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Geneva, 2023

Plastic Pollution

The pressing case for natural and

environmentally friendly substitutes to plastics

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Center at copyright.com.

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United Nations Publications

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The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not

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The designations employed and the presentation of material on any map in this work do not imply

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Mention of any firm or licensed process does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.

This publication has not been formally edited.

United Nations publication issued by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UNCTAD/DITC/TED/2023/2

ISBN: 978-92-1-101475-4

eISBN: 978-92-1-002722-9

Sales No. 23.II.D.11

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document was written by Carla Vaca Eyzaguirre, David Vivas Eugui, Henrique Pacini, Denise Penello

Rial, Katja Spur and Kweku Attafuah-Wadee under the framework of the United Kingdom of Great Britain

and Northern Ireland FCDO/UNCTAD Sustainable Manufacturing and Environmental Pollution (SMEP)

Programme and UNCTAD oceans economy initiative.

UNCTAD gratefully acknowledges the comments and inputs by Robert Hamwey, Claudia Contreras,

Maria Durleva and Glen Wilson. Additional comments were provided by Alessandro Sanches Pereira and

Marcela Langue from Instituto 17 and David Rohindra from the University of the South Pacific.

Mahesh Sugathan (TESS) also provided comments useful for the development of the document.

Comments received from other divisions of UNCTAD as part of the internal peer review process, as

well as comments from the Office of the Secretary-General, are also acknowledged with appreciation.

Preparation of the document also took into account discussions with stakeholders during the workshop

on sustainable and effective substitutes and alternatives for plastics organized by UNCTAD and WTO on

6 December 2022. Insights and contributions from the following participating organizations served as an

important input in the improvement of the document: Forum on Trade, Environment and the Sustainable

Development Goals (TESS); Centre for International Environmental Law; Quaker United Nations Office;

Instituto 17; Associación Latinoamericana de Integración; International Bamboo and Rattan Organization;

Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Convention; World Customs Organization; and PEW Charitable Trusts.

Representatives from Fortuna Cools and NotPla also contributed suggestions.

Desktop formatting was done by Rafe Dent and Lia Tostes, UNCTAD. Cover art was prepared by Lana

Carolina Ribeiro.

Principal partner

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Geneva,2023PlasticPollutionThepressingcasefornaturalandenvironmentallyfriendlysubstitutestoplastics©2023,UnitedNationsAllrightsreservedworldwideRequeststoreproduceexcerptsortophotocopyshouldbeaddressedtotheCopyrightClearanceCenteratcopyright.com.Allotherqueriesonrightsandlicences,includingsubsidiaryrights,shouldbeaddressedto:UnitedNationsPublications405East42ndStreetNewYork,NewYork10017UnitedStatesofAmericaEmail:publications@un.orgWebsite:https://shop.un.org/Thefindings,interpretationsandconclusionsexpressedhereinarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNationsoritsofficialsorMemberStates.ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonanymapinthisworkdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.MentionofanyfirmorlicensedprocessdoesnotimplytheendorsementoftheUnitedNations.Thispublicationhasnotbeenformallyedited.UnitedNationspublicationissuedbytheUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopmentUNCTAD/DITC/TED/2023/2ISBN:978-92-1-101475-4eISBN:978-92-1-002722-9SalesNo.23.II.D.11vACKNOWLEDGMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThisdocumentwaswrittenbyCarlaVacaEyzaguirre,DavidVivasEugui,HenriquePacini,DenisePenelloRial,KatjaSpurandKwekuAttafuah-WadeeundertheframeworkoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandFCDO/UNCTADSustainableManufacturingandEnvironmentalPollution(SMEP)ProgrammeandUNCTADoceanseconomyinitiative.UNCTADgratefullyacknowledgesthecommentsandinputsbyRobertHamwey,ClaudiaContreras,MariaDurlevaandGlenWilson.AdditionalcommentswereprovidedbyAlessandroSanchesPereiraandMarcelaLanguefromInstituto17andDavidRohindrafromtheUniversityoftheSouthPacific.MaheshSugathan(TESS)alsoprovidedcommentsusefulforthedevelopmentofthedocument.CommentsreceivedfromotherdivisionsofUNCTADaspartoftheinternalpeerreviewprocess,aswellascommentsfromtheOfficeoftheSecretary-General,arealsoacknowledgedwithappreciation.PreparationofthedocumentalsotookintoaccountdiscussionswithstakeholdersduringtheworkshoponsustainableandeffectivesubstitutesandalternativesforplasticsorganizedbyUNCTADandWTOon6December2022.Insightsandcontributionsfromthefollowingparticipatingorganizationsservedasanimportantinputintheimprovementofthedocument:ForumonTrade,EnvironmentandtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(TESS);CentreforInternationalEnvironmentalLaw;QuakerUnitedNationsOffice;Instituto17;AssociaciónLatinoamericanadeIntegración;InternationalBambooandRattanOrganization;Basel,RotterdamandStockholmConvention;WorldCustomsOrganization;andPEWCharitableTrusts.RepresentativesfromFortunaCoolsandNotPlaalsocontributedsuggestions.DesktopformattingwasdonebyRafeDentandLiaTostes,UNCTAD.CoverartwaspreparedbyLanaCarolinaRibeiro.PrincipalpartnerviPLASTICPOLLUTIONEXPLANATORYNOTESReferenceto“dollar”and“$”indicatesUnitedStatesdollars,unlessotherwisestated.Useofadash(–)betweendatesrepresentingyears,e.g.,2015–2017,signifiesthefullperiodinvolved,includingtheinitialandfinalyears.Referenceto“t”ismadeformetrictons.Referenceto“M”ismadeformillions.Referenceto“kg”ismadeforkilograms.Toreflecttheclosestestimatefordata,decimalsandpercentagesareroundedoff.Numbersareroundedtothenearestdollar,unlessotherwisestated.Decimalsandpercentagesinthisdocumentdonotnecessarilyadduptototalsbecauseofrounding.Workshoponsustainableandeffectivesubstitutesandalternativesforplastics:06December2022,10:00-13:00hrsGeneva,SwitzerlandviiACRONYMSANDABBREVIATIONSACRONYMSANDABBREVIATIONSALDFGAbandoned,lostordiscardedfishinggearCIELCenterforInternationalEnvironmentalLawEIP-AGRIEuropeanInnovationPartnershipforAgricultureProductivityandSustainabilityFAOFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsGHGGreenhousegasHDPEHigh-densitypolyethyleneHSHarmonizedSystemLDCLeastdevelopedcountriesLDPELow-densitypolyethyleneMFNMost-favourednationNTMNon-tariffmeasureOECDOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentR&DResearchanddevelopmentRCARevealedcomparativeadvantageSDGSustainableDevelopmentGoalsSMEPSustainableManufacturingandEnvironmentalPollutionSPISustainableProductsInitiativeSPSSanitaryandphytosanitarySRTSquidringteethSUPSingleuseplasticTESSForumontrade,environmentandSDGsTBTTechnicalbarrierstotradeUNEAUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssemblyUNEPUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWCOWorldCustomsOrganizationWEFWorldEconomicForumWTOWorldTradeOrganizationviiiPLASTICPOLLUTIONCONTENTSAcknowledgements................................................................................................................................vExplanatorynotes..................................................................................................................................viAcronymsandabbreviations..................................................................................................................viiExecutivesummary................................................................................................................................xIntroduction..........................................................................................................................................11.Plasticsandtheenvironment:apressingglobalissue...............................................................31.1.Pollutionacrosstheplasticlifecycle...........................................................................................41.2.Actionsunderwaytotackleplasticpollution...............................................................................61.2.1Upstreaminitiatives...........................................................................................................61.2.2Midstreaminitiatives..........................................................................................................71.2.3Downstreaminitiatives.......................................................................................................82.Stateofplayofplasticssubstitutes:selectedproductgroups................................................102.1.Identificationofselectedplasticsubstitutes:firstglobalassessment........................................102.2.Towardanextendedlistofmaterialsandproductsubstitutesforplastics................................152.2.1Substitutesforsynthetictextiles......................................................................................162.2.2Agriculture:Mulch...........................................................................................................172.2.3Abandoned,lost,ordiscardedfishinggear(ALDFG).......................................................182.2.4Substitutesforpackagingandsingleuseplastics(SUPs)................................................192.3.Lifecycleanalysisofplasticsubstitutes....................................................................................202.4.Economicviabilityofplasticsubstitutes....................................................................................233.Pursuingplasticssubstitutesthroughatradelens...................................................................273.1.BenefitsandchallengesofusingHScodes..............................................................................273.2.Takingstockofthekeytradepatternsofsubstitutestoplastic................................................313.3.Marketaccesspoliciesappliedtoplasticssubstitutesoftheselectedclusters.........................353.3.1Tariffsappliedtosubstitutestoplastics.........................................................................363.3.2Non-tariffmeasuresappliedtoplasticsubstitutes...........................................................394.Findings..........................................................................................................................................464.1.Keyfindings.............................................................................................................................464.2.Thewayforward......................................................................................................................48References.........................................................................................................................................50Annex1:4thUNOceansForumChair’sSummary.........................................................................55Annex2:Listof282HSCodesforidentifiedpotentialplasticsubstitutes..................................57Annex3:NTMIndicatorsbyeconomyorterritory.........................................................................66ixCONTENTSFiguresFigure1.Valueandvolumeofglobalplasticgoodsexportsbetween2005and2021.............................3Figure2.Plasticsubstitutesvs.plasticalternatives...............................................................................11Figure3.Normalizedprocess-basedLCAforBangladesh....................................................................22Figure4.SelectedexportersbytheirRCAandrecovery/recyclingrateperproductgroup....................25Figure5.PlasticsubstitutesshareofexportsbyHScategoryandtypeinMn$(2020)..........................32Figure6.Shareofglobaltradeofplasticsubstitutesbytypeofsource.................................................33Figure7.Unitpricesofplasticsubstitutes(materialandproducts)in$perkg.......................................35Figure8.Overviewofaverageimporttariffsforplasticandplasticsubstitutes.......................................37Figure9.Comparisonofworldaverageimporttariffs............................................................................37Figure10.Averageimporttariffsappliedonsubstitutestoplasticsbytypeofsource...........................38Figure11.Averageimporttariffsappliedonselectedplasticsubstitutesrawmaterial............................38Figure12.Averageimporttariffsappliedonproductsmadeofplasticsubstitutes.................................39Figure13.AverageimporttariffsappliedonALDFG..............................................................................39Figure14.Globalresults.......................................................................................................................41Figure15.NTMindicatorsbydevelopmentstatus................................................................................41Figure16.NTMindicatorsbysector....................................................................................................42Figure17.NTMindicatorsbytypeofmeasure......................................................................................44BoxesBox1.Plasticlifecycle...........................................................................................................................5Box2.Keyidentifyingcriteriaforenvironmentallysustainableandeffectivesubstitutematerials............12Box3.Anexampleofbagasseandcopra/coconutfibreandtheirmultipleapplications........................13Box4.Banana,bamboo,andotherbiomass-basedfibres...................................................................16Box5.Seaweed-derivedbiopolymerstosubstituteplasticmulch.........................................................18Box6.Targetedinitiativesandeffortstouseplasticsubstitutesforfishinggear....................................19Box7.NotPlaandBambusa:packagingmaterialthatdisappearsnatural.............................................20Box8.Life-CycleAssessmentMethodologiesusedforsector-based/product-basedLCA.................22Box9.RevealedComparativeAdvantage(RCA)...................................................................................23Box10.Definingtariffsandnon-tariffmeasures....................................................................................36TablesTable1.Illustrativelistofplasticsubstitutesfromselectedclusters........................................................15Table2.SummaryofHScodesidentifiedforplasticsubstitutesperHScodechapter..........................28Table3.PotentialplasticsubstitutesproductsforwhichanHScodecouldnotbeidentified.................30xPLASTICPOLLUTIONAHarmonizedCommodityDescriptionandCodingSystem(HS)isthususedtomapsubstitutestoproductsfromtheseclustersasitoffersaninternationallysharedapproachtoclassifyingproducts.TheHScodeshavemanybenefitsbutalsosomelimitations,suchasclarity(especiallyrelevantfornewerproducts)andlevelofaggregation(manyHScodesusedforsubstitutesalsoincludeplastics).Inaddition,someinnovativematerialsbeingunderresearchand/ordevelopment,couldn’tbeidentifiedusingtoday’sHScodessystem.Thereportmappedanillustrativelistof282HScodesforplasticsubstitutes,ofwhichmanyareconcentratedunderHSchapters:Woodandarticlesofwood;PulpofwoodorotherExecutivesummaryTheimplicationsofplasticpollutionhavegainedimportanceatalllevelsoverthelastfewyears,fromindividualconsumerstonationalandinternationalpolicymakers.Currenttrendsarenotinfavorofreducingsuchpollution,onthecontrary,astheglobalplasticproductiontrendisincreasing.Itisestimatedthattherewere369milliontonsofplasticstradedin2020alone,whichis$1.2trillioninvalue,asignificantincreasefrom$933billiontheyearbefore(UNCTAD,2022d).Plastics’omnipresencehaspushedwastemanagementcapacitiestotheirlimits;thus,itisoftheutmostimportancetoidentifywhatmaterialsorproductscouldsuccessfullysubstituteplasticsandhowtoimplementthistransition.Therehavebeenmanyinternationaleffortsputintoactiontotackletheproblemofplastics,withthemajoritystillfocusingondownstreamstrategies.Atthesametime,thereareagrowingnumberofinitiativesaddressingandconsequentlystimulatingchangesthroughoutthewholeplasticlifecycleinamovetowardsthedevelopmentofcirculareconomies,includingstrategiestoreduceresourceuseaswellasmaterial-shifttowardssubstitutestoplasticsthroughoutvaluechains.Foreffortsofsubstitutingplasticstosucceed,thedefinitionofwhatexactlyaplasticsubstituteisneedsattention.Plasticssubstitutescanbeconsideredallnaturalmaterialsfrommineral,plant,animal,marineorforestryoriginthathavesimilarpropertiesofplastics.Theydonotincludefossilfuel-basedorsyntheticpolymers,bioplastics,andbiodegradableplastics.Plasticsubstitutesshouldhavelowerenvironmentalimpactalongtheirlifecycle(e.g.,naturalfibres,agriculturalwastes,andotherformsofbiomass).Dependingonthecase,theyshouldbebiodegradable/compostableorerodible,andshouldbesuitableforreuse,recycling,orsoundwastedisposalasdefinedbynational,regionalregulationsorininternationallyagreeddefinitions.Theycanincludeby-products.Plasticsubstitutesshouldnotbehazardousforhuman,animal,orplantlife.Oneofthecrucialaspectsofintroducingasubstitutetoplasticisnottoaggravatetheenvironmentalimpactortocauseharminanyotherway.Impactsofpotentialplasticsubstitutes,suchaswaterorlanduse,greenhousegasemissions,andhumanhealth,arebestassessedwithastandardsetofindicatorsunderlifecycleanalysis(LCA).Mostsuitablesubstitutesareusuallyfoundamonglocallyavailablematerialswithahighrateofreusability.Thelongertheirreusability,whichmarksastepawayfromtoday’sthrowawayculturestimulatedbyplastics,thehighertheresultingpositiveimpactofthesubstitutes.Althoughtherearenew(somehighlyinnovative)materialsandproductsbeingdevelopedandenteringthemarket,adefinedlistofplasticsubstitutesdoesnotexist(yet).Altogether,therearefiveclustersidentifiedasthosethatcontributethemosttoplasticwasteandputasignificantpressureoncountries’wastemanagementsystemcapacities:Textiles3Productspartofpackaging2Singleuseplastics1Mulchagriculturalsector4ALDFGshingsector5xiEXECUTIVESUMMARYfibrouscellulosicmaterial;Paperandpaperboard;Wool,fineorcoarseanimalhair,yarnandwovenfabric;Vegetabletextilefibres,paperyarnandwovenfabricsofpaperyarn,andAluminium.Basedonthislist,thetradevalueofplasticsubstitutesin2020was$388billion,ofwhichtwothirdsrepresentsexportsofrawmaterials($258billion).Intermsoftotalglobalgoodsexports,theshareofplasticsubstitutes(almost2percentshare)islessthanthatofplastics,whichrepresented5percentofglobalexportsin2020.Thisindicatesspaceforadequatepolicysupportandincentives.Currently,forexample,theaverageunitpriceofplasticsismuchcheaperthantheirsubstitutes.So,thepriceincentiveisoftenagainstsubstitution.Givencurrentconditions,marketforceswouldthemselvesreproducetheunsustainableuseofplasticswecurrentlysee.Tradepoliciesandtheirinstruments,suchastariffsandnon-tariffmeasures,caninfluencethecourseofdevelopmentofplasticsubstitutes.Accordingtothetradedataforthelistof282HScodesofplasticsubstitutes,plasticmaterialsandproductsgenerallyenjoylowertariffsandareconcentratedbelow10percent,whileproductsubstitutesrangebetween5percentand25percent.So,inadditiontothecurrentunitpricedifference,highertariffsareposinganadditionalchallengetomakingplasticsubstituteseconomicallyviable.Amoredetailedcomparisonbetweensomeselectedplasticproductsandtheirsubstitutesrevealsacleardifferencebetweenveryspecificsubstitutes:forexample,paperstrawshaveaglobalaveragetariffrateof13.3percent,whileplasticstraws’globalaveragetariffis7.7percent.Lookingforward,thereareavarietyofactionsandtoolsthatcanfacilitatethetransitiontosubstitutematerials.Theseincludeaddressingtariffsandnon-tariffmeasures,revisingHScodestobettertracktradeflows,diversifyingandexpandingfinancialinstrumentstosupportresearchanddevelopmentofinnovativematerials,andreachingconsensusonastandardizedsetoflifecycleindicatorstoinformdecisionsonthemostappropriatesubstitutes.Withtheappropriateincentives,themovementtowardsplasticsubstitutescanalsobeviewedasaneconomicdevelopmentpolicy.Thisshiftcanbenefitdevelopingeconomiesbyfosteringthegrowthofnewproductivecapacities,increasingexportsofvarioustypesofsubstitutes,andcreatinghigher-valueemploymentopportunities,whilealsotakingintoconsiderationthepotentialimpactsonwomenandchangesinlaborstructures.1INTRODUCTIONIntroductionTheimpactofplasticpollutionhasreachedalarminglevels.Outofthe369milliontonsofplasticwastegeneratedeveryyearabout11millionmetrictonsenterstheocean(UNCTAD,2022dandUNEP,2022).Thisnumberisprojectedtotripleby2040ifnomeasuresareadoptedtohaltthatpace(ThePewCharitableTrustandSystemiq,2020).Thesituationisveryconcerningascurrentlevelsofplasticwastearealreadydamagingmarineandterrestrialecosystems,compromisinghumanhealth,aswellasthefoodweb.Mostplasticmaterialsneverfullydisappear,butonlybreakdownintosmallerparticles.Thesemicro-particlescanbefoundeverywhere,includingintheaquaticandterrestrialfoodsystems(Allenetal.,2022).Inadditiontotheingestionofaquaticfoodcontaminatedwithmicroplastics,nanoplasticsmaybeabsorbedintotissuesorcellsofotherfoods(SAPEA,2019).Humansarealsoexposedtomicroplasticsbyinhalingairborneparticlesandfibresfoundinindoorandoutdoorenvironments(OECD,2020).Moreover,globally,over84percentofdrinkingwatersamplesarenowestimatedtocontainmicroplastics(SMEP,2022a).Plasticpollutionalsohasanegativetolloncountries’economiesasitimpactstheabilitytocreatejobsandrevenueinareasthatdependoncleanecosystems,suchastourismandfisheries.Governmentsfacesignificantandgrowingcoststodealingwithplasticrefusewithalreadyover-burdenedinfrastructure–sewagesystemsandroadsmaybecomecloggedwithplastic,increasingtheriskandintensityoffloods(UNCTAD,2019).Annualcostsofplasticpollutionareestimatedat$2.2trillion,including$1.5trillioninoceandamage,$695billioningreenhousegas(GHG)emissions,andapproximately$25billioninlandpollution(SMEP,2022a).InMarch2022theUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssemblyadoptedaresolutiononplasticspollutionthatcallsforcountriestopromotematerialsubstitutestoplasticsthroughnationalpolicyinstrumentswhileonthemultilateralleveleffortsshouldbemadetofurtherdeveloptheHarmonizedSystem(HScodes(UNEA,2022).Theresolutionemphasizesthepromotionofplasticsubstitutestonotonlyreduceadirectenvironmentalimpact,suchasoceanpollution,butalsotoincentivizeinnovations,anoceanandacirculareconomy,andnewindustrialcapacities,particularlyindevelopingcountries.Thefocusofthispaperistoidentifyanextendedlistofenvironmentallyfriendlyplasticssubstitutesandtheircorrespondingclustersthatareresponsibleforplasticwasteandthatposeagreatpressureoncountries’wastemanagementsystemcapacities.Buildingonthesubstitutesidentified,thepaperfurtherassessestrade-relatedflowsandpoliciesunderpinningsubstitutesusingtheHScodes.Thepaperalsoprovidesaninsightintotradeflows,asummaryoffindingsandadviceonpotentialnextsteps.Duetodataconstraints,itisnotmethodologicallyfeasibletofullyexploretheenvironmentalimpactoflistedpotentialsubstitutes.Nevertheless,challengesremainwhenmakingdecisionsaboutthevaryingenvironmentalimpactsofreplacingplasticswithplasticsubstitutes,highlightingrelevantargumentsfromexistingLCAstudiesthatanalyzevariousplasticsubstitutes(SMEP,2022b;UNEP,2021;WorldBank,2022;McKinsey,2022).Italsooffers,inanutshell,astateofthesituationofplasticpollutionofeachoftheclustersandthecurrentpotentialforthedevelopmentofplasticsubstitutes,providinganoverviewofcriticalpollutionaspectsofthelatter.Thispublicationthendrawssomeoverarchingconclusionsandrecommendationstoguidemoreinformeddecision-makingtowardsasustainablematerialtransitionwhichcouldalsobringaboutsocialgainsthroughexpandedmarketopportunities.1PLASTICSANDTHEENVIRONMENTAPRESSINGGLOBALISSUE3CHAPTER1:PLASTICSANDTHEENVIRONMENTSource:UNCTADPlasticTradeStats(2022d)Figure1.Valueandvolumeofglobalplasticgoodsexportsbetween2005and2021ValueVolume20152020201020051400120010008006004002185351,1843694003603202802402001.Plasticsandtheenvironment:apressingglobalissueTodayitiswellestablishedthatthecurrentlevelsofplasticpollutionareunsustainable,causeseriousharmtohumanhealth,livelihoods,foodsystems,andtotheenvironment.Unsurprisingly,duetothelong-lastingnatureofpolymers,allplasticseverproducedarestillwithusindifferentformatsfromfinishedproductsandrecycledproductstoawidearrayofwastesfrommacrotonanoparticles,todayfoundinalmostallecosystems(Geyer,Jambeck,Law,2017).Evidenceisalsogrowingaboutthesignificantimpactithasongreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsandclimatechange(Royer,Ferrón,Wilson,andKarl,2018).Aswellasthefactthatplasticpollutionnotonlyhasmultipledimensions(air,soil,freshwaterandoceans),butitalsooccursacrossthelifecycleofplasticsproduction,useanddisposalandaffectsallcountries,includingthosethatarenotthemainproducersorusersofplastics.Unlessthecurrentlevelofplasticproductionishalted,itisexpectedtoincreasesignificantlyoverthecomingyears.1Thecurrentsituationisuntenableandhastriggeredeffortsbygovernments,industry,andcivilsocietygroupstoaddressthemultipledimensionsofplasticpollutionacrossthelifecycleofplastics.Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthechallengesaresignificant–duetoitspriceandmalleability–itisusedinvirtuallyallindustriesatallstagesoftheirvaluechains(VacaandDeere,2021);asshownbythemostrecentUNCTADtradedatainFigure1below,morethan369milliontonsofplasticsweretradedin2021alone,representingabout$1,184billioninvalue,and5.3percentofworldtrade(UNCTAD,2022d).goodsandservices.1Forexample,newShellethanecrackerbeingconstructedinPennsylvaniacouldemitupto2.25milliontonsofCO2eachyear;anewethyleneplantatExxonMobil’sBaytown,Texas,refinerycouldreleaseupto1.4milliontons–annualemissionsfromjustthesetwofacilitiescomparetoaddingalmost800,000newcarstotheroad.Theseareonlytwoamongmorethan300newpetrochemicalprojectsbeingbuiltintheUnitedStatesofAmericaalone—primarilytoproduceplasticandplasticfeedstocks(CIEL,2019).OutsidetheUnitedStatesofAmerica,plasticproductiongrowthisexpectedfromindustriesinAfrica,theMiddleEastanddevelopingAsia(http://www.sela.org/en/events/e/71932/promoting-substitutes-and-alternatives-to-plastics)4PLASTICPOLLUTION1.1PollutionacrosstheplasticlifecycleTheimpactofplasticintheenvironmentissubjecttomanyfactors.Itdependsonthetypeofprimaryplasticused,thepolymer-productcombinationinaplasticproduct,andthecapacityofcountriestocollectanddisposeofplasticwaste(VacaandDeere,2021).Somecommonpatternsexistatthegloballevelandateachstageoftheplasticsvaluechain.Studieshavefoundthatthefirststageoftheplasticlifecycle,extractionandrefiningtoproduceplastic,contributestothehighestsourceofGHG.Today,98percentofplasticsinuseareplasticsmadefromcrudeoilorgas,2whichrequireshighenergyconsumptionforrefining3(OECD2022a,CIEL2019).Plasticsmadefromrecycledmaterial,whichemitlessGHGthanvirginplastics,onlyaccountedfor9percentofglobalplasticsusedandabout22percentwasmisusedby2019(OECD2022b).Thenextproductionstage,manufactureofplastic,isbothenergyintenseandGHGemissionsintensiveduetothecrackingofalkanesintoolefins,thepolymerizationandplasticizationofolefinsintoplasticresins,andotherchemicalrefiningprocesses(CIEL,2019).4Whatismore,plasticsmanufacturingincludestheuseofchemicaladditivesthatmayalsoactasasinkandmeansoftransportationforpersistentorganicpollutants(POPs).Adsorbedchemicalsfoundonsampledplasticdebrisincludechemicaladditivesandtracemetals(OECD,2022).Asforplasticcollectionanddisposal,theinadequatemanagementofplasticwastehasledtoincreasinglevelsofcontaminationoftheair,soil,freshwater,estuarineandmarineenvironments.About75percentofallplasticproducedinhistoryhasbecomewaste(UNCTAD,2019a).Thissituationisobservedevenincountrieswithexcellentwastecollectionandmanagementsystemsandhighpublicsupportformaterialrecovery.Thisisbecauseitisdifficulttorecycleallplasticwasteandthemajorityremainsleftinlandfillsandinsomecasesreachinglakes,rivers,andoceanbasins(VivasandBarrowclough,2021).ItisestimatedthatimproperplasticsmanagementhascontributedtowardsGHGemissionsofapproximately1.7gigatonsofcarbonequivalent(GtCO2e)andabout2percentoftotalglobalcarbonemissionsby2022(UNCTAD,2021).Globally,acenturyofwasteisaccumulatinginlandfills,agriculturalsoils,streets,waterways,rivers,andtheocean,as79percentofplasticisdumpedintheenvironmentandtheflowkeepsgrowing–forexample,morethan8milliontonsofplasticwasteleaksintotheoceaneachyear.Infact,outoftheestimated6.3billiontonsofglobalplasticwasteproduced;onlyabout9percenthasbeenrecycled,12percenthasbeenincinerated–thisleadstoextremelyhighemissionsofgreenhousegasandistheprimarydriverofemissionsfromplasticwastemanagement(SMEP,2022).Thesefiguresareconcerningnotonlybecauseofthetoxicityofplastics,butbecauseofthelongevityofplastics–whichinsomecasesisparticularlyproblematic.Forexample,single-useplasticproductslikelow-densitypolyethylene(LDPE)plasticbagsandhigh-densitypolyethylene(HDPE)bottlescouldhaveestimatedhalf-livesof5-250yearsonlandand3-58yearsinmarineenvironments,whilerigidplasticssuchashigh-densitypolyethylene(HDPE)pipesneedthousandsofyearstocompletelydegrade,withanestimatedhalf-lifeof1,200years(Chamasetal.,2020).Thedegradationperioddependsontheirtypeandonexternalenvironmentalconditions.Plasticsalsocontributetoclimatechangewhenplasticphotodegradation(exposuretolight)triggerstheproductionofGHGs,whichconsequentlyincreaseswiththequantityofplasticproducedandaccumulatedintheenvironment(WEF,2022).Impactgrowsasthesurfaceareaofplasticincreasesduetoweatheringandbreakdownintheoceanasthereisatremendousincreaseinmethaneandethyleneoff-gassing.Forexample,LDPEpowderoff-gasesmethane488timesmorerapidlythanwhenthesameweightofLDPE2Sourcesincludedirectemissions,likemethaneleakageandflaring,emissionsfromfuelcombustionandenergyconsumptionintheprocessofdrillingforoilorgas,andemissionscausedbylanddisturbancewhenforestsandfieldsareclearedforwellpadsandpipelines.3Whereoilistheprimaryfeedstockforplasticproduction,extractionandrefiningattributabletoplasticproductionarethemainsourceofapproximately108millionmetrictonsofCO2eperyear4Forexample,globallyin2015,onlytheemissionsfromcrackingtoproduceethylenewere184.3–213.0millionmetrictonsofCO2e,amountofCO2ethatcanbecomparedtoasmanyas45millionpassengervehiclesdriveninoneyear.5CHAPTER1:PLASTICSANDTHEENVIRONMENTisinpelletform.Moreover,exposureofplastictodirectsunlight(notsubmergedinwater)producesevenmoreofthegases–inthecaseofLDPE,itreleasesapproximatelytwotimesmoremethaneand76timesmoreethylenewhenexposedtoairthanwhenincubatedinwater(CIEL,2019).Finally,theproductionofhydrocarbongases,althoughsmall,continuesindefinitelyintheabsenceofsunlightasplasticcontinuestobreakdown,exposingyetmoresurfaceareatoreactiveprocesses(CIEL,2019).Thisrealityisobservedacrosstheworld,butitisespeciallypervasiveandvisibleincoastalcountries–includingthosethatarenotproducingplasticorwhereplasticsconsumptionisnothigh.Costalcountriesarewitnessingplasticbottles,plasticbags,othersingleuseplasticsandabandonedfishinggearcontaminatingtheirshores.Thesearecauseofentanglementofaquaticlifeinfloatingplasticdebrisandofincreasedmortalityfollowingtheingestionofplasticsbymarinespecies–duetothechemicalsthesehaveorstarvationasthiscausesthefalsesenseofsatiety.Thisisthecaseof,forexample,turtles,fish(includingprotectedspeciesandspecieswithhighcommercialvalue),marinemammals,seabirds,andisreducingmarinebiodiversity(OECD,2022a,VivasandBarrowclough2021,GGGI2022,FAO2016).Furthermore,plasticsslowlybreakdownintomicroplasticcomponents,nanoplasticsparticles,andmicro(nano)particlesincludingtoxicchemicalsthatcanbemutagens,andcancausenegativeimmunological,reproductive,teratogenic,carcinogenicandneurologicaleffects(Allenetal.2022,SMEP2022a;BarrowcloughandVivas2021,UNEP2016).Atleast690wildlifespecies,aswellascoralreefs,areknowntobeaffectedbyplasticdebris.5Althoughtheextentofeconomicandenvironmentalimpactofmicro-andnano-plasticsandchemicaladditivesisstillpoorlyunderstood,theingestionofsuchparticlesbyaquaticorganisms,includingfishspeciesdestinedforhumanconsumptionandofcommercialimportance,hasbeendocumentedinlaboratoryandfieldstudies,andareexpectedtoposeseverehealthhazardsformarineecosystemsandthefoodweb(SMEP2022,OECD2022;BarrowcloughandVivas,2021).5GallandThompson,2015–reportedbyOECD,2022Thelifecycleofmostplasticsbeginswiththeextractionoffossiloilandgas(i.e.,virginplastics)thatyieldthefeedstocks.Onlybetween1to2percentofplasticsarederivedfrombio-basedfeedstocksorrecycledplasticpolymers(WEFetal.,2016).Afterextraction,thesefossilfuelsarerenedandusedbythepetrochemicalindustrytoproducepolymers.Thesepolymersusuallytaketheformofresinpelletsorbresandarewidelydescribedas“primaryplastics.”Thisrststageoftheplasticslifecycleproducessome30maintypesofprimaryplasticpolymers(Barrowcloughetal.,2020).Thesepolymersusuallyinclude,orhaveaddedtothem,chemicaladditivessuchasPolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAH)s,polychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs),anddichlorodiphenyldichloroeth-ylene(DDE),abreakdownproductofDichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane(DDT))andwhichmayposehealthhazards.Theseareutilizedforthemanufactureofintermediateornalplasticproducts(Bar-rowcloughetal.,2020).Afterconsumption,thenalstageofthelifecycleofplasticsincludesthecollection,sorting,anddisposalofplastics.Thedisposalstageofthelifecyclecanincludereuse,recycling,incineration,landlling,andopenburningofplastics.Selectionofdisposaldependsonalargearrayoffactorsasplasticproductscanbemadeofasetofmaterials—insomecases,overninedifferenttypesofmaterials—mixedtogether,whicharethenincompatiblewitheachotherintherecyclingstream(Feber,2022).Thesevariousplasticproductshavedifferentlifetimes,recyclabil-ity,andriskstotheenvironmentandtohumanhealth–allofwhichcallforagranularperspective.Source:Compiledbytheauthors.Box1.Plasticlifecycle6PLASTICPOLLUTION1.2ActionsunderwaytotackleplasticpollutionWhenseekingsolutionstoaddressplasticpollutionadifferenceintheemphasisofeffortsisimportant.Someactionsmighthaveastrongerfocusonwastemanagementandrecyclingtechnologiesandcapacities,whichiscommonlyknownasdownstream.Otheractionsmightbeemphasizingtheproductionandconsumptionphase,whichisknownastheupstreamofaproductlifecycle.CurrentinitiativesandpoliciestacklingbothsidesofplasticproductslifecyclearecriticaltoreducingGHGemissionsbecauseofthealreadyhighlevelsofplasticwasteandGHGemissions.Forexample,ithasbeenestimatedthatifinsteadofproducing14millionMtofplasticpackaging,onlysevenmillionMthadbeenproducedin2006,14.85millionMtCO2ecouldhavebeenavoided(CIEL,2019).InthissamereportCIELreferstoanotherstudyconductedbyUSEPA,evaluatingtheclimatechangebenefitsofdifferentwastemanagementmethodsof16typesofwastematerialsincludingthreetypesofplastic(HDPE,LDPE,andPolyethyleneterephthalate-PET),suchaswasteprevention,recycling,composting,incineration,andlandfilling.Thestudyshowsthatplasticwastepreventionyieldsthebiggestclimatebenefits,with18millionMtofCO2ereductionifwastegenerationdroppedto1990levelsandconcludesthatplasticsubstitutes,reuse,andrecyclingresultinnegativenetGHGemissions,whilecombustionaddstotheclimateburdenbyincreasingemissions(CIEL,2019).Internationalinitiativesonplasticsaremostlyframedinthepursuitofclimate-resilient,pollution-freemanufacturingandsustainabletradesystemswhicharegoalssharedbybothdevelopinganddevelopednations.Thisisattestedbycountries’commitmentstotheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,expressedintheDeclarationoftheUnitedNationsOceanConferenceOurOcean,OurFuture:CallforAction(UNGA,2017),recentUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssembly(UNEA)5.2resolutions(UNEA,2022),theplasticwasteBaselconventionamendments,aswellasthelatestmultilaterallydefinedUNCTADmandateintheBridgetownCovenant(UNCTAD,2021d).Thesecommitmentsrecognizethatcountriescanonlyrisetothechallengesbyworkingtogetherandthatholisticapproachesareadopted.Thatis,embracingworldwidemeasurestoReduce,Reuse,Recycle,aglobal3Rsinitiativeto“reducewasteanditsgeneration,improvingmechanismsforenvironmentally-soundwastemanagement,disposalandrecycling,anddevelopingsubstitutessuchasreusableorrecyclableproducts,orproductsbiodegradableundernaturalconditions”(UNCTAD,2021a,p1.).Apartfromstronginternationalefforts,thereareregulatorymeasuresonplasticpollutionatthenationallevel,allofwhichrecognizetheimportanceofactingonallplasticstreams.Atpresent,however,themostusedmeasurehasbeentoban,taxorregulatecertainsingle-useplasticobjects,suchasbagsanddisposablecutlery–asof2021morethan30countriesimplementedthistypeofpolicy.Allfollowedbypoliciessuchasextendedproducerresponsibilitywhicharebeingimplementedinmanydevelopednationsandexploredacrossdevelopingcountries,andparticularlySIDS.Intermsofinitiatives,thetrendissimilartowhatisobservedatthegloballevel:mostfundingisdirectedtodownstreammanagementoftheplasticlifecycle.Yet,somecountriesareexploringthedevelopmentoflabsforplasticsubstitutesorprovidingfundsforthedevelopmentofsustainablesubstitutesaroundnaturalfibres,especiallyforthetextileandpackagingindustries,mulchfilmsforfoodandagricultureandmorebiodegradablefishingnets(UNCTAD,2021b;SMEP2022).61.2.1UpstreaminitiativesCurrently,therearelimitedeffortsdedicatedto“upstream”plasticreduction(Akenjietal.,2019).Thisdespitethefactthatdevelopingsubstitutestoplastics,repurposing,reuse,arewidelyrecommendedinallglobalassessments(aswellasattheregionalandnationallevels).Theproductionofplasticssubstitutescanfavorthedevelopmentofcirculareconomies,aremoreinclusiveofotherformsofwastereducing6ThroughacompetitiveprocessSMEPhasselectedandfinanciallysupportedhighimpactprojectsinprogram’stargetedregionswithpracticalplasticspollutionmitigationsolutionsandfocusingondemonstratinglongtermfeasibilityofsolutionsandpotentialsforuptake:https://smepprogramme.org/procurement/plastics-intervention/7CHAPTER1:PLASTICSANDTHEENVIRONMENTcostsandmovingawayfromplasticproductionandconsumptioncangreatlycontributetoreducingGHGemissions.EspeciallyGHGemissionsresultingfromvirginplasticandmanufacturingofplastic,andultimatelyreducingplasticwastemanagement.Furthermore,somestudiesshowthatplasticwastepreventionreducesGHGemissionsthemostandyieldsthebiggestclimatebenefits(CIEL,2019).LeadinguptotheStockholm+50inJune2022,ChathamHouse’sEnvironmentandSocietyProgrammeheldvariousconsultationswithdifferentstakeholdersonthekeyareasthatneededaglobalcoordinationtoadvancethecirculareconomyandemphasizeupstreaminitiativestoproduceandconsumemoresustainably.Thisprocessresultedinasetofrecommendations,aso-calledGlobalroadmapforaninclusivecirculareconomyforStockholm+50(SchröderandBarrie,2022)thatwoulddecisivelyandeffectivelyaddressclimatemitigation,enhancebiodiversitygain,preventpollution,andcontributetohumandevelopment.1.2.2MidstreaminitiativesWhereasupstreaminitiativesarecrucialtoaddressingtheproblemsatthesourceandthusdesignpolicyinitiativesthatnotonlyemphasizebutactivelyenablecirculareconomy,midstreaminitiativestackleplasticsdirectlyduringthemanufacturingphase.Atpresent,onekeyglobalinitiativefocusingonthemidstreamcycleistheSustainableManufacturingandEnvironmentalPollution(SMEP)programme,fundedbytheUnitedKingdomandimplementedinpartnershipwithUNCTADuntil2026.Alongsidelookingatplasticsproduction,SMEPaimstoreducepollutionatthemanufacturingstage,ratherthancleaningitupafterrelease,thusbeingaconcreteapplicationofcircularityprinciples(Hiraetal.,2022).ThisprogramiscurrentlybeingimplementedinAfrica,SouthAsiaandintheIndo-Pacificregion.Severalcasestudieshavealreadybeenproducedonthepossibilityofchangesinthemanufacturingprocess,usingupcycledplasticsinthemanufacturingstage,aswellasthedevelopmentofsubstitutestoplasticswhichwouldbenon-toxic,biodegradable,erodableandconducivetothedevelopmentoflocalproductivecapacities(SMEP,2022).UNCTAD’sOceansEconomyandFisheriesProgramisseekingtocontributetotheshiftfromtheuseofplasticpolymersmaterials,towardsanincreasedsupplyanduseofsustainablematerialsubstitutessuchasnaturalfibresandbiomasscomingfromagriculturalwastesandalgaethatcanhavelowerimpactsonmarineecosystems(UNCTAD,2021a).InaccordancewithSDG14.1:“by2025,preventandsignificantlyreducemarinepollutionofallkinds,inparticularfromland-basedactivities,includingmarinedebrisandnutrientpollution”aswellasconclusionsandrecommendationsonplasticlitterandotheroceanwastechallengesmadeatthe4thUnitedNationsOceansForumonTraderelatedaspectsofSDG14(seeAnnex1)(UNCTAD,2022),whichemphasizedmoresupporttoplasticwastemanagement,promoting“materialsubstitutestoplasticsviadifferentiatedtaxstrategies,regulations,industrialpolicy,andgreenpublicprocurement”,andalsothe“furtherdevelopmentoftheHSSystembytheinclusionofspecialclassificationsrelevanttomaterialsubstitutesandalternativestofacilitatetheadjustmentoftariffschedulesthatwillpromotematerialsubstitutesandalternativestoplastics,anddisincentivizetradeinhighlypolluting,single-useplasticsandhazardousplasticmaterials,controlplasticwastetrade,facilitatetradeofservicesnecessaryforwasteavoidance,management,andrecycling;andsupportthedevelopmentofexportmarketsformaterialsubstitutesandalternatives,includinghigh-qualityrecycledplastics”.SupportedbytheEUROTrustFundfinancedbytheEuropeanUnionRegularProgramoftechnicalCooperation,aprogramSWITCHtocirculareconomyvaluechainsledbytheUnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization(UNIDO)aimstosupportMSME(micro-,small,andmediumsized)suppliersthroughoutselectedvaluechainstoadoptcirculareconomypractices.UNIDO’sprojectisfocusingonEuropeanUnionsupplierswhoneedtechnicalandfinancialassistancetoswitchtoacirculareconomymodelinsectorssuchasplasticpackagingortextilesandgarments.8PLASTICPOLLUTIONTheEuropeanUnionagendaoncombatingtherootcausesofclimatechange,whichincludesreducingdramaticlevelsofplasticpollutionisintroducingtheSustainableProductsInitiative(SPI),whichplanstomakesustainableproductsthenormaiming“tomakeeveryaspectofthedesign,production,useandsaleofproductsplacedontheEuropeanUnionmarketmoreenvironmentally-friendlyandcirculartodeliveronthesustainabilityandclimateobjectives”(Euractive,2022).TheSPIwillhaveprofoundconsequencesforbothEuropeanUnionandnon-EuropeanUnionupstreamproducersandsupplierswhowillneedtoadaptdesignandproductionmethodstomeettheincreasedrequirements.1.2.3DownstreaminitiativesBasedoncurrentinformation,themajorityoffundingandpolicyattentionisdirectedtowardsinitiativesassociatedwiththedownstreamstageoftheplasticlifecycle(Portsmouth,2023).Theseinitiativeshavemadesignificantprogressinbecomingmoreeffective,suchasadvancementsintechnologiesfortrackingend-of-lifematerials,designingproductstoreducewaste(e.g.,byusinglessplasticormakingrecyclingeasier),aswellasnewrecyclingtechnologiesandeffortstocleantheoceans.Designofpoliciesandinitiativesmustnotonlyconsiderovercomingplasticpollutionanditsdamageatthenationallevelbuttakedueconsiderationofothercountriestowhichplasticwastemaybeexportedandcountriesthataremostaffectedsimplybecauseoftheirgeographicallocationorinternalcharacteristics.Thus,linesofactionsandfunding–especiallythosethatarebeingimplementedinaconcertedmannerattheinternationallevel–musttakeintoconsiderationdifferencesamongcountriesandtheiruniquechallenges.Forexample,SIDSareespeciallyvulnerabletoplastics-relateddangersdueto,amongotherreasons,limitedrecyclingcapacityandspacetodisposeofwaste.Fortheseeconomiessupportisrequirednotonlyintermsofcleaningplasticwastebutalsoinreducingdependenceonfossilfuelgeneratedpolymersbydevelopingemergingindustriesrelatedtoplasticssubstitutes.Supportthatmustprotectcountriesfromenvironmentalhazards,sustainmainsourcesoflivelihood,andcreateusefulemploymentandeconomicdevelopmentopportunities(VivasandBarrowclough,2021).OneofthemoreinnovativedownstreamprogramswasdevelopedbytheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)tosupportcountriesintheireffortstoreduceplasticpollutionbyusingnuclearscienceandtechnology.Theprogram,NUclearTEChnologyforControllingPlasticPollution(NUTECPlastics),istacklingplasticsintheirrecyclingphaseusingradiationtechnologyandmarinemonitoringusingisotopictracingtechniquestotransformitintoreusableresources(IAEA,2021).TheIAEAissupportingnucleartechniquesresearchprojectstoi)monitorandassessmarineplasticpollution,andii)improveplasticwasterecyclingandupcycling.2STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESSELECTEDPRODUCTGROUPS10PLASTICPOLLUTION2.Stateofplayofplasticssubstitutes:selectedproductgroupsNowadays,alternativestoplasticgobeyondtraditionalmaterialssuchasglass,aluminum,paper,ceramics,andclay.Newsubstitutesareconstantlybeingdevelopedandmayprovideanopportunitytostartproductionofentirelynewproductsbasedonpre-existingrawmaterialsandwiththattosupportmoreholisticorinclusivecirculareconomies.Forexample,naturalfibres(e.g.,fromcoconut,palm),ororganicwastesuchascropresiduesandtheirassociatedproducts(e.g.,bagasseandcornhusks).Undeniably,themovetowardsplasticssubstitutesrequiresinnovation,newdesigns,andsustainablebusinessmodelsthatencouragethelowestenvironmentalimpact.Forexample,businessmodelsformaterialsubstitutesshouldapplycirculareconomyprinciplesandavoidperpetuatingalinearproductionandconsumptionpattern.Thisincludestheentirevaluechain,fromnewmaterials(suchasbagasse)toinnovativetechnologies(suchas“smartbuoys”inthefishingindustry)andnewtypesoffinancing,suchasbluefinancinginstruments.7Innovationsneedtotakeplaceacrossallplasticproductsforalltypesofindustries,yetproductsdiscardedafteroneyearorlessofusemakeup40percentofallplasticwaste,andhavebecomeaseriousconcernforwastemanagementeverywhere(Hiraetal.2022).Suchproductsaremostlyfoundinproductgroupssuchaspackaging,singleuseplastics,textiles,aswellastheagriculturalsector–mulch–andfishingsector–abandoned,lost,ordiscardedfishinggear(ALDFG).Furthermore,theseareusuallyshort-livedproductsthataccountforalmosttwo-thirdsofplasticwaste;packagingwastealoneconstitutes42percentofglobalplasticwastegenerated(OECD,2022a).Sincethefocusofthedocumentisonplasticsubstitutesonly,thesectionfocusesonlyonpotentialsubstitutestoplasticsclustersthatcontributethemosttoplasticwasteandputasignificantpressureoncountries’wastemanagementsystemcapacities.Thereportconcentratesonplasticsubstitutesthatcouldpotentiallyreplaceplasticproductsfromthefollowingclusters:2.1IdenticationofselectedplasticsubstitutesFirstglobalassessmentAtpresentincreasinguseorinnovationonmaterialsforpolymersreplacementaretwofold:1.Plasticssubstitutes:naturalmaterialsfrommineral,plant,animal,marineorforestryoriginthathavesimilarpropertiestoplastics.Theydonotincludefossilfuel-basedorsyntheticpolymers,bioplastics,andbiodegradableplastics.Plasticsubstitutesshouldhavealowerenvironmentalimpactalongtheirlifecycle(e.g.,naturalfibres,agriculturalwastes,andotherformsofbiomass).Dependingonthecase,theyshouldbebiodegradable/compostableorerodable,andshouldbesuitableforreuse,recycling,orsoundwastedisposalasdefinedbynational,regionalregulationsorininternationallyagreeddefinitions.Theycanincludeby-products.Plasticsubstitutesshouldnotbehazardousforhuman,animal,orplantlife.7https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/turning-tide-plastic-pollution-through-regional-collaboration-southeast-asiaTextiles3Productspartofpackaging2Singleuseplastics1Mulchagriculturalsector4ALDFGshingsector511CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTES2.Plasticalternatives:Theycanincludebioplasticsorbiodegradableplastics.Bioplasticsmeansbio-basedpolymersmaterials(e.g.,byusingvegetablefatsandoils,cornstarch,straw,woodchips,sawdust,andrecycledfoodwaste)andshouldbesubjecttomaterialrecycling.Biodegradableplasticsreferstotheendoflifeofplastics,indicatingthattheybiodegradeinthenaturalenvironment,orthattheycanbecomposted.Theycanincludetheirby-products.PlasticalternativesshouldhavelowerGHGlifecycleemissionswhencomparedtoplasticsandnotbehazardousforhuman,animal,orplantlife.Accesstoinputs,costs,quality,andenvironmentalimpactforbothplasticsubstitutesandplasticalternativesarematerial,productandcountryspecific.AsmentionedintheIntroduction,thefocusofthispaperisonenvironmentallyfriendlyplasticsubstitutes.Therefore,anytypeoffossilfuels-basedpolymersandsyntheticfibresaswellasanyformofplasticalternatives–suchasbioplasticsandbiodegradableplastics–areexcludedfromthescopeofthispaper.Whenanalyzingenvironmentalimpactofplasticsubstitutes,acase-by-casescenarioshouldbetakenateverystepofthevaluechainasthelowest-carbonmaterialdoesnotalwayshavethehighestutilization,compostability,recyclability,oruseofrecycledcontent(Feber,2022).Forexample,theenvironmentalimpactofproducingacertainrawmaterialmaydifferacrosscountriesassomesoilsmayrequirehigherlevelsoffertilizersorevenofpesticides.Furthermore,incertaincountries,somerawmaterialsmaybeatadisadvantagewithrespecttoothermaterialsduetopastregulationsthathamperedthedevelopmentofthatindustryorfarming(SMEP,2021b).Figure2.Plasticsubstitutesvs.plasticalternativesPLASTICSUBSTITUTESPLASTICALTERNATIVESNaturalmaterialsexcludingfossil-basedorsyntheticpolymersBioplasticsorBiodegradableplastics(usuallypolymersmaterialsproducesfromrenewablebiomasssources)Mineral,plant,marineoranimaloriginVegetablefatsandoils,cornstarch,straw,wood-chips,sawdust,andrecycledfoodwasteSimilarpropertiesoffossilfuel-basedplasticsShouldbesubjecttomaterialrecycling,biode-gradeinthenaturalenvironmentorthatcanbecomposted(endoflife)Shouldbebiodegradable/compostableorerodable,andshouldbesuitableforreuse,recycling,orsoundwastedisposalShouldhavelowerenvironmentalimpactalongtheirlifecycle(e.g.,naturalfibres,agriculturalwastes,andotherformsofbiomass)Canincludeby-productsCanincludeby-productsShouldnotbeharzardousforhuman,animalorplantlifeShouldnotbeharzardousforhuman,animalorplantlifeNON-PLASTICSBETTERPLASTICSSource:VivasEugui&Pacini(2022).BasedonpresentationonplasticsubstitutesHScodes,Life-cycleanalysisandtariffsconsiderations.WTODialogueonPlastics.12PLASTICPOLLUTIONTechnicalcharacteristics:Performancesacricesandperformanceimprovementscomparedtostatusquo:airpermeability,waterpermeability,watersolubility,tensilestrength,colorfastness,UVfastness,endoflifeandcircularity-canthematerialberecycledand/orreused,caneconomicvaluebecapturedatendoflife,whatarethecostsassociatedwithendoflife,arethesecostsandpro-cessesdifferentindifferentregions,countries,cities,etc.,willthematerialbesubjecttoexistingoremergingExtendedProducerResponsibilityregimes,doesthematerialbreakdownnaturallyin30,90,or365dayswithoutextraenzymesorinputs,canthematerialentermunicipalrecycling,waste,orcompoststreamsandinwhichlocations,isthematerialbackyardcompostablein30days,whichindustrycerticationsdoesthematerialhold,etc.Resiliencecharacteristicsand“hiddencosts”:Therisksandbenetsthatarenotdirectlycap-turedincostofgoodsandmaterialperformance:equipmentandhandlingrequirementsbyinter-mediateprocessors,includingnewmachineryandnewtrainingrequiredtoworkwithsubstitutes,andfrequencyofmachineryreplacementandretraining;failureratesandmanufacturertolerances;repairability–potentialandcost;supplydisruptionrisk,presentdayand5-25yearsforward–wherearethematerialsproduced,wherecantheybeproduced,whoproducesthem,howmanytotallocationscanthematerialstheoreticallybeproducedatcommercialvolumesandexistingcost,andwhatwillthislooklikemovingforward;orderleadtimes,atdifferentvolumes;upperandlowerca-pacityconstraints–maxandminorderquantitiesaswellasability,limits,andtimeframetoscaleupproduction,includingpricingeffectsSocialandenvironmentalcharacteristics:Thewaythesematerialsaffectpeopleandplaces:localcommunityengagementandfamiliaritywiththematerials–i.e.,levelofindigenousknowledgeandin-digenoussupportpresent,leveloflocalpoliticalknowledgeandsupportpresent;substitution–effectofnewdemandonlanduseandlocaleconomy;wateruse:isproductionofthematerialdivertingorpollutingpotableornon-potablewater;emissions:isproduction,use,anddisposalofthemate-rialincreasingordecreasingstatusquoCO2eemissions;industrialsupport:ismaterialproductioncreatingnewbusinessopportunitiesoremploymentopportunitiesinplaceswithhighunemploymentand/orlimitedadvancedindustrialopportunities?Source:ContributionsbyFortunaCools(2022),Workshoponsustainableandeffectivesubstitutesandalternativesforplastics.Box2.FortunaCoolsonkeyidentifyingcriteriaforenvironmentallysustainableandeffectivesubstitutematerialsWhenintroducingpotentialsubstitutestoplasticproductsfromtheselectedfiveclusters–singleuseplastics,productspartofpackaging,textiles,mulch,ALDFG–severalcharacteristicsoftheirpotentialuseshouldbeconsidered:•Properties.Plasticsubstitutesareconstantlyevolvingtohavesimilarphysicalpropertiestoplastics.Moreandnewplasticsubstitutesareemergingreachingthequalityandfeaturesfoundintheequivalentplasticproduct(e.g.,strength,flexibility,lightness,andmalleability)atcompetitivecost.Additionally,newproductsbasedonmaterialsubstitutesstrivetohavealowerenvironmentalfootprintthanplastics.Forexample,theSMEPandOceansprogramsinUNCTADfindabundantlocallyavailablesubstitutenaturalmaterialswhicharealreadybeingusedtoproduce,forexample,clothbags,woodencutlery,bagassepackaging,allofwhichhavelowerenvironmentalfootprintsthanplasticandmostofwhichcanbepricecompetitivetoplastics.•Newbusinessmodels.Anincreasingnumberofplasticsubstituteproductsacrossallfiveclustersabove,areusingbusinessmodelsthatpromotesustainablecirculareconomiesand13CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESnontraditionalfinancing.Manyareusingcropresiduesorwastefromothercommoditiesthatwouldusuallybediscarded,andlaboratoriesthataredevelopingthesetechnologiesstartwiththeirownseedfundsorthosefromtheirassociations,andarereceivingfundsfromgovernmentprograms–e.g.,intheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland,Canada,Spain,ornationalnot-for-profitorganizations.•Foodsystem.Materialsreplacingplasticsmaybeproducedusinginputsthatcouldbeotherwiseusedasfood,forinstance,corn.Thisconcerncanbeevenmorerelevantinthecaseofbioplastics(plasticalternative).Thisisavalidconcernbutlimitedtoveryfewinputswhenrelatedtofoodproducts.Newproductdevelopment–especiallyplasticssubstitutesmadeofnaturalmaterialsorbiomass–areusingwasteordiscardedbiomassinstead,e.g.,husks,bagasse,bananaandfishskin,etc.Thisis,however,amatterthatmustbetrackedandgivendueconsiderationsotopreventnegativeimpactsonfoodsystems,andundesirabletrade-offsbetweensocial,environmentaloreveneconomicimpacts.•Negativeexternalities.Theproductionofsomeplasticsubstitutesmayincreasethegenerationofnegativeexternalities–e.g.,overuseofwoodcouldleadtobiodiversityloss,deforestation,waterpollutionandGHGemissions.Anature-basedapproach,usingresidues,suchastheutilizationofagriculturalwastescannotonlyyieldbetterresultsthanplasticsbutwillingeneralhavefewernegativeexternalities.(SeeBox1forillustrationonthecaseofbagasse,achanneltoexpandagriculturalcircularity).•Manufacturingcapacity.Newnaturalsubstitutesarechallengedtorampupmanufacturingcapacity(SMEP2022).Whilemanyproductsareavailabletoreplaceplasticsundertheclustersidentified,theirproductiondoesnotyethavethescaletoprovideafullsubstitutioninlocalorinternationalmarkets.Financingandtimeboundpublicsupporttomeetproductexpectationsorcopewiththecurrentorpotentialdemandpotentialareamongthemostimportantstumblingblocksfordevelopingorscaling-upsubstitutesforplastics.Additionally,theproductionofnewsubstitutescanbecountry-specificdependingonavailablebiomass(e.g.,availabilityofcoconut,plantorwoolfibres).Hence,someproductsmaybeadapted/tailoredtoscaleuptheirreachatthenationaland/orinternationalleveldependingonthecase.•Organicwasteopportunities.Newdevelopmentsinsubstitutescanenablenewmethodstouseanddisposeoforganicinputs.Forexample,extendeduseofplasticsubstitutesmayneedthedevelopmentofcompostableortreatmentoforganicwastessuchascottonandothernaturalbasedtextiles.Mostofthesedevelopmentsaretakingplacelocally,yettheseservicesandmethodscanbeexported–e.g.,atpresenttheEuropeanUnionandFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)areprovidingtrainingonproductionanddisposaloforganicmulchapplications.Bagasseisthebrouspartofasugarcanestalkthat’sleftoverafterextractingthejuiceandiscon-sideredaveryimportantagriculturalwastegeneratedinsmallislandsdevelopingcountries.Oftenthispartofthesugarcaneisdiscarded,incinerated,orusedasabiomasssourceforsugarmills.Transformingsugarcanestalksintoproductsisgivingthemanewlifeasrawmaterials.Becauseitisanon-ediblebyproductoffoodproduction,thismaterialisconsideredanextremelyrenewableresource.Avarietyofdifferentproductscanbeproducedfrombagasse,paperincludingpackagingproducts,foodpackagingproducts(notleastcupsandbowls),textiles,biofuels,andevenfurniture.Asapaperalternative,itcanreducewoodusagebymorethan52percent.Itcanreplacethemate-rialscommonlyusedtomakecardboardboxes,plywood,particleboard,andStyrofoam.BagassealsohasimportantspecicmaterialbenetswithrespecttopaperproductsinfoodpackagingandBox3.Anexampleofbagasseandcopra/coconutbreandtheirmultipleapplications14PLASTICPOLLUTIONStyrofoamsuchastolerancetohightemperatures(upto200°F),greaseandwaterresistance,dura-bility,freezerandmicrowavesafe,highinsulationproperties(internaltemperaturemaintenance)andalongershelflife(bagassebreishighlyporous,itabsorbsextramoistureandpromotesbreathabil-ityandadrierenvironmentfortheproduce).Moregenerally,thebenetsofbagassecanbegroupedintothreecategories:•Renewable–Around1.2billiontonsofsugarcaneareproducedannually.Fromthis,100milliontonsofbagassearecreatedeachyear.Whilesomeofthisbagasseisburnedasbiofuel,muchisdiscarded.Bagassepackagingproductionfindsanewpurposeforthisagriculturalbyproductthatwouldotherwisehavebeendisposedof,reducingwasteandsupportingfarmers.•Biodegradable–Althoughitisdesirablethatallproductsendupinlocalcompostingfacilities,therealityisthatalargeshareofitoftendoesnot.Asbagasseisbiodegradable,thiscanbreakdownonitsownovertime(itcanbiodegradewithin30to90days–oneofthefastest)and,dependingontheotherinputsusedintheproduct,itmaynotcontaminatelandfillsorroadsonwhichthebagasse-madeproductmayendup.•Compostable–Incommercialcompostingfacilities,post-consumersugarcaneproductscanbreakdownin60days,bagassecanbecompostedentirely.Whencomposted,bagasseturnsintoanutrient-richfertilizerofnitrogen,potassium,phosphorus,andcalcium.TheUNCTADsupportedproject“FosteringgreenexportsthroughVoluntarySustainabilityStandards(VSS)”hasdevelopedanapproachtoassistdevelopingcountriesinbuildingtheirca-pacitiestoachievesustainablegrowththroughgreenexports.InthecaseofVanuatu,UNCTAD,byusingtheVSSAssessmentToolkit,identiedcopra/coconutasahigh-potentialvegetablebresec-torforexports,whichcurrentlyprovidesalivelihoodfor80percentoftheruralpopulation.Focus-ingoncrudecoconut,virgincoconutoil,rened,bleachedanddeodorizedoilfordomestictouristmarketsorhigh-valueinternationalmarkets,thesewerealreadyorganicthuswithanenormouspo-tentialtoscaleandexpand,buttheyfacedrestrictionswhen,forexample,theyneededcerticationsfortheirproducts.In2019UNCTADsupportedVanuatu’smulti-stakeholderCoconutSummitthatadoptedanactionplaninsupportoftheimplementationoftheVanuatuNationalCoconutStrategy2016-2025,outliningactionsneededtodiversifytheircoconut-basedexportsfrom4productsto10bytheyear2025.Source:Compiledbytheauthors,basedonSugarcaneFibrePackagingGuide.Note:Styrofoamisaknownenvironmentalhazard,anditpresentssomehumanhealthhazards,too.Ittakes500yearsormoretobreakdownandconsumes30percentofthespaceineverylandll.Moreover,20percentofSty-rofoamdoesn’tendupinalandllatall,insteadpollutingouroceansandlitteringourground.DespitelegislationinseveralstatesbanningStyrofoam,itspopularitypersists.ItsacceptanceisdependentmostlyonitbeinglightweightandcosteffectiveandthefactthatitcanmaintaininternaltemperatureSee:https://www.freshplaza.com/article/9098139/sugarcane-based-packaging-allows-breathability-and-creates-a-drier-environment/.Box3.(cont.)Anexampleofbagasseandcopra/coconutbreandtheirmultipleapplications15CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTES2.2TowardanextendedlistofmaterialsandproductsubstitutesforplasticsAtpresentalisting,ortracking,ofallplasticsubstitutesthatarebeingdevelopeddoesnotexist.Thisisaprocessinthemakingthatcanonlybeapproachedbycontinuouslyidentifyingsubstitutesthatcanhavesimilarphysicalpropertiestofossilfuel-basedplasticsonacase-by-casebasis.Similarly,informationoneachproductclusterisscatteredacrossdifferentsources.Thecurrentstateoftheproductcluster–thesimilaritiesacrosseachproductcluster–studiedinthispaperispresentedinanutshellbelow.Thediscussionisbasedoncasestudiesanddisclosedbynovelenterprises.AnextendedillustrativelistofmaterialsandproductsubstitutesforplasticsinselectedclustersispresentedinTable1;alistofcorrespondingHScodesisprovidedinAnnex2.Plasticsubstitutesdiscussedinthisreportcouldpotentiallyreplaceplasticproductsfromthefollowingclusters:Table1.IllustrativelistofplasticsubstitutesfromselectedclustersTraditionalsubstitutesTextilesMulchPackaging/SUPTextiles/pack/SUPAluminumCeramicsClayCottonGlassPaperWoodNaturalfibresandwoolsArecaleavesBananaleaves,stem,orfibresBamboofibresFruitpeelsBeeswax-coatedclothDownGrapewastePineappleleavesTofuwasteSilkVariousanimalwools(alpaca,angora,cash-mere,sheep,etc.)HayLeatherRayStrawSeaweedfilmandfibresWhitecloverWoodbarkWoodchipWoolBananaleavesandpaperCalabashhardshellCaseinCottonlintersMushroomRayonRicepaperSeaweedandfruitpeelsfilmsandpaperWoodbarkBalsawoodBambooCellulosenanofibresCoconuthusksCoirCorkCorn-basedCottonFlaxFishskinorresiduesHempJuteLeatherMicrobialcelluloseofmixedvegetablesandbacteriaNettlesSeaweed-brownandredalgaebyproductsSilkSisalSugarcane-bagasseOtherplantmaterialsPlantwasteWheathusksWoodpulpWoodchipSource:Compiledbytheauthors.16PLASTICPOLLUTION2.2.1SubstitutesforsynthetictextilesBothsyntheticandnaturalfibres,oramixofboth,arewidelyusedbythetextile,fashion,andinternalhomedesignindustriesworldwide,notonlyforclothing(shortproductlife)butalsofornumeroushome,officeandindustrialproductssuchasfurniture,carpets,curtains,cushionsandgeotextiles(longproductlife).Theglobalmarketfortextileswasestimatedat$575billionin2022withacompoundannualgrowthrateof8.3percentdrivenbychangingconsumerdemands,onlineshopping,andfastfashionbusinessmodelsamongothers(ReportLinker,2022).Syntheticfibresaremadeofsyntheticmaterialsusuallygeneratedthroughchemicalprocesses.SincetheXIXcenturythetextileindustryhasbeencreatingalargevarietyofsyntheticfibresderivedfrompolymerssuchaspolyesterandnylonastheyarecheaper,wateranduseresistant,andmoreeasilymass-producedthanmostnaturalfibres.AccordingtoUNCTAD’sPlasticTradedatabase(UNCTAD,2022c),in2020theglobalexportsofsynthetictextileswere$169billioninvalueand61.5milliontonsinvolume.Naturalfibresarefibresthataremadeofnaturalmaterialsthatcomefromplants,animals,orevenminerals.Plant-basednaturalfibresincludecotton,linen,jute,hempandsisalwhileanimal-basednaturalfibresincludesilkanddiversewools.Naturalfibreshavetheadvantageofabsorptivecapacity,warmth,durability,biodegradability,andcompostability.Whilemanynaturalfibreshavebeenaroundsinceneolithictimes,thisisperhapstheareawheremoreexistingandnovelmaterialsubstitutesandproductsareemergingsuchasarecaleaves,bananaleavesorstem,bamboofibres,seaweedfibres,beeswax-coatedcloth,grapewaste,pineappleleaves(seebox3forthecaseofbanana,bamboo,andotherfibres).Awiderrangeofnaturalsourcesforfibreproductioncouldaddressissuessuchaspriceandversatilityinfunctions,propertiesandusevisavissyntheticmaterial.Additionally,manynaturalfibresarehighlyfashionableinhigh-endvalue-addedconsumerproductssuchasthecaseofalpaca,cashmere,camel,andnaturalsilkproducts.Recently,duetoconsumerdemandformoresustainableclothing,someenterpriseshavestartedresearchandproductdevelopmentofmoresustainablenaturalbresbasedonbiomassandag-riculturalwastes.Theshareofbiomassinsocalled“sustainableclothing”canvaryfrommarkettomarket,havingsomestrictercriteriaonminimumsharebiomassuse,useoforganicagriculturalpracticesandnoorlowmixwithsyntheticinputs.Onelineofthistrendisthedirectuse(andsome-timesexclusiveuse)ofnaturalfibresfrommaterialssuchasbananaandbamboofibres.Forexample,Bananatex®aPhilippineenterpriseistheworld’srstdurable,technicalfabricmadepurelyfromthenaturallygrownAbacábananaplantsandnaturaldyes.CultivatedinthePhilippinehighlandswithinanaturalecosystemofsustainablemixedagricultureandforestry,theplantisself-sufcient,requiresnopesticides,fertilizer,orextrawater.Thesequalitieshaveallowedittocontrib-utetoreforestationinareasonceerodedduetomonoculturalpalmplantations,whilstenhancingbiodiversityandtheeconomicprosperityofitsfarmers.ProductsbyBananatexincludelightweight,standard,heavyweightbres.InSwitzerland,theenterpriseCalida®hasdevelopednightclothingbasedonbiomaterialsbresthatareassustainableaspossibleincludingbamboo,brownalgae,andcellulosebres(e.g.,withTencel®technology).Italsouses,forcertainclothingparts,100percentrecyclednylonobtainedfromoldshingnets.Mainadvantagesofthesebiomass-basedbresfortextilesinclude:regulationoftemperature,an-tibacterial,fastdrying,lowornoallergicreaction,biodegradable,andcompostable.Theycanalsoassistinreducingbiodiversitylossandprovideforalternativelivelihoodsforcommunitiesatthelowerlevelsofthevaluechain.AnotherexampleisseaweedusedbythePeruvianstartupBiopencil®Box4.Banana,bamboo,andotherbiomass-basedbres17CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTES2.2.2Agriculture:MulchPlasticmulchiswidelyusedintheagriculturalsectorbecauseofitsmanybenefits,includingmoistureretention,weedcontrol,andsoilwarming(FAO,2021)–itisestimatedthatintheUnitedStatesalone,farmersusearound1billionpoundsofplasticperyearforcrops,andabout143,300tonsofplasticmulcheachyearforvegetableproduction(EIP-AGRI,2020;Velandiaetal,2020).Thishasasignificantnegativeenvironmentalimpactasplasticdebrisremaininthefarmers’fields:“everytimeacrophadbeenharvestedandthesoilwasploughed,manysmallpiecesofthemulchfilmcouldbefoundmixedinwiththesoil”(EIP-AGRI,2020).Consideringthesechallenges,andtheimportanceofmulchforproductivityandevenclimateadaptation,manysubstitutesandmethodstouseorganicmulchhavebeendeveloped.Thetypeofmulch,orthetechnique,dependsonthecroporplant(FAO,2021).Forinstance,studiesconductedonpapermulchshowthatitkeepssoilconsistentlycoolerthanplasticmulch,8thistypeishenceusuallyrecommendedforcoolerseasoncrops.Othertypesofmulchincludebio-basedspray-onmulch,9suchasthosemadefromagriculturalresidues,arestillbeingtested.Regardingorganicmulches(suchasstraw,striptilling,compostmulch,woodchips,woolmulch),studiesindicatethatthesehavethesamebenefitsasplasticmulch,andtheycanbeusefulforsomepestmanagement,yetitmaynotbeappropriateforallcrops.Therearealsonewpracticesthatcanbeused,suchaslivingmulches(1)betweenrows(using,forexample,whiteclover,winterrye),or(2)withinrows(usuallyforfieldcrops,butvegetablefarmersarestartingtousethem)(Hoidal,2021).Theseandotherpracticesarebeingtestedto,forexample,providesolutionsforacceleratingthemulchdegradationprogress,10supportOperationalGroupsintheframeworkofagriculturalEuropeanInnovationPartnership(EIP-AGRI).11ElizadeUniversityinNigeriaincollaborationwiththeCouncilforScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR),SouthAfricaareworkingonaprojectsupportedbytheSMEPprogramtodevelopbiodegradablemulchfilms(BDM)byusinglocallyavailablenaturalpolymerssuchasstarchandotheradditivestocustomizebiodegradationratesofmulches,toreplacethecurrentnon-biodegradablePolyethylene(PE)mulchfilms(SMEP,2022).ThisbiodegradablemulchisspecificallyadaptedtoAfricanclimatecropcyclesandhasthepotentialtobeexpandedandscaledtomanycountriesinAfricaandSouthAsia,addressingabigchallengeofremovingmicroplasticsfromsoilandaquaticsystems,hence,improvinghumanandecologicalhealth.8Papermulchbenefitsisinpartduetothelightercolorofplasticmulches,whichtendtobetantobrown,whilstblackpapermulchesarenowavailableinthemarket.9Whichistheresultofcollaborationbetweenentrepreneurs,forinstance,researchersinMorrisandAURI.10Forexample,theSpanishOperationalGroupprojectAColchadosBioDegradables(GO-ACBD)availableathttps://ec.europa.eu/eip/agriculture/en/news-events/press-media/press-release/biodegradable-mulch-films-reduce-plastic-footprint/.11Asoutlinedonthewebsitehttps://ec.europa.eu/eip/agriculture/en/european-innovation-partnership-agricultural/.torevolutionizethewaywewrite,andwiththattoprotecttheenvironmentandcreatenewjobop-portunitiesforshingcommunities.“Theworldconsumes14billionpencilseveryyear.TheNewYorkStockExchangealoneuses2million.Whileittakesatree10to14yearstobepencil-ready,ittakesjusttwoweeksforatradertoturnapencilintosawdust(UNCTAD,2018b)”.Toavoidcuttingdowntrees,thecompanydevelopedanenvironmentallyfriendlypenciloutofalgaecultivatedandprocessedbylocalcoastalcommunities.Source:Compiledbytheauthors,basedonhttps://www.bananatex.info/products_EN.htmlandhttps://www.calida.com/en-CH/cms/sustainability/materials/.Box4.(cont.)Banana,bamboo,andotherbiomass-basedbres18PLASTICPOLLUTIONSeaweedhasbeenknownandconsumedforcenturies,butonlyrecentlywithsufcienttechnologyavailableandnancialsupportforsustainableseaweed-derivedbioactivecompoundstobeex-ploredtosubstituteplasticpackaging–includingforfood,cosmetic,pharmaceutical,nutraceuticalindustriesanditsuseasmulchisbeingexplored(Lomartireetal,2022).Forexample,PlantSeaabiotechstart-upbasedintheUnitedKingdom–isworkingonsustainableandaffordablesolutionstoachieve100percentbiodegradable,soil-enrichingproductstoaddressplasticwasteinagriculture,includingmulchlms.Thesustainableuseofseaweed-derivedbiopoly-mersisincreasinglybeingstudiedaspartofthesolutiontoreplaceplasticizerswithbiodegradablematerials,andthuspreservetheenvironment.Source:Compiledbytheauthors.Box5.Seaweed-derivedbiopolymerstosubstituteplasticmulch2.2.3Abandoned,lost,ordiscardedshinggear(ALDFG)ALDFG,alsoknownas“ghostgear”,includesfishingnets,traps,ropes,hooks,cables,andothercommercialfishinggear,aswellasplasticwastefromaquaculture,whichdriftonthewater’ssurfaceorcluttertheoceanfloor.12Mostofthisgearismadeofdiverseformsofpolymerssuchasrayon,dacron,andnylon.Itisestimatedthatnearly2percentofallfishinggear,comprising2,963km2ofgillnets,75,049km2ofpurseseinenets,218km2oftrawlnets,739,583kmoflonglinemainlines,andmorethan25millionpotsandtrapsarelosttotheoceanannually(Richardsonetal.2022).Ithasbeenestimatedthatghostfishinggearcanmakeupto70percentofallmacro-plasticsintheoceanbyweight(Jackson2021).ALDFGisalsothedeadliestformofmarinedebrisaffectingoceanfauna,oftenduetoentanglement(OECD2022)butalsostarvation(duetothefalsesenseofsatiety)(Linketal.2019).Studiesalsofindthatanestimated90percentofspeciescaughtinlostgearareofcommercialvalue,andupto30percentdeclineinsomefishstocksisduetodamagetoimportantmarinehabitatsfromghostgear.Forexample,arecentstudyfoundthatremovingderelictcrabpotsintheChesapeakeBayyieldedanadditional$20millioninharvestforlocalfishermeninsixyears.Ifextendedtoagloballevel,thestudyshowedthatremovingjust10percentofghostgearcouldincreaselandingsbycloseto300,000metrictons(Jackson2021).Atpresent,onlyahandfulofinitiativesarebeingimplementedtorespondandmoveawayfromthenegativeimpactsofghostgear.Theseincludeusingplasticsubstitutes,recycledmaterial,andtechnologytocollect,oravoidlosing,fishinggear.Themainkeyissuesforscalinguptheseinnovationsaretheireconomicviabilityandthecomplexity–forsomegear–toreachcomparablephysicalpropertiesasthosemadeofplastic.Box6providesexamplesofinitiativesandeffortstouseplasticsubstitutesaswellasplasticrecycledmaterialforfishinggear).12Gearlossoccurswhereverfishingtakesplace,oftenduetoroughweather,snagsbeneaththesurface,andmarinetrafficaccidentallyrunningitoverandcuttingitloose.Butitalsohappensfromaquacultureforvariousreasons,suchaslow-levellossesthroughroutinefarmingoperations,extremeweatherevents,andinadequateplanningandmanagement.Intentionaldiscardcanoccurwhereotheroptionsarelimited,oversightissparse,andcostsforproperdisposalarehigh.https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/the-hidden-cost-of-ghost-gear-lost-by-fishing-and-aquaculture/19CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTES2.2.4Substitutesforpackagingandsingleuseplastics(SUPs)TodayplasticpackagingandSUPscontinuetobeproduced,used,anddiscardedatalarmingrates.SUPsconstituteapproximatelyhalfoftheglobalplasticwastegeneration,estimatedtobeatleast190milliontonsannually.PackagingandSUPswastedisposal,alreadyoutpacingallexistingwasteprocessingmethodsduetotheunprecedentedamountproduced,itscomplexmulti-layerproduction,consumeruse,anddiscarding,presentsbigchallengesforrecyclinganddisposal(CIEL,2019).Thisisapplicabletobothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries.Aspartoftheresponsetothistrend,numerouscountriesareapplyingbansoncertainpackagingandSUPs,particularlyinSIDS;theresultsofthismeasurehavebeenmixed,especiallyintermsofenforcement(VivasandBarrowclough,2021).SomekeychallengesforexistingornewsubstitutesofplasticpackagingandSUPsarethattheseshouldnotbehazardousforhuman,animal,orplantlife,andshouldnotaggravatewastestreamsthatnegativelyimpacttheenvironment.Forexample,foodpackagingshouldnotreduceshelflifeoftheproductsandhenceincreasefoodwastewhichmayhaveagreaterenvironmentalimpactthanreducingtheenvironmentalimpactofpackaging(GIZ,2021),andhaveatollonfoodconsumption.Theyshouldalsobebiodegradable,compostable,andrecycledandavoidamixwithpolymersandtoxicadditives.TheplasticpackagingandSUPsclusterisperhapswherethegreatestnumberofsubstituteshavebeendevelopedbytheprivatesectorinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesasaresponsetocustomerdemandsandanincreasingshiftinconsumerbehavior.Forexample,therearemanyinnovativematerials,Seaweedhasbeenknownandconsumedforcenturies,butonlyrecentlywithsufcienttechnologyInrecentyears,innovationsincludeproductstopreventlosingshinggear(e.g.,asemi-automatedoystergrowingsystem),technologythattrackandmonitoralltypesofdeployedgear(e.g.,smartbuoysthatreportthegearlocationtoamobilephoneorwebsite).Therearealsoeffortsforthede-velopmentofgearmadeofplasticsubstitutesandalternatives.Thelatterincludesalltypesofshinggearmadefromnaturalandbiodegradablematerial.Forexample,non-entanglingbiodegradableshaggregatedevice(FAD)raftsmadefrombamboo,andbalsawoodorothernaturalmaterialsthatdegradewithoutcausingimpactsontheecosystem,andFADtailsmadefromcottonropesandcanvas,manilahemp,sisal,andcoconutbre(Morgan,2011;ISSF,2019).Regardingshingnets,therearevariousR&Dprojectsaroundnetsproducedwithbio-basedmateri-alsthatcanbewaterandweightresistantandatthesametimebiodegradewithina1-to-2-yearpe-riod.Materialsforfutureprototypesmayincludenaturalsilkandmicro-algae.ProjectswithR&DlinesforbiobasedmaterialsincludeInnovativeFishingGearforOcean(INDIGO)andtheStrategiesofcircularEconomyandAdvancedbio-basedsolutionstokeepourLandsandseasalivefromplasticscontamination(SEALIVE).SMEPsupportedprojectGAIABiomaterialsinSouthAfrica,KenyaandTanzaniaalsoaimstoreplacepolyethenewithbiodegradableandcompostableshingnetsmadeinaninnovativeapplicationofBiodolomer®(SMEP,2022).Besidestheseinitiatives,therearealreadyafewcompaniesproducingandofferingnetsfromrecycledmaterialssuchasNetPlus®byPatago-niacompany,whichisamaterialmadefrom100percentrecycleddiscardedshingnetscollectedfromshingcommunitiesinSouthAmerica.Source:Compiledbytheauthors,basedonhttps://www.iss-foundation.org/shery-goals-and-resources/our-best-practices-resources/non-entangling-and-biodegradable-fads-guide/,http://indigo-interregproject.eu/en/about-indigo/objectives/,https://sealive.eu/no-more-haunting-by-ghost-nets-bio-based-and-biodegradable-nets-could-be-the-solution/andhttps://eu.patagonia.com/be/en/our-footprint/netplus-recycled-shing-nets.html/.Box6.Targetedinitiativesandeffortstouseplasticsubstitutesaswellasplasticrecycledmaterialforshinggear20PLASTICPOLLUTION2.3LifecycleanalysisofplasticsubstitutesWhilstnatural-basedmaterialsandproductsmaybeidealsubstitutestoplastics,policymakersneedtoassesstheviabilityofpursuingthesetransitions.Theadvantagesandpositivepropertiesofeachpotentialsubstituteneedtobeanalyzedcasebycaseagainstsoundproductlife-cyclecriteria,itslifespan(howmanytimesitisused),anddisposalcapacitiesineachcountry.Variousexamplesofpotentialmaterialsubstitutes,aslistedinTable1,havealreadybeenassessedagainstSUPslifecycleinselectedcountriesinSub-SaharanAfricaandSoutheastAsia(UNCTAD2021b).Thesedatasupporttheclaimsthatthemostsuitablesubstitutetoplasticmaynotbeequallyappliedtoallfossilfuel-basedplasticswithsimilarproperties,oracrosscountries,andnotevenwithinsectorsbutitdependsonalocalcontextintermsofavailabilityofmaterials,consumers’behavior,country’scapacitytoprocesswaste,andsubstitute’sreusability.TherearediscussionsaboutLCAandgeopoliticalrisksrelatedtomaterials(suchasabacafibres)thatareexclusivelyavailableorproducedbycertainactorsinlocationsthatareimpactedbyarmedornon-armedviolenceasthesecircumstancescancausedisruptionsalongthevaluechains(FortunaCools,2022).NotPla®isaninnovativecompanyfromtheUnitedKingdomdevelopingnewandenvironmen-tallyfriendlypackagingsolutions.Thecompanywasoneofve£1mwinnersofPrinceWilliam’sEarthshotclimateprizein2022fortacklingoneoftheplanet’sgreatestchallenges,plasticpollution(Espiner,2022).Theymakeproductsfrom“Notpla”,amaterialderivedfromseaweedandplants(fruitpeels)thatdisappearsnaturally.Notplaisanon-chemicallymodied,polysaccharide-basedmaterial.Itisclassiedasanatural,organicsubstancebyEuropeanUnionlaw.Similartoafruitpeel,Notplaclaimstogenerate“biodegradable”and“home-compostable”packingproducts.Productrangeincludesnon-plasticsaucesachets,pipes,lms,paper,foodcontainers,coatedboardtosupplypaperconvertersthatarefullybiodegradable.Anotherexampleiscoconutfibre(coconutshells)whichisawell-knownbrouswasteofcoco-nuts.Fornow,themostusedandvaluedpartofthecoconutisthewhiteinnerpartofthecoconutcalledcopra,whiletheshellandthehuskhavenotbeenwidelyused.Butmoreandmoredevelopingcountriesaroundtheequatorthatgrowcoconutsinabundanceandarefacingtheenvironmentalburdensofplasticpollutionarelookingintomoresustainablematerials.Forexample,inJamaica,bamboostrawsaresuccessfullysubstitutingplasticstraws.Entrepreneurialeffortstointroducesus-tainableproductstoreplaceplastic,alongwithnationalpolicyandregulationchangesthatbannedSUPs,provedasuccessandanexampletolearnfrom.Forpolicychangestosucceedlocalbusi-nessesneedtoinnovateandbereadytollthegapwhenplasticproductsarebanned.BAMBU-SA®soldover15,000bamboostrawsinonlyoneyearandwiththatreplacedabout5millionplasticstrawsand,accordingtothecompany,eachbamboostrawreplacesonaverage360plasticstraws.Now,thecompanyhasothernaturalproductsinthemakingsuchasbowlsandcandlesmadefromdiscardedcoconutshells(UNCTAD,2021e).Source:Compiledbytheauthors,basedonhttps://www.notpla.com/andhttps://unctad.org/news/jamaican-start-shows-potential-plastics-substitutes/.Note:Polysaccharidesaremajorclassesofbiomolecules.Theyarelongchainsofcarbohydratemolecules,com-posedofseveralsmallermonosaccharides.Thesecomplexbio-macromoleculesfunctionasanimportantsourceofenergyinanimalcellsandformastructuralcomponentofaplantcell.Box7.NotPlaandBambusa:packagingmaterialthatdisappearsnaturalpackagingandsingleuseitemsthatarebeingproducedfromagriculturalwastes,seaweed,andplantbiomass.Box6providesanexampleontheuseofseaweedandplant-basedmaterialsforproducingfoodpackagingandpaper.21CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESWhenphasingoutplastics,adetailedassessmentaboutthetypeofsubstitutes,theiravailability,potentialconstraints,externalcostsandbenefitscomparedwiththeplasticproduct,essentiallycomparingthefulllifecyclecostsandbenefitsofbothplasticproductsandtheirsubstitutesisnecessary(WorldBank,2022).InarecentstudybyMcKinsey(2022)authorsanalyzedenvironmentalbenefitsofplasticsincomparisontotraditionalplasticsubstitutes(e.g.,glass,aluminium,etc.)andfoundthatplasticshavealowertotalGHGimpactthansubstitutesconsideringtheproduct’sentirelifecycle,whichspansfromrawmaterialacquisitionthroughouttheend-of-lifeandincludesitsvalue-chainimpact.Thatsaid,aspointedoutbySMEP(2022),WorldBank(2022)andUNEP(2021),LCAanalysesonplasticsubstitutesneedtorecognizetheimportanceofgoingbeyondGHGemissions.AssessmentsoflitterandhealthimpactsarenotyetwellaccountedforinLCAstudiesandshouldbecarefullyconsidered.Therearealsoinformationgapsrelatingtolong-termimpactsonecosystemsandhealth,suchastheissueofmicroplastics.Socialaspectsaswellasgenderanalysisalsoneedcarefulconsideration(UNEP,2021,p.5).BasedondatacollectedfortheSustainableManufacturingandEnvironmentalPollution(SMEP)Programme–supportedbyUNEPandtheWorldBankconclusions-aboutplasticsubstitutesprimarilyfortheSUPscluster,thefollowingpointscanbedrawnfromtheLCAconductedonpotentialplasticsubstitutesandsubstitutematerialsthatwereselectedbasedontheirlocalavailabilitybytheSMEPstudy:•Locationmatters,whichessentiallymeansthecountryinwhichtheLCAisperformed,asithasuniquecharacteristicsregarding:a)energymatrixaffectsenvironmentalperformanceandprovesthatfossil-basedsourceshaveagreaternegativeimpactinproduction,consumption,anddisposalphasesthanrenewablesources,13b)wastemanagementsystems,andc)consumptionandpost-consumptionbehavioraffecttheenvironmentalperformance.•Theagriculturalphasecancauseimpactsonlanduse,eutrophicationandwaterconsumptionandcanmakethesubstitutesbasedonnaturalfibresfromdedicatedcropsmoreenvironmentallydamagingthanSUPsinsomecases.•Rankingonsuitabilityofcertainproductsischallenging,whetherthatbeforplastics,alternativestoplasticorplasticsubstitutesasitdependsonwhatenvironmentalaspectsaregivenhigherpriority.•Themassofthesubstituteproductisanimportantfactortobeconsideredbecausetransportandend-of-lifecanbehighlyimpactedbythisfactor,whichcanevenmakethesubstitutesworsethanSUPsinsomecases.•End-of-lifesystemadequacyiscrucial,andifnotinplacenotevenplasticsubstitutescanoffsetenvironmentaldamage.•Reusemakesthedifferenceforenvironmentalperformanceforallreviewedmaterials,anditcanoffsetahigherenvironmentalimpactofsubstitutestoplasticincomparisontoplastics,whensubstitutesarereused.Tosupporttheseclaims,Figure3belowillustratesthesignificanceofreusabilityofaplasticsubstitute.ForthecaseinFigure3(below)jutebagswerechosenassubstitutesconsideringthatthesingleyarnofjuteorothertextilebastfibres(HScode530710)arelargelyavailablebeingamongthetop12primaryproductsproducedfromcrops,whilealsobeingthesecondproductintermsofexportedquantityinBangladeshandjuteisthetwelfthprimaryproductfromcropsintermsofproducedquantity(SMEP,2021b).Thescenario(methodologydescribedinBox8below)wasrunundertheassumptionthatbothbagscarry5kgofitemsforthreeyearsshoppingfromasupermarkettohomeestimating156shoppingtripsintotal.TheHDPEandjutebagbothareofsimilarsize,withtwohandlestocarry,althoughthejutebagisheavier(360g/m2ofjutefabricplus15g/mofcottonwebbing)incomparisonwith4.4gfortheHDPEbag.TheHDPEbagperformsworsethanthejutebag,mainlyduetotheimpactsonfossilresourcescarcityandhumancarcinogenictoxicity.Thejutebag,consideringitisreused156timesover3years,13SeeannexI,attheSMEPTradeandPollutionDashboardunderReportsathttp://bit.ly/SMEP_UNCTAD/.22PLASTICPOLLUTIONperformsbetterthanthesingle-useHDPEbag,eventhoughtherearesignificantrelevantimpactsrelatedtotheagriculturalstage,especiallymarineecotoxicityuseandfreshwatereutrophication.Forthepartrelatedtoenvironmentalburdensrelatedtotradeandpollutionexportedthroughmanu-facturing(SMEP/UNCTAD2021c),theinput-outputLCA(IO-LCA)wasused.ItrecentlyemergedasanewapproachtoLCAandusesEnvironmentallyExtendedInput-OutputAnalysis(EEIOA)tablesasinventorydata,followingtheimpactassessmentandinterpretationphases.EXIOBASEwasthechosensupportingdatabase,asaglobal,detailedMulti-regionalEnvironmentallyExtendeddata-base.Theanalysisusedacradle-to-gravesystemboundary.ImpactassessmentwasperformedusingReCiPeandasetofindicatorsthatincludestheindicatedcategoriesforIO-LCAsperformedusingEXIOBASE.ForthesetofLCAdataonsubstitutestoplasticproducts(SMEP,2022b),processbasedLCAwasperformedtoassessthepotentialenvironmentalandhealthimpactsassociatedwithsomeofthemainexportedproducts(intermsofquantity)fortheselectedmanufacturingsectors,inthecasestudycountries.Withmoredetailedinventories,theaimwastobetterunderstandthemainissuesandtheareastobeprioritizedforaction.Standarddatabases,namelyecoinvent(Wernetetal.,2016)andWorldFoodLCADatabase(Nemeceketal.,2014)wereused,supportedbytechni-calliteraturewhennecessary.EcoinventisarenownedinternationalinventorydatabasefoundedbySwissinstituteswhichprovidesprocessdataforproductsinmanyareassuchasenergysup-ply,agriculture,transport,chemical,constructionmaterials,andwastetreatment.TheWorldFoodLCADatabase(WFLDB)isacomprehensive,internationallifecycleinventorydatabaseforagri-foodproductsresultingfromaninitiativeledbyQuantis,asustainabilityconsultinggroup,inpartnershipwithleadersintheagri-foodsector.Acradle-to-gravesystemboundarywasadopted.Impactas-sessmentwasperformedusingReCiPeandasetofindicatorsthatincludestheindicatedcategoriesforprocessbasedLCAsperformedusingecoinventasadatabase.Box8.Life-CycleAssessmentMethodologiesusedforsector-basedLCAandforproduct-basedLCASource:SMEPDashboard(2023).Figure3.Normalizedprocess-basedLCAforBangladesh23123378319637884431332High-densitypolyethylenebagJutebag(kgoileq)(kgPeq)(kgCO2eq)(kg1,4-DCB)(m2acropeq)(kg1,4-DCB)(kgNeq)(kgNOXeq)(kgSO2eq)(kg1,4-DCB)(m3)0%20%40%60%80%100%23CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTES2.4EconomicviabilityofplasticsubstitutesThenumbersofplasticproductionanditsend-of-lifemanagementarefarfrombeingeitheralignedorsustainable.In2019,“theOECDeconomiesgeneratedalmosthalfofallplasticwaste:theUnitedStatesaccountsfor21%,OECDEurope19%andtheremainingOECDcountries9%.OutsidetheOECD,Chinaproduces19%ofglobalplasticwaste,India5%andtherestoftheworld27%.Intermsofwastepercapita,therearestarkdifferencesacrosstheworld.TheUnitedStateshadthelargestplasticwastefootprintin2019,at221kgpercapita,whileOECDEuropehad114kgplasticwastepercapita.JapanandKorea’splasticwastegenerationisrelativelylowforindustrializedcountries,averaging69kgpercapita.Finally,Chinagenerated47kgofplasticwasteperinhabitantin2019,whileIndiageneratedonly14kgperinhabitant”14(OECD,2022).Thesenumbersareindeedhighwhenconsidering,forexample,thatintheUnitedStates,outofallplasticwastegeneratedin2021,only5percentto6percentwasrecycled(WEF,2022b).Furthermore,plasticsingeneralhavealimited,ifatall,recyclingpotential,whereasontheotherhandsometraditionalplasticsubstituteslikealuminiumorglasshaveindefiniterecyclabilityandyetintheUnitedStatesonlyaboutonethirdofglassbottlesgetrecycled.Thesenumbersspeaktotheinsufficiencyofplasticandotherwastemanagementsystemsthatcomesathighenvironmental,aswellaseconomiccostandbotharerelevantinadiscussionofsubstitutingplasticsforanon-plasticsubstitutematerial.14DatabasedontheOECDGlobalPlasticsOutlookDatabase.TheAtlasofEconomicComplexity:MappingPathstoProsperity,aneconomicsbook(Hausmannetal,2013a),whichattemptstomeasureproductiveknowledgeeachcountryhas,highlightedtwowebsitesthatprovideinteractivevisualizationsoftraderelateddata.TheObservatoryofEconomicComplexity(SimoesandHidalgo,2011),atoolthatvisualizesdataaboutcountries’economicac-tivitiesandtheproductseachcountryimportsandexportsandHarvard’sCenterforInternationalDevelopmentAtlasofEconomicComplexity(Hausmannetal,2013b),whichmapsglobaltrade,industrialcapabilities,andeconomicdynamicsfortheworld.Accordingtothelatter,theRCAisanestimationofwhetheracountryisanexporterofaproduct,basedontheso-called“relativeadvan-tage”or“disadvantage”ithasintheexportofacertaingood.Toestimateifacountryhas“revealedcomparativeadvantage”inaproductinaspecicyear,theanalysiscomparestheactualexportsofaproductinagivenyearandcomparesthatvaluetoits“fairshare”.Hypothetically,ifallcountriesintheworldwerethesame,eachwouldhaveahomogeneousparticipationintheglobalmarket-shareofeachoftheproducts;fromthishypotheticalreferenceof“fairdistribution”,forthosecountriesthathaveparticipationbeyondwhatwouldbetheirhomogene-ousshare,itisassumedthattheyhavearevealedcomparativeadvantageinthisproduct.Therefore,whentheRCAisgreaterthan1itmeansacomparativeadvantageexists.Itisimportanttostatethatthisisastaticrevealedadvantagemeasure,theestimationismadeforaproduct,exportedbyacountry,inaspecicyear.Thatdoesnotmeanthatnewdevelopmentpoli-ciescannotdynamicallychangethecapacityofcountriestoacquireproductivecapacityandnallybecomeabletoexportdifferentproductswithgreaterRCA,buildingupcomparativeadvantagesandmovingforwardonadevelopmentpath.Inthegreengrowthcontext,agreenproductspacemethodology(Hamway,Pacini,andAssunção,2013)wassuggestedforpolicymakerstoidentifyhigh-potentialsectorsandgreenproductsfortheircountrytoproduceandexportandthusspurgreengrowth.Box9.RevealedComparativeAdvantage(RCA)24PLASTICPOLLUTIONPlasticsubstitutesshould,bydefinition,notoverwhelmwastemanagementcapacitythewayplasticsdo.However,substitutesandtheirend-of-lifeimpactneedtobestudiedinordertodevelopindustriestoaddressmaterialrecoveryandrecyclingcapacitiesforaselectedsubstitutematerial(UNCTAD,2021b).Fromthedataavailable,alongwiththecombinationofthetwoavailableindicators−revealedcomparativeadvantage(RCA)andrecovery/recyclingrate-theeconomicviabilityofmaterialsubstitutescanbeobserved.DuetoitsfeaturesdescribedinBox9,RCAcanbeausefulproxyofexistingproductivecapacitiesofacountrytosupplyalternativematerials.Additionally,therecoveryorrecyclingrateforaspecificmaterialwastestreamprovidesanindicationoftheeffectivenessoftheallocatedinfrastructureandcapitalforreuseandrecyclinginaparticularmarket.Inotherwords,RCAindexescansuggesthowcompetitiveacountryisineachmaterialorproduct,andrecovery/recycleratescanserveasanindicatoroftheefficiencyofdownstreammanagementforthesamematerial.Hence,theidealsubstitutetoplasticsshouldideallybebothcompetitiveandefficientindownstreammanagementofwasteswhereitisadopted.Figure4indicatesthat,amongtopexporters,mostoftheplasticproductsselectedareexportedwithanRCA15higherthan1,whichmeanstopexportersofplasticsareusuallyalsocompetitiveor,inotherwords,possessrelativelygoodproductivecapacities.TheareaindicatedingreyinFigure4showsthat,althoughthesetopexporterspossessrelativelywell-developedproductivecapacities,theyaredoingsowitharecovery/recyclingratebelow60percent.ThisanalysisofexportersandrecyclingrateswiththeRCAinperspectivesuggeststhatthesecountriescould,withrelativelylowincentives,adaptandquicklyachievebetterrecovery/recyclingratesontheseproducts.So,thegreyareashowswhichproducts(exportedbythesetopexporters)couldbemovedtothepreferredbluearea,thereforereachingahigherthan60percentrecovery/recyclingratewhereRCAisalreadyhigh,tothereforebecomethemostsuitablesubstitutesforplastics.PoliciestoimprovetheRCAwhileimprovingrecovery/recyclingratecouldalsobesuggested,butresultswouldrequirelongertermandmoresubstantivepoliciestocombinebetterrecyclingratesandmorecomplexproductivecapacities.AnUNCTADreportindicatesthatintermsofRevealedComparativeAdvantage(RCA)andlevelsofrecyclabilityaluminiumdoesquitewellasasubstituteforplasticsintheseregions,whilevariousformsofpapers,crops,andplantresiduesdoevenbetterintermsofrecoveryandcompostabilityrates(UNCTAD,2021c).Forexample,ahighrecovery/recyclabilityrateforaluminiumisprobablylinkedtotheintrinsicvalueofthematerialandtothefactthataluminiumwasoneofthefirstmaterialstoberecycledjointlywithglassandcertainplastics.Tofacilitatetransitionsawayfromplastic,policymakers,andrelevantstakeholdersshouldconsiderimprovementsinresourcerecovery,recycling,andindustrialsubstitutesdevelopmentintheiragenda.Ifsuchmid-anddownstreamimprovementsarepursued,materialssuchasaluminium,cropresidues,andglasscouldmoreeasilydisplaceplastics,resultinginmoresustainablematerialtransitions,particularlyindevelopingcountries.”(UNCTAD,2021b,p6.).15ReviewBox8forasimplifieddefinitionofRevealedComparativeAdvantage(RCA).Source:RCAbasedonUNCOMTRADEdata(2019).Recovery/recyclingratesbasedonUNCTAD(2021c)andliteraturereview.Figure4.SelectedexportersbytheirRCAandrecovery/recyclingrateperproductgroup25CHAPTER2:STATEOFPLAYOFPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESFigure4.(cont.)SelectedexportersbytheirRCAandrecovery/recyclingrateperproductgroupRevealedComparativeAdvantage0%120%100%80%60%40%20%0.00.51.01.52.02.53.54.55.56.510203040460510Recovery/RecyclingrateUgandaNepalUnitedRepublicofTanzaniaKenyaUgandaUnitedStatesItalyUnitedStatesItalyGermanyChinaChinaNepalKenyaPakistanGhanaItalyUnitedStatesItalyChinaUnitedStatesGhanaKenyaTurkeyUnitedStatesGhanaGermanyGermanyNigeriaPakistanNigeriaNigeriaGhanaBangladeshBangladeshBangladeshNigeriaGermanyGhanaKenyaKenyaPakistanUnitedStatesNepal3PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENS27CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENS3.PursuingplasticssubstitutesthroughatradelensInputsrequiredtoproduceplasticsubstitutesorfinalproducts,thatcouldbeusedinsteadofplasticproducts,maybesuppliedlocally,ormaycomefrominternationalmarketsviaimports.Similarly,countriesthathavetherawmaterialorfinalproductsmadeofplasticsubstitutescanfindnichemarketsoutsidetheirborders,creatingopportunitiesforexports.Giventheinternationalizationofplastics,andthatsomeplasticsubstitutes–rawmaterialsorfinalproducts–arealreadybeingtradedacrossborders,thissectionlooksatsubstitutestoplasticsthroughatradelens.Toassesscurrenttrendsofplasticsubstitutestradeflows,aswellasthepoliciesunderpinningsubstitutes,thepaperusestheHarmonizedCommodityDescriptionandCodingSystem(HS)codesfortheplasticsubstitutesdiscussedinSection2.TheHScodesareidealforassessingtradepoliciesbecausetheseofferaninternationallysharedapproachtoclassifyingproducts,itisatoolfortrackingandmeasuringtradeflowsacrossborders(appliedbyvirtuallyallcountriestoclearcommoditiesthatenterorcrosstheirborders),usedfortheimplementationandnegotiationoftradepolicies,andhavethehighestlevelofproductdisaggregation.TheHScodeshavemanybenefits,butalsosomelimitationsthatmustbeconsideredfortheassessmentoftradetrendsandtradepolicies,aswellasforpolicyactionsthatgovernmentscantaketoenhancemonitoring–i.e.,draftingandassessingevidence-basedpoliciesaffectingsupplyanddemandforplasticsubstitutes.Thissection,therefore,startswithabriefdiscussiononHScodes.Thisisfollowedbytheanalysisofkeytradepatternsandmaterialrecoveryofsubstitutestoplastic,andthemarketaccesspoliciesthatcountriesareimplementingontheidentifiedHScodes.3.1BenetsandchallengesofusingHScodesTheHSclassifiesgoodsaccordingtotheirnature(e.g.,agriculturalormanufacturedproduct),thewaytheyarepresentedforsale(forexample,medicinecanbeclassifiedaccordingtowhetherdosesaresuppliedastabletsorampoules),theirfinaluse(e.g.,juicesareclassifiedbythetypeoffruit,notbythetypeofpackaging),andwhetherornottheyareintendedforretailsale.Theclassificationtriestostrikeabalancebetweenthelevelofdisaggregationthatexistsinthemarketplacebysectororindustry;theabilityofcustomsauthoritiestousetheclassificationsinpracticeintheirwork;andtheneedforalogicalstructurethatissupportedbywell-definedrulestoachieveuniformclassification.Additionalcriteriaorconsiderationsareappliedtosub-headingsforcertainproductsinresponsetoevolvingmarketandtechnologicaldevelopments(e.g.,theemergenceoflightbulbsusingLEDtechnology)orchangesinthekindsofgoodsthataretradedinternationally.Becauseofthewidearrayofproductsthatexist,andofhowtheHSisconstructed,findingtheHScodeofaproductisnotalwaysaclear-cuttask.Infact,thisisataskthatissometimesalsoproblematicforcustomsofficers.ThelackofclarityaboutwhichHScodeappliestowhichproduct–especiallynewproducts–meansthatsometimescustomsofficialsfromdifferentcountriesmayregisterthesameproductunderdifferentHScodes.Moreover,acommonlyrecognizedhurdleoftheHS,fortheanalysisoftradedgoods,isitslevelofaggregation.Thisproblemcanberesolvedtoacertainextentbyusingthenationaltarifflinewithahigherlevelofdisaggregation.Almostallcountriescreatesubcategoriesofexistinginternationalclassifications.However,thisisnotpossibleatthegloballevelsincetarifflinecodescandifferacrosscountries.Tocopewiththislimitation,yetincludeHScodesthatcontainplasticssubstitutesthatarefreefromplasticsandavoidoverestimatingthevalueoftheseplasticssubstitutes,thefollowingruleswerefollowed:•DisaggregatedHScodesthatdidn’tcontainpaintoranyotherplasticsubstance,werepreferredoverHScodesthatcontainsuchkindofplasticwheneverpossible.28PLASTICPOLLUTION•Withinthecategoryoffishinggearproducts(thatis,productspartofALDFG),therearethreeHScodesforproductsmadeofnaturalmaterial:fishingnets(oneHScode)andfishingcable&ropes(twoHScodes).UnderALDFG“other”groupfourHScodeswereidentifiedforfishingproductsmadeofnaturalmaterialbutalsoplastic.BecauseoftherelevanceofallproductspartofALDFG,allHScodesrelevantforfishinggearthatmaybemadeofplasticsubstituteswerekeptsoto,atleast,assessthetradepoliciesthatunderpinsuchproducts.•UsingthesameHScodewhentheHSdidnothaveaspecificHScodeforeachoftheidentifiedrawmaterialsorproducts;forexample:Arecaleaves/Bananaleavesorstem/PineappleleavesareallpartofHScode140190.Somerawmaterials–e.g.,vegetablesorcropsbyproducts,orfinalproductswereincludedunderasameHScodeBasedontheabove,atotalof282HScodeswereidentified.AbroadarrayofsubstitutestoplasticiscoveredunderHSChapter44(Woodandarticlesofwood),47(Pulpofwoodorotherfibrouscellulosicmaterial),48(Paperandpaperboard),51(Wool,fineorcoarseanimalhair,yarnandwovenfabric),53(Vegetabletextilefibres;paperyarnandwovenfabricsofpaperyarn),and76(aluminiumandarticlesthereof).Atotalof29HScodeswereidentifiedasHScodescontainingagriculturalcommodities(amongwhichwasteandbyproducts)andproductsofthefoodindustry,i.e.,codesfromHSChapters4to23.Table2providesasummaryoftheHScodesidentified(familyofproductswithmanypotentialsubstitutes,morethan15,areinbold),andAnnex2providesthefulllistofHScodes.Table2.SummaryofHScodesidentiedforplasticsubstitutesperHScodechapterHSChapterDescription6-digitHSCodes04Dairyproduce;birds’eggs;naturalhoney;edibleproductsofanimalorigin,n.e.c.105Animaloriginatedproducts;notelsewherespecifiedorincluded307Vegetablesandcertainrootsandtubers;edible808Fruitandnuts,edible;peelofcitrusfruitormelons211Productsofthemillingindustry;malt;starches;inulin;wheatgluten312Oilseedsandoleaginousfruits,industrialormedicinalplants;strawandfodder713Lac;gums,resinsandothervegetablesapsandextract414Vegetableplaitingmaterials;vegetableproductsnotelsewherespecifiedorincluded415Vegetablewaxes(otherthantriglycerides);whetherornotrefined117Sugarsandsugarconfectionery220Preparationsofvegetables,fruit,nutsorotherpartsofplants123Foodindustries,residuesandwastesthereof;preparedanimalfodder428Inorganicchemicals;organicandinorganiccompoundsofpreciousmetals229Organicchemicals2Source:TheHS2022versionwasusedtoidentifythecodes.Note:Withacountof6-digitHScodesidentiedperHSchapter,totaling282HScodes.29CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENSTable2.(cont.)SummaryofHScodesidentiedforplasticsubstitutesperHScodechapterHSChapterDescription6-digitHSCodes32Glass;glassfritandotherglass,intheformofpowder,granulesorflakes139Cellulose;Naturalpolymers540Rubber441Rawhidesandskins(otherthanfurskins)andleather1242Articlesofleather,articlesofanimalgut(otherthansilkwormgut)144Woodandarticlesofwood;woodcharcoal4345Corkandarticlesofcork746Manufacturesofstraw,espartoorotherplaitingmaterials;basketware847Pulpofwoodorotherfibrouscellulosicmaterial;recovered(wasteandscrap)1748Paperandpaperboard;articlesofpaperpulp,ofpaperorpaperboard3150Silk1051Wool,fineorcoarseanimalhair;horsehairyarnandwovenfabric2552Cotton353Vegetabletextilefibres;paperyarnandwovenfabricsofpaperyarn1954Man-madefilaments;stripandthelikeofman-madetextilematerials456Wadding,feltandnonwovens,specialyarns;twine,cordage,ropesandcables457Carpetsandothertextilefloorcoverings163Textiles,madeuparticles;sets;wornclothingandworntextilearticles;rags267Feathersanddown,prepared;andarticlesmadeoffeatherorofdown168Stone,plaster,cement,asbestos,micaorsimilarmaterials;articlesthereof169Ceramicproducts470Glassandglassware976Aluminiumandarticlesthereof1794Furniture,notelsewherespecifiedorincluded495Toys,gamesandsporsrequisites,partsandaccessoriesthereof496Miscellaneousmanufacturedarticles1Source:TheHS2022versionwasusedtoidentifythecodes.Note:Withacountof6-digitHScodesidentiedperHSchapter,totaling282HScodes.30PLASTICPOLLUTIONTable3belowoffersaninsightintonewmaterialsthatcouldreplaceorevenimprovefunctionalityofplasticsorusageofplasticmaterialsduringproductproduction.SincethesepotentialplasticsubstitutesdonothaveanapplicableHScodetheyarepresentedasanexampleoftheHScodeslimitationsthispaperencountered.ThisfactunderlinestheimportanceoftherevisionoftheHSsystem,alongwithaconsiderationthatsomeofthefunctionsperformedbycurrentproductswilllikelybeperformedasaservicemodelinstead.Table3.PotentialplasticsubstitutesproductsforwhichanHScodecouldnotbeidentiedPlasticsubstituteCompositionApplicationAdvantagesLimitationsVegetableTannedLeatherBark,berries,roots,andleavesusedinplaceofheavymetalspreservetheleather,producealong-lasting,adaptable,andsupplematerial,providessaferworkingconditions,lessdangerouswaste,andaleatherproductthatisbiodegradableattheendofitslife.Usedinfashionindustrytoreplaceproductsmadewithanimalleather.Leathertobeupcycledsousingonlytheunsustain-ablematerialthat’salreadydoneitsdamage.Longtobiode-grade.Squid’spartsinBiomim-icryPennsylvaniaStateUni-versityhavediscoveredthataproteininsquidringteeth(SRT)-inthesuck-ersintheirtentacles-canbeengineeredinalabtobeofwideruse.Canbeusedincosmetics,build-ingindustry,textileindustrytocreateprotectivegar-mentsandinthemedicalfieldduetoitsnaturalbio-compatibilityandbiodegradability.Coatingafibreintheproteinmakesitmuchmoredu-rable.Theproteinalsohasself-healingproperties.SRTproteinsarecheaplyandeasilyproducedfromre-newableresourceswithoutdepletingsquidpopulation.Moredevelop-mentisneededtobecomewidelyavailable.PlatinumsiliconePlatinumsiliconeonlyusesplatinum(preciousmetal)asacatalyzer.Itdoesn’tcontainbisphenol,thusnohealthorenviron-mentalrisks,nowaste,anddoesnotchangethetasteoffood.Productionofpharmaceutical,biotechnology,injectables,andfoodandbever-ageproducts,alsomanufactur-ingofautomotiveproducts,electron-ics,clothingandfootwear.Hightearandten-silestrength,verylowshrinkage,finedetailreproduction,andanextensiverangeofhardness,withstandstem-peratureextremes,repelswaterandgerms,versatility.Hightearandten-silestrength,verylowshrinkage,finedetailreproduction,andanextensiverangeofhardness,withstandstem-peratureextremes,repelswaterandgerms,versatility.Source:Compiledbytheauthors.Notes:ResourcesforVegetableTannedLeatherwerecompiledbyauthors.Moreinformationavailableatthefollowingwebsites:https://www.sustainablejungle.com/sustainable-fashion/sustainable-fabrics/#item-9/,andhttps://www.sustaina-blejungle.com/sustainable-fashion/sustainable-fabrics/#item-28/.ResourcesforSquid’spartsinbiomimicrywerecompiledbyauthors.Moreinformationavailableatthefollowingwebsiteshttps://www.bbcearth.com/news/six-fashion-materials-that-could-help-save-the-planetandhttps://www.alcimed.com/en/alcim-articles/biomimicry-and-smart-materials-how-did-squid-inspire-self-repairing-materials-in-wet-environments/.ResourcesforPlatinumsiliconewerecompiledbyauthors.Moreinformationavailableatthefollowingwebsiteshttps://www.thehomeshoppe.com.sg/pages/about-platinum-silicone/andhttps://www.simtec-silicone.com/blogs/platinum-cured-silicone-its-role-and-uses-in-todays-custom-manufacturing-processes/.31CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENSTable3.(cont.)PotentialplasticsubstitutesproductsforwhichanHScodecouldnotbeidentiedPlasticsubstituteCompositionApplicationAdvantagesLimitationsMouldeddinnerplatesSugarcane.Catering.Biodegradable,renewable.Upstreamecotoxicities.Biodegrad-ablebagVegetablestarch,glycerinandpoly(vinylalcohol).Generalgoodstransportation.Biodegradable,renewable.Upstreamecotoxicities,notconduciveofsystemschange.DiverseformsofpackagingBananaorarecaleaves.Physicalshield-ingandtranspor-tation.Biodegradable,renewable.TheclosestsubheadingmatchappearstobeHS1401.90(“Othervegetablematerialsofakindusedprimarilyforplait-ing”–forexample,bamboos,rattans,reeds,rushes,osier,raffia,cleaned,bleachedordyedcerealstraw,andlimebark).HempbagsHemp.Physicalshield-ingandtranspor-tation.Biodegradable,renewable.TheclosestsubheadingmatchappearstobeHS6305.90(“Sacksandbags,ofakindusedforthepackingofgoods;Ofothertextilematerials”).Algae(material)Algaebiomasssource,alginatenaturalpolymer.Varioususes.Lowcarbonfootprint.Limitedproductionscales.CrustaceanshellsCrustaceans’bio-masssource.Varioususes.Lowcarbonfootprint,con-nectswithcrea-tiveindustries.Limitedproductionscales.Vivomer(proprietary)Microbesfoundinsoilandoceans.Varioususes,especiallycon-tainers.Fastbiodegrada-tionLimitedproductionscales.PlasticsubstituteproposedbyWCO.PlasticsubstituteproposedbyTESS.Source:Compiledbytheauthors.3.2TakingstockofthekeytradepatternsofsubstitutestoplasticBasedonthe282HScodesforplasticsubstitutesthetotalglobalexportsin2019is$388billion16ofwhichtwothirdsrepresentexportofrawmaterials($258billion),$125billionistheexportedvalueofproducts,and$4billionofALDFG.Eventhoughintermsoftotalglobalexports,theshareofplasticsubstitutes(216AsdiscussedintheSection2,duetoHScodeslimitations,severalHScodesforplasticsubstitutesincludeproducts,orrawmaterials,thatareusedforotherpurposesthantoreplaceplastics,whilesomeproductsmaynotbeincludedbecauseoflackofHScode.Thevaluesherewithmustbethereforeanalyzedwithcaution.32PLASTICPOLLUTIONpercentshare)islessthanthatofplastics(5percentshareofglobalexports)theseareneverthelesssignificantnumbersthatcanbescaledupwithadequatepolicysupportandincentives.InFigure5,tradedatashowrawmaterialsasthemosttradedinrespecttofinalproduce,whichsuggeststhatthedevelopmentofsubstitutestoplasticsistakingplaceoutsidethesourcecountries.Afactthatisamissedopportunity(oranopportunitytograsp)forrawmaterialexportingcountries,butalsoforpartnershipsbetweencountries–regionallyandinternationally.Transitioningtowardsplasticreductiondoesnotneedtobeattheexpenseoftoday’splasticsexporters.Theexportdata(Figure5)alsorevealsthatNaturalFibres-Plant/Tree-based-constitutethelion’sshareofrawmaterialexports(45percentoftotalexportsofrawmaterials),especiallyWoodPulp(29percentofrawmaterials)andWoodchips(26percentofrawmaterials),whichareincreasinglybeingusedinpackaging,singleuseplasticsandmulch,inadditiontobeingpartofthetraditionalsourcefortextilesandotherproductsmadeofplastics.Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonCOMTRADEdata2020andHS2022codes.Note:Mineral-basedmaterialsareconsideredaluminum,ceramics,andglass.Mineralproductsrefertoproductsmadeofthesematerials.Figure5.PlasticsubstitutesshareofexportsbyHScategoryandtypeinMn$(2020)NaturalbresPlants/treebased$116,819.4MineralsNaturalbresDedicatedcropsMineralproductsNaturalbreproductsPlants/treebasedNaturalbresAgriculturalby-productsNaturalbresAnimal-basedNaturalbreproducts$77,109.2$17,450.8$20,281.8$65,825.5$39,413.5$22,301.9$25,109.9RawmaterialsProducts33CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENSTheglobalexportofplasticsubstitutes,asrepresentedbytheirHScodes,currentlyrepresentsalowoverallpercentageofworldtrade.Themostcommonlytradedsubstitutesarethosethathavebeentraditionallyusedtoreplaceplastic,suchasaluminum(0.69percentofworldtrade),cotton(0.08percent),woodpulpandchips(0.05percent),andglass(0.10percent).Thelowestexportpercentageisseeninproductsthathavethepotentialtosupportcirculareconomies,suchasbyproductsorcropresidues.InthecaseofALDFG,mostproductsmadeofnaturalmaterialsaregroupedwiththoseofplasticsorothermaterials.ALDFG’sshareofglobalexportsis0,02percent,ofwhichfishinggearmadewithnaturalmaterialsrepresents0,003percentandothergearwhich,besidesnatural,alsoincludeplasticmaterialsis0,02percent.Inthecaseofropesandcordsusedforfishingactivities,manyofthemcanbemadefromnaturalbiodegradablematerialssuchassisalandviscose.Thedatashowthatabout13percentoftradedHScodesidentifiedforfishinggeararemadeofnaturalmaterials,inthecaseoffishinglines.Withregardstofishingnets,substitutematerialshavelittleornomarketpresence,asmostbiodegradableorcompostablefishingnetsarestillinresearchanddevelopmentphases(SeeBox5ontargetedinitiativesandeffortstouseplasticsubstitutesaswellasplasticrecycledmaterialsforfishinggear).Figure6belowprovidesafurtherdisaggregationofmaterialsandproductsexportedinthreecategories:rawmaterial,intermediate/finalproducts,andALDFG;providingsubcategoriesthatdifferentiateproductsbytheirorigin(mineral,treesandplants,cropresidues,animal,byproducts,etc.)andwithinthesesubcategoriesaspecificplasticsubstitute(e.g.,formineral-based,glass,aluminiumandceramicsareillustratedaccordingtotheirshareofglobalexports).Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonCOMTRADEdata2020andHS2022codes.Note:ValueofglobalexportsindicatedinbillionsofUnitedStatesdollarsandrespectivetradeshare.Figure6.ShareofglobaltradeofplasticsubstitutesbytypeofsourceProducts1.5%$125.7b$258.8b1.51%Rawmaterials$4.1b0.02%ALDFGALDFGProductsRawmaterials34PLASTICPOLLUTIONSource:Compiledbyauthors,basedonCOMTRADEdata2020andHS2022codes.Note:ValueofglobalexportsindicatedinbillionsofUnitedStatesdollarsandrespectivetradeshare.Figure6.(cont.)ShareofglobaltradeofplasticsubstitutesbytypeofsourceMineralproductsMineralsNaturalbresAgriculturalby-productsNaturalbresAnimal-basedWoodpulpNaturalbreproductsPlants/treebasedNaturalbresDedicatedcropsNaturalbreproductsProductsALDFGRawmaterials35CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENS3.3MarketaccesspoliciesappliedtoplasticssubstitutesoftheselectedclustersTradepoliciesappliedbycountries,especiallythosedirectlyaffectingaccesstomarkets,canhaveasignificantimpactonsupplyanddemandofsubstitutestoplastics.Thesepoliciescanaffecttheprice,theproductavailabilityinmarkets,andcouldalsocontributetoensuringproductsaresafeforconsumers.Thesepoliciescan,however,goeitherway,facilitateorhinderpurchasesofmaterialsandfinalproductsthatcanreduceplasticproductionandconsumption,asproductsavailabilitydependonmanynewfrontiersoftradepolicythatincludetariffandnon-tariffmeasures(seeBox9).Eventhoughcountrieshavereducedtheirmost-favorednation(MFN)tariffssincethe2000’s,andthepreferentialtariffsresultingfromtradeagreements,particularlyindevelopedcountries,theincidenceandprevalenceofnon-tariffmeasures(NTMs)hasrisen.Thesepoliciescanbehighlyeffectiveininfluencingsustainableoutcomesifappliedinacoordinatedmannerthroughmultilateral,orregionalnegotiations.191725334149576573818997105113121129137145153161169177185193201209217225233241249257$140$120$100$80$60$60$60Silk500720Wool510810Silk500400Wool510820Cashmere510531Leather411390Silk500200Theexportdataalsorevealsthatpricesofplasticsandtheirsubstitutesaresubstantiallydifferent.UsingthesameHScodesdiscussedpreviously,itispossibletoassessunitpricesbasedontradevalueandquantumdataavailable.Figure7belowshowstheunitpriceofsubstitutematerialorproductandcomparesthesepriceswithanaverageunitpricein$perkgforplastics.Plottingallsubstituteproductsidentified,fromlowesttohighestunitprice,comparingwithahorizontalaveragelineofunitpriceofplastics,itdemonstratesthatplasticsaremuchcheaperthantheirsubstitutes.So,thepriceincentiveisnottosubstitutethem.Thepricedifferentialcanbeattributedtovariousfactorsincludinglowerproductioncostsbutalsolowertariffs(asisshownbelow),anddistortivesubsidiestothepolymersvaluechains.Givencurrentconditions,marketforceswouldthemselvesreproducetheunsustainablepathofplasticsusewecurrentlyexperience.Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonCOMTRADEdata2020andHS2022codes.Figure7.Unitpricesofplasticsubstitutes(materialandproducts)in$perkg36PLASTICPOLLUTIONSuchpolicies,however,muststrikeacarefulbalancebetweenenvironment,health,andsocialobjectivesononehand,andeconomicgrowthontheother,asthisisofparamountimportancetotheoverallpolicyframeworkneededtosupportenvironmentallyfriendlysubstitutestoplastics.Giventhecriticalimpactthatsuchmeasureshaveonmarketaccess,theglobalandsectoraloverviewofplasticssubstitutesinthissectiondelvesintothetariffandnon-tariffmarketaccessrequirementsthatexportersmustcomplywithtoaccessinternationalmarkets.Itassesseswhatthemeasuresarethatareappliedtotheplasticssubstitutesidentified,whatpolicyspacecountrieshaveforusingthesemeasures,andthepotentialeffectthesemayhaveonprices.Tariffsarecustomsdutiesleviedbygovernmentsonimportedgoods,whichmustbepaidbeforeentryintomarket.Forexample,thesecouldbeintermsofapercentage(suchasa7percenttariffonbagasseimports)oronaspecicbasis($200perton),orbothcombined.Non-tariffmeasuresarepolicymeasures–otherthanordinarycustomstariffs–thatcanpotentiallyhaveaneconomiceffectoninternationaltradeingoods,changingquantitiestraded,orprices,orboth.Theseinclude:•Technicalmeasures,includingSPSmeasuresandTBT,whichareproduct-specificrequirements,mostlydesignedforpublicpolicyobjectivestoprotecthealth,safetyandtheenvironment,suchaspackagingrequirements,maximumresiduallimitsofchemicals,andrelatedinspectionsandcertification;and•Non-technicalmeasures,awidearrayoftrade-relatedpoliciessuchasquotas,nonautomaticimportlicensing,rulesoforiginandpricecontrolmeasures.WhileNTMsaimprimarilytoprotectpublichealthortheenvironment,theyalsoaffecttradethroughinformation,compliance,andproceduralcosts,andhavebeenshowntobemorerestrictivethantariffs.Source:UNCTAD(2019b)Box10.Deningtariffsandnon-tariffmeasures3.3.1TariffsappliedtosubstitutestoplasticsThissectionanalysesimporttariffsappliedtorawmaterialsandproducts’substitutestoplasticswithanidentified6-digitHScode.Bothmaterialsandproductsareorganizedandprovideanoverviewofimporttariffsbysubcategoriesasseenpreviouslyinthispaper.AgeneraloverviewofmeanimporttariffsappliedtoplasticsubstitutesisdisplayedinFigure8below,whichshowsthatsubstituteproductsusuallyhavehigherimporttariffsthanplastics.Plasticrawmaterialsandproductsgenerallyenjoylowtariffs,concentratedbelow10percent,whileproductsubstitutesrangebetweenaround5percentand25percent-thereforemanyofthemmayfaceenhanceddifficultiesinbecomingeconomicallyviableifneededtobeimported.Rawmaterialssubstitutesaresodiverse,andmostlyofverylowcomplexityintermsofproductivecapacities,thatthereisnoclearpattern:mostofthemarebelow10percentandresultsspanfromaslowas3percenttoashighas30percent.Amoredetailedcomparisonbetweensomeselectedplasticproductsandtheirsubstitutes,Figure9,revealsacleardifferencebetweenthetwo.Forexample,paperstraws’globalaveragetariffis13.3percent,whileplasticstraws’globalaveragetariffis7.7percent.Thesameappearsforpapercontaineralternativescomparedtoplasticbagsorbottles.Exceptionsholdinthecaseofaluminumandglass,becauseoftheirwidespreadmassproductionglobally,andforsomeverybasicproducts,suchascontainersmadeofbananaleavesorcoconuthusks.37CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENSSource:Compiledbyauthors,basedonCOMTRADE/ObservatoryofEconomicComplexity(OEC)data2020andHS2022codes.Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonOECdata2020andHS2022codes.Note:Aluminium,paper,containerpaperandshingnetsarerepeatedinthegraphbecauseofdifferentitemsrepresentedindifferentHScodes.Forexample,Aluminium’sare761290,761699and761510.Figure8.OverviewofaverageimporttariffsforselectedplasticandplasticsubstitutesmaterialsandproductsFigure9.Comparisonofworldaverageimporttariffsappliedtoselectedplasticproductsvsplasticsubstitutes1917253341495765738189971051131211291371451531611691771851932012092172252332412492572652732811520253035105Rawmaterials’substitutesProductsALDFG10%12%14%16%18%8%6%Averagetarrif(world)ListedproductsContainerspaperPaperPaperHempCottonContainerspaperContainersbanana/plantainleafcoconuthuskStraws:wheatbreStrawspaperFishingnetsFishingnetsMulchlmBottles(PET)FishinglinesDrinkingstrawsTakeout/takeawayfoodcontainersandplatesGroceryandotherbagsTakeout/takeawayfoodcontainersandplatesContainerspaperJuteGlassAluminiumAluminium38PLASTICPOLLUTIONSimilarresultsareobtainedifHScodesaregroupedbytypeofsourceandmainsubcategories(Figure10below).Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonOECtradedata2020andHScodesrevision2022.Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonOECdata2020andHS2022codes.Figure10.AverageimporttariffsappliedonsubstitutestoplasticsbytypeofsourceFigure11.AverageimporttariffsappliedonselectedplasticsubstitutesrawmaterialFigure11belowshowsthat18HScodes,mostlynewmaterialsubstitutesaslistedinTable1,haveappliedtariffsabovethehighesttariffsappliedtoplasticsrawmaterials(9.61percent),tariffsrangebetween13and30.70percent.0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%GrapewasteMushroomCaseinCoconut/WheatHusks/Corn-basedNettlesBacteriaandmixedvegetablesmicrobialcelluloseBambooFlaxDownLeatherVegetablematerialsCalabashhardshell0%2%4%6%8%10%12%14%RawMaterialsProductsALDFGFigure12onnextpagepresentsglobalaveragetariffsforsubstituteproductsmadeofvegetablematerials,paper,ceramicsandtheresultsarebetween15.20and20.50percent,whilethehighesttariffforplasticsisaround13percent.39CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENSSource:Compiledbyauthors,basedonOECdata2020andHS2022codes.Figure12.Averageimporttariffsappliedonproductsmadeofplasticsubstitutes0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%VegetablematerialproductsCeramicsPaperproductsHempproductsBasketandcontainers:bananaleaf/coconuthuskTariffsappliedtofishinggear(Figure13)increasepricesbyatleast8percent.Thisisimportantbecauseanyadditionalcostmattersforsmallfisheriesthatrequiretheseinputsinlargeamounts,notonlybecauseoftheendoflifeoftheproductbutbecausethesecanbelost.TariffdataalsorevealsthatHScodesforfishinggearmadeofnaturalfibresseemtohavehighertariffsthanthosemadecompletelyofplasticmaterials.Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonOECdata2020andHS2022codes.Figure13.AverageimporttariffsappliedonALDFG0%2%4%6%8%10%12%14%ALDFGothersALDFGnaturalfibresInconclusion,theanalysisfoundhighertariffsappliedtoasetofplasticssubstitutes,whichsuggestsanimportantpolicyspacetoreducetariffssotocreategreaterincentivestomovetowardsplasticssubstitutes.Thisshouldbepresentbothinmultilateraltradeagreementspursuingamoresustainablefuture,andbilateralagreements.Reducingcostsfortraderscantriggernationalandglobalsupplyandattractinvestmenttothesourcecountry–insomecasesinvestmentcouldalsobeexpectedatotherstagesofthevaluechaininthesourceorpartnercountry.3.3.2Non-tariffmeasuresappliedtoplasticsubstitutesDataonnon-tariffmeasures(NTMs)areavitalcomplementtotariffdataasNTMsmaybemorerestrictivethantariffs.Whilenon-tariffmeasuresaimprimarilytoprotectpublichealth,productquality,ortheenvironment,theyalsoaffecttradethroughinformation,compliance,andproceduralcosts(UNCTAD,2019b).NTMsmaydecreasetrade,e.g.,whentradecostsresultingfromcompliancewitharegulation40PLASTICPOLLUTIONincrease,oritmayincreasetrade,e.g.,whentrustinforeignproductsincreases.UnderstandingNTMsandenhancingtheirtransparencycanhelptradersidentifytherequirementstheyface,andcanhelppolicymakers,tradenegotiators,andresearcherstoachievetherightbalancebetweenthereductionoftradecostsandthepreservationofpublicobjectives(UNCTAD,2022e).NTMscompriseawideareaofpolicymeasures–i.e.,officiallegislationinforcethatappliestoimportsandtoexports–thatusuallydiffersbycountryandproduct.TocomparedataonNTMsinternationallyispossiblebyusingtheNTMsclassification,whichincludesover400codesthataregroupedacross16chapters.DatabasessuchasUNCTAD’sTradeAnalysisInformationSystem(TRAINS),whichcovers100economies,makeNTManalysispossibleasitallowsfortheidentificationofallregulationsthattradersofanyproducthavetocomplywithinacertainmarket–i.e.,regulationsarecodedbytheNTMclassificationtaxonomyandbyproductusingtheHarmonizedSystemclassification(HS).UsingtheTRAINSdatabase,threestandardNTMindicatorsforplasticssubstituteswerecalculated.17TheindicatorsallowustoassesstheuseofNTMs,howoftencountriesareapplyingNTMs,themostcommontypesofNTMandthemostregulatedclustersofplasticsubstitutes.TheseindicatorsrevealtheuseofNTMsaspolicyinstruments,butdonotrevealhowmuchNTMswouldcostexportersandimporters,noriftheyarerestrictingorenhancingtrade.Thethreeindicatorsdiscussedinthissectionare:•FrequencyIndex,whichcapturesthepercentageofproducts(atthe6-digitHScode)affectedbyoneormoreNTMs.•Coverageratio,whichcapturestheshareoftradesubjecttoNTMs–unlikethefrequencyindex,thisusestradevalues.Itisweightedbyimportvaluesratherthannumberoftradedproducts.•Prevalencescore,whichindicatestheaveragenumberofdistinctNTMsappliedinacountrytoregulatedproducts,therebymeasuringthediversityandintensityofNTMs.(UNCTAD,2019b).AjointUNCTADandWorldBankpublication(UNCTAD,2018c)observedthatdevelopedcountriestendtohavedeeperlevelsofregulation,coveringmoresectorsandwithahighernumberofNTMs.GeneralresultsTheresultsshowthatplasticsubstitutesfortheselectedclustersfaceatotalof150differenttypesofimportmeasuresandalmost30differenttypesofexportmeasures.Forimports,inallcountriesincluded,theindicatorsrevealthataround40percentofsubstitutestoplasticsneedtocomplywithatleastoneNTM(firstgreenbarinFigure14).Intradevaluethisrepresentsabout80percentoftheimportvalueofplasticsubstitutes(firstyellowbar).EveryimportedproductneedstocomplywithabouttwoNTMs,onaverage(firstbluediamond).Asforexports,almostathirdofexportedsubstitutestoplasticsneedtocomplywithNTMs.TheNTMindicatorsalsorevealsignificantdifferencesbetweencountrygroups(Figure15).InthecaseofNTMsappliedtoimports,developedcountrieshaveonaveragethreeNTMsbytradedproduct.Thisaffectsaround80percentoftrade.Developingcountriesandleastdevelopedcountries(LDCs)havebetweenoneandtwoNTMs.Incontrast,NTMsthatapplytoexportsaremoreprevalentindevelopingcountriesthanindevelopedcountries,bothintermsoftradecoverageandinthenumberofNTMsinplace.Developedcountriesregulatemoreimportsthanexportsofthestudiedplasticsubstitutes,whiletheoppositeholdsforLDCswhichtypicallyapplylicensesandtaxesforexporting–thispolicymaymirrorcountriesconcernstoensureminimumqualitytoexpandmarkets(increaseimporters’trust,compliancewithpartnercountry’sregulations(e.g.,pre-shipment),limitexportsofcertainproducts).Annex3providestheNTMindicatorsbyeconomyorterritory.17NTMscalculationswerebasedonanearliersubsetof265HScodesofplasticsubstitutes,sotheresultsshouldbeinterpretedasgeneraltrendsandnotexactfigures.41CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENSSource:Compiledbyauthors,basedonTRAINS.Figure14.Globalresults100%80%60%40%20%0%ImportNTM543210ExportNTMSource:Compiledbyauthors,basedonTRAINS.Figure15.NTMindicatorsbydevelopmentstatusResultsbyclusterNTMdatagroupedbyclusterofplasticssubstitutesdiscussedinChapter2(Figure16)showsthat,intermsofNTMsappliedtoimports,themostregulatedclustersarenaturalfibresfromplantandtree-basedproducts,dedicatedcrops,andagriculturalby-products(leftpanel).ProductsoftheseclustersalsofacethehighestnumberofNTMs.TheindicatorsarelowerforNTMsappliedtoexports(Figure16lasttwopanels).DevelopingLDCDevelopedPanela.importNTMsPanelb.ExportNTMs100%80%60%40%20%0%543210DevelopingLDCDeveloped100%80%60%40%20%0%54321042PLASTICPOLLUTIONSource:Compiledbyauthors,basedonTRAINS.Figure16.NTMindicatorsbysectorPanela.ImportNTMs:coverageandfrequency0%20%40%60%80%100%NaturalfibresMineralsALDFGMineralsALDFGPanelb.ImportNTMs:prevalence0246875311090%20%40%60%80%100%0%20%40%60%80%100%Naturalfibres02468753110943CHAPTER3:PURSUINGPLASTICSSUBSTITUTESTHROUGHATRADELENSSource:Compiledbyauthors,basedonTRAINS.Figure16.(cont.)NTMindicatorsbysector00,41,20,81,600,41,20,81,6Panelc.ExportNTMs:coverageandfrequency0%20%40%60%80%100%NaturalfibresMineralsALDFG0%20%40%60%80%100%0%20%40%60%80%100%MineralsALDFGPanelb.ExportNTMs:prevalenceNaturalfibres44PLASTICPOLLUTIONResultsbytypeofnon-tariffmeasureAbout30percentoftheimportedplasticssubstitutesstudiedmustcomplywithatleastoneTBTmeasure,whichrepresentsmorethan60percentofworldimports.Thenextmostcommonimportmeasureusedconcernsrequirementsforlicences,quotas,orotherquantitycontrolmeasures–representing40percentofworldimports.InthecaseofNTMsappliedtoexports,morethan20percentofplasticsubstitutesfaceatleastoneNTM,representingaround40percentofworldexports.TheshareofSPSmeasures,whichmostlyconcernfoodandagricultureproducts,islower,at21percentoftheglobalvalueofimportsofsubstitutestoplastics.However,SPShasthehighestvalueintermsoftheprevalencescoreaseachimportedproductneedstocomplywithanaverageofsixSPSmeasures,asopposedtothreeTBTmeasures.Source:Compiledbyauthors,basedonTRAINS.Figure17.NTMindicatorsbytypeofmeasurePanela:NTMs:coverageandfrequency0%20%40%60%80%100%0123456Panelb:NTMs:prevalence4FINDINGS46PLASTICPOLLUTIONCurrently,alistofallplasticsubstitutesinexistenceorthatarebeingdevelopeddoesnotexist.Therefore,anextendedillustrativelistofmaterialsandproductsubstitutesforplasticswascreated.The282HScodesrepresentingpotentialsubstitutesforplasticsconstituteaninitialbasisforanalysisandpolicyactiononvariousmaterialsandproductswhichcanhelpsteersocietyawayfromplastics.Theirtotalglobalexportsin2020was$388billionofwhichapproximatelytwothirdsarerawmaterials($258billion),$125billionwereproducts,and$4billionwasALDFG.Thisisasignificantnumber,whichcanbeupscaledwiththerightsetofpolicysupportandincentives.Lookingintothesefiveclustersafewinnovativeandscalableexamplesofplasticsubstituteswereidentifiedandshowcasedinmoredetail.Thisis,however,anongoingprocessandcanonlybeapproachedbycontinuouslyidentifyingsubstitutesthatcanperformsimilarfunctionstoplasticsonacase-by-casebasis,andasweseemoreinnovationsinthisarea,newsubstitutescouldmaterializeinthefuture.Similarly,informationoneachproductclusterisscatteredacrossdifferentsources.Thepaperrecognizesthatthediscussiononphasingoutplasticsrequiresadetailedassessmentaboutthetypeofsubstitutes,theiravailability,andlimitations.Thedatasupporttheclaimsthatthemostsuitablesubstitutetoplasticmaynotbeequallyappliedtoallfossilfuel-basedplasticswithsimilarproperties,oracrosscountries,andnotevenwithinsectorsbutitdependsonalocalcontextintermsofavailabilityofmaterials,consumers’behavior,country’scapacitytoprocesswaste,andsubstitute’sreusability.Thisisreinforcedbyvariouslifecycleanalysesofplasticsubstitutespublishedrecently(e.g.,UNCTAD,UNEP,andWB)andillustratedinthereportwithanexampleofjutebagsfromtheSMEPprogramme.Hence,abroadersetofimpactsconsideredbytheLCAisimportant,suchasassessmentoflitter,health,long-termimpactsonecosystems,andsocialandgenderimpacts.4.FindingsAstheworldlooksforsolutionstoaddressclimatechangeamidgrowingconcernsregardingnegativeenvironmentalimpactscausedbyhumanhabits,theproblemofplasticsisgainingmomentum.Thereisasoberawarenessthatpollutioncausedbyplasticsneedsamoreaggressiveapproachwhiledesigningpoliciestopreventfutureplasticdependencyandmismanagement.Nevertheless,plasticsareheretostayastheyprovidesomeimportantfunctionsfortoday’ssocietalneeds.Therefore,plasticsubstitutesarenotasolutiontobeimplementedovernightwithoutacarefullydesignedandinformedsetofpolicies,aswellasasystemthatwouldincentivizesuchsubstitutionandpreventanyfurtherpotentialharmtotheenvironmentandhumanhealth.Forplasticsubstitutestobecomeaviablesolutioninthemidandlong-term,decisiveglobalactionisneededtoday.Movingawayfromsilopoliciesandtowardscoherenceandcoordinationbetweenmeasurestoaddressplasticpollutionacrosstheplasticlifecycleandinfavorofcirculareconomiesisanimportantinitialstep.4.1KeyndingsThispaperprovidesadistinctionbetweenplasticsubstitutesandplasticalternativesandprovidesacleardefinitionforboth:plasticalternativescanthusincludebioplasticsorbiodegradableplastics,whilethesubstitutesarenaturalmaterialsfrommineral,marine,plant,oranimalorigin,thathavesimilarphysicalpropertiestofossilfuel-basedplastics.Basedonthis,clustersthatcontributethemosttoplasticwasteandputasignificantpressureoncountries’wastemanagementsystemcapacities,andtheoceanswereidentified:Textiles3Productspartofpackaging2Singleuseplastics1Mulchagriculturalsector4ALDFGshingsector547CHAPTER4:FINDINGSTwoindicatorswereusedtodeterminetheeconomicviabilityofmaterialsubstitutes-RevealedComparativeAdvantageandRecovery/recyclingrate.FindingsidentifiedidealsubstituteswhicharelocatedaroundRCAabove1(thusthecountryalreadyhasarevealedcomparativeadvantage,orcompetitiveproductivecapacities)andwitharecyclingrateabove60percent.Furthermore,therearecountriesidentifiedthathavethecapacity(RCAabove1)andcouldeasilymovetothepreferredareabutneedtoinvestinawastemanagementsystemthatwouldincreasetheirrecovery/recyclingrates.PoliciestoimprovetheRCAwhileimprovingtherecovery/recyclingratecouldalsobesuggested,butresultswouldrequirelongertermandmoresubstantivepoliciestocombinebetterrecyclingratesandmorecomplexproductivecapacities.DespitetheaboveidentifiedlimitationsontheusageofcertainHScodes,atotalof2826-digitHScodesforplasticsubstituteswereidentifiedincludingwiththeircorrespondingHSchapters.AbroadarrayofsubstitutestoplasticsarecoveredundertheHSChapter44(Woodandarticlesofwood),47(Pulpofwoodorotherfibrouscellulosicmaterial),48(Paperandpaperboard),51(Wool,fineorcoarseanimalhair,yarnandwovenfabric),53(Vegetabletextilefibres;paperyarnandwovenfabricsofpaperyarn),and76(aluminiumandarticlesthereof).Furthermore,thepaperintentionallygivesexamplesofsomehighlyinnovativeplasticsubstitutes,newmaterialsthatcouldreplaceorevenimprovefunctionalityofplasticorusageofplasticmaterialsduringproductproduction,butforwhichanapplicableHScodedoesn’texistyetandarethuspresentedasanexampleoftheHScodes’limitationsthispaperencountered.Eventhoughintermsoftotalglobalexports,theshareofplasticsubstitutes(2percentshare)islessthanthatofplastics(5percentshareofglobalexports)theseareneverthelesssignificantnumbersthatcanbescaledwithadequatepolicysupportandincentives.Tradedataalsorevealthatrawmaterialsarethemosttradedinrespecttofinalproduct,whichsuggeststhatthedevelopmentofsubstitutestoplasticsistakingplaceoutsidethesourcecountries.Afactthatisindeedamissedopportunity(oranopportunitytograsp)forrawmaterialexportingcountries,butalsoforpartnershipsbetweencountries–regionallyandinternationally.Usingthelistofidentifiedplasticsubstituteswith6-digitHScodes,thedataforunitpriceofthesesubstitutematerialsorproductscomparedwithanaverageunitpriceforplasticsdemonstratesthatplasticsareusuallymuchcheaperthantheirsubstitutes.Thus,thepriceincentiveisnottosubstituteplastic.Ageneraloverviewofmeanimporttariffsappliedtoplasticsubstitutesindicatesthatsubstituteproductsusuallyfacehigherimporttariffsthanplastics.Plasticmaterialsandproductsgenerallyenjoylowtariffsandareconcentratedbelow10percent,whileproductsubstitutesrangebetween5percentand25percent-thereforemanyofthemwillfaceenhanceddifficultiesinbecomingeconomicallyviableifneededtobeimported.So,inadditiontohavingalowerprice,amarketincentivenottosubstitute,plasticsalsoenjoylowertariffs.Therefore,highertariffsappliedtoasetofproductsandrawmaterialplasticssubstitutessuggestanimportantpolicyspacetoreducetariffssotocreategreaterincentivestomovetowardsplasticssubstitutes.Thatshouldbepresentbothinmultilateraltradeagreementspursuingamoresustainablefuture,andbilateralagreements.Reducingcostsfortraderscantriggernationalandglobalsupply,andattractinvestmenttothesourcecountry–insomecasesinvestmentcouldalsobeexpectedatotherstagesofthevaluechaininthesourceorpartnercountry.Apartfromtariffsthatpotentiallyplaceplasticsubstitutesatadisadvantage,non-tariffmeasurescanequally,ifnotevenmore,harmtradeflowsandthusthemainstreamingofplasticsubstitutes.Analysisinthispapershowsthataround40percentoftheimportedsubstitutestoplasticsintheworldneedtocomplywithatleastoneNTM,whichrepresentsabout80percentofthevalueoftheseimportedgoods.AlmostathirdofexportedsubstitutestoplasticsneedtocomplywithNTMs.Productswhicharemostregulatedarenaturalfibresfromplantandtree-basedproducts,dedicatedcrops,andagriculturalby-productsandthesealsohappentobetheproductswithhighernumbersofNTMs.Thisisduetothehighnumberofregulationsfortheseproducts.48PLASTICPOLLUTIONInadditiontothehurdleNTMsthemselvesimposeondevelopingcountriesandsectorsrelatedtoplasticsubstitutessuchasagriculture,anotherimportantelementthathindersinternationaltrade,inparticularexportsfromdevelopingcountriesburdenedbyNTMs,aretheirbusinessenablingenvironments(BEE).Requiringadevelopingcountrytocomplywithregulationsandprocessesthatareoftentimeconsumingandcostlypreventsmany,especiallysmallandmid-sizedcompanies,fromengaginginglobaltrade.Informationaboutrequirements,forexampleonSPSandTBT,isoftenlimitedandadministrativeprocessesuntransparentandcostly.Withpost-COVID-19accelerateddigitizationoftrade-relatedadministrativeproceduresindevelopingeconomiessomeoftheburdenmightbealleviated,however,opportunitiesthatcomparablecompaniesindevelopedeconomies,withwell-functioningandsupportingenablingenvironmentshave,stillputothersatadisadvantage.4.2ThewayforwardThispaperoutlinedsomeofthecrucialchallengespolicymakerswillneedtoaddressinordertotackleplasticpollutionandcreateincentivesforplasticsubstitutes.Fromidentifyingsomepotentialplasticsubstitutesthatcouldbecomemoreprominentastheydevelopproductivecapacities,butbearinginmindtheirpotentialenvironmentalimpact,tochangesneededintoday’stradingsystemthatwouldincentivizethistransition,includingtradeincentives.Thus,thispaperi)providesclusterswhichcanbeabasisforcountriestoworkon,andii)providescorrespondingidentifiedHScodesforplasticsubstitutesthatshouldbeconsideredasanevolvinglist.Whendiscussingenablingconditionsforplasticsubstitutes,findingsiii)oncurrentlyappliedtariffsshowthatthereisnotalevelplayingfieldforplasticsubstitutesversusplastics,andiv)duetocurrentlylowpricesofplastics,countriescouldexploreadjustingtariffsappliedtoplasticsorphasingoutfossilfuelsubsidies.Furthermore,v)countriescanexplorepolicyoptionstoenablesunriseindustriesaroundplasticsubstitutes,wheretheyhavecomparativeadvantages,capacitiesforrecovery,recycling,andpotentialforjobcreation.Environmentalimpactbeingofutmostimportanceforasubstitutetoplastictobeconsidereditneedstobeemphasizedthatvi)additionalexploratoryworkneedstobedonetoidentifyexistinginnovativeproductswhichcouldperformtheroleofplasticsubstitutes,andthatvii)plasticsubstitutesareonlyoneinstrumentinthepolicy-makingtoolboxforcountriestoaddressplasticpollution.Basedonviii)LCAconsiderations,whichpointtopotentialproblematicaspectsofsomesubstitutes,countriesneedtocomeupwithaminimumsetofLCAindicatorsonwhichactionablepolicycanbebased,inordertodefinesubstituteswhichshouldbeproduced.Assistingdevelopingcountriesiscrucialasix)materialsubstitutionmayprovideanopportunityforproductivecapacitiesdevelopmentwhichgeneratejobslocally.Forthisshifttobeinclusiveandeconomicallysustainableax)furtherresearchongenderaspectsoftransitioningtoplasticsubstitutesisneeded,duetopotentialchangesinlaborstructuresthatwoulddisproportionallyaffectwomen,alongwithxi)mappingofexistinganddevelopingnew,tailored,financialinstruments,tohelpscalepromisingsubstitutesolutionsforbroadermarketrollout.Thelattercouldbesupportedbymultilateraldevelopmentbanksacrossregionsleveragingtheirenvironmentalefforts,knowledge,anddedicatedfunds.REFERENCES50PLASTICPOLLUTIONAkenji,L.,Bengtsson,M.,Kato,M.,Hengesbaugh,M.,Hotta,Y.,Aoki-Suzuki,C.,Gamaralalage,P.J.D.,&Liu,C.(2019).Circulareconomyandplastics:Agap-analysisinASEANmemberstates.EuropeanCommissionDirectorateGeneralforEnvironmentandDirectorateGeneralfor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ntofexportmarketsformaterialsubstitutesandalternatives,includinghigh-qualityrecycledplasticsh.Promotefurtherresearch,development,andadoptionofmaterialsubstitutesthatarelesspollutingtotheocean–particularly,exploretheadoptionofnaturalmaterials,marineby-products,andpostharvestagriculturalwaste,whichcouldhelpspurinnovation,supportamorecirculareconomy,anddevelopnewindustrialcapacitiesindevelopingcountriesi.Undertakecontinuousstatisticalworkmonitoringandmeasuringtheflowsofplasticsandnon-plasticfeedstocks,aswellasend-useproducts,toproduceanalysesthatsupportpolicyaction.ANNEX257ANNEX2:LISTOF282HSCODESFORIDENTIFIEDPOTENTIALPLASTICSUBSTITUTESTypeFeedstock/ProductsHSCode1Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsCasein0404902Naturalfibres-animal-basedDown0505103Naturalfibres-animal-basedDown0505904Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsSnailpoo/fishskinorresidues0511915Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsMushroom0709596Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsMushroom0709597Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsCalabashhardshell0709938Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsMushroom0711519Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsMushroom07115910Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsNettles/vegetablewaste/microbialcellulose/cel-lulose07119011Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsMushroom07123112Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsMushroom07123913Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsGrapewaste08119014Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsGrapewaste08129015Naturalfibres-productsStarch11081216Naturalfibres-productsStarch11081317Naturalfibres-productsStarch11081918Naturalfibres-productsGround-nuts,shelled12022019Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsRay(mulch/straw)12092520Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsArecaleaves/bananaleavesorstem/pineappleleaves14019021Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsSeaweed(incl.brownandredalgae)12122122Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsSeaweed(incl.brownandredalgae)12122923Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsCoconut/wheathusks/corn-based12130024Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsHay/Whiteclover(mulch)12149025NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedVegetable13021926Naturalfibres–productsVegetable13023127Naturalfibres–productsVegetable13023228Naturalfibres–productsVegetable13023929NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedBamboo14011030Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsArecaleaves/bananaleavesorstem/pineappleleaves14019031Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsCottonlinters14042032Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsCalabashhardshell14049033Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsBeeswax-coatedcloth15211034Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsSyrup17023035NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedSyrup17026036Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsBambooshoots20059137Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsCoconut/WheatHusks/Corn-based23024058PLASTICPOLLUTIONTypeFeedstock/ProductsHSCode38Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsTofuwaste23025039Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsSugarcane-bagasse23033040Naturalfibres-plant/tree-basedVegetable23080041MineralsAluminium28182042MineralsAluminium28183043Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsAlcohols;polyhydric,d-glucitol(sorbitol)29054444Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsAlcohols;polyhydric,glycerol29054545MineralsGlass32074046Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsCellulose39123947Naturalfibres-agriculturalby-productsCellulose39129048Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsSeaweed(incl.brownandredalgae)39131049NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedVegetable39139050NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedprod-uctsCellulose39207951Naturalfibres-dedicatedcropsRubber40011052NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedRubber40012153NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedRubber40012254NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedRubber40012955Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41071156Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41071257Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41071958Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41079059Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41079160Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41079261Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41079962Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41120063Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41131064Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41132065Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41133066Naturalfibres-animal-basedLeather41139067NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWood44013068NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedBamboo44021069Naturalfibres-productsFinishedcoolerbox42029270NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44031171NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44031272NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWood44032073NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44032174NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44032259ANNEX2:LISTOF282HSCODESFORIDENTIFIEDPOTENTIALPLASTICSUBSTITUTESTypeFeedstock/ProductsHSCode75NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44032376NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44032477NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44032578NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWoodbark(mulch/packaging)44032679NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWood44033180NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWood44033281NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWood44033382NaturalFibres-plant/tree-basedWood44033483NaturalFibres-plant/tree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