivatesectorandcivilsocietyorganizationsarecentraltothesustain-ablemanagementofforestresources.Somecontributetotheorganizationofthesector:theNationalAssociationofProfessionalsofArabicGum(AssociationNationaledesProfessionnelsdelaGommeArabique,ANGA),theNationalAssociationofWoodHarvesters(AssociationNationaledesExploitantsdeBois,ANEB),theFederationofRuralMarketsforfuelwood,whileothergroupsandnetworksoperateinthefieldoftraditionalmedicineandpractices.3.6.ConclusionSincethe1990s,theGoNhasinvestedintheman-agementoftheforestresources,testifyingtotheirimportancetothelocalandnationaleconomies.Legalandregulatorytextshavebeendevelopedtoorganizethemanagementandexploitation,beitfortimberproductsand/orNTFP—mostimpor-tantlytheArabicgumsector.However,itisuncleartowhichextentthesetextshavecontributedtotheconservationandsustainablemanagementofforestresources.Inaddition,astheNationalForestryPlanexpiredin2021,itwouldbejudicioustoundertakeanevaluationoftheplan’soutcomes,beforeanewplanningexerciseisinitiated,withconsiderationoftheongoingGoNcommitmentstoregionalandinternationalconventions.Theanalysisindicatedthatdeforestationandfor-estdegradationaresignificantproblemsinNiger.However,thelackofconsistentdatarelatedtoforestcoverandextentofdegradationisamajorchallengeindeterminingtherealmagnitudeoftheseissues.Indeed,intheabsenceofanationalinventory,availabledatabases(forexample,FAO,ESA)oftenrelyonexperts’judgmentsinsteadoffielddataandincludeoutdatedinformation.Furthermore,forestresourcesmanagementischaracterizedbyalimitedunderstandingoftheregenerationdynamics,grazingpotential,andfor-estrypotentialforprocessingandcommercializa-tion.Lastly,theforestcontributiontothenationaleconomyisundervalued:forexample,theeco-nomicvalueoftheNTFPsandofotherecosystemservices(forexample,erosioncontrol,waterpro-tection)islargelyunknown.Thisfurtheraffectsthedevelopmentofappropriatepolicies,strategies,andeventheallocationofpublicspendingonforest-relatedinitiatives.Asetofconcreterecom-mendationsaddressingtheseissuesisprovidedinChapter5.3DEFORESTATIONANDFORESTDEGRADATION39Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS40Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroup4CLIMATECHANGE414Climatechange30AccordingtotheNotreDameGlobalAdaptationInitiativecountryindex,Nigerranks176outof182countrieswithahighvulnerabilityscore(0.677)andlowreadinessscore(0.338).31TheRepresentativeConcentrationPathways(RCPs)trytocapturefuturetrends.Theymakepredictionsofhowconcentrationsofgreenhousegases(GHGs)intheatmospherewillchangeinfutureasaresultofhumanactivities.ThefourRCPsrangefromveryhigh(RCP8.5)toverylow(RCP2.6)futureconcentrations.ThenumericalvaluesoftheRCPs(2.6,4.5,6.0and8.5)refertotheconcentrationsin2100.4.1.OverviewNigeristheseventhmostvulnerablecountrytoclimatechangeintheworld,accordingtotheNotreDameGlobalAdaptationInitiativecountryindex.30Withalargeshareofitslandunderdesert,thecountryischaracterizedbyhotclimate,withhightemperaturesyearround,anintensedryseason,andarainyseasonwithirregularrainfalls(WorldBankClimateChangeKnowledgePortal,n.d.).ClimatechangeispredictedtotranslateintoanincreaseofNiger’saveragetemperatureuptoabout6oCby2100,dependingonthescenario(Figure4.1)31(WorldBankClimateChangeKnowledgePortal,n.d.).Theannualnumberofveryhotdays—dayswithdailymaximumtempera-turesabove35oC—isprojectedtorisesubstantiallyandwithhighcertainty,particularlyinPhoto:WorldBankGroupFIGURE4.1.ProjectedmeantemperatureinNiger262830323436200021002080202020402060Hist.Ref.Per.,1986-2005RCP2.6RCP4.5RCP6.0RCP8.5Source:WorldBankGroupClimateChangeKnowledgePortal.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS42south-westernNiger(Tomalkaetal.2021).Itisnoteworthythatprecipitationtrendsarehighlyuncertain,withprojectionsrangingfromaslightdecreasetostrongerincreaseofthetotalannualprecipitation.NigerhaslowGHGemissions,mostofwhichoriginatefromtheagriculture,forestry,andotherlanduse(AFOLU)changes.Niger’sGHGemis-sionshavebeenestimatedatabout0.1tonscarbondioxideequivalent(CO2e)percapitain2018.32ThisissubstantiallylowerthantheSub-Saharanaverage,assessedat0.8tCO2epercapitaforthesameyear.ThemostrecentnationalGHGinventoryindicatesthattheAFOLUsectorwasthesinglemostimportantcontributor,with88percentofthetotal(Figure4.2).Thecountryaimsatconcreteemissionreduc-tionsfromAFOLUsectorby2030.Underabusiness-as-usualscenario,theAFOLUsectorislikelytoquadrupleitsemissionsduring2014–2030,from24milliontCO2eto107milliontCO2e.(RépubliqueduNiger2021a).However,theGoNhasmadeafirmcommitmentthroughitsNDCtotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventionon32ExtractedfromWorldBankOpenData:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.PC?locations=NE.ClimateChange(UNFCCC)tomovethecountry’sdevelopmentpathwaytowardagreeneconomy.Thedocumentaimsforunconditionalreductionsof13percentfromthissectorcomparedtothebusiness-as-usualscenarioforthesameyearandconditionalreductionsofabout23percent.334.2.ExpectedimpactsofclimatechangeClimatechangeisexpectedtoexacerbatetheexistingvulnerabilitiesinNiger.Since1968,thecountryhassufferedfromfrequentdroughts,storms,andfloods,whichcausedsignificantdamagesonagriculture,foodsecurity,andliveli-hoods.34Climatechangeisprojectedtoincreasetheirfrequencyandseverityinthecomingcentury:forexample,floodsareexpectedtoincreasebothinintensityandfrequencywhereitwillhavedevastatingeffectsinthedenselypopulatedsouthernareas(Tomalkaetal.2021).Inaddition,33Thereisalevelofuncertaintyaboutfutureemissions,particularlybeyond2020.Predictionsarebasedonvariedassumptionsofeconomicgrowthandtheanticipatedcapacityandtechnicalsupportfromdevelopmentpartners.34Theyaffectedover3millionpeoplein2000and2001andover7millionpeoplein2002.FIGURE4.2.Niger’sGHGreferenceprofilefor2014Agriculture,forestryandotherslandusechangesWasteEnergy88%9%2%123Source:CNEDD&AFDB.(2020).4CLIMATECHANGE43thecountryalreadysuffersfromothervulnerabili-ties:highdependenceonrainfedagricultureforfoodsecurity,foodcrisisbroughtaboutbyseveredroughtsexperiencedinrecentyears(2005,2008,2010,and2012),pervasivepoverty,andpoliticalinstability.Climatechangeisexpectedtocompoundtheseproblems,whichcouldfurthertriggernewconflicts,humanitariancrisis,andforcedmigration(USAID2017).Table4.1providesalistofvulnerabilitiesandpotentialclimatechangeimpactsinNiger.Thenextparagraphssummarizeresultsoftheavailableliteraturethatquantifiedsomeoftheseimpacts.IMPACTSONGDPMostclimatemodelsexpectNiger’sGDPtobenegativelyaffectedbyclimatechange.Forexam-ple,StanfordUniversitypredictsan80percentdecreaseintheGDPpercapitaby2100comparedto2020(Figure4.3).35Intheshortrun,thesocialandeconomicimpactofthehealthpandemicisthreateningtowipeoutfiveyearsofdevelopmentprogress(Savadogo,TsimpoNkengn,andSanoh2022).35BasedonBurke,Hsiang,andMiguel(2015);https://web.stanford.edu/~mburke/climate/map.phpTABLE4.1.Broad-scalesectoralvulnerabilitiesandpotentialclimatechangeimpactsinNigerSectorImpactsAgriculture•Croplossandreducedyieldsowingtoincreasedtemperatures,changingrainfallpatterns,andincreasedwaterstress•Increasedincidenceofpestsanddiseases•Increasedpotentialforconflictbetweenfarmersandpastoralists•Shiftingagriculturalseasonsduetochangesinseasonalrainfallpatterns•Desertificationandlossofagriculturalandgrazingland•IncreasedmigrationfromruraltourbanareasFisheries•ReducedsizeofLakeChad,reducingfisheriescatches•Encroachmentofaquaticweeds•Increasedmigrationoffishermeninsearchofmoreproductivewaters•ReducedfisheryproductivityowingtoincreasedwatertemperaturesanddecreasedriverflowsWaterresources•Increasedvariabilityofrun-off,leadingtoincreasedvariabilityinsurfacewateravailability•Increaseddemandforirrigationwatercoupledwithreducedirrigationwaterpotential•IncreasedpotentialforconflictoverlimitedwaterresourcesBuiltinfrastructureandhumansettlements•Increasedpotentialfordamagetoinfrastructure,especiallyinurbanareasandneartheNigerriver,owingtoflooding•Increasedpotentialfornegativeimpactsonsomeinfrastructureowingtoextremetemperatures•Damagetoordestructionofroadsowingtoincreasedintensityofextremerainfallevents•IncreasedpotentialformigrationfromruraltourbanareasHumanhealth•Increasedriskofwater-bornediseases,suchascholeraanddiarrhea•Increasedprevalenceofvector-bornediseasessuchasmalaria•Increasedpotentialformalnutritionandstunting,especiallyduringdrought•IncreasedprevalenceofrespiratorydiseasesduetoincreasedHarmattanwindsSource:AfricanDevelopmentBank2018.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS44IMPACTSONAGRICULTURESeveralstudieswereconductedattheregionalandcountrylevels,withdistinctresults:●Nigercouldpotentiallyloseitsentirerainfedagricultureby2100(USAID2017).Smallholderfarmersareincreasinglychallengedbytheuncertaintyandvariabilityofweather.Sincecropsarepredominantlyrainfed,yieldshighlydependonwateravailabilityfromprecipitationandarepronetodrought.However,thelengthandintensityoftherainyseasonisbecom-ingincreasinglyunpredictable,andtheuseofirrigationfacilitiesremainslimited(Tomalkaetal.2021).●Theremaybeanincreaseinthemeanannualprecipitationsthroughoutthecentury,whichcouldtranslateintoincreasedsuitabilityofmillet,accordingtoarecentstudyconductedbythePotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch(PIK).Thiswouldbeduetogreaterannualratesofgroundwaterrechargeandhigherannualmeanriverdischarge.However,thepotentialformultiplecroppingwoulddecreasefrommid-centuryonward,limitingfarmers’diversificationoptions.Moreover,thestudysuggestedthatthegrazingpotentialislikelytodecreaseinthesouthandincreaseinthecentralregionsofNiger(Röhrigetal.2022).●Yieldsofheat-anddrought-sensitivecropsareprojectedtodecline,whilethoseofless-sensitivecropsareexpectedtoincrease,accordingtotheclimateriskprofiledevelopedforNigerbytheGermanFederalMinistryforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(Tomalkaetal.2021).Cowpeasandgroundnutsareso-calledC3plants,whichfollowadiffer-entmetabolicpathwaythanmaize,millet,andsorghum(C4plants),andbenefitmorefromtheCO2fertilization36effectunderhigherconcen-trationpathways.Thiswouldresultinincreasedyieldsby54percent(cowpeas)and52percent(groundnuts)by2080relativeto2000.36CO2fertilizationeffectiswhentheincreaseofCO2intheatmosphereincreasestherateofphotosynthesisinplants.FIGURE4.3.EconomicimpactofclimatechangeinNiger1007550250–25%changeinGDP/cap–50–75–100202020402060LikelihoodclimatechangewillreduceNiger’sGDPpercapitaby•Morethan0%:100%•Morethan10%:100%•Morethan20%:100%•Morethan50%:99%YearEconomicImpactofClimateChangeonNigerBurkeHsiangMiguel201520802100Source:StanfordUniversity2015.4CLIMATECHANGE45Giventhelevelofuncertaintiesinthedifferentmod-els,theoveralladaptationstrategiesshouldtakeacautionaryapproachandfocusonimprovedandmoreclimate-resistantcropvarieties.IMPACTSONWATERSahelisoneofthemostwater-stressedregionsoftheworld.Theregion’swatersupplyisunevenlydistributed,poorlyaccessibleduetoundevelopedhydraulicsupplysystems,andcrossesnationalboundaries.AglobaleconomicmodeldevelopedbytheWorldBanksuggeststhatclimate-relatedwaterscarcitycouldleadtoadecreaseoftheGDPintheSahelbyasmuchas11.7percentby2050(WorldBank2016).InNiger,climatechangeisexpectedtoaffectwatersupplyindifferentways:●Reductionsinwaterflowsfromneighboringcountries.Morethan90percentofNiger’swatersupplycomesfromneighboringcoun-tries(USAID2017).Hence,areductionintheflowoftransboundarywaterscanaffectNiger’swatersupplies.Forexample,theFoutaDjallonHighlandsinGuinea,WestAfrica’s‘watertower’,areexpectedtoexperiencerainfallreductionsofupto26percentby2100,affect-ingbasinssuchastheNigerRiver(USAID2017).●Changesinrainfalls,temperatures,anddroughtpatterns.Surfacewaterislimitedandoftenseasonal,makinggroundwateraprimarysourceofwaterformanypeopleinthecoun-try.Changesinrainfallpatterns,increasesintemperature,andmorefrequentdroughtsmaycontributetoadeclineinsurfacewaterandgroundwateravailabilityandaccessibility.Thisisconcerning,especiallyinthecurrentcontextwherelessthanhalfofthepopulationinNigerhasaccesstosafedrinkingwater(Wateraid,n.d.).Thesituationhighlightstheurgencytoinvestinwatersavingmeasuresandtechnolo-giesforfuturewaterconsumption.IMPACTSONHEALTH37Nigerfacesseveralkeychallenges,includingmortalityandmorbidityrelatedtovector-bornedis-eases(forexample,malaria),water-bornediseasesrelatedtoflooding(forexample,diarrheaandcholera),meningitis,andsoon.Manyofthemareexpectedtobecomemoresevereduetoclimatechange.Examplesincludethefollowing:●Malaria.Theriskofmalariaisprojectedtofallduetorisingtemperatures;however,someareasarelikelytobecomemorevulnerabletothedisease,suchasthoseexposedtomorefrequentfloods.●Meningitis.NigerispartoftheAfricanMeningitisBelt,38whichisathighriskofepidemicsofmeningitis.Temperatureincreasesandlowhumidityduetoclimatechangehavethepotentialtopreponetheseasonalonsetofmeningitisandsignificantlyincreasethenumberofcases.●Malnutrition.Climatechangeposesathreattofoodandwatersupplies,whichcanincreasetheriskofmalnutritionandhunger.●Heat-relatedmortality.RisingtemperatureswillresultinmorefrequentheatwavesinNiger.Thepopulationaffectedbyatleastoneheatwaveperyearisprojectedtoincreasefrom1.7percentto12.0percentduring2000–2080.Consequently,heat-relatedmortal-ityispredictedtoincreasethreefoldduringthesameperiodifnoadaptationtohotterconditionstakesplace.3937ThissectionreliesheavilyontheinformationdrawnfromTomalkaetal.(2021).38ItisaregioninSub-SaharanAfrica,extendingfromSenegaltoEthiopia.Itisespeciallyrecognizedtobeathighriskofepidemicsofmeningococcalandpneumococcalmeningitis.(https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/meningitis).39TheestimatesofthisparagraphrefertotheRCP6.0scenario.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS464.3.GovernmenteffortstoaddressclimatechangeTheGoNrecognizesthatthedevelopmentofthecountrydependslargelyonitsabilitytobettermanageallitsnaturalresourcesbypromotingamoreholisticapproachthatisorientedtowardthestakeholders,andparticularlytowardruralcommunities.Inthiscontext,overthelastyears,severalnationalinstitutionshavebeencreatedand/orstrengthenedwithadirectfocusoncli-matevulnerabilityandchange.Forexample,theExecutiveSecretariatoftheNationalCouncilfortheEnvironmentforSustainableDevelopmentisthenationalfocalpointoftheso-calledRioandpost-RioconventionsonBiologicalDiversity,thefightagainstdesertification,climatechange,andpoliticalfocalpointoftheGEF;andthePermanentSecretariatoftheNationalMechanismforthePreventionandManagementofFoodCrises,whichistheexecutivebodyresponsiblefortheoverallsupervisionoftheNDCs.Today,theinstitu-tionallandscapeonenvironmentalissuesingen-eralandonthoserelatedtoclimatevariabilityandchangeinparticularisrichanddiverseinNiger.Nigeradoptedstrategiesandpoliciesthatseektotackleclimatechangeandvariability.NigerissignatorytotheUNFCCC,whereitratifiedtheParisAgreementandsubmitteditsNDC.Thedocumentidentifiedfinancialandtechnicalsup-porttotheAFOLUsectorashighpriority.Inaddi-tion,severalkeystrategiesandprogramshavebeendeveloped,includingtheNationalPolicyonClimateChange(Politiquenationalesurlechangementclimatique,PNCC)andtheNationalStrategyandPlanofActionforClimateChangeandVariability(Stratégienationaleetpland’actionsurleschangementsetlavariabilitéclimatiques,SNPA-CVC).Consideringthepotentialofferedbythecountry’sresources,Nigerhighlightsastoppriorityadaptationmeasuresthatwouldresultinhigherco-benefitswithrespecttoclimatechangemitigation.ThereareregionaleffortsthatsupportNigerintacklingclimatechange.NigerisamemberoftheEconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS),whichisworkingtowardacoordinatedefforttointegrateclimate-smartagricultureintoregionalandnationalpolicy.Furthermore,theNigerBasinAuthorityispartofatransboundaryriverbasinorganizationworkingcohesivelywithseveralstatesfortheprotectionandrestorationofsharedwaterresources(USAID2018).Regionalcoordinationonclimatechangeissuesneedstobestrengthenedforbetterknowledgeandcapac-ityonadaptationandmitigationefforts.4.4.ConclusionTheanalysishighlightedthatNigerisvulner-abletoclimatechange.Averagetemperatureswillincreasethroughoutthecountry,butthesouth-westwillbeparticularlyaffectedbyariseinthenumberofveryhotdays.Floodswillbemoreintenseandfrequentinthecountry’ssouth.Precipitationtrendsarehighlyuncertain,withprojectionsrangingfromaslightdecreasetostrongerincreasesofthetotalannualprecipitation.Thesechangesinclimatearelikelytoaffectthecountry’seconomyandthehealthofitspopula-tion.Althoughtheresultsofavailablestudiesdonotalwaysconvergetothesamespecificcon-clusions,somesuggestthatyieldsofheat-anddrought-sensitivecropsmightdecline,whilethoseofmoreresistantcrops(cowpeas,groundnuts)mightincrease.Inaddition,thereisariskthatclimatechangewillrestrictthewateravailabilityandaccessibilityandexacerbatehealthoutcomes,suchasmalaria,meningitis,andheat-relatedmortality.GiventhatNigerisalowGHGemittingcountry,itisimportanttoimplementadaptationmeasures,suchassustainablelandmanagementpractices,alternativelivelihoods,andmoreefficientwaterharvestingtechniques.Inaddition,itwouldbeuse-fultoputinplaceefficientdisasterriskmanage-mentanddisasterriskfinancingsystemsfocusedonitsmostvulnerablebutproductiveareas(south).4CLIMATECHANGE47Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS48Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroup5RECOMMENDATIONS495RecommendationsIntroductionThisCEAdemonstratedthatenvironmentaldegradationisworrisomeinNiger.Landdegra-dationisapriorityproblem:lossesincropyieldsaffectparticularlyTillaberi,Tahoua,andDossoregions,withpotentialfutureimpactsonfoodsecurity,livelihoods,andmigration.DeforestationratesarenearlydoubletheSub-Saharanaverage,andforestdegradationthreatensthehealthofvaluablelocalspecies.Moreover,climatechangeislikelytohavenegativeimplicationsonagricul-ture,waterresources,andpeople’shealth.Addressingtheseproblemsisimportantforthecountry’ssustainability,particularlyinthecurrentcontextofpoverty,foodinsecurity,andfragility.Financingneedsarelarge;however,availablefundsarejustafractionofwhatisneeded.Whiletheansweronhowtomobilizemorefinancingisbeyondthescopeofthisreport,thischapterprovidessomeguidanceonhowtouseexist-ingresourcesmoreefficientlytoachievebetterimpact.Giventhemultipleemergenciesfacedbythecountry,asimple,yeteffective,wayforwardwouldbetofocusonmoreintegratedprojectswhereononehand,issuesrequiringurgentattentionarebeingaddressedandontheother,activi-tiesfocusedonlonger-termsolutionsarebeingimplemented.Resilienceaspectsshouldconsiderruralyouthemployment,giventheyoungageofthemajorityofthepopulation,genderinclusion,women’shighpotentialincontributingtothecountry’sGDP,andinvestingmoreoneducation(literacytraining,businessskills,nutrition,familyplanning,andsoon).ItisimportantthattheGoNplaysanessentialroleofensuringproperdonorcoordination.Thiswouldprovidegoodvisibilityontheactivitiesthatarebeingimplementedinthedifferentregionsand,moreimportantly,wouldidentifysynergiesbetweentheactivitiesand/orprojectsforahigherimpact.Forexample,landscapeprojectsshould,totheextentpossible,geographicallyoverlapwithemergencyprojectsonfoodinsecurity,droughts,floods,andsoon,aswellassocialprotectionprojects.Thiswouldensurethatthemostaffectedpopulationisreceivingsupportfromallfronts,whereitsimmediateneedsarebeingmetanditslonger-termlivelihoodsarebeingsecured.GiventhatNigerishighlydependentonitsnaturalresources,suchasitslandandforests,focusshouldbeontheirrestorationandsustainableutilization,especiallyinhighlypopulatedandproductiveareas,wherevulnerabilityisthehighest.Asperthefindingsofthisreport,thesouthernareasofthecountry,inparticularTillaberi,Tahoua,andDosso,arefoundtobehighlyvulnerable,andthereforefocusshouldbethere.Theobjectiveinvolvesathree-stepapproach:(1)torestoretheproductivityofdegradedlandandforests;(2)toincreaseyieldsofrestoredlandutilizingsustainablelandandforestmanagementpractices,and(3)toimprovePhoto:OlivierGirard/WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS50livelihoodsbyefficientlyengaginginvaluechainsorothersuccessfulalternativelivelihoods.Inaddition,betterownershipofnaturalresourcesbylocalcommunitiesaswellasimprovedparticipa-tionandinclusionofkeymembersofthecommu-nityisessentialtoenhancegoodgovernanceofnaturalresources,leadingtoreduceddegradationandconflictovernaturalresources.ScalinguptheMPmodelwouldsupportcommunitiesandhelppromotetheGovernment’sdecentralizationstrategy(Box5.1).Thefollowingrecommendationsarecatego-rizedintothreegroups:Enhancingoperations,Supportingpolicy,andBuildingknowledge.BOX5.1.MaisonduPaysanTheMaisonduPaysan(MP)isatransformativecommunity-basedinstitutionthatimprovesplanningandcoordinationatlocalandnationallevels,supportscitizenengagementandparticipation,andunderpinstheGoN’sdecentralizationstrategy.TheconceptandinterestintheestablishmentofMPsatthecommunelevelwasfirstintroducedbythenationalfoodsecurityinitiative,‘NigeriensNourishNigeriens’Initiative,in2012.TheWorldBankNigerCommunityActionProjectforClimateResilience(P125669),whichclosedin2021,pilotedtheMPconceptinadozenmunicipalities.TheservicesprovidedthroughtheMPsdelivereddirectbenefitstoruralproducersandbroughtnationalservicesclosertolocalneedsthroughafeedbackmechanismbetweennationalandlocalpoliciesandpractices.TheMPsprovideintegratedservicestolocalcommunitiesthroughseveralmodulestailoredtotheneedsofthecommunity.Theyarecentraltofarmersandruralproducersseekingadvisoryservices,training,andequipmenttoimprovesustainableandclimate-resilientlandmanagementpractices.TheMPswereimplementedthroughabottom-up,results-orientedmanagementapproach,supportedbyacoachingsystem,whichyieldedexcellentresultsandholdsgreatpotentialforreplicationinothercommunes.Coachingoffersanewparadigmforcapacitybuildingandimplementationsupport,particularlyinruralandfragileareas.TheMPsarenowpowerfulorganizationalanchorsforlocalcommunitiestocontinuetheirengagementinsustainableagro-silvo-pastoralism,toscaleuplocalbestpracticesandtosupportsocialresilienceactivitiesbecausetheyprovideaphysicalspaceforcoordinationofandaccesstoservicesandinformation.Thepotentialforreplicationishigh,andthereisgrowinginterestfromneighboringcommunesandnationalministriestodeploytheMPconceptonawiderscale.5RECOMMENDATIONS515.1.Enhancingoperations●Promotefarmers’accesstofinancingandtoFarmers’FieldSchools(FFS)linkedtotheimplementationofsustainablelandmanage-menttechniques.Nigerstronglyreliesoninter-nationalfundingtoscaleupimplementationofenvironmentalprojectssupportingsustainablelandmanagement.Forfarmers,directcostsconsistoflabortimeandknowledgeacquisi-tionthroughexperience.Thus,targetedassis-tancetoimprovefarmers’accesstoeconomicresourcestofurnishstart-upcapitalandtofacilitateaknowledgeexchangethroughFFStoremovetechnicalconstraintsfortheapplica-tionofsustainablelandmanagementfarmingpracticesisneeded,particularlyintheregionsmostaffectedbylanddegradation.Focusingonthemostaffectedareaswillincreasethepossibilitiestoachieveresultsthatpositivelyaffecttheenvironment,thepopulation,andtheeconomy.●Supportsmartagriculturaltechnologies.Betteraccesstosmarttechnologyforsmalllandownersisnecessarytoenhanceenviron-mentalperformanceoffarmersandpastoral-ists.Buildingcapacityinsmartagriculturetechnologiesisawinforbothlandandfarmers.Itwillnotonlyhelpscalethedevelopmentandimplementationofsustainablelandpracticesbutwillalsoenhancehumancapitalasanatu-ralasset.SuccessfullyimplementedinitiativessuchasFMNR,alost-costlandregenerationtechnique,involvingleavingtreesonlandtoprotectcrops,helpedregreenlargepartsoftheMaradiandZinderregionandcouldeasilybereplicatedinTillaberiandDosso.ApresidentialdecreeregulatingandpromotingFMNRwasadoptedinJuly2020,whichshouldbeabletoboostitsdissemination.Vegetablegardenshaveprovedsuccessful,especiallyamongthewomenandyouth,butcarefultrain-ingontheirmaintenanceandsustainabilityisstillneeded.●Scaleupwaterharvestingtechniquestofightdegradationofcroplands.Applyingwaterharvestingtechniquescanimprovewaterretentionandinfiltrationintothesoilbyformingabarrierthatslowsdownrunoffandspreadsitmoreevenlyovertheland.Suchtechniquesincludecontourstonebundsbuiltwithearthorstones,whichincreasetheamountofwateravailabletocropsandvegetation,thuscontrib-utingtotherestorationofdegradedland.Overtime,thisresultsinbuild-upofsedimentandformationofterraces,whicharefavorableconditionsfornaturalvegetationtoemergealongthestructure.Evidenceshowsthatbundsthathavebeeninplaceforover15yearshavepositiveeffectsonyields.Othersuccessfultechniquesincludemodernboreholesanddripirrigation.●Introduceimprovedandclimate-resistantcropvarietiestoincreaseproduction.Tomitigatetheriskoffoodinsecurity,Nigermustinvestinimprovedseedvarieties.Inthemilletandcowpeabelt,wherethedemographicpres-sureishigh,thearablelandisalmostentirelyinuse.Consequently,foodsecuritycanonlybeachievedthroughincreasedproduction.Theimprovedmilletvariety,HKP,isadrought-resistantvarietyadaptedtotheSaheliancontext,andwhichperformsbetterduetoitslowersensitivitytowormsandthephotope-riod.Withapotentialyieldof1.5to2.5tonsperha,theHKPisthreetimesmoreproductivethancurrentvarieties.Similarly,thecowpeavarietyIT90K-372-1-2hasashortcycle,multi-pleresistance,andisadaptedtoNiger’sagro-ecologicalzone.Withapotentialyieldof1.2to1.5tonsperha,theperformanceofimprovedcowpeavarietyisfivetimeshigherthanothervarieties.DifficultiesrelatedtothetechnicalmanagementoftheNigerienseedsystemandtoalackofaccesstoimprovedseedsforlocalproducershavedelayedtheirwiderintroduc-tioninthecountry.Futureactionstocounterfoodsecuritymustprioritizeimprovementstomakeadaptedandclimate-resistantcropvari-etiesmorewidelyavailabletolocalfarmers.●Developandimplementafoodstoragesystemacrossregions.Lackofadequatestor-agefacilitiesofagriculturalandfoodproductscausessignificanteconomiclossesandstrongNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS52pricefluctuations.Therefore,thedevelopmentandimplementationofafoodstoragesystemacrossregionsiskeytocounterfoodinsecurityinNiger.●Linksmallholderfarmerstolocalmarketstobringincentivesforsustainablelandmanage-mentandmovebeyondsubsistencefarming.Reducinglanddegradationandruralpovertyrequiresmorethaninitiativestoregreendegradedareas.Connectinglocalfarmerstomarketsandtoconsumerscanbringabouttheneededeconomicincentivestoengagesmallholderfarmerstoadoptsustainablelandmanagementpractices.Thisrequiresbetteraccesstofinancing,improvementsincommu-nitysupportservicessuchaslocalfoodstor-ageandextensionservices,andcreationofanenablingenvironmentforsmallbusinessesandmarketstoflourish.●Encourageruralyouthemploymentthroughvocationaltrainingandasameanstomodern-izeagriculture.TheGermanFederalMinistryforEconomicCooperationandDevelopmenthasputinplaceasuccessfulregionalprojectonruralyouthemploymentfocusedonSub-Saharancountries.40Nigershouldexplorewaysinwhichitcanbeintegrated.Theprojectsupportsthefollowingthreeareaswithaninte-gratedapproachtoemploymentpromotion:•Laborsupply:Youngpeopleimprovetheiremploymentprospectsbyobtainingaccesstomodern,market-orientedagriculturalqualifications.•Labordemand:Micro,smallandmedium-sizeenterprisesandstart-upscontinuetodeveloptheirbusinessesandbusinessmodels,thuscreatingemploymentpros-pectsforthemselvesandothers.•Matching:Asupportivebusinessenviron-mentandneeds-basedplacementservicesbringpotentialemployersandemployeestogether.40https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/67975.html.●ExpandvaluechainsbypromotingNiger’sindustrialcapacitytotransformagriculturalproductsintofoodproducts.GrowingtheagriculturalvaluechainwillhelpreduceNiger’sdependencyonsinglecropsandcounterthegrowingfoodtradeimbalance.Thevaluechainsofdrycereals,includingmilletandsorghum,arethebasisoffoodinNiger.Highdependenceonmillet,whichalonecovers65percentofthetotalcultivatedarea,makesNigervulnerabletoclimatevariability.Toincreaseresilienceandreducedependence,Nigerneedstodiversifyagriculturalcropsandstrengthenthecapacityoflocalindustrialproducerstomaintainmoreofthevalueaddedinvolvedinfoodproduction.Forexample,localprocessingandsalesofanimalproductssuchasmilkcansavescarcerevenuestreams,whichcouldbeusedforimportingothergoodsandservices.●InvestinthepromotionanddevelopmentoftheArabicgumindustryincludingtheexpan-sionandrehabilitationofexistingstands.InviewoftheworldwidedemandofArabicgumestimatedat50,000tonsperyear,Nigeriswellpositionedtoincreaseitssupplyandthusitsshareoftheinternationalmarket.Itisopportunetobuildontheresultsofprevi-ousprojects—theProgramofResearchandDevelopmentonAcaciaGum,alongwiththepilotprojectOperationAcacia(Ministèredel’EnvironnementdelaSalubritéUrbaineetduDeveloppementDurable2012)—androllouttheimplementationofthestrategyfrom2003.PerhapsacriticalaspectistoreinforcelocalcapacitiesandcreatethestructuresthatwillallowefficientcoordinationandmanagementoftheproductionandtradeofArabicgum.Furthermore,inadditiontotheaddedvalueofthesectorforthenationaleconomy,theposi-tiveimpactatthelocallevelisnottobeunder-estimated.Theorganizationofthecommunityintoinformalgroupsandformalcooperativeswillbecriticalforthedevelopmentofitsproductionandtradepotentialwithaspilloverontoothervaluechains.Thereisalsopotentialforthesectortomobilizewomenandyouth,5RECOMMENDATIONS53especiallyinruralcommunities,innaturalresourcemanagement,andhouseholds’foodsecurity.Accesstofinanceisessentialforfundingofthecoreprogramsaimingtoopera-tionalizethestrategy,beitfortherehabilita-tionoftheAcaciagumlandscapesandtheirexpansionbasedonlandscapeandsuitabilitymappingorinprogramsinvestingininfra-structureneededforstartingandmaintainingproduction,marketaccess,accesstofinance,andtrade.Itisthereforerecommendedthatpublicfundsbeearmarkedandmobilizedforthedevelopmentofthesectorinrecognitionofitspotential,withsubsequentsupportfromtheinternationaldevelopmentcommunity.●Upgradethewoodenergysubsector.Theuseofwoodenergycanencouragelandownersandfarmerstobettermanagewoodlandsandinvestinplantations.Woodenergyproduc-tionissuitableforcommunitymanagementofforestsandwoodlandsandisinlinewiththecurrenttrendofderegulationandprivatizationoftheenergyandforestrysectors.Inaddi-tion,thesustainableproductionofdomesticfuelscanleadtoruraldevelopmentconsistentwithcoherenttownandcountryplanning.Theuseofwoodyfuelspromotestransportoverrelativelyshortdistanceswithlowenvironmen-talrisks.Unlikeotherenergysourcesrequir-ingmoresophisticatedtechnologies,woodyfuelscreatejobsandincomeatthelocallevel,especiallyforthepoorestandmostdisadvan-tagedgroups.Implementingthemodernizationofthewoodenergyvaluechainwillrequirenumerousinstitutionalmeasures,including(a)improvingthesustainableproductionofwoodenergybypromotingparticipatorymanage-mentofnaturalforestsandincreasingtheareaunderplantationsandagroforestry;(b)improvingexploitationandprocessingofwoodenergybybuildingthecapacityoflocalactors,increasingefficiencyofresourceuse,andtestinganddisseminatinginnovativemethodstouseagriculturalresidues;(c)improvingthetransportationandmarketingofwood;(d)andtestingmodelsofimprovedhouseholdcook-stovesanddisseminatingtheminurbanandruralareas.Moreover,inlinewiththeGoNcommitmentstoreducerelianceonfuelwoods,intensifyingawarenessraisingandpromotingalternativefuelswouldhelpreducepressuresonnaturalresources.●Raiseawarenessamongcommunitiesandlocalinstitutionsonclimatechangerisk,whichcansystematicallybuildcommunityowner-shipandleveragelocalknowledgeformoreeffectiveclimate-smartsolutionstailoredtothespecificlocalcontexts.Thereisalackofinstitutionalizedmechanismsatthelocallevelforcitizenengagementandsocialaccountabil-ityforlocalcommunitiestoparticipatemean-ingfullyindecision-makingrelatedtonaturalresourcemanagementorclimateadaptationanddisasterriskmanagement.●Strengthenlocalengagement.Participatoryapproachestonaturalresourcesmanage-mentthatissociallyinclusivecancontributetoconflictreduction,notablybetweenpastoralistsandfarmers.Box5.2illustratesasuccessfulexamplefromBurkinaFaso.5.2.Supportingpolicyreform●Enhancelocalgovernancestructuresinplanningandmanagingnaturalresources.TheGoNhasrecognizedtheimportanceoflocalcommunitiesinthemanagementoftheirnaturalresourcesbase.Indeed,decen-tralizationeffortshaveempoweredlocalcommunitiesandallowedfortheriseoflocalstructures(formalandinformalgroups)touseandmanage,amongothers,forestsfortimberandNTFP.Thatsaid,theseeffortsoughttobemoreregulatedtoallowtheformalizationand/orrevitalizationofinclusivelocalstructuresengagedinthesustainableuseofnaturalresources.Additionally,andinlinewithabroaderlandscapeconsideration,themanage-mentoftheseresourcesshouldonlybedonebasedoncommunal/localdevelopmentplansintegratingsocial,economic,andenvironmen-taldimensions.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS54●Institutelanduseplanningasitisanimpor-tantpolicytoolforlong-termsustainabledevelopment.Thetoolisdeemednecessarytocontinuethedecentralizationprocess,mitigateconflictinginterestsandcompetitionoverlandandresources,regulatemigration,andplantheuseoflandspersector.Integratedlanduseplanningishighlyencouragedasitiscarriedoutacrosssectorsandlevelsofgovernmentandinvolvestheallocationoflandfordifferentusesacrossalandscapeinawaythatbalanceseconomicinterests,socialvalue,andforestandlandcover.Italsohelpssecurelandrestorationinvestments.●SupporttheimplementationoftheNationalNutritionalSecurityPolicy(PNSN)withexplicitattentiontoclimatechangevulnerability..Thisnationalpolicyaimstoeliminateallformsofmalnutritionbymobilizinginstitutional,human,andfinancialresourcesacrossmultiplesectors.Thepolicyanditsassociatedactionplanconstitutethesoleframeworkforallactivi-tiestocombatmalnutritionwhileconsideringclimateresilientactions.●Improvecountry’scapacitytosustainablyuseitsstockofnaturalcapitaltoachievetheobjectivesoftheNiger2035SustainableDevelopmentandInclusiveGrowthStrategy(SDIGS).TheimportanceofitsnaturalassetsisrecognizedintheRenaissanceProgram2(2016–2021),whichidentifiestherestorationandsustainablemanagementoflandasneces-sarytoensurefoodandnutritionsecurity.LessonsderivedfromtheimplementationoftheESDS2012–2015pointtoaneedtoimple-mentinitiativescomprehensivelyandstrategi-callyacrosssectors.TheESDS2017–2021,Niger’sfirstfive-yearplandesignedwithSDIGSinmind,highlightstheprecariousstateofthecountry’snaturalcapital.BOX5.2.TerriStories—AninnovativeparticipatoryplanningtoolRecentexperiencefromBurkinaFasohasdemonstratedthepotentialforimprovinglanduseplanningatthecommunitylevelthroughanintegratedlandscapemanagementapproachdevelopedinaparticipatorymanner.TheTerriStoriesapproachincentivizedlocalactorstofindsolutionstochallengesrelatedtonaturalresourcesthroughroleplay.Localactorsincludeddifferentusersoflandaswellascustomaryandadministrativeauthoritiesatmunicipalandvillagelevels.Underthemunicipalities’leadership,prioritysitesforconservationactivitiesinforestsandpastoralareas,andaccompanyinginvest-mentsaroundthesesites,wereidentifiedbytheparticipantsthroughconsensusanddevelopedintoIntegratedCommunityDevelopmentPlans(ICDPs).Theplansoutlinedacomprehensivevisionofactivitiestoreducedeforestationandwoodlanddegradation.Atprojectclosing,all32municipalICDPshadbeendevelopedandfinancedfollowingconsultationwithmorethan6,600participantsin128villages.Bydirectlyfundingtheplansthroughthelocalmunicipalities,theprojectdemonstratedthepotentialfordecentralizednaturalresourcesmanagement.Theinvolvementofcommunitiesledtogreaterlocalownershipandsustainabilityofinvestments,reducedconflictsovertheaccesstonaturalresources,strengthenedsocialtiesamongcommunitymembersandlocalauthorities,andimprovedaccountabilityforlastingresults.5RECOMMENDATIONS55●Developregulations,includingmonitoringandenforcementprovisionsinpreparationforincreaseddemandonforestresourcestoensuretheexploitationissupplydrivenratherthanmarketdriven.Theabsenceofupdatedregulationcouldleadtoadepletionofexistingresources,notingthattheoverarchinglegalframeworkiswelladvancedinthisregard.●Promoteintegratedlandscapemanagementandlandscaperesilienceinrestorationstrate-gies.Tree,shrub,andforestcoverprovidelandscaperesilienceandagroforestry-relatedproductionbenefitsintheWesternSahelingeneral.Large-scale,forest-waterinteraction-basedprocessesmustbeincorporatedintolandscaperestorationstrategies,includingtheGreatGreenWallinitiative.Indeed,resil-ientecosystemrestorationisbestunderstoodonthebasisoftheforest-waterandland-atmosphereinteractionlens.Agroforestryparklandsarereportedtocoverover7millionhaoflandsinNigerandaremostlyfoundintheagriculturalzonethatstretchesacrossthesouthernpartofthecountry,commonlyalongtheNigerRiverandinterritorieswithamarkedhuman.Agroforestrycanfurtherpromoteland-scaperesilience.Strategiesbroadlyfocusedonagroforestryexpansion/restoration,increaseofrainfallrecycling,wateravailability,andthepromotionoflandscaperesiliencearemorelikelytosteerfutureeffortsinusefuldirec-tions.Inlinewiththeabove,itisrecommendedthatecosystemmanagementplansbeputinplacecoveringmosaiclandscapes,andwhereavailable,thattheyberevisitedtointegratecommunitypreferencesusingparticipatoryapproachesinboththeirmanagementandrestoration.Specialattentionoughttobegiventourbanandperi-urbanforestlandscapestoensuretheirconservationandsustainablemanagement.●ImplementthenewLandPolicyandsustain-ablelandmanagementactionplanstohelppreventconflictslinkedtolandandnaturalresourcemanagement.Thesemayincludedeliveringlandtransactionacts,establish-ingrulesforsharedresources(transhumancecorridors,waterpoints,grazingareas),andformalizinglandrights(particularlyforvulner-ablepopulationssuchasdisplacedpeople,pastoralists,andwomen).Localconflictmanagementstructuresandcommitteesneedtobestrengthenedthroughadequatefundinganddecision-makingpower,inclusiveparticipa-tionofstakeholders(thisincludestraditionalchiefs,religiousleaders,administrativeauthori-ties,farmers,pastoralists,women,youth,anddisplacedpopulations),andtrainingfortradi-tionalleadersandothersinconflictresolu-tionandmanagementstrategies.Inaddition,servicedeliverytomobilepastoralistpopula-tionsneedstobeimproved,andadaptationandflexibilitytothispopulation’sneedsarerequired,whilebeinginclusiveofthesedentarycommunitiesthatarepresentwheremobileservicesareprovided.5.3.Buildingknowledge●Developnaturalaccountsforagriculturalland,water,andforeststoaddressthefivestrategicaxesnotedinESDS2017–2021.TheprocessofcreatingandanalyzingnaturalcapitalaccountsiskeytoNiger’ssustainabledevelopment.Theexerciseshouldfacilitateandenhancecross-sectorallinks,improvedatacollectionandanalysis,supportinstitutionalcapacitybuilding,andfostermoreeffectiveeconomicplanning.●Assessandmonitorforestresourcestodrivesectorgrowth.Sincetheearly1990s,Nigerhasdevelopedimpressiveexperiencemanagingforests.However,thelimitedknowledgeonthepotentialoftheforestrysectorisamajorlimit-ingfactortotheexpansionofthesector.Nigerhasneverundertakenanational-scaleforestinventoryimpedingtheelaborationofresourceuseplansandavaluationofforestservices.DespitethedevelopmentoftheNationalStrategyforthepromotionofNTFP,lackofdataandstatisticsprevails,thuskeepingtheexploi-tationofNTFPatraditionalandinformalactiv-ity.ItalsoshinesalightontheroleofforestNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS56degradationanddepletionoftheirresources,whichcanunderminethesustainabilityofpotentialeconomicgrowth.Inthisregard,itisrecommendedthatasetofindicatorsbeestablishedallowingmedium-andlong-termmonitoringoftheseresourcesandalignmentwithnationalandinternationalreportingobliga-tions.Acomprehensiveassessmentofforestresources,includingthequantificationofsomeassets,particularlybiomassforenergyproduc-tionandNTFP,canhelpensuretheyreceiveanappropriatelevelofeconomicpolicyconsid-erationgiventheirimportancetosustainableeconomicprosperity.Themonetaryvaluationoftheircontributiontonationaleconomywoulddrivepolicychangesandsteerinvestmentsinthesector.Furthermore,anassessmentofthepotentialforapublic-privatearrangementforsustainability,includingoperations,particularlyforthepaymentofenvironmentalservicesorcarbonfinance,isessentialtomobilizeresources,attracttheprivatesector,formalizeresourceuse,andregulateit.41WorldBankGroupClimateChangeKnowledgePortal:https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/niger/vulnerability●Improveaccesstoandstrengthentechni-calnationalentitiesforclimatedatacollec-tionandarchiving.Overall,scientificdataaremainlyproducedduringone-offcollectionsforprojectsorprograms,informationisgatheredbydevelopmentpartners,anditisdispersedatthenationallevel.Implementingadedi-catedmechanismforfundingdatacollection,supportingmodellingcapacitiesatthenationallevelwouldhelpbuildnationalcapacities,promotebetteraccesstoclimateinformation,andcouldcomplementongoinginitiatives.Forexample,animprovedwatermanage-mentandmeteorologicaldataandinformationdisseminationintoruralareaswillimprovethepopulation’sresponsetodroughts,andthedevelopmentofanearlywarningsystemisneededtoincreasetheresilienceintheagri-culturalsector.415RECOMMENDATIONS57Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupNIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS58Photo:AndreaBorgarello/WorldBankGroupANNEX:ANNEX1.MAINACTORSINVOLVEDINENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTINNIGER59Annex1.MainactorsinvolvedinenvironmentalmanagementinNiger43InstitutionRemitClimateCommissionoftheSahelRegion—CommissionClimatpourlaRégionduSahel(CCRS)•ContributetotheimplementationoftheInvestmentPlanClimate-SahelRegion(ICP-RS)anditsRegionalPriorityProgramme(PRP).•SupportmembercountriesintheoperationalizationofNationalWorkingGroups(NWGs).•Mobilizenon-stateactors(civilsociety,NGOs,privatesector,localauthorities,andsoon).•PreparetheTermsofReferenceofthefeasibilitystudyrelatingtotheimplementationoftheCCRSfinancialmechanism.Water,Environment,andSanitationUnit—CelluleEau,EnvironnementetAssainissement(CEEA)•Supportimplementationofthe‘3N’Initiative.•Evaluateanddevelopproposeactionsintermsofsustainabledevelopmentandsanitation.•Instilladynamicofcomplianceforurbanmasterplansandrelatedplans.•MonitorandevaluatetheimplementationofPANGIRE,PNEDD,otherprogramsandenvironmentalprojects,andoftheprojectsundertheNationalActionPlanforCombattingDesertificationandManagementofNaturalResources(NAP/LCD-GRN).HighCommissionforthe3NInitiative—Haut-Commissariatàl’Initiative3N(HC3N)•Coordinate,plan,andconducttechnical,economic,andfinancialstudies.•Mobilizefinancing.•Promoteaswellasmonitorandevaluatetheimplementationofthe3NInitiative.KandadjiDamAgency—AgenceduBarragedeKandadji(ABK)TheABKistasked,amongothers,withthefollowing:•Mobilizefinance.•ManageandoperatetheKandadjiDam.•SuperviseandcoordinatetheimplementationoftheSocialandEconomicManagementPlan(PGES).•Recoverfee.43ExtractedfromtheGoNreportontheStateoftheEnvironment,2021.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS60InstitutionRemitExecutiveSecretariatoftheNationalCouncilforEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment—SecrétariatExécutifduConseilNationaldel’EnvironnementpourunDéveloppementDurable(SE/CNEDD)•CoordinateactivitiesrelatedtotheimplementationoftherecommendationsofUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment.•Defineanationalframeworkcontaining:thepolicy,directions,objectives,strategies,andprogramsonEnvironmentforSustainableDevelopment.•Designandpromotetheimplementationofaframeworkandadequateinstitutionalmechanisms,ensuringcoordinationandharmonizationoftheactivitiesofallstakeholdersintherelatedNationalPlan.•Ensurecompliancewithnationalandinternationalenvironmentalstandardsinalldevelopmenteconomic,social,andculturalactivities.•MobilizefinancingforthedevelopmentandtheimplementationoftheNationalPlan.•PromotesustainablemanagementanduseofnaturalresourcesandenvironmentwithintheframeworkoftheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment.NationalCentreofEcologicalandEnvironmentalMonitoring—CentreNationaldeSurveillanceÉcologiqueetEnvironnementale(CNSEE)•Ensuretheestablishmentandmanagementofrelevantobservatoriesforecologicalandenvironmentalmonitoring.•Ensurethecollectionandprocessingofrelevantbiophysical,biological,andsocioeconomicdata.•Generateandpublishthroughthenetworkofobservatoriesandinpartnershipwithnationalandinternationalinstitutions,informationrelatingtothenaturaloranthropogenicimpactsonenvironmentandnaturalresources,suchasdesertificationandclimatechangeandvariability.•Setenvironmentalindicatorsofthequalityofthelivingenvironmentofpopulations.•Addressenvironmentalbiosafetyemergenciesanddisasters.•Ensureinthemedium-andlongtermmanagementmeasuresonnaturalresources.•Ensuredatabasemanagement.•Disseminateinformationthroughperiodicreports,documents,andjournals.NationalAgencyoftheGreatGreenWall—AgenceNationaledelaGrandeMurailleVerteduNiger•Coordinate,monitor,evaluate,andimplementtheGreatGreenWallinitiativeinNiger.NationalOfficeofEnvironmentalEvaluation—BureauNationald’ÉvaluationEnvironnementale(BNEE)•PromoteandimplementenvironmentalassessmentsinNigeratthenationallevel.•Coverallpolicies,strategies,plans,programs,projects,andallactivities,forwhichanenvironmentalassessmentismandatoryornecessarypursuanttoLawNo.2018-28ofMay14,2018anditsDecreeNo.2019-027/PRN/MESU/DDofJanuary11,2019,determiningthefundamentalprinciplesofEnvironmentalAssessmentinNiger.ANNEX:ANNEX1.MAINACTORSINVOLVEDINENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTINNIGER61InstitutionRemitGeneralDirectorateofPastoralDevelopment,ProductionandLivestockIndustries—DirectionGénéraleduDéveloppementPastoral,delaProductionetdesindustriesanimals(DGDP/P/IA)•Overseefournationaltechnicaldirectorates–DirectorateforthePromotionofLivestockSectorsandQuality(DPFA/Q)–DirectorateofPastoralDevelopment(DDP)–DirectorateofLivestockIndustries(DIA)–DirectorateofGeneticImprovementandLivestockBiotechnology(DAGBA)•Promotelivestocksectors•Promotelivestockindustries•Supportgeneticimprovement•Developandsecurepasturelandsandpastoralism•Monitorpastoralresources•RiskmanagementGeneralDirectorateofAgriculture—DirectionGénéraledel’Agriculture(DGA)TheDGAcomprisesfournationaltechnicaldirectorates•DirectorateofExtensionandTechnologyTransfer(DV/TT)•DirectorateforthePromotionofCropSectorsandQuality(DPFV/Q)•DirectorateofAgriculturalMechanization(DMA)•DirectorateofSeedControlandCertification(DCCS).Design,develop,andimplementnationalagriculturestrategies,valuechainstrategies,agriculturalextension,technologytransfer,lawsandregulationsonproduction,packaging,qualitycontrol,andcertificationofseedsandfruitcropsandensuretheirapplication,andfinallymonitoragriculturalseasons.GeneralDirectorateofCropProtection—DirectionGénéraledelaProtectiondesVégétaux(DGPV)•Designandimplementthenationalpolicyforcropprotection.Itcarriesoutitsmissionthroughfourtechnicaldepartments:•DirectorateofPhytosanitaryInterventionsandTraining(DIPF)•DirectorateofBiologicalStudies(DEB)•DirectorateofPhytosanitaryRegulationandEnvironmentalMonitoring(DRP/SE)•DirectorateofPhytosanitaryLogisticsandEquipment(DLEP).NationalCentreofLocustControl—CentreNationaldeLutteantiacridienne(CNLA)•PreventdesertlocustinfestationsoftheGregarinousareasofthenationalterritory.•Monitorandobservethepresenceofdesertlocust.•Coordinatedesertlocustcontrolanderadicationefforts.•Monitorhealthandenvironmentalconditionsinitsareaofintervention.EnvironmentalandhealthmonitoringiscarriedoutbytheDirectorateofEnvironmentalMonitoring(DES)oftheCNLAincollaborationwiththeDGPV,theservicesofHealth,LivestockandEnvironment.TheCNLAisstructuredasfollows:•ATechnicalOperationsDepartment•AnEnvironmentalandHealthMonitoringDirectorate•AMonitoringandEvaluationDirectorate•ADirectorateofAdministrativeandFinancialAffairs.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS62InstitutionRemitNationalInstituteofAgronomicResearchoftheNiger—InstitutNationaldeRecherchesAgronomiquesduNiger(INRAN)•Contributetothedevelopmentandimplementationofresearchpolicyforruraldevelopment.•Developandimplementresearchagronomicprograms.•Providescientificandtechnicalsupportforruraldevelopment.•Contributetotrainingandinformingtechnical,research,anddevelopmentactors.•Developappropriatetechnologiesforincreasingandimprovingtheproductivityoftheruralsector.•Contributetothedisseminationofexperimentalresultsofresearchwithinterestedservicesandorganizations.•Provideservicesintheareasofitscompetence.PublicUniversitiesinNigerThePublicUniversitiesofNigerareundertheministryofHigherEducation,Research,andInnovation(MESRI).Theirmissionisteaching,scientificresearch,andtechnologicalinnovation.Theycontributetothesustainabledevelopmentatbothnationalandregionallevels.TheAbdouMoumouniUniversityofNiamey(UAM)includestheFacultiesofScienceandTechnology,Agronomy,Legal,andEconomicSciencesandHumanities,HealthSciences,theEcoleNormaleSupérieureandtheInstitutesofspecializedresearch(CRESA,IRSH,IRI,IREM).TheUAMhas,amongothers,thefollowingmissions:•Traintechnicalmanagers,teachingmanagers,andsoon.•Trainresearchers.•Trainandretainmanagersfordifferenttypesofscientificandtechnicalactivities.NetworkfortheManagementofNaturalResourcesandDecentralization—RéseauGestiondesRessourcesNaturelles(GRN)etDécentralisationInchargeofthefollowing:•Promotionofsustainable,fair,andefficientmanagementofnaturalresourcesincludingpoliciesandpractices•Transferoflocalskillsandresourcesthroughlearninggroups(pastoralism,localconventions,andsoon)andresearchonaccesstoruralresourcesandland•Inclusiveparticipationthroughtheexchangeanddisseminationofexperimentsandtheimplementationofacommunicationstrategy.DirectorateofNationalMeteorology—DirectiondelaMétéorologieNationale(DMN)•Coordinateandharmonizenationalmeteorologypolicy.•Ensureatmosphericobservation.•Provideweatherforecastsanddisseminatethecorrespondinginformation.•ProvidemeteorologicalassistancetoallsocioeconomicsectorsinNiger.•Implementdatacollectionthroughtheestablishmentofanetworkofdatamonitoringstations,processing,forecasting,archivinganddisseminationofdata.•Promotemeteorologicalresearchandapplications,inparticularinthefieldsofglobalclimatechangeandenvironmentalprotection.•Monitorregionalandinternationalinstitutionsdealingwithmeteorologicalissues.•Disseminateweatherreports,agro-hydrometeorologicalbulletins(annualand10-yearreports).ANNEX:ANNEX1.MAINACTORSINVOLVEDINENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTINNIGER63InstitutionRemitNationalInstituteofStatisticsoftheMinistryofFinance—InstitutNationaldelaStatistique(INS)duMinistèredesFinances•Collect,integrate,produce,disseminatestatisticsnecessaryforthedevelopmentoftheeconomicandsocialpolicyandtheassessmentoftheirresults.•Coordinatethenationalstatisticalsystemandsectoral,macroeconomic,andsocio-demographicstudiesandresearch.•Coordinateworkguidingshort-termeconomicandfinancialpolicy,inrelationtoothergovernmentdepartments.•Prepareandmonitorshort-termeconomicandfinancialprograms,incoordinationwithotherdepartmentsoftheMinistryofFinance,ministries,andsubregionalorganizations.•Prepareguidancenotesonthenationalbudgetaswellaseconomicandfinancialreportsofthefinancelaw.ResearchInstitutionforDevelopment—InstitutiondeRecherchepourleDéveloppement(IRD)•DevelopscientificprojectscenteredontherelationshipbetweenhumansandtheirenvironmentintheSahelthataddress–Waterresources–Weather–ConservationofendangeredspeciesintheAïrTénéréreserve–Erosionofcultivatedsoils–Geneticsofmillet–Managementofnaturalresources.RegionalCenterAgrhymet—CentreRégionalAgrhymet(CRA)TheCRAisaspecializedinstitutionofthePermanentInterstateCommitteeforDroughtControlintheSahel(CILSS)createdin1974.IthasitsheadquartersinNiamey(Niger).Itbringstogetherthe13membercountriesofCILSS:BurkinaFaso,CaboVerde,Benin,Côted’Ivoire,Togo,TheGambia,Guinea,Guinea-Bissau,Mali,Mauritania,Niger,Senegal,andChad.Thecenter’smainobjectivesareto•ContributetofoodsecurityandincreasedfoodproductioninCILSSmembercountries;•HelpimprovethemanagementofnaturalresourcesoftheSahelregion;and•Provideinformationtoandtraindevelopmentactorsandtheirpartnersinthefieldsofagro-climatology,hydrology,cropprotection,foodsecurityandnutrition,integratedmanagementofwaterresources,sustainablelandmanagement,andsoon.AfricanCenterforMeteorologicalApplicationsforDevelopment—CentreAfricainpourlesApplicationsdelaMétéorologieauDéveloppement(ACMAD)•Developandtransfertoolsandtechnologiestonationalmeteorologicalsystems.•Developweatherandclimateinformationandproductstosupportsustainabledevelopment.•Disseminatemeteorologicalandclimaticinformationtousers,particularlyinruralareas.•Communicatetheimpactoftheactivitiesofmemberstatesandpartners.•Monitorclimate,forecastweatherandclimatechange,trainAfricanmeteorologistsinnewtechniquesandtechnologies.InternationalCropsResearchInstitutefortheSemi-AridTropics—Institutinternationalderecherchesurlesculturesdeszonestropicalessemiarides(ICRISAT)ICRISATisanonprofit,apoliticalorganizationbelongingtotheFutureHarvestAlliancepertainingtocenterssupportedbytheConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR).ICRISAT’smissionistohelp644millionresource-poorfarmersinthesemi-aridtropicsovercomehunger,poverty,andenvironmentaldegradationthroughimprovedagriculturalpractices.NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS64InstitutionRemitNigerRiverBasinAuthority—AutoritéduBassinduFleuveNiger(ABN)•Harmonizeandcoordinatenationalpoliciesforthedevelopmentofbasinresources.•Planbasindevelopmentbydevelopinganintegratedbasindevelopmentplan.•Design,build,operate,andmaintainworksandcommonprojects.•Ensurethecontrolandregulationofallformsofnavigationontheriver,itstributaries,andsub-tributariesinaccordancewiththe‘NiameyAct’.•Participateintheformulationofrequestsforassistanceandthemobilizationoffundingforstudiesandnecessaryworksforthedevelopmentofbasinresources.IntergovernmentalCommitteesforDroughtControlintheSahel—ComitésInter-étatsdeLuttecontrelaSécheresseauSahel(CILSS)CILSSisaninternationalorganizationbringingtogethertheSaheliancountries.Itwascreatedin1973,duringthefirstmajordroughtintheregion,tomobilizetheSahelianpopulationsandtheinternationalcommunityaroundemergencyaidandtheimplementationofprogramsrelatedtorainfedandirrigatedagriculture,hydraulics,environment,transport,andcommunication.TheexecutivesecretariatisbasedinOuagadougou(BurkinaFaso).Theagro-hydrometriccenter(AGRHYMET),createdbytheWorldMeteorologicalOrganization,ishousedinNiamey(Niger)andtheInstitutduSahel,acenterforagro-socioeconomicand‘populationanddevelopment’research,isbasedinBamako(Mali).CivilSocietyPlatformforClimateChangeandSustainableDevelopment—PlateformeDeLaSociétéCivileSurLeChangementClimatiqueEtLeDéveloppementDurable•Establishasynergyframeworkontheonehandbetweencivilsocietyorganizationsworkingintheareasofclimatechange,environment,andenergyforsustainabledevelopmentandontheotherhandbetweentheGovernmentandthesaidcivilsociety.•Ensurethatthechangedimensionisconsideredinclimatepolicies,strategies,andprogramsforsustainabledevelopment.•EnsurejusticeandequityintheUNFCCCnegotiationprocessandadequatelyprotecttheclimatewhilesafeguardingdevelopment.GeneralDirectorateofWaterResources—DirectionGénéraledesRessourcesenEau(DGRE)•Monitorandprotectwaterresources.GeneralDirectorateforWaterandForests—DirectionGénéraledel’EnvironnementetdesForêts(DGEF)•Implementpolicies,strategies,conventionsandinternationalagreementsandactionplansintheareasofforestry,fishing,aquaculture,beekeeping,wetlands,landscaping,andenvironmentalpreservation.GeneralDirectorateforSustainableDevelopmentandEnvironmentalStandards—DirectionGénéraleduDéveloppementDurableetdesNormesEnvironnementales(DGDD/NE)•Implementnationalpolicies,strategies,andactionplansforenvironmentalpreservation,environmentaleconomics,sustainabledevelopment,environmentalstandards,pollutionandnuisance,anddisasterrisksaswellasthatofmultilateralenvironmentalconventionsandagreements.LakeChadBasinCommission—CommissionduBassinLacChad(CBLT)•PromotethecommonandsustainablemanagementandexploitationofLakeChad,aswellascross-bordersecurityinacontextwherethefluctuatingdesignoftheshoresofthelakegeneratesinternalandcross-bordermigrationsaswellasbanditry.ANNEX:ANNEX1.MAINACTORSINVOLVEDINENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTINNIGER65InstitutionRemitLiptako-GourmaAuthority—AutoritédeDéveloppementIntégrédesÉtatsduLiptako-Gourma(ALG)TheroleoftheIntegratedDevelopmentAuthorityoftheLiptako-Gourmaregion(ALG)istostrengthentiesofcooperationandsolidaritybindingthethreestates,throughtheintegratedandharmoniousdevelopmentoftheLiptako-Gourmaregion.TheLiptako-GourmaAuthoritycoversthehistorical-geographicalareasofLiptako(northeasternBurkinaFaso)andGourma,butalso,moregenerally,theentireconvergencezoneofthethreebordersofthemembercountries,withtheNigerRiverBasinasthecentralaxis.A1.1.Otherinstitutionsinvolvedinenvironmentalmanagement●NationalCouncilforEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment(CNEDD)●NationalWaterandSanitationCommission(CNEA)●EnergyandSustainableDevelopmentTechnicalCommission(CTEDD)●TechnicalCommissiononBiologicalDiversity(CTDB)●TechnicalCommissiononClimateChangeandVariability(CTCVC)●TechnicalCommissionforthefightagainstdesertificationandthemanagementofnaturalresources(CTLCD/GRN)●NationalRAMSARCommittee●MAB/UNESCONationalCommittee●NationalRuralCodeCommittee(CN/CR)●NationalCoordinationCommitteeofNGOsonDesertification(CNCOD)●NationalMultisectoralEnergyCommittee(CNME)A1.2.EnvironmentalManagementFrameworksandPlatforms●NationalConsultationFrameworkonDomesticEnergies(CNCED)●FrameworkforConsultationofActorsinvolvedinAdaptationtoClimateChange(CCAACC)●ConsultationFrameworkonMigration(CCM)●FrameworkforConsultationofActorsintheimplementationofthe3NInitiative(CCA/3NI)●NationalCivilSocietyPlatformonClimateChangeandSustainableDevelopment(PN/CC/DD)●NationalPlatformforDialogueonClimateChange,Agriculture,ResearchandFoodSecurityinNiger(PNSP/CCASAN)NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS66Annex2.CostofagriculturalproductivitylossduetolanddegradationA2.1.LandDegradationanalysisLPL=LDA×LDPLTAALPL=Landproductivitylossexpressedin%LDA=Landdegradationarea(ha)TAA=Totalarablearea(ha)LDPL=Landdegradationproductivityloss(%)A2.2.AgriculturalProductivityLossCPLi=LPL×CAi×CPiCPLi=CropproductivitylosspercropexpressedintonsLPL=Landproductivitylossestimatedin1.1CAi=Croparea(ha)CPi=Cropproductivity(t/ha)ThismethodologyisbasedonPanagosetal.(2018).Thismethodassumesthattheproductivitylossisequallydistributedacrossallcroptypesineachregion.Inequation2.1,weareusing16.5percentbasedontheestimatesofproductivitylossduetoerosionfromLal(1995)forSub-SaharanAfricafor2020.Theestimatesofproductivitylossvarybetween2and40percentdependingontheerosionseverity.Inequation2.2,oncetheagriculturalproductivitylossduetolanddegradationiscalculated,toobtaintheeconomicvalues,theCPLismultipliedbythemarketpriceofeachcrop.Duetothelackofdata,andconsideringthemainlanddegradationdriversinNiger,landdegradationisassumedtobeproducedbywindandwatererosion.ANNEX:ANNEX2.COSTOFAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIVITYLOSSDUETOLANDDEGRADATION67TABLEA.2.1.ResultsoftheanalysisbyregionandcropRegionMilletSorghumMaizeNiébéRiceNutsFonioSesameTotalAgadez3,6829,93541,0023,81758,435Diffa2,558,891691,2403,289,27475,235225,9381,497,5418,338,118Dosso29,513,5808,596,433104,49449,917,9601,948,6932,129,168116,47767,58292,394,387Maradi20,769,50015,272,32128,94327,585,1575,712,692822,92670,191,539Niamey494,66330,4807291,397,6502,436,6318,7024,368,854Tahoua45,549,56825,201,59577,76453,383,345185,9212,936,854343,848127,678,895Tillaberi83,429,43130,455,98458,433126,777,67342,574,0772,886,3892,7141,072,296287,256,995Zinder15,535,07511,708,0797,69422,385,346143,8364,707,7421,527,51356,015,284Total197,854,39091,966,066319,058284,740,22147,364,39318,607,485119,1915,331,705646,302,507NIGERCOUNTRYENVIRONMENTALANALYSIS68ReferencesAdamou,R.,B.Ibrahim,A.Bonkaney,A.Seyni,&M.Idrissa(2021,January19).“Niger—Land,Climate,Energy,AgricultureandDevelopment:AStudyintheSudano-SahelInitiativeforRegionalDevelopment,Jobs,andFoodSecurity.”ZEFWorkingPaperSeries.https://ssrn.com/abstract=3769119.ComitépermanentInter-étatsdeLuttecontrelaSécheressedansleSahel(CILSS).2016.LandscapesofWestAfrica—Awindowonachangingworld.Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso.CILSS,p219.doi:10.5066/F7N014QZAFDB.2018.NationalClimateChangeProfile:Niger.ComitépermanentInter-étatsdeLuttecontrelaSécheressedansleSahel(CILSS).2016.LandscapesofWestAfrica—Awindowonachangingworld.Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso.CILSS,p219.doi:10.5066/F7N014QZCNEDD.2011.ImpactsdeschangementsclimatiquessurlesforetsauNiger.CNEDD.2014.StrategieNationaleetPland’ActionenmatieredeChangementsetVariabilitéClimatiques.CNEDD.2018.ProcessusdeDéfinitiondesCiblésdeNeutralitéenmatièredeDegradationdesTerres.https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/files/ldn_targets/NigerLDNTSPCountryReport.pdf.CNEDD.2019.CartographiedelavulnérabilitédesactivitésagropastoralesdesrégionsduNigerdanslecadreduProjetPDIPC.CNEDD.2021.Etatdel’EnvironnementauNiger,4emerapportNational.Niamey:CNEDD.CNEDD,andAFDB.2019.Cartographiedelavulnérabilitédesactivitésagropastoralesdesrégion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