中国氢燃料电池技术开发和应用进展-28页VIP专享VIP免费

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Progress in

hydrogen fuel

cell technology

development

and deployment

in China

Global Challenges in Focus

Hongxing (Tonny) Xie*

Peter Oksen**

Xingxing Guo*

Xin He*

Yue Bian*

*Bluetech Clean Air Alliance, Beijing

**WIPO GREEN, Geneva

With contributions from

Wanyi Wang, United Nations

Development Programme (UNDP)

China Office, and

Ziyuan Wang, Foshan Institute of

Environment and Energy Technology,

China

Executive summary

Hydrogen has several potential advantages as an energy form and storage

medium in relation to climate change and environmental impacts. However,

current hydrogen use is based almost exclusively on fossil fuel, and this means

it is not climate change neutral or beneficial. Major technological advances

are being made towards producing “green hydrogen,” but this remains more

expensive than fossil-based hydrogen. Hydrogen-use technologies are also

being developed, but few are ready to be scaled up, so hydrogen as a form

of clean energy remains largely a technology of the future.

The potential is nevertheless so attractive that many governments worldwide

have formulated development plans for hydrogen and, together with the

private sector, they are investing significantly in research and development.

In China, hydrogen and fuel cells are expected to play an important role

in fulfilling the official pledge of national carbon neutrality by 2060 and are

already embedded in numerous economic development plans and policies.

More than 100 standards to regulate the production and use of hydrogen

in China have been formulated, which is a prerequisite for scaling up the

technology. Innovation in the field has increased dramatically in recent years,

and this is reflected in the current global dominance of Chinese-based patent

applications. Several Chinese provincial governments and industrial city

clusters have embarked on ambitious programs to develop and promote

hydrogen in transport – notably heavy-duty and long-haul transport – and

industry.

Despite the technological and economic obstacles associated with scaling

up and mainstreaming hydrogen-based energy, there are strong indications

that the political will and economic means are there to make it an important

complement to other new and renewable energies.

Introduction

Hydrogen is high on the political and innovation agenda of many countries,

research institutions and companies. It is a highly versatile energy storage

medium with great potential for contributing to a transition towards car-

bon-neutral energy. However, hydrogen sources are dominated by fossil

fuels, and the technical and economic challenges to scaling up the use of

hydrogen remain considerable. This report provides an overview of current

hydrogen and fuel cell technology trends internationally, and a focused

review of China, the largest deployment market for hydrogen and fuel cell

technologies. In recent years, China has actively promoted research and

development(R&D), demonstration and commercial applications of hydrogen

technologies. The report provides insights into current policy, planning,

standards, patents, pilot projects and demonstration activities in hydrogen

and fuel cell development in China.

Hydrogen and fuel cell technology –

international trends and potential

The advantage of hydrogen as

an energy storage medium

Hydrogen as an energy source is gaining international momen-

tum, and is being strongly promoted in business and policies.

Several technologies are available that can harness the

advantages of hydrogen. To make it economically attractive,

however, further development and scaling up is required (IEA,

2019). That makes any assessments of its future role as a

source of energy and storage medium uncertain.

Hydrogen is a colorless and odorless gas, and is the most

abundant element on Earth and in the universe. It is ener-

gy-dense and combustible with oxygen, producing thermal

energy with water as residue, and is therefore a fuel with no

carbon dioxide(CO

) or other unwanted gas emissions in the

end-use process. In the transport sector, for example, that

can help to improve air quality in large cities. It is a potentially

clean and unlimited energy source that is already used in many

chemical and other industries. Unfortunately, it does not exist

in nature in a pure form and must therefore be produced.1

Clean and dirty hydrogen: green,

gray, brown and blue

More than 95percent of the hydrogen produced today

originates in fossil fuels, with natural gas being the dominant

source. Around 6percent of natural gas extracted globally

and 2percent of coal is used to produce hydrogen (IEA, 2019).

Natural gas is the cheapest source of hydrogen, and steam

methane reforming(SMR) is the most common production

method. Hydrogen produced in this way is often referred to

as gray hydrogen. The process takes place at temperatures of

between 700°C and 1100°C, and is energy intensive. Moreover,

by-products include CO2 and other greenhouse gases. The

production of 1ton of hydrogen can result in the production

of more than 9tons of CO

, which is close to the level of

emissions resulting from the combustion of gasoline (1kg of

hydrogen is energy equivalent to 1gallon of gasoline, which

emits around 9kg of CO2) (Rapier, 2021). Gasification of coal

is a widespread source of hydrogen in several countries, often

referred to as brown hydrogen. With the application of water

and heat the coal produces syngas, which is a mixture of

, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane and ethylene. The

process is highly polluting and has been in use for hundreds

of years, producing what was often referred to as “town-gas”

(Farmer, 2020).

1 Hydrogen is not a primary source of energy like oil,

coal, wind or solar but is more comparable to an energy

carrier or medium such as electricity. In this report, we

do not dwell on that distinction, as it is of little practical

consequence. We therefore refer to hydrogen both as a

source of energy and as a storage medium.

Production of hydrogen creates CO

emissions equivalent to

those of Indonesia and the United Kingdom put together (IEA,

2019). The use of hydrogen today is, therefore, not carbon

neutral; it can be seen as a fossil fuel in the same family as

oil, coal and, of course, natural gas.

However, producing carbon-neutral, or green, hydrogen is

perfectly possible. This area of technology is developing

rapidly, although it remains more expensive than natural gas.

Rather than using natural gas as a raw material to produce

hydrogen, water can be split into hydrogen and oxygen by

electrolysis, whereby the anode produces oxygen and the

cathode hydrogen. The process requires a lot of electricity, but

if that electricity comes from renewable energy sources, the

hydrogen will likely be carbon neutral. Regions with abundant

renewable energy, such as the Middle East, northern Africa,

South America and Australia (solar energy), could become

hydrogen production regions. It is not unrealistic that green

hydrogen could hit cost parity with gray hydrogen as early as

2030 (Hydrogen Council and McKinsey, 2021). The European

Union is aiming to achieve 40GW of electrolyzer capacity by

2030, which indicates strong political will to develop green

hydrogen quickly. It is forecast that about 17percent of all

hydrogen produced in China will be green by 2030, and that

the total amount of green hydrogen produced annually will

exceed 18milliontons (China Hydrogen Alliance, 2019).

Nonetheless, green hydrogen needs to be scaled up signifi-

cantly to compete with gray and brown hydrogen. Optimistic

calculations of break-even points between green and gray

hydrogen include provision for policy support initiatives such

as carbon taxes (Hydrogen Council and McKinsey, 2021).

Another option is to replace natural gas with biogas in the

hydrogen production process. Biogas is most commonly

produced through anaerobic digestion of waste biomass,

gasification, or extraction of landfill gas, but it must be upgraded

to biomethane with the same high (more than 90percent)

level of methane content that characterizes natural gas. That

process also requires energy, but it can be quite efficient,

with up to 87percent of the methane contained in the biogas

separated. Pure hydrogen can then be produced from the

biomethane using the SMR process in a similar fashion to

the process using natural gas (Saur and Milbrandt, 2014).

Converting biogas directly to hydrogen is also possible. A

pilot plant financed by the European Union is in operation in

Italy. It uses a palladium-based membrane reactor technology

(combined chemical conversion and membrane separation

process), which can produce hydrogen with a 70percent

conversion efficiency at a relatively low temperature of around

500°C (CORDIS, 2020).

By using carbon capture and storage(CCS) technology in

the natural gas extraction process, low-carbon hydrogen

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ProgressinhydrogenfuelcelltechnologydevelopmentanddeploymentinChinaGlobalChallengesinFocusHongxing(Tonny)XiePeterOksenXingxingGuoXinHeYueBianBluetechCleanAirAlliance,BeijingWIPOGREEN,GenevaWithcontributionsfromWanyiWang,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)ChinaOffice,andZiyuanWang,FoshanInstituteofEnvironmentandEnergyTechnology,China2ExecutivesummaryHydrogenhasseveralpotentialadvantagesasanenergyformandstoragemediuminrelationtoclimatechangeandenvironmentalimpacts.However,currenthydrogenuseisbasedalmostexclusivelyonfossilfuel,andthismeansitisnotclimatechangeneutralorbeneficial.Majortechnologicaladvancesarebeingmadetowardsproducing“greenhydrogen,”butthisremainsmoreexpensivethanfossil-basedhydrogen.Hydrogen-usetechnologiesarealsobeingdeveloped,butfewarereadytobescaledup,sohydrogenasaformofcleanenergyremainslargelyatechnologyofthefuture.Thepotentialisneverthelesssoattractivethatmanygovernmentsworldwidehaveformulateddevelopmentplansforhydrogenand,togetherwiththeprivatesector,theyareinvestingsignificantlyinresearchanddevelopment.InChina,hydrogenandfuelcellsareexpectedtoplayanimportantroleinfulfillingtheofficialpledgeofnationalcarbonneutralityby2060andarealreadyembeddedinnumerouseconomicdevelopmentplansandpolicies.Morethan100standardstoregulatetheproductionanduseofhydrogeninChinahavebeenformulated,whichisaprerequisiteforscalingupthetechnology.Innovationinthefieldhasincreaseddramaticallyinrecentyears,andthisisreflectedinthecurrentglobaldominanceofChinese-basedpatentapplications.SeveralChineseprovincialgovernmentsandindustrialcityclustershaveembarkedonambitiousprogramstodevelopandpromotehydrogenintransport–notablyheavy-dutyandlong-haultransport–andindustry.Despitethetechnologicalandeconomicobstaclesassociatedwithscalingupandmainstreaminghydrogen-basedenergy,therearestrongindicationsthatthepoliticalwillandeconomicmeansaretheretomakeitanimportantcomplementtoothernewandrenewableenergies.IntroductionHydrogenishighonthepoliticalandinnovationagendaofmanycountries,researchinstitutionsandcompanies.Itisahighlyversatileenergystoragemediumwithgreatpotentialforcontributingtoatransitiontowardscar-bon-neutralenergy.However,hydrogensourcesaredominatedbyfossilfuels,andthetechnicalandeconomicchallengestoscalinguptheuseofhydrogenremainconsiderable.Thisreportprovidesanoverviewofcurrenthydrogenandfuelcelltechnologytrendsinternationally,andafocusedreviewofChina,thelargestdeploymentmarketforhydrogenandfuelcelltechnologies.Inrecentyears,Chinahasactivelypromotedresearchanddevelopment(R&D),demonstrationandcommercialapplicationsofhydrogentechnologies.Thereportprovidesinsightsintocurrentpolicy,planning,standards,patents,pilotprojectsanddemonstrationactivitiesinhydrogenandfuelcelldevelopmentinChina.3Hydrogenandfuelcelltechnology–internationaltrendsandpotentialTheadvantageofhydrogenasanenergystoragemediumHydrogenasanenergysourceisgaininginternationalmomen-tum,andisbeingstronglypromotedinbusinessandpolicies.Severaltechnologiesareavailablethatcanharnesstheadvantagesofhydrogen.Tomakeiteconomicallyattractive,however,furtherdevelopmentandscalingupisrequired(IEA,2019).Thatmakesanyassessmentsofitsfutureroleasasourceofenergyandstoragemediumuncertain.Hydrogenisacolorlessandodorlessgas,andisthemostabundantelementonEarthandintheuniverse.Itisener-gy-denseandcombustiblewithoxygen,producingthermalenergywithwaterasresidue,andisthereforeafuelwithnocarbondioxide(CO2)orotherunwantedgasemissionsintheend-useprocess.Inthetransportsector,forexample,thatcanhelptoimproveairqualityinlargecities.Itisapotentiallycleanandunlimitedenergysourcethatisalreadyusedinmanychemicalandotherindustries.Unfortunately,itdoesnotexistinnatureinapureformandmustthereforebeproduced.1Cleananddirtyhydrogen:green,gray,brownandblueMorethan95percentofthehydrogenproducedtodayoriginatesinfossilfuels,withnaturalgasbeingthedominantsource.Around6percentofnaturalgasextractedgloballyand2percentofcoalisusedtoproducehydrogen(IEA,2019).Naturalgasisthecheapestsourceofhydrogen,andsteammethanereforming(SMR)isthemostcommonproductionmethod.Hydrogenproducedinthiswayisoftenreferredtoasgrayhydrogen.Theprocesstakesplaceattemperaturesofbetween700°Cand1100°C,andisenergyintensive.Moreover,by-productsincludeCO2andothergreenhousegases.Theproductionof1tonofhydrogencanresultintheproductionofmorethan9tonsofCO2,whichisclosetothelevelofemissionsresultingfromthecombustionofgasoline(1kgofhydrogenisenergyequivalentto1gallonofgasoline,whichemitsaround9kgofCO2)(Rapier,2021).Gasificationofcoalisawidespreadsourceofhydrogeninseveralcountries,oftenreferredtoasbrownhydrogen.Withtheapplicationofwaterandheatthecoalproducessyngas,whichisamixtureofCO2,carbonmonoxide,hydrogen,methaneandethylene.Theprocessishighlypollutingandhasbeeninuseforhundredsofyears,producingwhatwasoftenreferredtoas“town-gas”(Farmer,2020).1Hydrogenisnotaprimarysourceofenergylikeoil,coal,windorsolarbutismorecomparabletoanenergycarrierormediumsuchaselectricity.Inthisreport,wedonotdwellonthatdistinction,asitisoflittlepracticalconsequence.Wethereforerefertohydrogenbothasasourceofenergyandasastoragemedium.ProductionofhydrogencreatesCO2emissionsequivalenttothoseofIndonesiaandtheUnitedKingdomputtogether(IEA,2019).Theuseofhydrogentodayis,therefore,notcarbonneutral;itcanbeseenasafossilfuelinthesamefamilyasoil,coaland,ofcourse,naturalgas.However,producingcarbon-neutral,orgreen,hydrogenisperfectlypossible.Thisareaoftechnologyisdevelopingrapidly,althoughitremainsmoreexpensivethannaturalgas.Ratherthanusingnaturalgasasarawmaterialtoproducehydrogen,watercanbesplitintohydrogenandoxygenbyelectrolysis,wherebytheanodeproducesoxygenandthecathodehydrogen.Theprocessrequiresalotofelectricity,butifthatelectricitycomesfromrenewableenergysources,thehydrogenwilllikelybecarbonneutral.Regionswithabundantrenewableenergy,suchastheMiddleEast,northernAfrica,SouthAmericaandAustralia(solarenergy),couldbecomehydrogenproductionregions.Itisnotunrealisticthatgreenhydrogencouldhitcostparitywithgrayhydrogenasearlyas2030(HydrogenCouncilandMcKinsey,2021).TheEuropeanUnionisaimingtoachieve40GWofelectrolyzercapacityby2030,whichindicatesstrongpoliticalwilltodevelopgreenhydrogenquickly.Itisforecastthatabout17percentofallhydrogenproducedinChinawillbegreenby2030,andthatthetotalamountofgreenhydrogenproducedannuallywillexceed18milliontons(ChinaHydrogenAlliance,2019).Nonetheless,greenhydrogenneedstobescaledupsignifi-cantlytocompetewithgrayandbrownhydrogen.Optimisticcalculationsofbreak-evenpointsbetweengreenandgrayhydrogenincludeprovisionforpolicysupportinitiativessuchascarbontaxes(HydrogenCouncilandMcKinsey,2021).Anotheroptionistoreplacenaturalgaswithbiogasinthehydrogenproductionprocess.Biogasismostcommonlyproducedthroughanaerobicdigestionofwastebiomass,gasification,orextractionoflandfillgas,butitmustbeupgradedtobiomethanewiththesamehigh(morethan90percent)levelofmethanecontentthatcharacterizesnaturalgas.Thatprocessalsorequiresenergy,butitcanbequiteefficient,withupto87percentofthemethanecontainedinthebiogasseparated.PurehydrogencanthenbeproducedfromthebiomethaneusingtheSMRprocessinasimilarfashiontotheprocessusingnaturalgas(SaurandMilbrandt,2014).Convertingbiogasdirectlytohydrogenisalsopossible.ApilotplantfinancedbytheEuropeanUnionisinoperationinItaly.Itusesapalladium-basedmembranereactortechnology(combinedchemicalconversionandmembraneseparationprocess),whichcanproducehydrogenwitha70percentconversionefficiencyatarelativelylowtemperatureofaround500°C(CORDIS,2020).Byusingcarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)technologyinthenaturalgasextractionprocess,low-carbonhydrogen4canbeproduced.CCStechnologyremovesby-productsthatareharmfultotheclimate.Itstillrequiresconsiderabledevelopmentbut,bysomeestimates,itcouldbecommerciallycompetitivewithgrayhydrogenby2030(HydrogenCouncilandMcKinsey,2021).Others,however,aremuchlessoptimistic(Barnard,2021).HydrogenproducedfromfossilfuelsusingCCStechnologyiscommonlyknownasbluehydrogen.Supply-sideconsiderationsarenotaddressedtoalargeextentinthisreport,thefocusofwhichisoncurrenthydrogenusetechnologiesandthoseunderdevelopment,ratherthanthehydrogenproductionprocess.Remember,though,thatthetechnologiesdiscussedarenogreenerormorecarbonneutralthanthehydrogenthatfeedsthem.Ahydrogen-basedtechnologyonitsownisnotnecessarilygreenatall.HydrogentechnologyHydrogenhasgreatpotentialinseveraleconomicsectors.Generally,itenterstheenergysystemasastoragemediumorfuel.Theenergycanbeextractedthroughdirectcombustionorelectro-chemicalconversioninfuelcells.Itcanbetransportedasagasorinliquidform,similartoliquefiednaturalgas.Paste-basedformsofhydrogenarealsobeingdeveloped,whichmayextendtheapplicationofhydrogenintransport(Burgess,2021).Herethehydrogenischemicallyboundinstablesolidmagnesiumhydrideandcanbereleasedbyaddingwaterinacontrolledprocess.Hydrogenofferspotentiallysuperiorrefuelingtimesanddrivingrangesforheavyandlong-haultransportandpersonalvehiclescomparedwithcurrentbattery-basedelectricvehicles(EVs).Hydrogenalsohasconsiderablepotentialforstorageofexcessrenewableenergyfromhard-to-controlsourcessuchaswindorsolar.Theexcessenergycanfeedintoawater-electrolysisprocess,wherebyhydrogenisproducedforstorage,transportandconsumption.DirectfuelHydrogencanbeusedasfuelinseveralsectors.Itcanbeusedingasturbinestogeneratepower.Inbuildingsitcanbemixedwithnaturalgasinexistinggasnetworksfordomesticuse.Itcanalsobeusedasfuelininternalcombustionengines,whichisespeciallyrelevantforheavyvehiclessuchastrucks,butitisalsoincreasinglybeingviewedasanalternativelow-carbonfuelforaviationandshipping(IEA,2019).Shippingaccountsfor2percentofglobalgreenhousegasemissions,80percentofwhicharegeneratedbylong-distancevessels.Currently,themosteconomicpathtowardzeroemissionsinshippingistouseammoniaasfuelininternalcombustionengines.AmmoniacanbeproducedfromhydrogenbyaddingnitrogenfromairintheHaber-Boschprocess.Liquidammonia,unlikeliquidhydrogen,doesnotrequirerefrigerationtoextremetemperatures.Italsohashigherenergydensityandisthere-foreefficienttotransport.However,fuelingalllong-distanceshippingwithammoniawouldrequireathree-tofour-foldincreaseincurrentglobalammoniaproduction(HydrogenCouncilandMcKinsey,2021;Yara,2021).FuelcellsFuelcellsemployanelectro-chemicalprocessthatproduceselectricityfromhydrogenandoxygenwithoutanyintermediatestorageorcombustion.Theprocessisreportedlytwiceasefficientasinternalcombustionenginesandturbines(Naharetal.,2017)andthewasteproductiswaterand,inthecaseofsomefuelcelltypes,CO2.Fuelcellsaresimilartobatteriesintheirfunctionbutrequireaconstantsupplyoffuelintheformofhydrogenandoxygen(air).Fuelcellsarescalableandcanbeusedassmall,low-wattagepowersupplyunits(suchasfordomesticorvehicleuse),oraslargeindustrialenergystorageormegawattpowerplants.Thetechnologyhasbeeninusesincethe1960sandisthusrelativelymature.ItwasfamouslyusedintheNASASpaceShuttleprogramtoprovideonboardelectricityanddrinkingwater.Likeabattery,afuelcelliscomposedofananode,acathodeandanelectrolyte.Fuelcellsexistinseveralforms,dependingonthematerialsused.Insomecases,theelectrodes(anodeandcathode)aremadeofnoblemetalslikeplatinum,makingthemexpensive.Theelectrolytemaybesolidorliquid.Theelectro-chemicalprocessgeneratesheat,withsomesystemsoperatingathightemperatures(700–1000°C)andothersfunctioningattemperatureswellbelow100°C.Energyconversionefficiencyvariesfrom60percentto70percentbutcanbeincreasedtomorethan80percentiftheheatgeneratedisutilizedproductivelyinco-generationsystems(HydrogenEurope,2021).Themostcommontypesoffuelcells,eachwithdistinctefficiency,costandmaintenancecharacteristics,areprotonexchangemembranefuelcells(PEMFCs),solidoxidefuelcells(SOFCs),alkalinefuelcells(AFCs),moltencarbonatefuelcells(MCFCs)andphosphoricacidfuelcells(PAFCs).ThePEMFCisthemostcommonlyusedfuelcellinvehicles.Itdeploysapolymericmembraneastheelectrolyteandcarbonelectrodescontainingplatinum.Thelattermakessuchcellsrelativelyexpensive,buttheplatinumcanberecycled,andresearchisbeingdoneonalternativesthatmayreducecosts.5Thecellsrequireonlyoxygenandpurehydrogenasfuel,andproduceonlywaterasresidue.Theyoperateatalowtemperatureofaround80°Candcanaccommodatetherequirementofvehiclesforinitialhighdemandofhigh-densitypower(figure1).Infuelcellelectricvehicles(FCEVs)usingpurehydrogentodriveelectricmotors,therearenotailpipeemissionsotherthanwater.Forhydrogentobeadoptedbroadly,expensiverefuelinginfrastructuremustbeputinplace.Refuelingwithhydrogenisnotassimpleaswithgasoline.Inprinciple,hydrogencanbeproducedonsitebyaddinganelectrolyzer(aunithostingthewaterelectrolysisprocess)andapowerandwatersource(figure2).Thateliminatestheneedforliquefactionandtransporttotherefuelingstation.However,thehydrogenproducedmustbecompressedbeforeitisdispensedtothevehicle,andthecompressionprocessgeneratesheatthatmustsubsequentlyberemovedthroughacoolingprocess.Liquefactionisnotstrictlynecessaryfortransportbutmayimproveefficiency.Theliquefactionprocessinvolvescompressionandcoolingtolessthan−240°C,whichdemandsasignificantamountofenergy.Allthecomponentsofarefuelingsystemrequireenergyandequipment,makingrefuelingrelativelycomplexandexpensive.PEMFC–ProtonExchangeMembraneFuelCells•Electrolyte:water-based,acidicpolymermembrane•Alsocalledpolymerelectrolytemembranefuelcells•Useaplatinum-basedcatalystonbothelectrodes•Generallyhydrogenfuelled•Operateatrelativelylowtemperatures(below100°C)•High-temperaturevariantsuseamineralacid-basedelectrolyteandcanoperateupto200°C•Electricaloutputcanbevaried,idealforvehiclesElectronFlowHydrogenExcessHydrogenWaterOxygenElectrolyteHydrogenIonsAnodeCathodeCATHODEANODEH2O212345H2ElectrolyserUPSTREAMREFUELLINGSTATIONLow-PressureStorageHigh-PressureStoragePrecoolingDispenserCompressorShellHydrogenStudy©ShellFigure1.PrinciplesofPEMFCs(HydrogenEurope,2021).Figure2.Hydrogenrefuelingprocess(HydrogenEurope,2021).6CurrenttrendsandinternationalpotentialHydrogenisgaininggrounddespitetheeconomicandtechnicalchallenges.Owingtoitsmanyusesandversatility,notleastasapotentiallyclean,unlimitedandclimatechange-neutralenergysource,intensiveR&Distakingplaceinmanycountriesintheprivateandpublicsectors.Findingalternativeandcheaperwaysofproducinggreenhydrogenhasbecomeahighpriority,asgreenhydrogenwillbeamajorsellingpointforscalinguphydrogentechnologies.Governmentsareincreasinglyadoptinghydrogenpoliciesand,byearly2021,morethan30countrieshadproducedhydrogenroadmaps.Worldwide,governmentshavecommittedmorethanUSD70billioninpublicfundingtohydrogendevelopment(HydrogenCouncilandMcKinsey,2021).Industryisstartingtoseeitspotential,andseveralhydrogenindustrycompanieshaveexperiencedsoaringstockmarketprices,raisingconcernsoverafinancial“hydrogenbubble.”Theentryofbigindustryplayersintothefieldis,however,asignthatthereisrealpotentialandexpectationsofmarketgainsinthenearfuture.China,theRepublicofKorea,JapanandGermanyareoftencitedasleadingthewayindevelopinghydrogensolutions,butAustralia,France,theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdomandCanadaarealsoactive(Bloomberg,2021).Europehasthehighestnumberofprojects,especiallyonalargeindustrialscale(HydrogenCouncilandMcKinsey,2021).In2020,theEuropeanCommissionpublishedahydrogenstrategyandroadmapupto2050,inwhichambitiousplansfortheproductionanduseofgreenhydrogenareoutlined.InternationalDevelopmentsJapanhasforyearsbeenworkingtomakethetransitiontoahydrogeneconomy.TheToyotaMirai,thefirstmass-producedhydrogenFCEV,hasbeenonthemarketsince2014(WEF,2018).Thismid-sizedcarhasarangeof500kmonatank,anditsbiggestmarkethasbeentheUnitedStates.Japanalsohoststheworld’slargestoperationalhydrolysisplant,whichhasacapacityof10MWandisfedfromanearby20MWphotovoltaicplant(Godske,2021b).In2020,theRepublicofKoreaissueditshydrogeneconomyroadmap,envisagingtheproductionof6.2millionhydrogenandfuelcell-basedvehiclesandtheconstructionof1,200refuelingstationsby2040(Engie,2020;Bloomberg,2021).InIndia,apublicauctionforgreenhydrogenproductionisplannedfor2021withthepurposeofproducinggreenammonia,possiblyaspartofmandatoryminimumgreenhydrogenpurchasesforsomeindustries.Withthecostofsolarpowerfalling,asseeninrecenttenderbidsinIndia,theelectrolysisofgreenhydrogenisbecomingmoreeconomicallyviable.Publicauctionscouldhelptolowerprices,ashappenedinthecaseofwindandsolarpower(Saurabh,2021).Chilehasalreadylauncheditsfirstnationaltenderforgreenhydrogen,with10companiesbiddingbySeptember2021.Thewinner(s)willreceivegovernmentprojectfinancingofuptoUSD30million.Chile,withitsenormoussolarenergypotential,isdevelopingastrategyto“exportsunshine”intheformofhydrogenviaseatankers.Thatcouldinturnbringdownthepriceofgreenhydrogenglobally(GlobalEnergyPrize,2021).7InGermany,morethan30power-to-gasdemonstrationprojectsareunderway.Hydrogenisconsideredakeyfuturesustainabilitytechnology,andtheGermanGovernmenthasallocated7billioneuroupto2030tosupportthedevelopmentofhydrogen(Godske,2021a).Inearly2021,theFederalMinistryofEducationandResearchhadalreadyallocated700millioneurotosupportthreemajorprojectsfortheserialproductionofelectrolysisunits,hydrogenproductiondirectlyoff-gridfromoffshorewindmills,andthedevelopmentofhigh-pressuretanksandpipestostorehydrogen(BMBF,2021).Theworld’slargestelectrolysisplantthusfarisbeingbuiltnearLeipzig.Withplannedcapacityof24MW,itwillprimarilysupplylocalindustrywithhydrogenthroughpipelines.InHamburg,anevenlargerplantof100MWisdueforcompletionin2025(Godske,2021b).InnorthernGermany,atrainpoweredbyahydrogenfuelcellrunsona100kmstretchoftrack.Thetrain,builtbyAlstom,aFrenchrailtransportmanufacturer,canrunfor1,000kmonatankofhydrogen,andenergynotuseddirectlyisstoredinbatteries(WEF,2018).In2020,asimilartrainwastestedsuccessfullyinGroeningen,theNetherlands,showingthatitcouldbeafullysustainablealternativetodieseltrainsrunningonthesamenetwork(Alstom,2021).InAustriaa6MWhydrolysisplantopenedin2019(Godske,2021b).InParis,afleetof600taxisoperateonfuelcells.Denmarkishometotheworld’sfirstcountrywidehydrogenrefuelingstationnetwork,andhalfthepopulationnowliveswithin15kmofastation(Bloomberg,2021).Ørsted,amajorDanishenergycompany,isleadingaconsortiumthatplanstoinstallhydrogenproductioncapacityof1.3GWinCopenhagenby2030(Godske,2021b).HaldorTopsøe,amajorDanishpetrochemicalcompany,planstobuildanewfactorytoproduceelectrolysisunits.Theplantwillproduceunitswith500MWcapacityperyear.ThedecisionbytheEuropeanUniontosupportatleast6GWofelectrolysiscapacityuntil2024andatleast40GWuntil2030isoneoftheincentivesbehinddevelopmentsinDenmark(Andersen,2021).However,thecountryisyettoproduceacomprehensivehydrogenpolicyandroadmap.InNorway,Yara,amajorfertilizercompany,isjoiningforceswithStatkraft,aNorwegianutilitycompany,tousehydropowerforalarge-scalecommercialammoniaplantinPorsgrunn.Theplanistousehydrogenelectrolysistoproduceemissions-freeammoniaforuseasfuelinships,asfertilizerandforindustrialapplications.Byrepurposinganexistingammoniaplant,thecapitalinvestmentwasdrasticallyreduced,andtheprojectcouldpavethewayforcommerciallycompetitivegreenammonia.Besidesproducinganimportantexportarticle,theplantmayalsohelpgivethecountry’smaritimeindustryanearlycompetitiveadvantage(Casey,2021;Yara,2021).VehiclehydrogenfuelingstationinEsbjerg,Denmark,March2021(photo:PeterOksen).8Hydrogenandfuelcells:ahighpriorityforChinaInChinatheGovernmentandbusinessandresearchinstitutionsaretakingakeeninterestintheuseofhydrogenandfuelcells.Astheworld’slargestmarketforEVs,accountingforalmosthalfoftheglobalstockin2020(IEA,2021),Chinaalsoviewshydrogenandfuelcellsaskeytostrategicenergyinnovation.ThecommitmentofChinatolow-carbondevelopmentandcleanairschemeshasprovidedacatalystforhydrogenandfuelcelldevelopment.R&Dactivitiesinthefieldareexpandingrapidly.In2018,nearly4,000fuelcellpatentswerefiledbyChineseapplicants,surpassingJapan,whichpreviouslyledthewayonsuchpatents.CarbonpeakandneutralityaspolicydriversInSeptember2020,ChinesepresidentXiJinpingtoldtheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblythatcarbonemissionsinChinawouldpeakby2030,andthatthecountrywouldachievecarbonneutralityby2060.By2019,however,cleanenergyonlyaccountedforaroundaquarteroftotalprimaryenergyproductioninChina(NBSC,2020).Thereisaneedtoreducerelianceonfossilfuelsandincreasecleanenergy.Asanewenergymediumwithhighenergydensityandzeroemissions,hydrogen–andinparticularitsuseinfuelcells–hasattractedattentionatalllevelsofgovernment.Inaddition,hydrogencanalsoplayanimportantrolefordeepdecarbonizationinsomesectors,suchasironandsteel,chemicalrawmaterialsandhigh-gradeheatproduction,whererenewable-basedelectrificationisnotafeasiblealternativetofossilfuels.Inthefuture,whenalargeproportionofintermittentrenewableenergypowerisconnectedtothegridinChina,thesafeandstableoperationofthegridwillrequirelarge-scaleenergystorage,smart-gridtechnologyanddistributedrenewableenergynetworktechnology.Thisiswhyhydrogenisattractiveasarenewableenergystoragemediumacrossseasonsandregions.Accordingtosomeforecasts,hydrogenmayaccountformorethan10percentofthecountry’senergystructurein2050(ChinaEV100,2020).TransportReplacingfossilfuelswithelectricityandhydrogenintransportisessentialformeaningfuldecarbonization.In2020,theChinaSocietyofAutomotiveEngineersreleaseditsEnergySavingandNewEnergyVehicleTechnologyRoadmap2.0,inwhichitproposedtohave100,000FCEVsontheroadby2025and1millionby2035.Thecurrentfuelcellsystemandstacktechnologyiscapableofmeetingtechnicalvehicleapplicationrequirementsand,inChina,FCEVshavealsopassedthethresholdrequirementsforcommercialapplication,withseveralhundredtypesapprovedbytheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyby2020.Busesandtrucksusingfuelcellshaveenteredtheoperationaldemonstrationstage.Asthetechnologymaturesandcostsfall,hydrogenFCEVswillplayanimportantpartintransportinChina.IndustryTheuseofhydrogeninindustrycouldcontributegreatlytodecarbonization.Hydrogencanbeusedasacleanrawmaterialoracleanfuelinmanyindustries,particularlyironandsteel.In2019,Chinaaccountedformorethanhalfofglobalcrudesteelproduction(WorldSteelAssociation,2020).Replacingtraditionalcokewithdirectreductiontechnologybasedonhydrogentoproducepigironandcrudesteelcouldberevolutionaryintermsofdecarbonization.ConstructionIn2018,theproductionofkeyconstructionmaterials(includingironandsteel,andcementandglass),constructionitselfandoperationalenergyconsumptioninbuildingsaccountedforalmost46.5percentofnationalenergyconsumptioninChinaandabout51percentofthetotalnationalCO2emissions(CABEE,2020).Toachievecarbonneutrality,thereisaneedtoimproveenergyefficiencyanduserenewableenergyinbuildings.Hydrogenhasapotentiallyimportantroletoplayinthatregard.9AirqualityimprovementasadriverofhydrogendeploymentThedevelopmentanddeploymentofhydrogenandfuelscellsisbeingdrivennotonlybythedesiretoachievecarbonneutrality,butalsobytheneedtoimproveairquality.In2013,Chinalauncheditsso-called“blueskydefensewar,”inanunprecedentedefforttocombatairpollution.Airqualityhasimprovedsignificantlyasaresult.From2013to2020,theaverageconcentrationofparticlematter(PM)2.5inmonitoredcities2decreasedfrom72μg/m3to33μg/m3(MEE,2021;MEE,2014).InBeijing,thePM2.5concentrationdecreasedby57percentfrom89μg/m3in2013to38μg/m3in2020(BMEEB,2014;BMEEB,2021).However,airpollutioncontinuestoposeachallenge.In2020,theairqualityof135outof337Chinesecitiesatoraboveprefecturelevelstilldidnotmeetnationalairqualitystandards,withacompliancerateofabout60percent(MEE,2021).Vehicleemissionsareoftenthebiggestsourceofairpollutioninlargecities(figure3).Theyaccountfor45percentofairpollutioninBeijing(BMEEB,2018)and29percentinShanghai(SEMCandSMRIEP,2016).Thepressuretoreducevehicleemissionsishighandmanycitiesarepromotingtheuseofalternativeenergyvehiclestoimproveairquality.Similarly,vehiclesaremajorpollutersintermsofNOxandPM(figure4).NOxisagenerictermfornitrousoxidesthataretypicallyproducedbythereactionofoxygenandnitrogenincombustionengines,andwhichcontributetotheformationofsmogandacidrain.NOxisalsoasignificantgreenhousegas.PMreferstoamixtureofsolidparticlesandliquiddropletsfoundintheair,sometimeslargeordarkenoughtobevisibletothenakedeye.In2019,NOxemittedbymotorvehiclesaccountedforaround51percentofallNOxemissionsinChina(MEE,2020a).Heavy-dutyvehicles,especiallytrucks,accountedforthehighestproportionofNOxandPMemissions,reaching74percentand52percentrespectively(MEE,2020b).Electrificationofheavy,long-rangevehicleswithlargeloadcapacitiestoreducetheiremissionsisnotfeasible,becausethebatteriesrequiredwouldweightoomuch.Hydrogenfuelcellswithahighenergydensityandofferingalongrangecouldbeaviablesolution.2In2013,74citieswereincludedinthefirstphaseofthenewstandardformonitoring.After2013,338citiesatoraboveprefecturelevelweremonitored.Figure3.PM2.5sourcesinShanghai,2015(left)andBeijing,2018(right).Dustissoilandroaddust.Living-relatedsourcesarefromdomesticsourcessuchascooking,heating,painting,etc.29%14%29%13%15%45%12%3%12%12%16%ShanghaiBeijingMobileSources–29%Dust–13%IndustrialSources–29%CoalConsumption–14%Others–15%MobileSources–45%Dust–16%IndustrialSources–12%CoalConsumption–3%Living-relatedResources–12%Others–12%52%7%1%30%8%2%74%12%5%5%4%0.1%Heavytrucks–74.0%Mediumtruck–5.0%Lightbus–4.0%Lighttruck–4.5%Largebus–11.7%Mediumbus–0.1%Minibus–0%Heavytrucks–52.4%Mediumtruck–7.2%Mediumbus–0.8%Lighttruck–30.5%Largebus–7.6%Lightbus–1.5%Minibus–0%NOxPMFigure4.ShareofNOxandPMemissionsfromvarioustypesofvehicles,2019.29%14%29%13%15%45%12%3%12%12%16%ShanghaiBeijingMobileSources–29%Dust–13%IndustrialSources–29%CoalConsumption–14%Others–15%MobileSources–45%Dust–16%IndustrialSources–12%CoalConsumption–3%Living-relatedResources–12%Others–12%52%7%1%30%8%2%74%12%5%5%4%0.1%Heavytrucks–74.0%Mediumtruck–5.0%Lightbus–4.0%Lighttruck–4.5%Largebus–11.7%Mediumbus–0.1%Minibus–0%Heavytrucks–52.4%Mediumtruck–7.2%Mediumbus–0.8%Lighttruck–30.5%Largebus–7.6%Lightbus–1.5%Minibus–0%NOxPM10Patentperspective:asurgeoffuelcellinnovationinChinaThedevelopmentofthefuelcellindustryisinseparablefromR&Donrelatedtechnologies.Inrecentyears,andwiththesupportofaseriesoflargenationalprojects,innovationinfuelcelltechnologyhasmaderapidprogressinChina.LithiumbatteriesversusfuelcellsAtpresent,lithiumbatteriesandfuelcellsarethemaintechnicalapproachestoreplacingfossilfuelinvehicles.SincetheimplementationoftheTenCities,ThousandVehiclesproject,thedevelopmentoflithiumbatteryEVsinChinahasproceededrapidlyandtheyarealreadyincommercialproduction.Bytheendof2019,therewerearound3.8millionlithiumbatteryEVsinChina,account-ingforalmost1.5percentofthetotalnumberofmotorvehicles.Theirnumberrosebymorethan1millionayearfortwoconsecutiveyears(MEE,2020b).Presently,lithiumbattery-basedvehiclesarecheaperthanfuelcellvehicles(FCVs).However,wherelongdrivingrange,shortrefuelingtimeandhighsustainedpoweroutputarerequired,asinthecaseofmanyheavy-dutyvehicles,hydrogenfuelcells,withtheirhighenergydensity,arelikelytoofferimportantadvantagesanddevelopmentopportunities.Chinaisplanningtodeveloplithiumbatteriesandhydrogenfuelcells,butindifferentdirections.Lithiumbatteriesareseenasmoresuitableforpassengercars,whilehydrogenfuelcellsarepreferableforheavyvehiclessuchastrucks.Statisticsonpatentapplicationscanserveasaroughindicator,orproxy,ofthelevelofinnovationtakingplaceinagivenareaoftechnology.Thissectioncontainsabasicanalysisofrecentfuelcell-relatedpatentapplicationsinChina.ComparedwiththeUnitedStatesandJapan,patentapplicationsforfuelcellsstartedrelativelylateinChina(figure5).3By2018,however,thenumberofsuchapplicationsfromChineseapplicantshadsurpassedthatofJapan,andtheUnitedStatesandChinarankedfirstintheworld.Patentdataanalysesareinfluencedbyfactorsotherthanpurelevelsofinnovation,suchasgeneralnationalpatentingpoliciesandprocesses,andcorporateoruniversitypatentingstrategies.ThedatashowthatChinesefuelcellinnovation,afterarelativelyslowstart,isnowonaparwithorexceedingthatofotherfrontrunnercountriescarryingoutfuelcellinnovation.3TheanalysisbyBCAAisbasedonpatentdatafromthePatSnapdatabase.Itshowsthepatentfilingdataofapplicantsfromdifferentcountries.Forexample,“China”representsthenumberofpatentsfiledbybothChineselocalentitiesandindividuals(addresseslocatedinChina)inadefinedyear.Aspotentiallytheworld’slargestmarketforfuelcells,Chinahasattractedseveralmajorinternationalfuelcellindustryplayers.Ofthetop10fuelcell-relatedapplicants(patentsfiledwiththeChinaIPOffice)between1980and2019,sixwereforeigncompanies,includingthethreeJapanesefuelcellfrontrunnerenterprisesToyota,PanasonicandNissan(figure6),whichalsoshowstheimportanceoftheChinesemarket.Withreferencetofigure5,Chineseinnovatorshaveplayedanincreasinglyimportantroleinfuelcelldevelopmentinrecentyears.Alithiumbatteryelectriccar(photo:GettyImages/athimatongloom)Casestudy1:DalianInstituteofChemicalPhysicsTheDalianInstituteofChemicalPhysics,amemberoftheChineseAcademyofSciences,wasoneofthefirstresearchinstitutionstoworkonhydrogenenergyandfuelcellsinChina.IthasimplementedmanykeynationalR&Dprojectsonthesubject.AnalysisbyBCAAshowsthat,by2019,theInstitutehadfiledmorethan900patentapplicationsforkeymaterials,corecomponentsandstacksystemsforfuelcells.Astheleadingdomesticfuelcelltechnologypatentapplicantandthedrafterofmorethanhalfofthenationalfuelcellstandards,ithasbeenkeyindevelopingthefuelcellindustryinChina.TheInstituteisnowcarryingoutresearchonkeymaterialsandcomponentsofPEMFCs,fuelcellsystems,hydrogenstoragematerialsandrelatedsubjects(DICP,2021).11700060005000400030002000100001980198119821983198419851986198719881989199019911992199319941995199619971998199920002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019JapanU.S.AChinaGermanyFranceUKCanadaSwitzerlandItalyRepublicofKoreaToyotaMotorCorporationGeneralMotorsCompanyHyundaiMotorCompanyPanasonicCorporationNissanMotorCo,Ltd.ShanghaiShenliTechnologyCo,SunrisePowerCo,Ltd.TsinghuaUniversityHondaMotorCo,LtdSamsungSDICo,LtdDalianInstituteofChemicalPhysics,ChineseAcademyofSciences020040060080010001200140016001800Figure5.Trendsoftop10patentapplicationcountriesforfuelcelltechnology,1980–2019.Figure6.Top10fuelcell-relatedpatentapplicantsinChina,1980–2019.FuelcellelectricbusesinChina(photo:GettyImages).12OverviewofhydrogenandfuelcelldevelopmentCurrentstatusAlthoughthedevelopmentofhydrogenandfuelcelltechnol-ogiesandapplicationshasincreasedrapidlyinrecentyearsworldwide,deploymentofFCEVsisstillinitsinfancy.Bytheendof2020,therewereapproximately34,500FCEVsontheroad,ofwhich8,500wereinChina,composedmainlyofbusesandlogisticsvehicles(IEA,2021).Bymid-2021,Chinahadbuiltover140hydrogenrefuelingstationsnationwide(Wang,2021).Atthenationalpolicylevel,developmentofthehydrogenindustryhasbeenaddressedinmorethan30nationaldevelopmentplansinChina.Of31provincialgovernmentsintheChinesemainland,413havepublishedspecifichydrogenorfuelcelldevelopmentplans(BCAA,2021).Withsuchbroadpolicysupportandgrowingindustrialinvestmentandinterest,thehydrogenandfuelcellsectorsareexpectedtodeveloprapidly.In2019,Chinaproduced22milliontonsofhydrogen,repre-sentingone-thirdoftheworld’stotalproductionandmakingChinatheworld’sbiggesthydrogenproducer(ChinaEconomic,2019).Onlyasmallportionofthathydrogenwasgreen,butabundantsourcesofrenewableenergy(hydro,windandsolar),especiallyinsouthwestandnorthwestChina,meanthatthepotentialforproducinggreenhydrogenfromelectrolysisbasedonrenewableenergyisconsiderable.InDecember2020,withaviewtobetterimplementingthevisionof“carbonpeakandcarbonneutrality,”theChinaIndustry-University-ResearchInstituteCollaborationAssociationreleaseditsStandardsandEvaluationofLow-CarbonCleanHydrogenandRenewableEnergyHydrogen,theworld’sfirstgreenhydrogenstandard.Init,limitsaresetforthecarbonemissionsresultingfromtheproductionofvarioustypesofhydrogen.Forexample,athresholdforcleanandrenewablehydrogenissetat4.9kgCO2e/kgH2.Examplesofhowthisenergyisusedtoproducehydrogenareprovidedbelow.4StatisticsinthisreportfortheChinesemainlanddonotincludeChineseHongKongandMacao.Casestudy2:LanzhouNewDistrictsolarhydrogenbasedmethanolproductionplantInthisdemonstrationproject,methanolisproducedwithhydrogenandCO2.Thehydrogenisproducedthroughsolar-poweredhydrogenelectrolysis,whiletheCO2iscollectedfromindustrialemissions.Consideredthefirstlarge-scalesolarhydrogenfueldemonstrationproject,itboasts19haofsolarpanels.AboutRMB140millionhasbeeninvestedintheproject,whichconsistsofasolarphotovoltaicpowergenerationunit,awaterelectroly-sishydrogenproductionunitandaCO2hydrogenationunit.Thelattersynthesizeshydrogenintomethanol.Thephotovoltaicpowerunitwillhaveacapacityof10MW,enoughtosupplypowerfortwoelectrolysisunitswithacombinedcapacityforproducinghydrogenof2,000m3/h.TheprojectisbasedontwokeytechnologiesdevelopedbythescientistLiCanoftheDalianInstituteofChemicalPhysics.Thefirstinnovationisalarge-scaleprocessofwateralkalineelectrolysishydrogenproduction,whichreducestheenergyrequiredto4.0–4.2kWh/m3ofhydrogen.Thatrepresentsanewworldrecordandgreatlyreducesgreenhydrogencosts.Thesecondkeyinnovationisthesolidsolutionbimetallicoxidecatalyst(ZnO-ZrO2),whichhydrogenatesCO2intomethanolwithhighselectivityandstability.Thecatalystattenuateslessthan2percentafterrunningfor3,000hours(DICP,2020).13NationalpolicyanalysisTheChineseGovernmentatalllevelshasinrecentyearspaidincreasingattentiontohydrogendevelopment,issuingsup-portingpoliciestodeveloprelatedindustriesandtechnologicalR&D.Theseincludenationalplanningandpoliciesonenergydevelopmentandtechnologicalinnovation.Ministriesandcommissionsthataredirectlyconcernedhavealsoreleasedspecificguidanceonhydrogenandfuelcellindustrialplanning.TheincorporationofhydrogenintoChinesepolicymakingcanbedividedintothreestages.Between2000and2014,Chinabegantoincludehydrogenandfuelcellsinitsdevelopmentplans.Thefocusonhydrogeninplanningwasthensteppedupinthenextfouryears.Inthatperiod,severalkeynationalplanningdocumentswerereleased.IntheStateCouncil’sStrategicActionPlanforEnergyDevelopmentforthePeriod2014–2020,hydrogenandfuelcellswerelistedasanationalstrategicpillarofenergyscienceandtechnologyinnovation.Since2019,Chinahasenteredanewstageofpromotingthehydrogenandfuelcellindustry.InitsNewEnergyVehicleIndustryDevelopmentPlanforthePeriod2021–2035,theMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyemphasizestheneedtopromoteFCVsandbuildhydrogenationinfrastructure.UndertheDraftEnergyActof2020,issuedforcommentbytheNationalEnergyAdministration,hydrogenislistedasanenergycategoryatthenationallevelforthefirsttime.In2021,furtherrelevantpolicieswereissued.InFebruary,theGuidingOpinionsonGreenandLow-CarbonCircularDevelopmentproposedtostrengthentheinfrastructurefornew-energyvehicles,includingchargingandbatteryswappingforEVsandhydrogenrefuelingforFCEVs.InMarch,hydrogenenergyandenergystoragewerelistedasstrategicemergingindustriesinthe14thFive-YearPlanforNationalEconomicandSocialDevelopmentofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaandtheLong-RangeObjectivesThroughtheYear2035.Figure7providesatimelineofkeypolicies.TheLanzhoumethanolproductionplant(ChinaDaily,2020).14StandardsanalysisWell-definedstandardsforproducersandotherstakeholdersareaprerequisiteforrapidscalingup,andenablecommuni-cationandmainstreaming.InChina,therearenationalandgroupstandardsforhydrogenandfuelcells.Bymid-2021,morethan100standardshadbeenputinplacetoregulatetheproductionanduseofhydrogeninChina.Nationaltechnicalstandardsaredividedintoeightstandardsubsystems:hydrogenenergyfoundationandmanagement;hydrogenquality;hydrogensafety;hydrogenengineeringconstruction;hydrogenpreparationandpurification;hydrogenstorage-transportation-filling;hydrogenenergyapplication;andhydrogen-relateddetection.ByMarch2021therewere87nationalstandardsonhydrogenandfuelcells,ofwhich54(morethan60percent)relatetofuelcells(BCAA,2021).Nationalstandardshavebeenissuedwithsomefrequencysince2009,peakingin2017(figure9).Thatunderscorestheimportancethathasbeenattachedtodevelopingabasicframeworkforhydrogenuse.FigureGroupstandardsarevoluntarystandardsreleasedbyrelevantindustrialassociationsoralliances,whichcompaniesmaychoosetoadopt.Bytheendof2020,approximately50groupstandardsonhydrogenandfuelcellswereinplace(seeAnnex2).Casestudy3:NingxiagreenhydrogenplantOnApril20,2021,theNingxiagreenhydrogenplantofficiallystartedproductionintheNingdongEnergyandChemicalIndustryBase.ItispartoftheNingxianationalcomprehensivedemonstrationprojectofsolar-basedwaterelectrolysishydrogenproduction.MakinguseoftheabundantrenewableenergysourcesinNingxia,theprojectincludesa200,000kWphotovoltaicpowergenerationdeviceanda20,000m3/hwaterelectrolysishydrogenproductionunit.Whenfullyoperational,itwillreducecoalconsumptionby254,000tonsandCO2emissionsby445,000tonsperyear(PIA,2021).July2012Energy-savingandNew-EnergyVehiclesIndustryDevelopmentPlan(2020-2012)February2015Nationalkeyresearchanddevelopmentplan,keyspecialimplementationplanfornew-energyvehiclesJune2016ActionPlanforEnergyTechnologyRevolutionandInnovation(2030-201)November2017Energy-savingandnew-energyvehicletechnologyroadmapApril2020EnergyAct(draftforcomment)October2020DevelopmentPlanforaNew-EnergyAutomobileIndustry(2035-2021)November2014StrategicActionforEnergyDevelopmentPlan(2020-2014)May2016Outlineofnationalinnovation-drivendevelopmentstrategyDecember2016BlueBookonInfrastructureDevelopmentofHydrogenEnergyIndustryinChina(2016)March2019GreenIndustryGuidanceCatalogue(2019Edition)September2020NoticeondevelopingdemonstrationapplicationofFCVsMarch202114thFive-YearPlanforNationalEconomicandSocialDevelopmentofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaandtheLong-RangeObjectivesThroughtheYear2035Figure7.Keypoliciestimeline.15Figure9.Numberofnationalhydrogenorfuelcellstandardsbytheendof2020(BCAA,2021).19%11%62%8%HydrogenStorageandTransportationHydrogenInfrastructureHydrogenProductionFuelCell0510152025TimeNumber2005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020Figure8.Nationalhydrogenstandardsbytype(BCAA,2021).16OverviewoflocalpoliciesSince2010,12provincesandcitiesinChinahavebeenproactiveindevelopinghydrogenandfullcells,andthreekeyregionalhydrogenenergyindustrialclustershaveemerged:theBeijing-Tianjin-Hebei(BeijingandZhangjiakou),YangtzeRiverDelta(Shanghai)andPearlRiverDelta(Foshan)clusters.Recently,someprovincesincentralChina(Henan,HubeiandShanxi),easternChina(Shandong)andsouthwesternChina(ChongqingandSichuan)havejoinedtheeffortstopromotethehydrogenandfuelcellindustry.Ofthe31provincialgovernmentsintheChinesemainland,527haveaddressedhydrogenandfuelcellsintheirdevelopmentplansand13havereleasedspecificplansfortheirdevelopment(BCAA,2021).Inparticular,GuangdongandJiangsuprovinceshaveissuednumerouspolicies.Manyhydrogen-relatedpoliciesareintegratedintobroaderpolicies,suchasthoseonnew-energyvehicles,environmentalprotectionandenergypolicies.TheactivitiesincertainhydrogenpioneercitiesinChinaaredescribedinsomedetailinthenextchapter.InJanuary2009,theMinistryofScienceandTechnology,theMinistryofFinance,theDevelopmentandReformCommission,andtheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyjointlylaunchedtheDemonstration,PopularizationandApplicationProjectof1,000Energy-SavingandNew-EnergyVehiclesintheTenCities,ThousandVehiclesprogram.Itsaimwastodemonstratebattery-drivenEVsbylaunching1,000ofthemin10citieseachyearoverathree-yearperiod(MST,2009).TheprojectplayedanimportantroleinpopularizingEVsandlaidapopularfoundationforFCEVs.InSeptember2020,anFCEV5StatisticsinthisreportforChineseMainlanddonotincludeChineseHongKongandMacaoversionoftheprojectwaslaunchedundertheauspicesofthesameinstitutionsandtheNationalEnergyAdministration.Underthatprogram,interestedcitiescouldformacityclustertoapplytoparticipateintheprogramandbenefitfromfavor-ablepoliciesandincentivesfromtheChineseGovernmentforFCEVpromotion.Everycityclusterwillpromotemorethan1,000FCEVsbytheendofthedemonstrationperiodoffouryears(MF,2020).AlongsidetheprogramlaunchedbytheGovernment,someinternationalorganizationsalsoparticipatedintheFCEVpromotioneffortsbysettinguplocalpilotprograms.UNDPproject:AcceleratingtheDevelopmentandCommercializationofFuelCellVehiclesinChinaTheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeinChina(UNDPChina)wasestablishedin1979.TodayitiscooperatingwiththeChineseGovernmenttopromotethecountry’sdevelopmentaswellastheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).WithsupportfromtheGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF),UNDPChinaandtheMinistryofScienceandTechnology(MoST)havesince2003jointlyimplementedthreephasesofdemonstrationprojectstopromotehydrogenandFCVsinChina.Pilotactivitieshavebeenconductedinsevencities(Beijing,Shanghai,Zhengzhou,Foshan,Yancheng,ChangshuandZhangjiakou)tooperateover3,200FCVs,acceleratetheconstructionofhydrogeninfra-structure,andsupportthenationalandlocalpolicymaking.Since2016,thoseactivitieshavealreadyreducedcarbonemissions,with230,261tonsCO2eq(UNDP,2021),aimingtofast-trackChina’sdecarbonizationthroughtechnologicalinnovationinthetransportandenergysectors.MainhydrogenenergyindustrialclustersinChina.TypeRegionRepresentativeProvincesandCitiesHydrogenandFuelCellIndustrialClustersBeijing-Tainjin-HebeiIndustrialClusterBeijing,Tianjin,ZhangjiakouYangtzeRiverDeltaIndustrialClusterShanghai,Suzhou,Jiaxing,RugaoPearlRiverDeltaIndustrialClusterGuangzhou,Shenzhen,FoshanRegionswithStrongInteresttoPromoteHydrogenandFuelCellCheng-YuRegionChongqing,ChengduMiddleofChinaHenanProvince,HubeiProvince,andShanxiProvinceShandongPeninsulaShandongProvince17PioneeringcitiesConsiderableprogresshasbeenmadeinBeijing-Zhangjiakou,ShanghaiandFoshan,whichrepresentthethreeregionalhydrogenenergyindustrialclusters.InAugust2021,Beijing,ShanghaiandGuangdongwerelistedasthefirstroundofleadinglocalgovernmentsfortheestablishmentofFCEVdemonstrationandapplicationcityclusters(MF,2021).Beijing-Zhangjiakou(Beijing-Tianjin-Hebeiindustrialcluster)CityoverviewLocationTheBeijing-ZhangjiakouareaisinthenorthernmostpartoftheNorthChinaPlain,whichisthecoreoftheBeijing-Tianjin-Hebei(BohaiRim)economiccircle.Population(2019)25.95millionGDP(2019)RMB3.65trillionArea(2019)53,200km2Numberofhydrogenrefuelingstationsunderconstructionorcompleted(by2020)8NumberofFCVspromoted(by2020)684Numberofpoliciesissued(byMarch2021)9SampleinstitutionsTsinghuaUniversity,PekingUniversity,BeijingInstituteofTechnology,TechnicalInstituteofPhysicsandChemistryofCAS,BeijingAerospacePropulsionInstituteSource:ZMBS(2020),BCAA(2021).In2019,theBeijingHydrogenFuelCellVehicleIndustryDevelopmentPlan(2020–2025)wasreleased.TheaimistoestablishahydrogenenergysupplychainaroundBeijingincooperationwithZhangjiakou,TangshanandothercitiesinHebeiProvince.Itisexpectedthatthedeploymentofhydrogen,especiallyinZhangjiakou,willbeacceleratedinviewofthe2022WinterOlympics,whichwillbehostedintheregion.AnenterpriseclusterestablishedinthecityregionincludescompaniessuchasSinoHytec,PetroChina,Sinopec,YutongBusandKerongEnvironment,whichcoverthewholehydrogenindustrialchain.Inaddition,theBeijing-Zhangjiakouareaisabaseofleadinghydrogenandfuelcellresearchinstitutions,suchasTsinghuaUniversityandBeijingInstituteofTechnology.EnergyconsumptionintheBeijing-Tianjin-Hebeiregionisdominatedbyfossilfuels,especiallycoal.Thereisthereforesignificantdemandforcleanenergyinordertoreachcarbonneutralityby2060.Zhangjiakouhasabundantwindandsolarpowerpotential,whichcanbeusedforelectrolysisofwatertoproducehydrogen.18SelectedcasestudiesHydrogenenergyindustrydemonstration,WinterOlympicsIn2022,BeijingandZhangjiakouwilljointlyhostthe24thWinterOlympicGames.Thetwogovernmentsplantousetheoccasiontodemonstrateandpromotethehydrogenenergyindustry.Hydrogenenergywillbeusedinvariousways,includingthedeploymentofsome2,000FCEVs,andtheOlympictorchwillbefueledbyhydrogen.Hydrogenproductioncapacitywillbeincreasedto34tonsperday.Localcountyanddistrictgovernments,aswellasmunicipaldepartments,willprovidesupportbyallocatinglandandcoveringconstructioncostsforhydrogenrefuelingstations.TheZhangjiakouMunicipalitywillalsoprovidecheaprenewableenergytosupporthydrogenproductionforfiveyears(ZhangjiakouMun.,2020).Thefirstfuelcellcompanyonthe“starmarket”oftheShanghaiStockExchangeSinoHytec,establishedin2012,isahigh-techenterprisefocusingonR&DandtheindustrializationofhydrogenfuelcelltechnologybasedoncooperationwitharesearchteamatTsinghuaUniversity.Havingsecuredintellectualproperty(IP)rights,SinoHytechastakentheleadindevelopingcoreenginesystemandfuelcellstacktechnologies.Itsproductsaremainlyusedincommercialvehicles,suchaspassengercarsandlogisticsvehicles,usingahydrogenfuelcellengineanditssupportingDC/DCcomponent,vehiclecontroller,hydrogensystemandsoon(SinoHytec,2021).InAugust2020,SinoHytecbecamethefirstfuelcellcompanytobelistedontheStarMarketoftheShanghaiStockExchange.ItstotalmarketvalueinMarch2021exceededRMB16billion(StockExchange:688339Yihuatong-U).The45MPahigh-pressurehydrogenstoragefacilitiesofZhangjiakouWangshanHydrogenProductionandHydrogenationStation(photo:HuiZhao,HypowerHydrogenTechnologyCo.,Ltd,2020).19Shanghai(YangtzeRiverDeltaindustrialcluster)CityoverviewLocationShanghailiesatthemouthoftheYangtzeRiverineasternChina,borderingtheEastChinaSeaandconnectingJiangsuandZhejiangprovincestothenorthandwestPopulation(2019)24.3millionGDP(2019)RMB3815.6billionArea(2019)6,340km2Numberofhydrogenrefuelingstationsunderconstructionorcompleted(by2020)10NumberofFCVspromoted(by2020)Morethan1,000Numberofpoliciesissued(byMarch2021)13SampleinstitutionsTongjiUniversity,ShanghaiJiaotongUniversity,ShanghaiAdvancedResearchInstituteofChineseAcademyofSciences,ShanghaiYangtzeRiverDeltaHydrogenEnergyResearchInstitute,ShanghaiElectricVehiclePublicDataCollecting,MonitoringandResearchCenterInChina,FCEVtechnologywasfirstdevelopedinShanghai,withitsstrongindustrialbase.BytheendofMarch2021,13developmentplansforhydrogenandfuelcellshadbeenlaunchedinShanghaianditsJiadingandQingpudistricts,alongwithseverallocalstandardsonhydrogen,storagecylindersanddatacollection.Shanghaiistakingtheleadinhydrogeninfrastructureconstruction,withninecompletedhydrogenationstations,mainlylocatedintheJiading,FengxianandBaoshandistricts.LedbySAICGroup,LindeGroupandShanghaiSUNWISE,thecityhascreatedafullhydrogenindustrialchain.SAIGGroupwasthefirstdomesticautomobilefirmcertifiedtoproducecommercialfuelcellpassengervehiclesinChina.BackedbyTongjiandShanghaiJiaotonguniversities,thecityhasstrongpotentialforhydrogenandfuelcellinnovation.RelatedcasestudyJiadinghydrogenenergyportTheJiadinghydrogenenergyportislocatedinthecoreareaofAntingShanghaiInternationalAutomobileCity,anditisanimportantpartofthecity’sglobalscienceandtechnologyinnovationcenter.Theenergyportboastsacomprehensiveecosystem,includinghydrogenenergy,afuelcellpowersystemplatform,andFCVcapacityandinfrastructuretofosterdevelopmentofthehydrogenindustry.AtargetvalueinexcessofRMB100billionby2025hasbeensetfortheport’sannualoutput(JiadingDistrict,2018).20Foshan(PearlRiverDeltaindustrialcluster)CityoverviewLocationFoshanislocatedinthecentralpartofGuangdongProvinceandthehinterlandofthePearlRiverDelta,adjacenttoHongKongandMacao.TogetherwithGuangzhou,FoshanconstitutestheGuangzhou-FoshanMetropolisCircle.Population(2019)8.2millionGDP(2019)RMB1trillionArea(2019)3,797km2Numberofhydrogenrefuelingstationsunderconstructionorcompleted(by2020)23NumberofFCVspromoted(by2020)1,457Numberofpoliciesissued(byMarch2021)10SampleinstitutionsFoshanXianhuLaboratory,JiHuaLaboratory,FoshanNanhaiDistrictSouthChinaHydrogenSafetyPromotionCenter,FoshanInstituteofEnvironmentandEnergyTechnology,FoshanGreenDevelopmentInnovationResearchInstituteSource:FMBS(2020).Foshanisahydrogenpioneercity,especiallyforthelarge-scalecommercialdeploymentofhydrogen-fueledvehicles.Itwasthefirstcitytoputahydrogendevelopmentplaninplace,andthecitygovernmentprovidesstrongincentives.InFoshan,ahigh-levelleadershipgroupdedicatedtohydrogenandfuelcellpromotionhasbeencreated.Thegroupischairedbythemayorofthecity,withgroupmemberscomprisingdirectorsofrelevantagenciessuchastheDevelopmentandReformBureau,theHousingandUrban-RuralDevelopmentBureauandtheIndustryandInformationTechnologyBureau.Foshanhasthreemajorhydrogenenergyindustrialbasesandhasbroughttogethermorethan90hydrogen-relatedenterprisesandscienceandtechnologyinnovationplatforms.21RelatedcasestudiesHydrogentraminGaomingDistrict,FoshanCity(GuangzhouDaily,2020).HydrogenValleyinXianhu,FoshanTheHydrogenValleyislocatedintheXianhuarea,NanhaiDistrict,Foshan,withaplannedareaof47.3km2(NPGF,2020).Relyingontheexistingautomobileindustryfounda-tion,thevalleyfocusesontechnologicalinnovationinandthepromotionanddeploymentofnew-energyvehicles,inparticularFCEVs.ItishopedthattheValleywillbecomea“SiliconValleyofhydrogen,”withafullhydrogenindustrialchainincludingstoragematerials,hydrogenproductionequipment,hydrogenproductionandfuelcells.ThefirsthydrogentraminChinaOnNovember29,2019,thefirstcommercialhydrogentraminChinawaslaunchedinGaomingDistrict,FoshanCity.Thedemonstrationtramlinehasaplannedtotallengthof17.4kmand20stations.Thefirstphase,whichis6.6kmlongandhas10stops,startsatCangjiangRoadandZhongshanRoad,andendsatZhihuLakeinXijiangNewTown.InDecember2020,constructionforaseconddemonstrationtramstartedinNanhaiDistrict,Foshan(Gongetal.,2021).22ConclusionHydrogenisgainingmomentuminmanyindustrializedcountries,andseveralmajorhydrogentechnologiesarebeingdeveloped.Thepublicandprivatesectorsinsomecountriesseemuchpotentialinhydrogenandaredevelopingpoliciesandstan-dards,improvingtechnologiesandcomingclosertoscalingupsolutions.However,itisalsoclearthathydrogenisafieldthatisstillunderdevelopment;therearemanyobstaclestoovercometomakeiteconomicallyfeasible,especiallyinthecaseofgreenhydrogen.Whethergreenhydrogenwillbeabletocompetewithhydrogenproducedusingfossilfuelintheforeseeablefuturewithoutstrongsupportmeasuresisnotknown.Currentuseofhydrogenisalmostentirelybasedonfossilfuels,especiallynaturalgas.Hydrogentodayisthereforenotagreenenergysource.China,theworld’slargestmarketforEVs,seesimportantadvantagesinhydrogenandisrapidlypreparingtousehydrogentomeetitscommitmenttopeakcarbonemissionsby2030andcarbonneutralityby2060.Thatconcernsnotonlythetransportsector,withtheemphasisonheavy-dutyandlong-haulvehicles,butalsoindustry,constructionandtheenergysector.Thedegreeofinnovation,asmeasuredbypatentapplications,showsthatChinahascaughtupwithotherhydrogeninnovationfrontrunnercountriessuchasGermany,Japan,theRepublicofKoreaandtheUnitedStates.Numeroussupportingpoliciesandstandardshavebeenissuedandanarrayofsuccessfuldemonstrationprojectslaunched.Manyofthelatterarelocatedinestablishedindustrialclusterareas,wherelarge-scaleresearch,innovationanddeploymentinfrastructureandfacilitiesalreadyexist,whichcanboosttheprocessofdeliveringhydrogen-basedgoodsandservices.Itisprobablethat,forexample,hydrogenwillnotcompetewithbattery-drivenEVsinsmallpassengervehiclesorlight,short-haultransport.However,hydrogenisdefinitelyanoptionforheavy-dutyandlong-haultransport(trains,trucksandbuses),aviationandshipping(bothmostlikelybasedonammonia),processesrequiringveryhightemperatures(suchasinthesteel,cementandglassindustries),fertilizer(forwhichhydrogenisalmostirreplaceable),mixingintodomesticgasgrids(toavoidlarge-scaleandcomplexreplacementofexistingboilerswith,forinstance,heatpumps),andforthestorageofintermittentrenewableenergy.Thesearenotnicheareas,butmajorsourcesofgreenhousegasemissions.Importantfactorsfavorhydrogen.Thecontinuousdropinthepriceofrenewableenergywillalsolowerthecostofhydrogenelectrolysis.Researchisbeingconductedonnewhydrolyzertechnologywiththeaimofincreasingefficiencyandloweringcosts.Lastly,economiesofscalemakeitlikelythatgreenhydrogenwillfollowthepathofwindandsolarpower,withdramaticcostreductionsasaresultofinnovationandmass-production.Theroadtoscalingupandmainstreaminghydrogenintheworldeconomymaystillseemlongandstrewnwithtechnicalandeconomicobstacles,buttheadvantagesofhydrogenasapotentiallyclean,energy-dense,versatile,climate-friendlyandunlimitedenergymediumaresoappealingthatthereisreasontobeoptimisticabouthydrogen’sfutureroleinthetransitiontowardsagreeneconomy.23Annex1–KeyhydrogenandfuelcellpoliciesinChinaDateDepartmentPolicytitle2001MinistryofScienceandTechnologySpecialProjectofNational863Program2006StateCouncilOutlineofNationalMedium-andLong-TermScienceandTechnologyDevelopmentPlan(2006–2020)2009MinistryofFinance,MinistryofScienceandTechnologyInterimMeasuresfortheAdministrationofFinancialSubsidyFundsforDemonstrationandPromotionofEnergy-SavingandNewEnergyVehicles2010StateCouncilDecisiononAcceleratingtheCultivationandDevelopmentofStrategicEmergingIndustries2011TheNationalPeople’sCongressVehicleandVesselTaxActofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaJune2011DevelopmentandReformCommission,MinistryofScienceandTechnology,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MinistryofCommerceandIntellectualPropertyOfficeGuidetoKeyAreasofHigh-TechIndustrializationwithPriorityDevelopmentatPresent(2011)March2011DevelopmentandReformCommissionGuidanceCatalogueofIndustrialStructureAdjustment(2011edition)July2012StateCouncilEnergy-SavingandNewEnergyAutomobileIndustryDevelopmentPlan(2012–2020)November2014StateCouncilEnergyDevelopmentStrategicActionPlan(2014–2020)2014MinistryofFinance,MinistryofScienceandTechnology,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,DevelopmentandReformCommissionNoticeonRewardforConstructionofChargingFacilitiesforNewEnergyVehicles2015MinistryofFinance,MinistryofScienceandTechnology,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,DevelopmentandReformCommissionNoticeontheFinancialSupportPolicyforthePromotionandApplicationofNewEnergyVehicles(2016–2020)2015MinistryofScienceandTechnologyNationalKeyR&DSpecialImplementationPlanforNewEnergyVehicles(draftforcomment)2015MinistryofTransportImplementationOpinionsonAcceleratingthePromotionandApplicationofNewEnergyVehiclesintheTransportationIndustryMay2015MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyMadeinChina2025June2016DevelopmentandReformCommission,EnergyBureauActionPlanforEnergyTechnologyRevolutionandInnovation(2016–2030)June2016DevelopmentandReformCommission,EnergyBureauRoadmapforKeyInnovationActionsoftheEnergyTechnologyRevolutionDecember2016StandardizationInstituteBlueBookonInfrastructureDevelopmentoftheHydrogenEnergyIndustryinChina(20162016CPCCentralCommitteeandStateCouncilOutlineoftheNationalInnovation-DrivenDevelopmentStrategy2016StateCouncilThe13thFive-YearNationalStrategicEmergingIndustryDevelopmentPlanNovember2017CommissionedbytheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyandcompiledbyChinaSocietyofAutomotiveEngineersEnergy-SavingandNewEnergyVehicleTechnologyRoadmap2017MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,DevelopmentandReformCommission,MinistryofScienceandTechnologyMedium-andLong-TermAutomobileIndustryDevelopmentPlan2017MinistryofScienceandTechnology,MinistryofTransportSpecialPlanforScienceandTechnologyInnovationinTransportationDuringthe13thFive-YearPlan2018MinistryofFinance,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MinistryofScienceandTechnology,DevelopmentandReformCommissionNoticeonAdjustingandPerfectingtheFinancialSubsidyPolicyforthePromotionandDeploymentofNewEnergyVehiclesNovember2019DevelopmentandReformCommission,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,etc.ImplementationOpinionsonPromotingtheDeepIntegrationandDevelopmentofAdvancedManufacturingandModernServiceIndustriesMarch2019StateCouncilGovernmentWorkReportof2019October2019DevelopmentandReformCommissionGuidanceCatalogueforIndustrialStructureAdjustment(2019edition)2019DevelopmentandReformCommission,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MinistryofNaturalResources,MinistryofEcologyandEnvironment,etc.GreenIndustryGuidanceCatalogue(2019edition)2019MinistryofEcologyandEnvironment,DevelopmentandReformCommission,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MinistryofPublicSecurity,etc.ActionPlanforTacklingtheDieselTruckPollutionApril2020EnergyBureauEnergyActofthePeople’sRepublicofChina(draftforcomment)April2020MinistryofFinance,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MinistryofScienceandTechnology,DevelopmentandReformCommissionNoticeonImprovingtheFinancialSubsidyPolicyforthePromotionandDeploymentofNewEnergyVehicles24DateDepartmentPolicytitleJune2020EnergyBureauGuidingOpinionsonEnergyWorkin2020September2020MinistryofFinance,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MinistryofScienceandTechnology,DevelopmentandReformCommission,EnergyBureauNoticeonDemonstrationApplicationofFuelCellVehiclesOctober2020MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyNewEnergyVehicleIndustryDevelopmentPlan(2021–2035)October2020MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,ChinaSocietyofAutomotiveEngineeringEnergy-SavingandNewEnergyVehicleTechnologyRoadmap2.0December2020DevelopmentandReformCommissionoftheMinistryofFinance,MinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MinistryofScienceandTechnologyNoticeonFurtherImprovingtheFinancialSubsidyPolicyforthePromotionandDeploymentofNewEnergyVehiclesFebruary2021StateCouncilGuidanceonAcceleratingtheEstablishmentandImprovementoftheGreenLowCarbonCircularDevelopmentEconomicSystem25Annex2–HydrogenandfuelcellgroupstandardsinChinaNumberNameofstandardT/DLSHXH003—2020SafetyManagementRequirementsforOn-SiteOperationofHydrogenRefuelingStationsT/DLSHXH002—2020OperationServiceSpecificationsforHydrogenRefuelingStationsT/DLSHXH001—2020GuidelinesforTechnicalAcceptanceofHydrogenRefuelingStations.T/GDASE0017—2020PeriodicInspectionandEvaluationofFullyWrappedCarbonFiberReinforcedCylinderswithanAluminumLinerfortheOn-BoardStorageofCompressedHydrogenasFuelforLandVehiclesT/EPIAJL1—2018TechnicalSpecificationforDetectingHydrogenContentofInternalCoolingWaterTankandHydrogenLeakageofInternalCoolingWaterSysteminWater-CooledGeneratorsT/GHDQ47—2019TechnicalConditionsofFuelCellStackLifeTestatSub-ZeroEnvironmentforFuelCellVehiclesinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ38—2019TestMethodsofOnboardHydrogenSystemofFuelCellElectricVehiclesinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ37—2019TechnicalConditionsofOn-BoardHydrogenSystemsforFuelCellElectricVehiclesinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ28—2018PerformanceRequirementsandTestMethodsforNickel-MetalHydrideBatteriesinElectricVehiclesinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ46—2019PerformanceRequirementsandTestMethodsforFuelCellSystemsinElectricVehiclesinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ45—2019GeneralTechnicalConditionsforAutomotiveFuelCellStackSub-ZeroCharacterinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ44—2019GeneralTechnicalConditionsforAutomotiveProtonExchangeMembraneFuelCellStackSubzeroStartupinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ39—2019TechnicalConditionsforVehicle-BasedFuelCellEngineCold-StartinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ36—2019ComprehensiveEvaluationIndexonthePerformanceofFuelCellElectricPassengerCarsinFrigidZonesT/GHDQ35—2019TechnicalConditionsforFuelCellElectricPassengerCarsinFrigidZonesT/SDAS188—2020GeneralTechnicalSpecificationsforHydrogenFuelCellTramsT/SDAS185—2020FuelCellRollingStock–SafetyRequirementsforOn-BoardHydrogenSystemsT/SDAS184—2020FuelCellRollingStock–TechnicalSpecificationsforOn-BoardHydrogenSystemsT/SDAS182—2020FuelCellRollingStock–TechnicalSpecificationsforOn-BoardHydrogenSystemsT/SDAS187—2020FuelCellRollingStock–PerformanceTestMethodsforFuelCellStacksT/SDAS186—2020FuelCellRollingStock–TechnicalSpecificationsforFuelCellCoolingSystemsT/SDAS183—2020FuelCellRollingStock–SafetyRequirementsT/SZAS8—2019SpecificationsofMethanolReformingandHydrogenGenerationPowerSystemsforVehiclesT/ZZB1479—2019DetachableMulti-PointFlexibleArmoredThermocoupleforHydrogenationUnitsT/CAB0084—2021TechnicalSpecificationsforSmall-SizedProtonExchangeMembraneWaterElectrolysisSystemsforHydrogenProductionT/CAB0078—2020StandardandEvaluationofLow-CarbonHydrogen,CleanHydrogenandRenewableHydrogenT/CAB0064—2020TechnicalSpecificationsforRemoteServiceandManagementInformationSystemforHydrogenRefuelingStationsT/CAB1038—2020DeterminationofHydrogenStorageDensityofHydrogenatedLiquidOrganicHydrogenCarrier–WaterDisplacementMethodT/CEEIA265-2017TechnicalSpecificationsforFuelCellFuelSystemsinUnmannedAerialVehicleT/CEEIA264-2017TechnicalSpecificationsforFuelCellPowerSystemsinUnmannedAerialVehicleT/CCGA40002—2019ApplicationManagementSpecificationfortheElectronicLabelforHydrogenEnergyVehicleCylindersT/CCGA40001—2019LiquidHydrogenT/CATSI02007—2020FullyWrappedCarbonFiberReinforcedCylinderwithaPlasticLinerfortheOn-BoardStorageofCompressedHydrogenforLandVehiclesT/CATSI05003—2020SpecialTechnicalRequirementsforHydrogenStoragePressureVesselsUsedinHydrogenRefuelingStationsT/CSTE0017—2020OperationSpecificationsforHydrogenFuelCellLogisticsVansT/CSTE0016—2020RegulationsforOperationManagementofHydrogenFuelCellBusesT/CSTE0015—2020RegulationsforOperationManagementofHydrogenFuelCellBusesT/CSTE0007—2020DeterminationofTraceCarbonMonoxideinHydrogenFuel–theMethodofMid-InfraredLaserSpectroscopyforPEMFCT/CSTE0006—2020StandardFormatoftheSafetyAssessmentReportforHydrogenRefuelingStationsT/CSTE0005—2020TechnicalSpecificationsforHydrogenProductionfromCokeOvenGasT/CSTE0012—2019TechnicalRequirementsforControlSystemsofHydrogenRefuelingStationsT/CSTE0077—2020TechnicalRequirementsforVideoSecurityMonitoringSystemsatHydrogenRefuelingStationsT/CSTE0076—2020CentrifugalAirCompressorforVehicleHydrogenFuelCellsT/CECA-G0015—2017FuelSpecificationsforProtonExchangeMembraneFuelCellVehicles—HydrogenT/CSAE123—2019FuelCellElectricVehicles–TestMethodsandSafetyRequirementsforHydrogenLeakageandEmissionsinConfinedSpaceT/CSAE122—2019TestMethodsforCold-StartPerformancesofFuelCellElectricVehiclesinSub-ZeroTemperaturesT/CAAMTB21—2020TechnicalRequirementsforVibrationTestsofOn-BoardHydrogenSupplySystemsinFuelCellElectricVehiclesT/CAAMTB14—2020DC/DCConverterforFuelCellElectricVehiclesT/CAAMTB13—2020MethodsforAirCompressorsinFuelCellVehiclesT/CAAMTB12—2020TestMethodsforMembraneElectrodeAssembliesinPEMFC26ReferencesAlstom(2021).TrialrunsofAlstom’shydrogentrainintheNetherlandsdeemedofficiallysuccessful.Alstom.[online]available:https://www.alstom.com/press-releases-news/2020/9/trial-runs-alstoms-hy-drogen-train-netherlands-deemed-officially[accessedMarch2021].Andersen,K.B.(2021).HaldorTopsøevilerobreglobaltbrintmarked–FINANS.Finans.[online]avail-able:https://finans.dk/erhverv/ECE12784381/hal-dor-topsoee-vil-erobre-globalt-brintmarked/?ctx-ref=ext[accessedMarch2021].Barnard,M.(2021).Carboncapturewillmakefossil-sourcedhydrogen2.5–9×moreexpensive.CleanTechnica.[online]available:https://cleantech-nica.com/2021/03/23/carbon-capture-will-make-fossil-sourced-hydrogen-2-5-9x-more-expensive/[accessedMarch2021].BCAA(2021).BCAAFuelCellDataAnalysis.Beijing:BluetechCleanAirAlliance,unpublished.Bloomberg(2021).Explorethefirst-everhydrogeneconomyrankingsystem.Bloomberg.[online]available:https://sponsored.bloomberg.com/news/sponsors/features/hyundai/explore-the-global-hy-drogen-economy-today/?adv=16713&prx_t=aXwFA-BAY_At_sQA[accessedFebruary2021].BMBF(2021).BMBFbringtWasserstoff-LeitprojekteaufdenWeg.BundesministeriumfürBildungundForschung.[online]available:https://www.bmbf.de/de/bmbf-bringt-wasserstoff-leitprojek-te-auf-den-weg-13530.html[accessedMarch2021].BMEEB(2014).BulletinontheEnvironmentalStatusofBeijingin2013.Beijing:BeijingMunicipalEcologyandEnvironmentBureau.[online]available:http://sthjj.beijing.gov.cn/bjhrb/index/xxgk69/zfxxgk43/fdzdgknr2/xwfb/607213/index.html[accessedNovember2021].BMEEB(2018).TheLatestScientificResearchResultsofTheNewRoundofPM2.5SourceAnalysisinBeijing.Beijing:BeijingMunicipalEcologyandEnvironmentBureau.[online]available:http://sthjj.beijing.gov.cn/bjhrb/index/xxgk69/zfxx-gk43/fdzdgknr2/xwfb/832588/index.html[accessedNovember2021].BMEEB(2021).BeijingEcologyandEnvironment.Beijing:BeijingMunicipalEcologyandEnvironmentBureau.[online]available:http://sthjj.beijing.gov.cn/bjhrb/resource/cms/arti-cle/1718882/10985106/2021051214515686015.pdf[accessedNovember2021].Burgess,M.(2021).Newhydrogen-basedfueldevelopedforsmallvehicles.H2View.[online]available:https://www.h2-view.com/story/new-hy-drogen-based-fuel-developed-for-small-vehicles/[accessedMarch2021].CABEE(2020).ChinaBuildingEnergyConsumptionResearchReport(2020).ChinaAssociationofBuildingEnergyEfficiency,CommitteeofBuildingEnergyData.[online]available:http://adminht.cabee.org/upload/file/20201231/1609385858606010.pdf[accessedNovember2021].Casey,T.(2021).Yarakickstartsgreenammoniaindustrywithgreenhydrogen.CleanTechnica.[online]available:https://cleantechnica.com/2021/03/01/yara-kickstarts-green-ammonia-indus-try-with-green-hydrogen/[accessedMarch2021].ChinaEconomic(2019).Chinaproducesabout22milliontonsofhydrogeneveryyear,accountingforone-thirdoftheworld’shydrogenproduction.ChinaEconomic.[online]available:http://www.ce.cn/cysc/ny/gdxw/201907/08/t20190708_32548351.shtml[accessedMay2021].ChinaEV100(2020).ChinaHydrogenIndustryDevelopmentReport2020(no.104).Beijing.ChinaHydrogenAlliance(2019).WhitePaperonHydrogenEnergyandFuelCellIndustryinChina.Beijing.ChinaDaily(2020).Theworld’sfirstlarge-scalesolarfuelsynthesisdemonstrationprojectsuc-cessfullyrunstoproduce“liquidsunshine.”ChinaDaily.[online]available:http://ex.chinadaily.com.cn/exchange/partners/82/rss/channel/cn/columns/j3u3t6/stories/WS5e229de5a3107bb6b579aa6d.html[accessedMay2021].CORDIS(2020).BIONICO:Apilotplantforturningbiomassdirectlyintohydrogen.Horizon2020,EUPublicationsOffice.[online]available:https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/394984-bionico-a-pi-lot-plant-for-turning-biomass-directly-into-hydrogen[accessedFebruary2021].DICP(2020).Theworld’sfirstlarge-scaledemon-strationprojectofsolarfuelsynthesiswassuccess-fullytested.DalianInstituteofChemicalPhysics.ChineseAcademyofSciences.[online]available:http://www.dicp.cas.cn/xwdt/ttxw/202001/t20200116_5488931.html[accessedNovember2021].DICP(2021).DalianInstituteofChemicalPhysics.ChineseAcademyofSciences.Divisionofhydrogenenergyandadvancedmaterials.[online]available:http://www.dicp.cas.cn/yjxt_1/dnl03/gkjj/[accessedMay2021].Engie(2020).Promisinghydrogeninnovationsaroundtheworld.ENGIEInnovation.[online]available:http://innovation.engie.com/en/news/news/new-energies/Hydrogen-innovation-global-breakthrough/13681[accessedFebruary2021].Farmer,M.(2020).Whatcolourisyourhydro-gen?Apowertechnologyjargon-buster.PowerTechnology.[online]available:https://www.power-technology.com/features/hydrogen-pow-er-blue-green-grey-brown-extraction-produc-tion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