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By Joseph Webster

RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR A US NORTHEAST

HYDROGEN HUB

Atlantic Council

GLOBAL ENERGY CENTER

The Global Energy Center promotes energy security by working alongside

government, industry, civil society, and public stakeholders to devise pragmatic

solutions to the geopolitical, sustainability, and economic challenges of the

changing global energy landscape.

This report is written and published in accordance with the Atlantic Council

Policy on Intellectual Independence. The authors are solely responsible

for its analysis and recommendations. The Atlantic Council and its donors

do not determine, nor do they necessarily endorse or advocate for, any of

this report’s conclusions. This report does not represent the position of any

entities associated with the proposed northeast hydrogen hub.

Atlantic Council

1030 15th Street NW, 12th Floor

Washington, DC 20005

For more information, please visit

www.AtlanticCouncil.org.

The Atlantic Council is grateful to National Grid for their generous support of

this project.

ISBN-13: 978-1-61977-253-3

November 2022

Atlantic Council

GLOBAL ENERGY CENTER

Cover photo: Unsplash

Design: Donald Partyka and Anais Gonzalez

Atlantic Council

GLOBAL ENERGY CENTER

By Joseph Webster

RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR A US NORTHEAST

HYDROGEN HUB

Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

Executive Summary 2

I. Hydrogen Basics: Energy Properties and H2Hubs 4

II. Northeast Green Hydrogen Supply Fundamentals 8

III. Regional Hydrogen Demand Sources 15

IV. Midstream, Supply Chains, Infrastructure, and Storage 22

Conclusion and Recommendations 25

About the Author 28

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A US NORTHEAST HYDROGEN HUB

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AByJosephWebsterRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBAtlanticCouncilGLOBALENERGYCENTERTheGlobalEnergyCenterpromotesenergysecuritybyworkingalongsidegovernment,industry,civilsociety,andpublicstakeholderstodevisepragmaticsolutionstothegeopolitical,sustainability,andeconomicchallengesofthechangingglobalenergylandscape.ThisreportiswrittenandpublishedinaccordancewiththeAtlanticCouncilPolicyonIntellectualIndependence.Theauthorsaresolelyresponsibleforitsanalysisandrecommendations.TheAtlanticCouncilanditsdonorsdonotdetermine,nordotheynecessarilyendorseoradvocatefor,anyofthisreport’sconclusions.Thisreportdoesnotrepresentthepositionofanyentitiesassociatedwiththeproposednortheasthydrogenhub.AtlanticCouncil103015thStreetNW,12thFloorWashington,DC20005Formoreinformation,pleasevisitwww.AtlanticCouncil.org.TheAtlanticCouncilisgratefultoNationalGridfortheirgeneroussupportofthisproject.ISBN-13:978-1-61977-253-3November2022AtlanticCouncilGLOBALENERGYCENTERCoverphoto:UnsplashDesign:DonaldPartykaandAnaisGonzalezAtlanticCouncilGLOBALENERGYCENTERByJosephWebsterRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB1TableofContentsTableofContents1ExecutiveSummary2I.HydrogenBasics:EnergyPropertiesandH2Hubs4II.NortheastGreenHydrogenSupplyFundamentals8III.RegionalHydrogenDemandSources15IV.Midstream,SupplyChains,Infrastructure,andStorage22ConclusionandRecommendations25AbouttheAuthor28RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB23ExecutiveSummary1“NewYork’sCommitmenttoCleanEnergy,”AboutOffshoreWind,lastvisitedAugust20,2022,https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Offshore-Wind/About-Offshore-Wind;AnActDrivingCleanEnergyandOffshoreWind.The192ndGeneralCourtoftheCommonwealthofMassachusetts,BillH.5060192nd(Current),lastvisitedAugust20,2022,https://malegislature.gov/Bills/192/H5060;AnActConcerningtheProcurementofEnergyDerivedfromOffshoreWind,StateofConnecticut,PublicActNo.19–71ConnecticutGeneralAssembly,lastvisitedAugust20,2022,https://www.cga.ct.gov/2019/ACT/pa/pdf/2019PA-00071-R00HB-07156-PA.pdf;ExecutiveOrderNo.92,StateofNewJersey,November19,2019,https://nj.gov/infobank/eo/056murphy/.Thehydrogenfutureappearstobeinsight.Russia’sinvasionofUkraineandtheInflationReductionAct(IRA)haveturbochargedinvestmentsinrenew-ablesandgreenhydrogen,and,potentially,servedastippingpointsintheenergytransition.Whilehydrogensupplychainsremainintheirinfancyandaresubjecttogeo-politicalrisks,theenergysectorappearspoisedtobegindevelopinggreenhydrogenatscale,bothdomesticallyandinternationally.Tospurdomestichydrogenproduction,theUSDepartmentofEnergyisawarding$8billiontoatleastfourhydrogenhubsacrosstheUnitedStates.ThispaperwilladdresstheopportunitiesandchallengesassociatedwithapotentialhydrogenhubinthenortheasternUnitedStates,definedasConnecticut,Maine,Massachusetts,NewJersey,NewYork,andRhodeIsland.Thenortheasthydrogenhubenjoysseveralcriticaladvan-tagesandhydrogen-enablingconditions.Duetoexcellentoffshorewindresourcesandsubstantialpoliticalsupportforcleanenergy,thenortheasternhubstateshavesetgoalsofcollectivelyinstallingmorethanthirty-fivegigawatts(GW)ofoffshorewind(OSW)generationcapacityby2035.1Havingbecomethenation’sleaderinoffshorewinddevelopment,thenortheastispoisedtoleveragetheseresourcestopro-ducehydrogen.Inaddition,theregionisindireneedofsolu-tionsthatcouldlimitelectricityprices,asthenortheasthassomeofthenation’shighestelectricityprices,particularlyduringwinterpeak-demandperiods.Hydrogen’sintersea-sonalstoragecapabilitiescoulddampenregionalelectricitypricesbyshiftingelectronsgeneratedfromoff-peakseasonstopeakwinterdemand.Aregionalhydrogen-supportivesup-plychainisemerging,asthenortheastpossessesanelectro-lyzerindustryandisdevelopingseveraloffshorewindports.Moreover,theregionenjoysavarietyofusecasesforhydro-gendeployment,includingblendinginexistingnaturalgaspipelines;desulfurizationinrefineries;industrialuses,suchassteelandcement;and,potentially,overthelongterm,maritimetransport.Finally,theregion’sworld-classeduca-tionsystemoffersaunique—ifpotentiallyunderappreci-ated—advantageinthehydrogenrace.Thenortheastisoneoftheworld’sleadersinproducingscience,technology,engi-neering,andmathematics(STEM)graduates,enablingittoresearch,develop,andquicklyabsorbnewtechnologies—includinghydrogen.Whilethenortheast’sprospectivehydrogenhaskeyadvan-tages,itmustalsoovercomeseveralchallenges.Greenhydrogenmaybemostsuitableforthenortheast,buttheregion’sonshorewindandsolarresourcesthatcouldpowerhydrogenproductionareconstrainedbyunfavorablegeog-raphy;offshorewindprojectsintheAtlanticOceancouldfaceschedulingsetbacks;andNewYork’sGreatLakesOSWpotentialmightneverreachfruition.Hydrogendemandalsofacesuncertaintiesoverwhatpercentageofhydrogencanbeblendedintoexistingnaturalgasinfrastructure.Finally,thereareunresolvedquestionsinthehydrogenregionalmidstreameconomysurroundingregionalstorage,hydro-genpipelineblendingvsdedicatedpipelines,andcast-ironpipelines.Thereportrecommendsthatnortheasternpolicymakerscon-siderthefollowingsteps.•Supportandacceleratecleanenergyproduction.Additionaloffshorewind—andnuclearenergy—capacityiscrucialtomaximizinglocalgreenhydrogenproduction.Theregioncannotproducebluehydrogenindigenously,whileimportinggreenhydrogenatscalefrommaritimesourceswillproveinfeasibleforyears,probablymorethanadecade.TheregionissupportingAtlanticOceanOSWthroughprocurementcontractsandinfrastructurebuild-out,butitshouldalsoconsiderexpandingGreatLakesOSWandnuclearenergycapacity,tothegreatestextentfeasible.•Nimblyadaptpolicytomeetchangesinhydrogentech-nology.Policymakersmustnavigateuncertaintysurround-ingcutting-edgehydrogentechnology,butalsorespondrapidlyanddecisivelytochangingtechnologiesandmar-ketconditions,inordertoenablenewsupplychains.Forinstance,ifblendingstudiesfindthatexistingnaturalgasinfrastructurecansafelyandreliablyaccommodateahighpercentageofhydrogenthroughput,policymakerswillneedtoactaccordingly.Strikingabalanceamiduncer-taintywilladmittedlybedifficult.Regionalpolicymakersanddecision-makersshouldfollowH2blendinginnaturalgaspipelinestudiesveryclosely,andadjusttheirgovern-mentalorcorporatestrategiesasconditionsdictate.Withevencautiousstudiessuggestingthatblendingpercent-agesof5percentaresafe,andwithcleanhydrogenlikelyreachingcostparitywithgreyhydrogenduetoprovisionsintheInflationReductionAct,policymakersshouldcon-siderblendingmandates.Whileanymandatesshouldstartatlowinitiallevels,itmaybeappropriatetoescalatetheacceptablelevelofhydrogenthroughput,dependingontheresultsofH2-blendingstudies.•Preparetheregion’sinfrastructureforthehydrogenecon-omy.Regardlessoftheresultsofhydrogen-blendingstud-ies,regionalpolicymakersmustreplaceexistingiron-castpipelineswithallpossiblehaste.Thesepipesarenotrec-ommendedfortransportinghydrogen,andarehighlyapttoemitmethaneeveninexistingpipelinesystems.Theregionmayalsoneedtodevelopammonia-relatedinfra-structureformaritimeshipping,butthatisamoredistantconcern.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB45I.HydrogenBasics:EnergyPropertiesandH2Hubs2“HydrogenExplained,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,January21,2022,https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrogen/production-of-hydrogen.php.3Ibid.4Ibid.5“DOELaunchesBipartisanInfrastructureLaw’s$8BillionProgramforCleanHydrogenHubsacrossU.S.,”USDepartmentofEnergy,June6,2022,https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-launches-bipartisan-infrastructure-laws-8-billion-program-clean-hydrogen-hubs-across.6TransportationandInfrastructure.Bill,H.R.3684—InfrastructureInvestmentandJobsAct§.[[Page135STAT.1008]]117-58(2021).7“RegionalCleanHydrogenHubs,”USDepartmentofEnergy,lastvisitedAugust11,2022,https://www.energy.gov/bil/regional-clean-hydrogen-hubs.8“DOEUpdateonHydrogenShot,RFIResults,andSummaryofHydrogenProvisions,”USDepartmentofEnergy,December8,2021,slide14,https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-12/h2iq-12082021.pdf.Hydrogencouldeconomicallydecarbonizeindus-trialapplicationsatscale,andsettheworldonapathwaytonet-zeroemissions.Whilemosthydrogenfueliscurrentlyproducedvianaturalgasandcoal,newtechnologiescouldenablehydrogenpro-ducedfromsolar,onshoreandoffshorewind,nuclearpower,andnaturalgaswithcarbonstorage.Hydrogenhasseveraladvantagesoverotherfuelsduetoitschemicalproperties.Hydrogenisabundant,canbesourcedfromwater,andemitsonlywatervaporandheat.Itcanberepurposedforsyntheticgasorelectricity.Finally,hydrogencanbeproducedlocally,closetodemandcenters—orevenco-sitedwithendusers—whereasoil,naturalgas,andcoaltypicallyrequireextensivetransmissionanddistributionnet-workstoreachfinaldemand.Thetwomostcommonmethodsforproducinghydro-genaresteammethanereforming,orSMR,andelectroly-sis,whichsplitswaterviaelectricity.2TheSMRproductiontechniqueisutilizedbycoalandnatural-gasproducers,useshigh-temperaturesteamtoreactwithmethane,andproduceshydrogen,carbonmonoxide,andcarbondioxide(CO2).3Electrolysis,ontheotherhand,useselectricitytosplithydrogenfromwater;itdoesnotproduceanybyproductsotherthanhydrogenandoxygen.4Electricitycanbesuppliedfromanyrenewableorfossil-fuelsource.InadditiontoSMRandelectrolysis,thereareothermethodsofhydrogenpro-duction,includingbiomassandmicrobialtechniques,andeffortsthatusesolartosplithydrogenfromwater.Thesetechniques,however,areintheirinfancy.TheDepartmentofEnergy’sHydrogenHubProgramUSPresidentJoeBidensignedH.R.3684—InfrastructureInvestmentandJobsAct,orIIJA,intolawonNovember15,2021.TheIIJAestablishedseveralkeyfeaturesoftheDepartmentofEnergy’sRegionalCleanHydrogenHubpro-gram(abbreviatedtoHydrogenHuborH2Hubthroughoutthisdocument)andprovidedfundingof$8billionforthispur-pose.5TheIIJAdefinedaHydrogenHubexpansively,sayingthat“theterm‘regionalcleanhydrogenhub’meansanet-workofcleanhydrogenproducers,potentialcleanhydrogenconsumers,andconnectiveinfrastructurelocatedincloseproximity.”6Inordertosatisfyregionaldiversityrequirements,theDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)letterofintentspecifiedtherewillbeatleastfourhydrogenhubsacrossthecountry.7TheDOEappearstohaveidentifiedninepotentialregionalclus-ters,includingtheGreatLakes,NewEngland,Appalachia,theGulfCoast,AlaskaandHawaii,theSouthwest,California,thePacificNorthwest,andtheCentralUnitedStates.8ThisreportwilldiscussthepathforwardforthepotentialNortheastHydrogenHub,whichcomprisesthestatesofConnecticut,Massachusetts,Maine,NewJersey,NewYork,andRhodeIsland.ColorsofHydrogenandtheNortheastHydrogenisoftendividedintodifferent“colors,”witheachcolordescribingtheunderlyingenergysourceorrawmate-rialusedinproduction.Whilehydrogencombustionemitsonlywater,carbonintensitiesandtheeconomicsofdiffer-enthydrogenproductionprocessesvaryconsiderably,evendramatically.Somepolicymakersandindustryleadersseektomoveawayfromusingcolorstodescribehydrogen,withsomeadvocat-inganemphasison“carbon,notcolor.”Indeed,therecentIIJAandIRAevaluatehydrogenbytheproductionmethod’scarbonintensity.IntheIRA,cleanhydrogeniseligibleforaproductiontaxcredit(PTC)ifthelifecyclegreenhouse-gas(GHG)impactislessthanfourkilogramsofcarbon-dioxideemissions(CO2e)perkilogramofhydrogenproduced,withpayoutsrisinginverselytoemissions.Therefore,thelarg-estPTCforhydrogenaccruestoprojectsthatenjoyalife-cycleGHGimpactoflessthan1.5kilogramsofCO2e.9WhilebrownandgreyhydrogenwillnotbeeligibleforthePTC,blue,green,and,potentially,turquoisehydrogenwillenjoyvariouslevelsofaccesstothePTC.Hydrogenderivedfromcoal,referredtoasbrownhydro-gen,accountsfor19percentofworldhydrogenproduction.10If“byproducthydrogen,”orhydrogenproducedinfacilities(suchasrefineries)designedforotherproducts,isexcluded,brownhydrogen’sshareofpurehydrogendemandwouldrisetoabout24percent.AccordingtotheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA),brownhydrogendemandusedonehundredandfifteenmegatonsofcoalequivalentin2020,accountingfor2percentofglobalcoaldemand.11Amonghydrogencolors,brownproducesthemostpollutionandcomespredominantlyfromChina.9H.R.5376InflationReductionActof2022,H.R.5376,August16,2022,fromhttps://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/5376/text.10“HydrogenSupply”in“GlobalHydrogenReview2021,”InternationalEnergyAgency,2021,https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/5bd46d7b-906a-4429-abda-e9c507a62341/GlobalHydrogenReview2021.pdf.11Ibid.12Ibid.13Ibid.14PingpingSunandAmgadElgowainy,“ArgonneGreetPublication:UpdatesofHydrogenProductionfromSMRProcessinGREET2019,”ArgonneNationalLaboratory,September30,2019,https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-smr_h2_2019.15RobertW.HowarthandMarkZ.Jacobson,“HowGreenIsBlueHydrogen?”EnergyScience&Engineering9,10(2021),1676–1687,https://doi.org/10.1002/ese3.956;GuidoCollodi,GiulianaAzzaro,andNoemiFerrari,“Techno-EconomicEvaluationofSMRBasedStandalone(Merchant)HydrogenPlantwithCCS,”InternationalEnergyAgencyGreenhouseGasR&DProgramme,February2017,5,https://ieaghg.org/exco_docs/2017-02.pdf.16“HydrogenSupply.”17“NaturalGasGrossWithdrawalsandProduction,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,lastvisitedAugust6,2022,https://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_prod_sum_a_EPG0_VGM_mmcf_a.htm.18“GovernorCuomoAnnouncesHighlightsoftheFY2021StateBudget,”NewYorkStateDivisionoftheBudget,pressrelease,April2,2020,https://www.budget.ny.gov/pubs/press/2020/fy-2021-state-budget-highlights.html.Greyhydrogenderivesfromnaturalgasproducedwith-outanyassociatedcarboncapture,andaccountedforthebulk(59percent)of2020totalhydrogenproduction.12Ifbyproducthydrogenisexcluded,greyhydrogenaccountsforabout74percentofpurehydrogenproduction.13Greyhydrogenisnotaspollutingasbrownhydrogen,butstillpro-ducesapproximately9.2kilogramsofCO2perkilogramofhydrogen.14Likegreyhydrogen,bluehydrogenisproducedfromnat-uralgas,butwithanimportantexception:emissionsarecappedviacarboncapture,utilization,andstorage(CCUS).Theblue-hydrogendecarbonizationdebateishighlyconten-tious,withsomeestimatessuggestingthattotalcarbon-di-oxide-equivalentemissionsforbluehydrogenareonly9–12percentlowerthangreyhydrogen;otherstudieshavefoundthatoverallCO2captureratesvarybetween50–90percent.15Althoughbluehydrogenisbeingcloselyexaminedinseveralnaturalgas-producingregions—suchasTexas,Pennsylvania,andWestVirginia—themethodofproductionsuppliedlessthan1percentoftheworld’stotalandpurehydrogenproduc-tionin2020.16Bluehydrogenfacesseverechallengesinthenortheasternhydrogenhubregion;thereisvirtuallynoindig-enousnaturalgasproduction,whileCCUSgeologicstoragelocationsarelimited.Thenortheast’slackofnaturalgasproductionwillalmostcer-tainlypreventitfrombecomingasignificantproducerofbluehydrogen.In2020,thelastyearforwhichfulldataareavail-able,theentireregionproducedonly0.03billioncubicfeetperday(Bcf/d)ofnaturalgas,allofitinNewYork.17Moreover,theEmpireStateappearstobeinnopositiontoincreasepro-duction,asthestatebannedhydraulicfracturingaspartofitsfiscalyear2021budget.18Ifthenortheastregionevercon-sumesbluehydrogen,itwillalmostcertainlyneedtoimportthefuel.TheMarcellusbasinstates,especiallyPennsylvaniaandWestVirginia,areprolificproducersofnaturalgasandRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB67maybeabletoshipbluehydrogentothenortheast,ifhydro-gen-dedicatedpipelinescanovercomepermittingchal-lenges.Similarly,thenortheasternhubstatescouldconceiv-ablyimportbluehydrogenfrominternationalsources.Nuclearpowercanproducehydrogenbypoweringtheelec-trolysisofwater,whichsplitswaterintooxygenandhydro-gen.Thisprocess,whichproducespinkhydrogen,istheo-reticallypossibleandreleasesvirtuallynocarbonemissions.Still,nuclearpower’scontributiontonortheasthydrogenpro-ductionmaybelimitedbyseveralfactors.Nuclearpowerplantstendtorunatnearlyfullcapacity.19Accordingly,thereisrelativelylittleroomfornuclearplantstoincreasethrough-puttopowernewproductionprocesses,suchashydro-gen,withoutdivertinggenerationfromthegrid.Moreover,becausenuclearpowerplantsprovidebaseloadenergyforthegrid,itwillbedifficultforgridoperatorstodivertelectronswithoutpotentiallycompromisinggridresiliency.Still,thereisanemergingdiscussionabout“flexible”nuclearpowerplants.20Ifnuclearpowercanbecomemoreflexible,pinkhydrogenproductioncouldbecomemoreprevalentovertimeduringperiodsofrenewable“overgeneration,”orcurtail-19MikeMueller,“NuclearPowerIstheMostReliableEnergySourceandIt’sNotEvenClose,”USDepartmentofEnergy,March24,2021,https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/nuclear-power-most-reliable-energy-source-and-its-not-even-close.20SonalPatel,“FlexibleOperationofNuclearPowerPlantsRampsUp,”POWER,July9,2019,https://www.powermag.com/flexible-operation-of-nuclear-power-plants-ramps-up/.21JigarShah,“OpenforBusiness:LPOIssuesNewConditionalCommitmentforLoanGuarantee,”USDepartmentofEnergy,December23,2021,https://www.energy.gov/lpo/articles/open-business-lpo-issues-new-conditional-commitment-loan-guarantee.ment.Giventheverylowpenetrationofrenewablesonthenortheasterngrid,however,localpinkhydrogenproductionisnotexpectedtoplayamajorroleinregionalH2produc-tionfortheforeseeablefuture,barringadramaticexpansionofnuclearpowergenerationcapacity,renewables,orboth.Turquoisehydrogen,alsoreferredtoas“methanepyrolysis,”useselectricitytosplitnaturalgasfeedstocksintohydrogenandsolidcarbon;theprocessisconsideredtofallbetweenblueandgreenhydrogenintermsofcarbonintensity.Unlikebluehydrogen,however,itdoesnotrequireundergroundcarboncaptureandstorage(CCS)orcarboncapture,utiliza-tion,andstorage(CCUS),andproducesasolid-carbonprod-uctthatcanbeusedforothermarketsandmanufacturing.Furthermore,itcandisplacecarbon-intensiveprocessesthatproducesolidcarbon,suchascoalusedtoproducecarbonblack/grapheneproducts.Whileturquoisehydrogenhasyettobeprovenatscale,MonolithMaterialsreceiveda$1-bil-lionloanfromtheUSDepartmentofEnergy’sLoanProgramOffice,suggestingthatthetechnologycouldbecomemoreviableinfutureyears.21Finally,greenhydrogenreferstotheproductionofhydro-genviawaterelectrolysispoweredbyrenewablessources,suchassolar,wind,andhydropower.Althoughgreenhydro-genreleasesvirtuallynocarbonemissions,itisalsorelativelyexpensivetoproduce.22Theeconomicsofgreenhydrogenproduction,however,maybeshiftingrapidly.OneestimatefromtheIndependentCommodityIntelligenceServices,amarket-dataprovider,suggestedthatgreenhydrogenischeaperthangreyhydro-geninEuropeamidrecord-settingnaturalgaspricessparkedbyRussia’sinvasionofUkraine.23Rapidpricechangesarenotconfinedtothecontinent,however,asUSlegislationhasdramaticallyalteredtheeconomicsofgreenhydrogen.Greenhydrogenisontherise.AspartoftheIRA,acleanhydrogencredit,called45V,willofferupto$3perkilogramintaxcreditsforproducersonthebasisoflifecyclegreen-housegasemissions,aswellastheproducers’compliancewithprevailingwageandapprenticeshiprequirements.24Itishardtooverstatethepotentialsignificanceofthislegislationforhydrogen,particularlygreenhydrogen.Apost-IRAanal-22"ExecutiveSummary"in“GlobalHydrogenReview2021.”InternationalEnergyAgency,October2021.https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2021/executive-summary.23LeighCollins,“‘GreenHydrogenNowCheapertoProducethanGreyH2acrossEuropeDuetoHighFossilGasPrices,’”Recharge,November12,2021,https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/green-hydrogen-now-cheaper-to-produce-than-grey-h2-across-europe-due-to-high-fossil-gas-prices/2-1-1098104.24DavidS.Miller,etal.,“ASummaryofInflationReductionAct’sMainEnergyTaxProposals,”Lexology,August8,2022,https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=4ad0902c-8128-442b-b22e-da62835ad89a.25JohnLarsen,etal.,“ATurningPointforUSClimateProgress:AssessingtheClimateandCleanEnergyProvisionsintheInflationReductionAct,”RhodiumGroup,August18,2022,https://rhg.com/research/climate-clean-energy-inflation-reduction-act/.26“‘Green’HydrogentoOutcompete‘Blue’Everywhereby2030,”BloombergNEF,May5,2021,https://about.bnef.com/blog/green-hydrogen-to-outcompete-blue-everywhere-by-2030/.ysisbytheRhodiumGroupfoundthatUSgreenhydrogenpriceswillfalltobetween$0.4–2perkilogramby2030,ver-susa“conventionalhydrogen”pricerangeof$0.99–$1.54perkilogram.25Withthatlevelofsupport,greenhydrogencanbeexpectedtooutcompetegreyhydrogeninmanykeylocationsandcontexts.Someanalystsbelievethatgreenhydrogenwilldominatecomparedtobluehydrogen,particularlyoverthelongterm,astheunderlyingrenewablesgenerationbecomescheaperduetogreaterefficiencyandpolicysupportfromtheIRA.OneconsultancyclaimedinaMay2021reportthatgreenhydrogenwilloutcompetebluehydrogen“everywhere”by2030—andthiswasbeforeRussia’sinvasionofUkrainedroveupworldgasprices,andbeforethepassageofincen-tivesintheIRAalteredhydrogeneconomics.26Whilegeopo-liticaltensionspresentsubstantialandpotentiallyunderap-preciatedriskstorenewablesupplychains,greenhydrogenisridingawaveoffavorablepolicyandeconomictrends.Greenhydrogenwillalmostcertainlybeattheheartofanortheasthydrogenhub.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB89II.NortheastGreenHydrogenProductionFundamentals27“PreliminaryMonthlyElectricGeneratorInventory(BasedonFormEIA-860masaSupplementtoFormEIA-860),”USEnergyInformationAdministration,August24,2022,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860m/.28Ibid.29Ibid.30Ibid.31Ibid.32Ibid.33Ibid.34“HistoricalStateData,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,”October14,2022,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/state/.35Ibid.36Ibid.Givenrenewables’importanceforgreenhydro-gen,northeastelectricityfundamentalswillproveimmenselyimportantforafutureregionalhydro-genhub.Overthelongterm,theregion’sabil-itytoexpandcleanenergygenerationcoulddetermineitshydrogenfuture.AccordingtotheUSEnergyInformationAdministration,exist-ingrenewablesgenerationcapacityinthesixnortheasternstatesofConnecticut,Massachusetts,Maine,NewJersey,NewYork,andRhodeIslandstoodatapproximately13.2giga-watts(GW)inJuly2022,outofanexisting86GWofexistinggenerationcapacity.27Hydropoweraccountedfor5.8GWoftotalrenewablescapacity,utility-scalesolarcapacitystoodat4.0GW,andonshorewindturbinesaddedapproximatelyanother3.4GW.28Thesixstatesalsohaveanadditional9.2GWofcleanenergycapacityvianuclearenergy.Therearenoplannednuclearplantclosures,accordingtotheEIA.29Whiletheregionisrapidlyemergingasthenation’sleaderinoffshorewind,ithasonlyoneoperatingoffshorewindtur-bine,RhodeIsland’sBlockIslandWind.Theregion’sexistingcleanenergycapacitypalesincompari-sontoitsoperatingfossilfuelgenerationcapacity.Thenorth-easthasapproximately35.5GWofnaturalgascombinedcyclegenerationcapacity,whilelower-utilizationplants,suchassteamturbinesandcombustionturbines,accountforanother20.5GWofcapacity.30Moresurprisingly,atleastforindividualsoutsideoftheregion,petroleum-liquidscapacitystandsat9.1GW,asconsumersandbusinessesinthenorth-eastrelyonfueloilforheatinginthewinter.31TherearestilltwocoalplantsoperatinginNewJersey,withapproximately0.5GWofcapacity,althoughtheChambersandLogancoal-firedpowerplantsareexpectedtoclosewithinthenextfiveyears.32WhileNewHampshireisnotcurrentlyinthenorth-easternhydrogenhub,italsohasabout0.5GWofexistingcoalcapacityattheMerrimackplant.33Unsurprisingly,theregion’selectricitymixisdominatedbynaturalgas,whichaccountedforhalfofallgenerationwithintheNewYork/NewJersey/Massachusetts/Connecticut/RhodeIsland/Maineregion.34Still,cleangeneration(nuclear,hydropower,wind,andsolar)reached45percentofallregionalelectricitygenerationinthesameyear.35Theregionhasnearlyphasedoutcoal,whichaccountedforlessthan1percentofelectricitygenerationin2021.36AsseeninFigure1,however,windandsolarcompriseonlyasmallportionoftheregion’selectricitymix.Thenortheastregion’sgenerationmixhasshiftedovertime,ascleanenergyproductionhasactuallyfallenduetotheclosureofregionalnuclearplants,includingNewJersey’sOysterCreekplant,thePilgrimNuclearPowerStationinMassachusetts,andtheIndianPoint2andIndianPoint3gen-eratingunitsinNewYork.Coalgeneration(includedinthe“other”categorybelow)hasalsofallensteeply.Whilesolarandwindgenerationcontinuetogrowveryrapidly,theyareneverthelessstartingfromaverylowbase.Figure1:NortheasternRegionalElectricityGenerationbyFuelSource,2021Source:"HistoricalStateData,"USEnergyInformationAdministration,October14,2022,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/state/.HydroelectricconventionalNaturalgasNuclearSolarthermalandphotovoltaicWindOther12%28%4%3%2%50%RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB1011Figure3:PlannedIncrementalCapacityAdditions,CumulativeGigawattsSource:“PreliminaryMonthlyElectricGeneratorInventory(BasedonFormEIA-860masaSupplementtoFormEIA-860)U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration(EIA).”U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,July26,2022.https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860m/.1086420OffshoreWindTurbineOnshoreWindTurbineSolarPhotovoltaic2022202320242025202720262028202939Ibid.Theregion’sgeographywillmakeitdifficulttoaddnewonshorewindandsolartothegrid.Indeed,theEIAinter-connectionqueuesuggeststhatfewerthan8GWofnewrenewablesgenerationcapacitywillbeaddedtothenorth-easterngridby2029,versustotalexistinggenerationcapac-ityofabout86GW.39Thereareseveralcaveatstotheaboveestimate.First,thereisconsiderableuncertaintyaroundtheEIA’splannedincre-mentalrenewablecapacityadditions:noteveryplantwillopen,ofcourse,butadditionalincrementalprojectscouldcomeonline.Second,estimatesofoffshorewind’sfuturegenerationcapacityaresubjecttowideconfidenceinter-vals.Offshorewind(OSW)projectscouldfacedelays;alter-natively,however,theregioncouldconceivablyenjoydou-ble-digitgigawattOSWgenerationcapacityby2030.Finally,theInflationReductionActhasdramaticallyalteredtheeco-nomicsofnewrenewablessourcesandwilllikelylead,etceterisparibus,tosignificantincreasesinrenewablesgen-erationcapacity.Thenortheastwillrequiresignificantnewindigenousrenew-ablesgenerationcapacityforgreenhydrogenproduction.Mostincrementalnortheasternrenewablesgenerationwilllikelyconsistofoffshorewind—primarilyintheAtlanticOcean,butpotentiallyintheGreatLakesaswell.Source:"HistoricalStateData,"USEnergyInformationAdministration,October14,2022,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/state/.Figure2:NortheasternRegionalElectricityGenerationbyFuelSource,2016–2021201620172018201920202021160140120100806040200TerawatthoursNaturalGasNuclearHydroelectricConventionalWindSolarThermalandPhotovoltaicOtherMoreover,whiletheregionenjoysoutstandingoffshorewindresources,itssolarandonshorewindnaturalresourcesarelessthanideal.Thenortheast’ssolarirradiationisrelativelylowcomparedtothatinmanypartsofthecountry,especiallythesouthwest,whiletheregion’sterrainisoftenwooded,hilly,orboth.3737“GlobalSolarAtlasMap,”GlobalSolarAtlas,lastvisitedAugust6,2022,https://globalsolaratlas.info/map.38“WindEnergySiteSelection:IdentifyingOptimalSitesforWindEnergyDevelopment”in“NewYorkStateWindEnergyGuidebook,”NewYorkStateEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAuthority,lastvisitedAugust7,2022,https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Clean-Energy-Siting/Wind-Guidebook.Onshorewindresourcedevelopmentisconstrainedbytheregion’stopography.Broader,flatterlandfeaturesareidealformultiplerowsofwindturbines.38Multiplerowscanleadtoeconomiesofscale,lowerper-unitcosts,andlimitlandrequirements.Theregionisgenerallyhilly,however,somanyregionalwindfarmlocationsmustbeplacedonhill-topsandridgelines,raisinglandacquisitioncostsandharm-ingonshorewindprojecteconomics.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB1213OffshoreWindCapacity:theAtlanticOceanThenortheastregionisarguablythenation’sleaderinoff-shorewind.RhodeIsland’s30-megawatt(MW)BlockIslandWindFarmbecametheUnitedStates’firstoperatingcom-mercialoffshorewindfarminDecember2016.Nearlysixyearslater,theUSBureauofOceanEnergyManagementclosedarecord-breakingsaleof$4.37billionforsixleasesalongthecoastsofNewYorkandNewJersey.40Thisleasesale,byitself,couldultimatelyprovidebetween5.6–7GWofoffshorewindcapacity.41NewYorkisalsolaunchingitsthirdoffshorewindsolicitation,whichcouldprovideanadditional2GWofcapacity.42Theregionhassetambitiousoffshorewindtargets.NewYork’sClimateLeadershipandCommunityProtectionActcallsforthedevelopmentof9GWofoffshorewindenergyby2035,Massachusetts’BillH.5060authorizesOSWnameplatecapacityprocurementsof5.6GWbyJune2027,Connecticut’sPublicActNo.19-71mandatedprocurementof2GWofoffshorewindby2030,andNewJerseyhassetagoalofreaching7.5GWofOSWgenerationcapac-ityby2035.43Whileendsmustbematchedwithmeans,theregion’sambitionsand,importantly,predictableprocurementprogramsaresendingpositivesignalstorenewablesandgreenhydrogenmarketactors,helpingtosolvethe“chick-en-and-egg”problemofcreatingnewsupplychainsfromscratch.Thenortheastisalsomakingsignificantstridesinbuildingoutregionaloffshorewindsupplychains,particularlyportinfra-structure.TheNewJerseyWindPortisthefirstpurpose-builtoffshorewindmarshallingportintheUnitedStates;NewYork’sSouthBrooklynMarineTerminalisaprivateandpub-licsectorpartnershipbetweenEquinor,BP,SustainableSouthBrooklynMarineTerminal(SSBMT),andtheNewYork40EmmaNewburger,“AuctionfortheRighttoBuildWindFarmsoffNewYorkandNewJerseyRaisesaRecord$4.37Billion,”CNBC,February26,2022,https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/25/us-offshore-wind-auction-in-ny-nj-raises-a-record-4point37-billion.html.41JaredAnderson,“FirstUSFederalOffshoreWindPowerLeaseAuctionsince2018ReceivesHighInterest,”S&PGlobalCommodityInsights,February23,2022,https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/energy-transition/022322-first-us-federal-offshore-wind-power-lease-auction-since-2018-receives-high-interest.42“GovernorHochulAnnouncesNewYork’sThirdOffshoreWindSolicitationtoAccelerateCleanEnergyDevelopment:SeekstoProcureatLeast2,000MegawattsofRenewableEnergy,EnoughtoPower1.5MillionHomes,”NewYorkStateEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAuthority,July27,2022,https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/About/Newsroom/2022-Announcements/2022-07-27-Governor-Hochul-Announces-Third-Offshore-Wind-Solicitation.43“AboutOffshoreWind,”NewYorkStateEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAuthority,lastvisitedAugust20,2022,https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/All-Programs/Offshore-Wind/About-Offshore-Wind.;AnActDrivingCleanEnergyandOffshoreWind.;AnActConcerningtheProcurementofEnergyDerivedfromOffshoreWind.;“ExecutiveOrderNo.92,”StateofNewJersey,November19,2019,https://nj.gov/infobank/eo/056murphy/.44“NewJerseyWindPort,”StateofNewJersey,lastvisitedAugust11,2022,https://nj.gov/windport/;MikeSchuler,“PlanforNewYorkOffshoreWindPortHitsMajorMilestone,”gCaptain,May12,2022,https://gcaptain.com/plan-for-new-york-offshore-wind-port-hits-major-milestone/;“MassachusettsTargets$100MillionInvestmentinWindPorts,”MaritimeMagazine,May21,2022,https://maritimemag.com/en/massachusetts-targets-100-million-investment-in-wind-ports/.45“FactSheet—GreatLakesOffshoreWindEnergyConsortium,”DepartmentofEnergyOfficeofEnergyEfficiency&RenewableEnergy,lastvisitedAugust11,2022,https://www1.eere.energy.gov/wind/pdfs/gl_mou_fact_sheet.pdf.46“GreatLakesWindFeasibilityStudy,”NewYorkStateEnergyResearchandDevelopmentAuthority,lastvisitedAugust11,2022,https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/great-lakes-wind-feasibility-study.47AngelAdegbesan,“GreatLakesOffshoreWindGetsBoostFromOhioSupremeCourtRuling,”Bloomberg,August11,2022,https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-08-11/great-lakes-offshore-wind-gets-boost-from-ohio-supreme-court?sref=lDgLmqjg.48“GreatLakesWindFeasibilityStudy,”slides12–14.CityEconomicDevelopmentCorporation(NYCEDC);andMassachusettsisinvesting$100millioninthedevelopmentofthreeoffshorewindports.44Theregion’soffshorewindcomplexisarguablymoreadvancedthanthatofanyotherregion.Theregion’soffshorewindportsystemisprogressingrapidly,thereisanemerg-ingOSWlaborecosystem,andpolicymakershavedemon-stratedtheirseriousnessinestablishingtheregion’soffshorewindcapabilities.OffshoreWindCapacity:theGreatLakesTheGreatLakescouldpresentsignificant,long-termoppor-tunitiesfornortheasternrenewablesandhydrogenproduc-tion.InitialestimatessuggestthatthepotentialoffshorewindgenerationcapacityoftheGreatLakes(Superior,Michigan,Huron,Erie,andOntario)couldtheoreticallytotal700GW,oraboutone-fifthoftheUnitedStates’totaloffshorepotential.45TherehasbeensometangibleprogressontheGreatLakes.NYSERDAisconductingaGreatLakesWindFeasibilityStudy,suggestingthatnortheasternpolicymakersareengagedontheissue.46TherearealsosignsofincreasingamountsofcommercialinterestintheGreatLakesregion.ProjectIcebreaker,aproposed21-megawatt,$127-millionoffshorewindplantinLakeErie,hassurvivedacourtchallengeintheOhioSupremeCourt.47Inadditiontocourtchallengesandstandard"not-in-my-back-yard"problems,GreatLakesOSWfacesotherdevelopmenthurdles.AccordingtopreliminaryfindingsfromNYSERDA,locksontheSt.LawrenceSeawaylimitvesselsizes,andFederalAviationAdministration(FAA)regulationsmayrestrictmaximumheightsto610feet.48Bothoftheseobstaclescouldconstrainorpreventtheinstallationoflarger,moreefficientwindturbines.49ThefutureofGreatLakesOSWisuncertain,butapoten-tialgamechanger.IfNewYorkcandevelopitsGreatLakesOSWresources,theimpactonregionalhydrogendeploy-mentcouldbesignificant.HydrogenImportPathwaysIfindigenousproductionofgreenhydrogencannotsatisfylocaldemand,theregionmaybeforcedtoturntohydro-genproducedoutsidetheregion.Thenortheastwilllikelyreceivedomesticallyproducedbutout-of-regionhydrogen,eitherthroughexistingnaturalgaspipelinesrepurposedforhydrogen,orfromnewlyconstructedhydrogen-dedi-catedpipelines.OverlandhydrogenimportstotheregioncouldderivefromCanada,WestVirginia,oreventheGulfCoast.Alternatively,thenortheastcouldimportinternation-allyproducedhydrogenviamaritimevesselstransportingliquidhydrogenor,perhapsmorelikely,ammonia,whichiscloseto18percenthydrogenbyweightandcanbeburneddirectlywithnocarbonemissionsorsplitforitshydrogen.Whilethesepotentialimportpathwaysarethesubjectoffur-therdiscussioninasectiononhydrogen-relatedinfrastruc-ture,itisworthemphasizingtheneedforpolicyflexibilityinthefaceofuncertainty.Thescope,nature,andevenchemicalpropertiesofhydro-genimportsareuncertain.Futuresupply-demandhydro-genbalancesareunknown;thenortheast’sabilitytosourcehydrogenfromexistingoverlandnaturalgasinfrastructureornew,hydrogen-dedicatedpipelinesisuncertain,andthedebateoverliquidH2/ammoniamaritimeimportsremainsunsettled.Giventhesemarket-technologicaluncertainties,regionalpolicymakersshouldaimtobeflexible,nimble,anddeeplyengagedwithdynamichydrogenmarkets.49Ibid.50“StateElectricityProfiles,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,November4,2021,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/state/.51Ibid.RegionalElectricityPricesThenortheasternhydrogenstatespaysomeofthehighestretailelectricitypricesinthenation,creatingopportunitiesforrenewablesdevelopmentandhydrogen.Allstatesinthehubprogrampaidatleast13.54centsperkilowatthourin2020,themostrecentdataavailablefromtheEIA,placingthemintheelevenmostexpensivestates.50Moreover,twoothernortheasternstates—NewHampshireandVermont—alsosufferfromelevatedelectricityprices.In2020,eightoftheelevenmostexpensivestateretailelectricitymarketswereintheUnitedStates’northeast.51StateAverageRetailPrice,2020(Cents/kWh)Hawaii27.55Alaska19.82Connecticut19.13RhodeIsland18.54Massachusetts18.19California18NewHampshire16.63Vermont16.63NewYork14.87NewJersey13.63Maine13.54U.S.10.59Figure4:AverageElectricityRetailPrice,byStateSource:"HistoricalStateData,"USEnergyInformationAdministration,October14,2022,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/state/.Notonlydoestheregion’shighlevelizedcostofelectricity(LCOE)incentivizenewrenewablesdevelopment,butitscoldwintersandseasonalelectricityspreadsmayrenderhydro-genaneconomicsourceforinter-seasonalstorage.Asseeninthechartbelow,thenortheast’sfrigidweatheroftenpro-duceswinterpricespikes.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB1415May14Sep14Jan15May15Sep15Jan16May16Sep16Jan17May17Sep17Jan18May18Sep18Jan19May19Sep19Jan21May20Sep21Jan20May21Sep20Jan22May22Jan14Figure5:NortheasternElectricityPeakAveragePricesWeightedMonthlyNepoolMHDaLMPPeakAveragePrices($/MWh)25020015010050Source:“WholesaleElectricityandNaturalGasMarketData.”EIA-independentstatisticsandanalysis.U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,August11,2022.https://www.eia.gov/electricity/wholesale/#history.Winter2014/2015Winter2020/2021Winter2021/2022Winter2017/201852“PercentageofHouseholdIncomeSpentonElectricitybyState,”ElectricChoice,lastvisitedAugust15,2022,https://www.electricchoice.com/blog/percentage-income-electricity/.Hydrogen’slong-durationstoragecapabilitiescoulddampentheregion’swinterpricespikesbyshiftingelectricitygener-atedinthesummerortheshoulderseasonstothewinter,whendemandishighest.It’salsoworthnotingthattheregionmaybeabletoamelioratewinterpricingpeaksbyimprovingtransmissionconnectivitytoCanadianhydropower.Inadditiontopotentiallyreducingwinterpricingpeaks,hydrogendeploymentfromlong-durationstoragecouldalsosignificantlyreducecarbonemissions.Someoftheregion’smostpollutinghydrocarbon-generationsources,suchascoal,fueloil,andnaturalgasfromliquefiednaturalgas(LNG),rampupproductionduringpeak-demandtimes.Thenorth-eastcouldseesignificantelectricitysectordecarbonizationifitcanreplaceitshydrocarbonwintergenerationwithcleanhydrogengeneration.GreenHydrogen,Equity,andEnergyInsecurityWhilethenortheasternstatesarerelativelywealthy,theyalsosufferfromsomeofthehighestresidentialelectricitybillsinthecountry,increasingenergyinsecurityamongtheregion’spoorestresidents.UsingdatafromtheEIA’slatestpubliclyavailable“ResidentialEnergyConsumptionSurvey,”ElectricChoicefoundthatRhodeIsland,NewYork,Maine,Massachusetts,andConnecticutresidentssuffered,respec-tively,thesecond,third,fourth,fifth,andeighthhighestelec-tricitybillsasapercentageofsalaryinthenation.52Giventhatindividualswithlowerincomesaredisproportionatelyaffectedbyrisingelectricityprices,particularlyduringthewinter,inter-seasonalsupply-demandbalancingvialong-du-rationhydrogenstoragecouldbenefitindividualswithlowerincomesandhistoricallyunderservedcommunities.III.RegionalHydrogenDemand53“HydrogenPipelines,”USDepartmentofEnergy,lastvisitedAugust13,2022,https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-pipelines.54“NaturalGasExplained:NaturalGasPipelines,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,November5,2021,https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/natural-gas-pipelines.php.55“U.S.Energy-RelatedCarbonDioxideEmissions,2020,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,December22,2021,https://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/carbon/.56“GreenhouseGasEmissionsfromaTypicalPassengerVehicle,”USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,June30,2022,https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/greenhouse-gas-emissions-typical-passenger-vehicle.57“CPUCIssuesIndependentStudyonInjectingHydrogenintoNaturalGasSystems,”CaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission,July21,2022,https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/news-and-updates/all-news/cpuc-issues-independent-study-on-injecting-hydrogen-into-natural-gas-systems.58M.W.Melaina,O.Antonia,andM.Penev,“BlendingHydrogenintoNaturalGasPipelineNetworks:AReviewofKeyIssues,”USDepartmentofEnergyOfficeofScientificandTechnicalInformation,March2013,https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1068610.59TommyIsaac,“HyDeploy:TheUK’sFirstHydrogenBlendingDeploymentProject,”CleanEnergy3,2,114–125,https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkz006.60ErinM.Blanton,Dr.MelissaC.Lott,andKirstenSmith,“InvestingintheUSNaturalGasPipelineSystemtoSupportNet-ZeroTargets,”SIPACenteronGlobalEnergyPolicy,ColumbiaUniversity,April22,2021,https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/research/report/investing-us-natural-gas-pipeline-system-support-net-zero-targets.Inordertoestablishaneffectivehydrogenhub,long-termdemandsourcesandofftakersmustbeidentified.Thereareseveralpotentialhydrogendemandend-usecasesinthenortheast.Thesepotentialend-usecasesincludehydrogenblendinginexistingnaturalgaspipelines;refiner-ies;industrialapplications,suchassteelandcement;and,overthelongterm,themaritimeshippingsector.Thissec-tionwillexaminethesepotentialusecases,whileclarifyinghydrogen’slimitationsinthetransportationsector.BlendingHydrogeninNaturalGasPipelinesIfhydrogencanbesafelyblendedinexistingnaturalgaspipelines,itcouldbeagamechangerforUSclimategoals—andthenortheasthydrogenhub.Thereareabout1,600milesofexisting,hydrogen-dedicatedpipelinesacrosstheUnitedStates.53Toputthatinperspective,theUSnaturalgaspipe-linesystem,includingmainlinesandotherpipelines,com-prisesthreemillionmiles.54Repurposingevenafractionoftheexistingnaturalgaspipelinenetworkforhydrogensafely,reliably,andeconomicallywould,therefore,accelerateUSeconomic,security,andclimateobjectives.BlendinghydrogeninexistingnaturalgasinfrastructurecouldsignificantlyreduceUSGHGemissions.In2020,USCO2emissionsfromnaturalgastotaled1,647millionmet-rictons.55If,asseemslikely,atleast2–5percentofnatu-ralgas-relatedemissionscanbeeliminatedbysubstitutinghydrogenfornaturalgasinexistingpipelines,andassum-ingnegligibleemissionsfromtheadditionalhydrogenpro-duction,USemissionswouldfallby33–82millionmetrictons.Thatemissionsreductionistheequivalentofremovingapproximately7.2millionto17.8millionpassengervehiclesfromUSroads,basedonatypicalpassengervehicleemis-sionof4.6metrictonsofcarbondioxideperyear.56Despitethepotentiallyseismicimportanceofhydrogenblendinginpipelines,thereisnoconsensusonwhatpercent-ageofhydrogencanbeblendedwithnaturalgasinexistingpipelineswithoutcompromisingsafetyorefficiency.AJuly2022studycommissionedbytheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissionfoundthatwhileblendsofhydrogenofupto5percentinthenaturalgasstreamaregenerallysafe,addingadditionalhydrogeningaspipelinesoverallcouldresultinagreaterchanceofpipelineleaksandtheembrittlementofsteelpipelines.57Otherstudiesaremoreoptimistic,includ-inga2013NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(NREL)studythatfoundconcentrationsofhydrogenbetween5and15percentcouldbeblendedinexistingpipelinesystemsorend-useappliances,withveryfewmodificationsnecessarydespitesomelocation-to-locationvariation.58TheUnitedKingdom’sHyDeploystudyfound,however,thatalltesteddomesticappliancescouldoperatesafelywithhydrogenconcentrationsofupto28.4percent.59It’sworthnotingthatend-useapplicationstendtoimposethemostsignificantcon-straintsonhydrogen-blendingpercentages,asmanydevicesareoptimizedtothroughputpurenaturalgas.60Thehydrogen-blendingpercentagedebatewillnotbeset-tledconclusivelyforsometime.Severalinitiatives,includ-ingPacificGasandElectric’sHydrogentoInfinityproject,areevaluatingblendingpercentagesunderreal-worldcon-RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB1617ditions,whilemanydomesticandinternationalinitiativesarestudyingblendingpercentages.61Federalandstategovern-ments,alongwithuniversityresearchcenters,shouldseektoaccelerateresearchanddevelopmentonhydrogenblendinginexistingnaturalgaspipelines.Therehasbeenrelativelylittlefederalsupportofresearchanddevelopmentinhydrogenblendinginexistingnaturalgaspipelines,despiteitspotentiallygame-changingimpor-tanceandroleinacceleratingcleanhydrogendeploymentatscale.TheDOEreports$11millionoffederalfundingforitsHyBlendInitiative,whichseekstoaddresstechnicalbarri-erstoblendinghydrogeninnaturalgaspipelines.62Thisleveloffundingisinadequate,ashydrogencouldeasilybecomeatrillion-dollarindustryby2050(oreven2030).63Blendinginnaturalgaspipelineswilllikelyprovetobeakeyacceler-ator,thetechnology’senvironmentalbenefitscouldprovemomentous,andtheoutlaysrequiredtoinvestigateblend-ingissuesareminiscule,implyingpotentialoutsizedreturnoninvestment(ROI).Thefederalgovernmentmustresourcethispriorityadequately.Additionalareasforgreaterfederalinvolvementincludethecollectionandsharingofsafetydata.Severalexpertssaythereisnotenoughinformationsharinginthehydro-genspace,particularlysurroundingblendinginpipelines,hydrogeninappliances,andsafetydata.64Whilecompa-niesunderstandablywanttoprotecttheirintellectualprop-erty,bothstateandfederalauthoritiesshouldconsidercreat-inganauthoritativesafetyclearing-housedatabase.Indeed,Europeanpolicymakershavealreadybegunintensiveeffortstocollectsafetydata.65Giventheimportanceofhydrogenblending,andsafetyandreliability’simportanceinacceler-atingadoption,northeasternpolicymakersshouldlooktoexpandintra-andinter-regionalsafety-datacooperation.61“PG&ELaunchestheNation’sMostComprehensiveStudyonHydrogen’sFeasibilityWithinGasPipelines,”PacificGasandElectric,pressrelease,May2,2022,https://www.pge.com/en_US/about-pge/media-newsroom/news-details.page?pageID=66b8ed99-3175-48da-95d6-1a1fde0a4f18&ts=1651546270622;DevinderMahajan,etal.,“HydrogenBlendinginGasPipelineNetworks—aReview,”Energies15,10(2022),3582,https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103582.62“Hyblend:OpportunitiesforHydrogenBlendinginNaturalGasPipelines,”USDepartmentofEnergyOfficeofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy,June2021,https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-08/hyblend-tech-summary.pdf.63“ToReachNetZero,Invest$5TrillioninHydrogen,”GoldmanSachs,February17,2022,https://www.goldmansachs.com/insights/pages/from-briefings-17-february-2022.html.64“HydrogenHubRoundtable,”AtlanticCouncil,July27,2022.65Ibid.66“GlobalHydrogenReview2021,”145.67“NaturalGasConsumptionbyEndUse,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,July29,2022,https://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_cons_sum_dcu_nus_a.htm.68Ibid.Expandingresearch-and-development(R&D)fundingforhydrogen-blendingdemonstrationprojectsandenhancingsafety-datacooperationcouldproveinstrumentalinaccel-eratinghydrogenhubs.Indeed,accordingtotheIEA,“byprovidingatemporarysolutionuntildedicatedhydrogentransportsystemsaredeveloped,blendinghydrogeningasnetworkscansupportinitialdeploymentoflow-carbonhydrogenandtriggercostreductionsforlow-carbonhydro-genproductiontechnologies.”66NaturalGasFundamentalsintheNortheastHubWhilethenortheastlacksnaturalgastoproducebluehydro-gen,thefuelcouldneverthelessplayavitalroleforanynorth-easthydrogenhub.Naturalgasinpipelinescanbesafely“blended”withhydrogenandusedinmanyofthesameapplications,whichmeansthatexistingnaturalgasconsump-tionandinfrastructureprovideopportunitiestospurhydro-gendevelopment.Whiledecarbonizationeffortswillulti-matelyrequiretheremovalorremediationofcarbondioxidefromnaturalgasproductionandconsumption,thefuelmayultimatelyprovetobeabridgetohydrogenandacleanerfuture.Thenortheast’snaturalgasconsumptionandnatu-ralgaspipelinesystemmayprovidesignificantopportuni-tiesforhydrogen.Northeasternconsumptionofnaturalgasstoodatapproxi-mately7.5Bcf/din2020,thelastfullyearthatdataareavail-ablefromtheEIA.67Northeastnaturalgasconsumptionhasedgedupwardovertimeoncheaperpricesresultingfromtheshaleboom,populationgrowth,andcoal-andnuclear-plantdecommissionings,risingfromabout7.3Bcf/din2010tonearly7.5Bcf/din2020,whendemandwassuppressedbytheCOVIDpandemic.68Figure6:NortheasternRegionalNaturalGasDemandRegionalNaturalGasDemand(Bcf/d)8.48.28.07.87.67.47.27.06.8Source:"NaturalGasConsumptionbyEndUse,"USEnergyInformationAdministration,lastvisitedOctober29,2022,https://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_cons_sum_dcu_nus_a.htm.2010201120122013201520182014201620192017202069Ibid.Whilenortheasternnaturalgasconsumptionfiguresfor2021arenotyetfinalizedbytheEIA,itisworthnotingthatdemanddoesnotappeartohaveexperiencedaresurgenceinthepost-vaccinationperiod.BaseduponinitialdatareportedfromtheEIA,theauthorestimatesthatfinal2021regionalconsumptionwilllikelyrangesomewherebetween7.4–7.8Bcf/d.Northeasternelectricity-sectornaturalgasdemandstoodatabout2.5Bcf/din2020,accountingforabout36percentofallregionalnaturalgasdemandinthesameperiod.69Reducingnaturalgasdemandinthenortheastelectricitysectorviarenewablesgenerationcouldimprovehydrogenfundamentalsintwodistinctbutrelatedways:greatersolarandwinduptakewouldlikelyleadtoregionaleconomiesofscaleandacceleratedeclinesonthecostcurves.Moreover,reducingelectricity-sectornaturalgasdemandwouldeasephysicalcapacityconstraintsalongexistingnaturalgaspipe-lines,particularlyinthewinter,creatingmoreopportunitiesforhydrogenfuelblending.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB1819Figure7:Electricity-SectorNaturalGasDemandRegionalElectricity-SectorNaturalGasDemand(Bcf/d)3.53.02.52.01.51.00.50Source:"PreliminaryMonthlyElectricGeneratorInventory(BasedonFormEIA-860MasaSupplementtoFormEIA-860),"USEnergyInformationAdministration,October25,2022,https://www.eia.gov/electricity/data/eia860m/.NewYorkNewJerseyMassachusettsConnecticut2010201220112013201420162015201720192018202070“BaywayRefinery,”Phillips66,lastvisitedAugust15,2022,https://www.phillips66.com/refining/bayway-refinery/.71BarbaraJ.PowellandGersonFreitasJr.,“NewJerseyRefinerySettoRestartSomeIdledFuelProduction,”Bloomberg,January28,2022,https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-28/pbf-to-resume-some-idled-fuel-production-at-new-jersey-refinery-kyyqyrd2?sref=lDgLmqjg.Board.;“TimeforaFarewellTourforMothballedRefineries?”SouthJerseyTimes,June19,2022,https://www.nj.com/opinion/2022/06/time-for-a-farewell-tour-for-mothballed-refineries-letters.html.72“BaywayRefinery.”73SusanHicksandPeterGross,“HydrogenforRefineriesIsIncreasinglyProvidedbyIndustrialSuppliers,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,January20,2016,https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=24612.RegionalRefineriesRefineriescouldplayanimportantroleinfosteringtheadop-tionofthehydrogeneconomy.WhileUSrefineriescurrentlyusenaturalgasfeedstockstoproducehydrogen,refineriesmayincreasinglyturntocleanerfeedstocksforhydrogen.Thenortheastregionhastwooilrefineries.P66’sBaywayrefineryinLinden,NewJersey,hasacrudethroughputcapacityofapproximately258,000barrelsperdayandis,asofthiswriting,theregion’sonlyoperatingrefinery.70PBF’sPaulsbororefinery,meanwhile,hasbeenshutdownsince2020amiddecliningdemandfromCOVID.WhiletherehasbeeninterestinrestartingthePaulsbororefineryaslateasJanuary2022,thefacilityremainsshutdownasofthiswriting.71Regionalrefineriesareexpectedtocontributealimited,butimportant,amountofhydrogendemand.ThePaulsbororefinerywillnotusehydrogenaslongasitremainsidle.TheBaywayrefinery,meanwhile,usesonlyalimitedamountofhydrogenduetoitsrelativelylowNelsonComplexityFactorof7.7.72Refineriesusehydrogentolowerthesulfuriccontentofdieselfuel.73Therefore,lowercomplexityscoresimplythatrefineriesprocessrelativelylighter,sweeter(i.e.,lesssulfu-ric)barrelsofcrudeoil,limitingtheirhydrogen-desulfurizationneeds.Indeed,in2021,theEastCoastPADD1region,whichincludestheentireeasternseaboard,notjustthenortheast,usedonly4percentofthecountry’snaturalgasfeedstockforhydrogenproductionatrefineries.74Whiletheregion’srefinerieshaveonlylimitedhydrogenneeds,especiallycomparedtootherregionssuchastheGulfCoast,theycouldneverthelessplananimportantroleinkickstartingaregionalhydrogenhub.TheBaywayrefineryisalreadyanimportantuserofhydrogenandatargetmar-ketforanygreenhydrogensupplier.Notably,Phillips66andPlugPowersignedamemorandumofunderstanding(MOU)toadvancegreenhydrogeninOctober2021.75Moreover,theBaywayrefinery—andrefineriesmoregener-ally—couldhelpsolvegreenhydrogen’s“chicken-and-eggproblem.”Unlikemanyotherusecases,refineries’demandforhydrogenalreadyexistsandisquitesizable:refineriesaccountedforabout44percentoftotalworldhydrogendemandin2020.76TheBaywayrefinerycouldprovetobeanimportantearlycleanhydrogenofftakerforthenortheastregionalhydrogenhub.IndustrialUses:SteelandCementWhilethenortheastisoftenregardedasapost-industrialeconomy,therearestillsignificantsteel,cement,andpaperfacilitieslocatedacrosstheregion.Theseindustriesarestudyingwaystointegratehydrogenintotheiroperations.Whiletheseindustriesmayhavelimitedscopefortheinitial“chicken-and-egg”problemofsupplyanddemand,theymayhavesignificantimpactsonmedium-andlong-termdemand.Thenortheast’ssteelindustryisnoteworthy,andmaybegrowing.AccordingtotheGlobalEnergyMonitor,theCommercialMetalsCompany,orCMC,operatesa653,000-ton/yearsteelplant,anelectricarcfurnace(EAF)inNewJersey.77CMCisalsoconsideringopeninganotherplantthatwould“primarilyservetheNortheast,Mid-Atlantic,andMid-WesternUnitedStatesmarkets.”78Auburn,NewYork,isalsohometoNucorSteelAuburn,ascrap-basedsteelmill.AccordingtotheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey(USGS),therewerefouroperatingcementplantsinMaineandNew74“NaturalGasUsedasFeedstockforHydrogenProductionatRefineries,”USEnergyInformationAdministration,June21,2022,https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/PET_PNP_FEEDNG_K_A.htm.75“Phillips66,PlugPowerSignAgreementtoAdvanceGreenHydrogen,”Phillips66,pressrelease,October13,2021,https://investor.phillips66.com/financial-information/news-releases/news-release-details/2021/Phillips-66-Plug-Power-Sign-Agreement-to-Advance-Green-Hydrogen/default.aspx.76“HydrogenSupply.”77“SteelPlantTrackerMap,”GlobalEnergyMonitor,February24,2021,https://globalenergymonitor.org/projects/global-steel-plant-tracker/tracker-map/.78“CommercialMetalsAnnouncesPlantoBuildState-of-the-ArtMicroMill,”PRNewswire,January10,2022,https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/commercial-metals-announces-plan-to-build-state-of-the-art-micro-mill-301456917.html.79“CementStatisticsandInformation:2020AnnualTables;Table3,”USGeologicalSurvey,July29,2022,https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/cement-statistics-and-information.80“HydrogenHubRoundtable.”Yorkin2020,whentheyproduced1,719thousandmetrictonsofcement(topreservecompany-levelanonymity,theUSGSdoesnotprovidemoregranularstate-leveldata).79TherearethreecementplantsintheEmpireState;twoareownedbyLehighNortheast,whileHolcimownstheRavenacementplant.Steelandcement,aswellaspaperandpulp,areindustriesthatcouldbecomepotentialhydrogenofftakers.Still,partic-ipantsintheseindustriesexpressconcernsthat,becausetheyoperateincommodityindustriesandcanbeundercutonpricealone,theywillrequirepolicysupportbeforeintro-ducinghydrogenatscale.80TransportationSector:LittleNear-TermDemand;Long-TermUptakePossibleWhilehydrogenwilllikelyplayanimportantroleintranspor-tation-sectordecarbonization,manypolicymakersoveresti-mateH2’simpactonmobilityinthemediumterm.Electricvehicles(EVs)willalmostcertainlyremainmoreeconom-icalthanhydrogen-fueledvehiclesacrossmostconsumersegments,includingpersonaltransport.WhilehydrogenisbelievedtohaveadvantagesoverEVsincertainmarkets,especiallylong-haultrucking,itwilltakeseveralyears—perhapsmorethanadecade—forhydrogen-fueledtruckstobecomecommerciallyviable.Moreover,mostindustryparticipantsbelievethatthemarinesectorwillbeslowtoadopthydrogen.Therefore,whilepolicymakersshouldplaycloseattentiontohydrogeninthetransportationsector,H2isunlikelytoreceivesignificantdemandfromtheautomobileormaritimesectorforyears.Transportation-sectordemandisimportant,butnoturgent.Northeasterntransportation-sectorhydrogendemandwilllikelylagother,moreimportantusecases,especiallyhydrogenforblendinginexistingnaturalgaspipelines,andhydrogenuseforrefineryapplications.Consumer-vehiclemarketdatasuggestthatbatteryelec-tricvehicles(BEVs)andplug-inhybridvehicles(PHEVs)willcontinuetodominatethezero-emissionpersonal-vehiclesegment.In2021,approximately3,300hydrogenfuelcellRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB2021electricvehicles,orFCEVs,weresoldintheUnitedStates.81Conversely,UShybridvehiclessalesstoodatabouteighthundredthousandvehiclesin2021,whileBEVsaccountedforaboutanother435,000vehiclesales.82Electrifiedvehi-clesaccountedfor12.6percentofallUSvehiclesalesinthesecondquarterof2022,upfrom8.9percentinthesamepri-or-yearperiod.83ItremainstobeseenifBEVsandPHEVscancontinuetoincreasemarketshare,butsomeanalystshaveprojectedEVcostparitywithtraditionalinternalcombus-tionvehicles(ICE)vehiclesby2027.84Moreover,theInflationReductionAct’spro-EVandpro-renewablesprovisionscoulddramaticallyacceleratethecost-paritytimeline.WithEVadoptionlikelytoreceiveamajorboostfromprovi-sionsintheInflationReductionAct,thetechnologywilllikelycontinuetochargeaheadofhydrogen-fueledpersonalauto-mobiles.Indeed,therearenoUShydrogen-fuelingstationsoutsideofthestateofCalifornia.85Hydrogen-fueledpersonalautomobileswillalmostcertainlyprovidelittletononorth-easternhydrogendemandfortheforeseeablefuture.Busesareapotentialhydrogendemandsourceforanorth-easthydrogenhub.Thereisanongoingdebateabouttherelativeadvantagesanddisadvantagesofhydrogen-fueledbusesvis-à-viselectricbuses.Hydrogenbusesoftenhavealargertankrange,enjoyshorterrefuelingtimes,andcanoperatemoreefficientlythanbattery-electricbusesinvery81MarkKane,“US:HydrogenFuelCellCarSalesReboundedin2021,”InsideEVs,February5,2022,https://insideevs.com/news/565185/us-hydrogen-car-sales-2021/.82HyunjooJin,“U.S.HybridElectricCarSalesHitRecordHighs,”Reuters,January6,2022,https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/us-hybrid-electric-car-sales-hit-record-highs-2022-01-06/.83“EVSalesHitNewRecordinQ22022,”CoxAutomotive,July13,2022,https://www.coxautoinc.com/market-insights/ev-sales-hit-new-record-in-q2-2022/.84KarinRives,“GlobalElectricVehicleSalesDoubled;USMadeEVComebackin2021,”S&PGlobalMarketIntelligence,May24,2022,https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/global-electric-vehicle-sales-doubled-us-made-ev-comeback-in-2021-70489884.85“HydrogenFuelingStationLocations,”USDepartmentofEnergy,lastvisitedAugust15,2022,https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/hydrogen_locations.html#/find/nearest?fuel=HY.86SteveHanley,“FrenchCityCancelsHydrogenBusContract,OptsforElectricBuses,”CleanTechnica,January11,2022,https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/11/french-city-cancels-hydrogen-bus-contract-opts-for-electric-buses/.hotandverycoldclimates.BEVsappearpositionedtobeatouthydrogeninthebusmarket,however,duetocostsandinfrastructure.UnlikeEVs,which“only”needaconnectiontothegrid,thereislittletonohydrogen-vehiclerefuelinginfra-structure,andmanycitiesarefindingthatelectricbusesaremuchlessexpensivethantheirhydrogencounterparts.AcityinFrance,forinstance,canceledanorderforfiftyhydrogenfuelcellbusesafterdeterminingtheywouldcostsixtimesasmuchtooperateasbattery-electricbuses.86Battery-electricbuses’storagecapabilitiescandeliverimportantadvantagesoverhydrogen-fueledbusesinmanycontexts.Forinstance,electricschoolbusesmayenjoyenor-mousadvantagesoverhydrogenduetospecificusefactors.Schoolbusescurrentlyhaveanextraordinarilylowutiliza-tionratethroughouttheyear:onschooldays,theyareidledexceptwhiletransportingstudents,orwhiletransitingtoandfrombusdepots.Whenschoolsareclosed—includingduringthesummervacation—buscapacityisnearlycompletelyidled.Predictablediurnalusepatternsandlongstretchesofidlecapacitysuggestthatelectricbusescoulddoubleasagrid-balancingservice,storingelectricityduringpeakrenewablesgenerationperiodswhiledischargingtothegridduringpeak-demandhours.Whileelectric-batterychargingtimesmayprecludecertaindiurnalgrid-balancingoperationsduringschooldays,so-calledvehicle-to-grid(V2G)technol-ogiescouldhelpbalancethegridondayswhenschoolsareclosed.TheseV2Gtechnologiescouldprovidelimitedbutsizableelectricitystorage:theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)estimatesthatifhalfofallUSschoolbuseswentelectric,theycouldstoreenoughpowertoelectrifymorethanhalfofVermont’shomesforuptothreedays.87Northeasternstatesmayalreadybecoalescingaroundelec-tricschoolbuses—and,potentially,electricbusesingeneral.AnelectricschoolbusinBeverly,Massachusetts,usedV2Gtechnologytopowerthegridinthesummerof2021.88Otherstatesarebuildingouttheirelectricschool-busfleets:NewJerseyhascreateda$45-millionelectricschool-busprogram,Bostonpublicschoolsarelaunchinganelectricschool-buspilotprogramduringthe2022–2023schoolyear,andNewYorkCity’sMetropolitanTransportationAuthorityannouncedinApril2022thatitwilldeploysixtyelectricbuseswithzerotailpipecarbonemissions.89Hydrogen-poweredbusescouldeventuallydominatethesegment,butinitialsignssuggestthatBEVshaveaheadstart.ThemaritimeindustryisapotentialH2offtaker,butnotinthenearterm.Thereareconcernsaboutretrofittingshipsforliquidhydrogen,asthefuel’slowenergydensityrequiresgreaterspacethanconventionalfuels,limitingroomforcar-goes.Accordingtosomeexperts,anyliquid-hydrogen-fueledvesselsbuiltwithinthenexthalfdecadewilllikelybesmallandproducedfornichemarkets,suchasthepassengermar-ketorforsmall-scale,short-seashipping.9087“WhatIfElectricSchoolBusesCouldBeUsedtoSupplyPowerWhenOffDuty?”USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,November1,2021,https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/what-if-electric-school-buses-could-be-used-supply-power-when-duty.88“MassachusettsElectricSchoolBusDeliveredPowerBacktoGridfor50+HoursovertheSummer;V2G,”GreenCarCongress,October14,2021,https://www.greencarcongress.com/2021/10/20211014-proterrav2g.html.89DanaDiFilippo,“NewLawCreates$45MElectricSchoolBusProgram,”NewJerseyMonitor,August4,2022,https://newjerseymonitor.com/briefs/new-law-puts-45m-behind-electric-school-bus-program/;“ProgressMadetowardElectrifyingCityofBostonVehicleFleet,”CityofBoston,April6,2022,https://www.boston.gov/news/progress-made-toward-electrifying-city-boston-vehicle-fleet;“MTAtoExpandNextWaveofDeploymentofZero-EmissionBusestoSixDepots,”MassTransit,April25,2022,https://www.masstransitmag.com/bus/vehicles/hybrid-hydrogen-electric-vehicles/press-release/21265332/mta-bus-company-mta-to-expand-next-wave-of-deployment-of-zeroemission-buses-to-six-depots.90DavidL.WochnerandLukeM.Reid,“HydrogenandtheMaritimeSector,PartI:IntroductiontotheIndustry,”K&LGates,September15,2021,https://www.klgates.com/Hydrogen-and-the-Maritime-Sector-Part-I-Introduction-to-the-Industry-9-15-2021.91LeighCollins,“SpecialReport:WhyShippingPureHydrogenaroundtheWorldMightAlreadyBeDeadintheWater,”Recharge,January27,2022,https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/special-report-why-shipping-pure-hydrogen-around-the-world-might-already-be-dead-in-the-water/2-1-1155434.92“YaraInternationalandAzaneFuelSolutionstoLaunchWorld’sFirstCarbon-FreeBunkeringNetwork,DeliveringGreenAmmoniaFueltotheShippingIndustry,”YaraInternational,April1,2022,https://www.yara.com/news-and-media/news/archive/news-2022/yara-international-and-azane-fuel-solutions-to-launch-worlds-first-carbon-free-bunkering-network-delivering-green-ammonia-fuel-to-the-shipping-industry/.Ammonia,whichisproducedbyreactinghydrogenfromelectrolysisandwithatmosphericnitrogen,ispotentiallyamuchmoreeconomicalalternativetoliquidhydrogenforthemaritimeindustry.91Still,thereislittleprospectofmajormar-itimeammoniashippinginthenearterm:YaraInternational,amajorammoniaproducer,isconstructingtheworld’sfirstcarbon-freeammoniafuel-bunkernetworkservicingthelocalScandinavianmarket,withaplanneddeliverydateof2024.92Giventhattheplannedstartdatemaybeambitious,evengiventhereachofYaraandexpectedpolicysupportfromScandinaviangovernments,thereislittleprospectofthenortheastrequiringammoniaforthemaritimesectorinthenearterm.Still,overthelongterm,Northeasternpolicy-makersmayneedtoreevaluateammonia’sroleinmaritimeshippingandconsideradjustingtheregion’sinfrastructure.Insum,thereislittleevidencethathydrogenwillserveasamajortransportationfuelinthenortheastforyears.Battery-electricvehiclesandplug-inhybridelectricvehicleswilllikelycontinuetodominatezero-emissionsvehiclesales,whileelectricbusesmayhaveafirst-moveradvantageoverhydro-genbuses,partlyduetoelectricschoolbuses’use-caseben-efits.Meanwhile,themaritimesectorisunlikelytoemergeasasignificantH2demandsourceforyears,perhapsmorethanadecade.Hydrogencouldplayaroleinnortheasterntrans-portation,butnotformanyyears.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB2223IV.Midstream,SupplyChains,Infrastructure,andStorage93RichardValdmanis,“MaineVotersRejectQuebecHydropowerTransmissionLine,”Reuters,November3,2021,https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/maine-voters-reject-quebec-hydropower-transmission-line-2021-11-03/.94“GovernorHochulAnnouncesCommissioningofEmpireStateTransmissionLine,”NewYorkState,July11,2022,https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-announces-commissioning-empire-state-transmission-line.95DavidBidwell,JeremyFirestone,andMichaelFerguson,“NewEnglandersSupportMoreOffshoreWindPower,JustDon’tSendIttoNewYork,”NewHampshireBulletin,May2,2022,https://newhampshirebulletin.com/2022/05/02/new-englanders-support-more-offshore-wind-power-just-dont-send-it-to-new-york-commentary/.Energysystems,includinghydrogenhubs,needmorethanjustsupplyanddemand.AnortheastH2Hubwillrequiremidstreamconnectionsbetweensupplyanddemand;stablesupplychains;relevantinfra-structure,suchaselectrolyzers;acapableworkforce;andstoragefordiurnaland,potentially,inter-seasonalbalancing.Whiletheregionfacestransmissionchallenges,thenorth-easthasalreadydevelopedsignificantelectrolyzercapacityandpossessesahighlyskilledtechnologyworkforce.Inter-regionalandIntra-regionalTransmissionHydrogen’ssuccessinthenortheastcouldultimatelydependontheregion’sabilitytobuildoutmoreinter-regionalandintra-regionalelectricitytransmissionandpipelinenetworks.Additionalrenewablescapacitymayneedtobeconstructedinplaceswherethereislittletonoexistingtransmissioncapacity.Moreover,someindustrialfacilitiesmayco-siterenewablesgenerationwithgreenhydrogenproduction.Therefore,thenortheastmustbeabletoquicklysitenewtransmissionanddistributioncapacity,retrofitexistingnatu-ralgaspipelinenetworksforhydrogen,orevenbuildnew,hydrogen-dedicatedpipelines.Theregion’sabilitytoincorporateelectricitygridtransmis-sionatscaleisuncertain.OnNovember3,2021,Mainevot-ersrejecteda$1-billiontransmissionprojectthatwouldhavedeliveredclean,renewablehydropowerfromQuebectoNewEngland.93Conversely,inJuly2022,NewYorkcom-pletedanew,twenty-mile,345-kilovoltlinecalledEmpireStateLine,enablingthetransmissionof3.7GWofrenew-ableenergythroughoutNewYork.94Inadditiontostandard“notinmybackyard”oppositiontonewtransmission,someresearchindicatesthenortheastcouldsufferfrom“region-alist”biases,withsomesliceofvotersmorelikelytoopposewindpowerprojectsifthegeneratedelectronsflowtoanother,rivalstate.95Asdiscussedextensivelyinthedemandsection,hydrogenblendinginpipelinesisofmajorconcerntothenortheast-ernhydrogenhub,butanissuefraughtwithuncertainty.Oneareainwhichpolicymakerscanandshouldactimme-diately,however,isreplacingtheregion’scast-ironpipelineinfrastructure.Cast-ironpipelinesarenotrecommendedforhydrogengasservice,accordingtotheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers.96Moreover,cast-ironorwrought-ironpipelinescompriseasubstantialfractionofthenortheast’sdistributionmains:16.7percentinMassachusetts,14.4per-centinNewYork,14.3percentinConnecticut,and9.4per-centinNewJersey.97Becausecast-ironpipelinesaccountforadisproportionatelevelofmethaneemissions,regulatorsandpolicymakersshouldprioritizetheirreplacement,evenintheabsenceofanyhydrogenrequirements.98Moreover,becausesafetyincidentscoulddisrupttheregional,orevennational,transitiontoahydrogeneconomy,policymakersmustprioritizetheremovalofunsafe,unreliable,andleak-pronecast-ironpipelines.Regionalpolicymakersshouldalsobegintoconsiderhowtostreamlinepermittingandconstructionforhydrogen-ded-icatedpipelinesincasetheyareneeded.Whileutilizingthenortheast’sexistingnaturalgaspipelinesystemforhydrogenissurelypreferabletoconstructingnewpipelines,theregionmayultimatelyneedtoconstructnewhydrogen-dedicatedpipelines,dependingontheresultsofhydrogen-blendingsafetystudies.Theregion’sstatesshouldsupporteffortstocreate—oratleastidentify—afederalentity,suchastheFederalEnergyRegulatoryCommission(FERC),responsibleforthesitingandapprovalofhydrogen-dedicatedpipelines.96ArunSKRajuandAlfredoMartinez-Morales,“HydrogenBlendingImpactsStudy,”CaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission,July18,2022,https://docs.cpuc.ca.gov/PublishedDocs/Efile/G000/M493/K760/493760600.PDF.97“AcceleratedInfrastructureReplacement,”NortheastGasAssociation,2022,https://www.northeastgas.org/accelerated_infrastructure.php.98Blanton,etal.,“InvestingintheUSNaturalGasPipelineSystemtoSupportNet-ZeroTargets.”99“DOENationalLaboratoriesInvestigateSubsurfaceHydrogenStorage,”USDepartmentofEnergy,OfficeofFossilEnergyandCarbonManagement,June17,2021,https://www.energy.gov/fecm/articles/doe-national-laboratories-investigate-subsurface-hydrogen-storage.100EmmanuelI.Epelle,etal..“PerspectivesandProspectsofUndergroundHydrogenStorageandNaturalHydrogen,”SustainableEnergy&Fuels6,14(2022),3324–3343,https://doi.org/10.1039/d2se00618a.101“MitsubishiPowerandTexasBrineJoinForcesonLarge-ScaleHydrogenStorageSolutionstoSupportDecarbonizationEffortsintheEasternUnitedStates,”MitsubishiPowerAmericas,May12,2021,https://power.mhi.com/regions/amer/news/20210512.html?utm_source=amerweb&utm_medium=release&utm_campaign=Citi.Thefutureofnortheasternhydrogen-transmissionrequire-mentsisuncertain.Muchwilldependonacomplexinterplayoftechnology,regulation,politics,andeconomics.Regionalpolicymakers,therefore,mustbeabletorespondrapidlyanddecisivelytochangingtechnologiesandmarketconditions,adaptingtheregion’stransmissionandpipelinenetworkstomeetshiftingrequirements.StorageConsiderationsAsdiscussedpreviously,hydrogencouldbeusedforthepowersectortobalanceinter-seasonaldemand,matchinggenerationduringlow-demandmonthswithpeakwinterelectricityneeds.However,thelong-termstorageofhydro-genisanimportantbutunsettledquestion.WhiletheDOEisinvestigatingalternativestosaltcaverns,italsonotesthat“large-volumeundergroundhydrogenstoragehasbeendemonstratedtobesafeandeffectiveonlyinsaltdomestructuresorcaverns.”99Otherstudiessuggestthat“under-groundhydrogenstorageingeologicalformationscouldbeacheapandenvironmentallyfriendlymedium-andlong-termstorageroute.”100Theregionmayenjoyanabilitytostorehydrogenlocally,neardemandcenters.InMay2021,MitsubishiPowerandTexasBrineCompanysignedanagreementtodeveloplarge-scale,long-durationhydrogen-storagesolutionsacrosstheeasternUnitedStates,includinginNewYorkstate.101RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB2425TheNortheast’sHydrogenSupplyChain:ElectrolyzersandHumanCapitalTheNortheast’shydrogen-relatedsupply-chaininfrastructureisexpandingrapidly.Theregionenjoyssomeofthenation’smostadvancedhydrogeninfrastructure.Thenortheastisdevelopingoffshorewindresourcesthatcouldultimatelyproducehydrogen;isinvestinginportsthatwillserviceoff-shorewind;andenjoyslocalelectrolyzerproduction,whichcouldenablegreenhydrogenproductionusingtheelectrol-ysismethod.Moreover,theregion’simmensereservesofhumancapitalallowittoflexiblyadjusttoanynewH2devel-opments,driveinnovation,andabsorbnewtechnologiesandbestpractices.Agreenhydrogenecosystemisemerginginthenortheast.ConstructionhasbegunataPlugPower’sgreen-hydrogenfuel-productionfacilityinGeneseeCounty;whencompleted,thefacilitywillbethelargestgreenhydrogenplantinNorthAmerica.102AirProducts,oneoftheworld’slargesthydro-genproducers,isinvesting$500milliontoconstructagreenhydrogenproductionanddistributionfacilityinMassena,NewYork.103PlugPowerisoneoftheworld’slargestmanu-102“GovernorHochulAnnouncesConstructionStartatLargestGreenHydrogenPlantinNorthAmerica,”NewYorkState,October20,2021,https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-announces-construction-start-largest-green-hydrogen-plant-north-america.103“AirProductstoInvestabout$500MilliontoBuildGreenHydrogenProductionFacilityinNewYork,”PRNewswire,October6,2022,https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/air-products-to-invest-about-500-million-to-build-green-hydrogen-production-facility-in-new-york-301642745.html.104“EmpireStateDevelopmentAnnouncesLindetoInvest$17MillioninFirstNorthAmericanPEMElectrolyzerPlantinNewYorkState,”EmpireStateDevelopment,StateofNewYork,September13,2021,https://esd.ny.gov/esd-media-center/press-releases/esd-announces-linde-invest-17-million-first-north-american-pem-electrolyzer-plant-nys.105MarkRuth,AhmadMayyas,andMaggieMann,“ManufacturingCompetitivenessAnalysisforPEMandAlkalineWaterElectrolysisSystems,”CleanEnergyManufacturingAnalysisCenter,November8,2017,https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/70380.pdf.106AdamMcCann,“2022’sStateswiththeBest&WorstSchoolSystems,”WalletHub,July25,2022,https://wallethub.com/edu/e/states-with-the-best-schools/5335.facturesofproton-exchangemembrane(PEM)electrolyzers,andisheadquarteredinLatham,NewYork.TheindustrialgascompanyLinde,meanwhile,announceditwillbuilditsfirstNorthAmericanPEMelectrolyzerplantinNiagaraFalls,NewYork,afterstrategicinvestmentfacilitationfromtheNewYorkstategovernment’sEmpireStateDevelopment.104Theregion’sexistingandplannedPEMinfrastructurecouldprovetobeanenormousadvantageif,asseemslikely,PEMelec-trolyzersenjoycostadvantagesovertheiralkalinecompeti-tors,particularlyassystemsizeincreases.105TheNortheast’shighlyeducatedworkforceandoutstand-ingeducationalsystemcouldprovideenormousadvan-tageousforestablishingahydrogenhub.OnesurveybyWalletHubfoundthatMassachusetts,Connecticut,andNewJerseyearnedthehighestthreerankingsforUSpub-lichighschools.106Theregionisalsohometoavarietyofleadingresearchinstitutions,androutinelyabsorbssomeoftheworld’sbrightestmindsinscience,technology,engineer-ing,andmathematicsfields.Thenortheast’shighlyeducatedworkforceisextremelyproductive,dynamic,andabletointe-gratenewtechnologies,includinghydrogen.ConclusionandRecommendationsHydrogenisadynamic,excitingfield,butonefilledwithuncertainty.Whilesometechnicalissues,includingthefeasibilityandsafetyofblendinghydrogenintonaturalgaspipelines,willlikelyberesolvedinthenearterm,otherkeyquestions,suchastheeconomiccompetitivenessofcleanhydrogen,willnotbeansweredforsometime—potentiallyadecadeorlonger.Buildinghydrogen-supportingsupplychainswilltakeyears,sopolicymakerswillhavetoactdecisivelyunderconditionsofuncertainty.Inordertomaximizetheregion’shydrogenpotential,northeasternpolicymakerswillneedtostrikeadifficultbalancebetweenhumility,flexibility,anddecisive-ness;theymayneedtoexecuteindustrialpolicyinthefaceofuncertainty.Despitemacrouncertaintyinhydrogenmarkets,policy-makersandmarketparticipantsintheregioncanactnow,inthenearterm,withoutwaitingforresolutionofimportantdebates.•Supportexpandedcleanenergyproduction.Additionaloffshorewindandnuclearenergycapacityiscrucialtomaximizinglocalgreenhydrogenproduction.Theregioncannotproducebluehydrogenindigenously,whileimport-inggreenhydrogenatscalefrommaritimesourceswillproveinfeasibleforyears,potentiallymorethanadecade.Whileoffshorewindshouldbeatthecenteroftheregion’scleanenergygenerationstrategy,nuclearenergycouldplayakeyroleinimprovingthecapacityfactorsofelectro-lyzersbyincreasingtheamountofaggregatecleanenergyonthegrid.Alternatively,nuclearenergycouldpowertheproductionofpinkhydrogen.Regionalpolicymakersshouldcontinuetoprioritizerapidadoptionofallformsofcleanenergy,includingviapolicysupport,butalsobyreducingpermittingtimelines.Importantly,whileexpandingcleanenergyproductioncoulddelivermajorbenefitsforahydrogeneconomy,itcouldalso,byitself,lowerelectricitypricesanddecarbonizetheelectricitysector.•GreatLakesoffshorewindpresentsintriguingpossibili-tiesforprovidingtheenergyrequiredtoproducehydro-geninthenortheast,particularlyoverthemediumandlongterms.DevelopingGreatLakesoffshorewindcouldrequiretheinvolvementoffederalinstitutions,however,duetoFAAlimitationsonwindturbineheights.•Preparetheregion’sinfrastructureforthehydrogeneconomy.Regardlessoftheresultsofhydrogen-blendingstudies,regionalpolicymakersmustreplaceexistingcast-ironpipelineswithallpossiblehaste.Thesepipesarenotrecommendedforhydrogenservice,andarehighemittingeveninexistingpipelinesystems.•Currentfederaleffortstostudyhydrogenblendinginpipelinesareinsufficient.Thefederalgovernmentshouldseektoidentifywhatlevelsofhydrogencanbeblendedintoexistingnaturalgaspipelinesandinfrastructure,andunderwhatconditions.Thecurrentapproach,whichreliesonindividualstatesandstakeholderstoconducttheirownsafetystudies,appearsduplicative,wasteful,andinefficient.•Theregion’sstatesshouldsupporteffortstocreate—oratleastidentify—afederalentityresponsibleforthesitingandapprovalofhydrogen-dedicatedpipelines.•Thenortheastshouldcontinuetopreparetheregion’shumaninfrastructurebybuildingonitsdominantadvan-tageineducation,whichwillbolsteritshydrogenhigh-techecosystem.Thenortheast’soutstandingpublicedu-cationsystem,expertiseinSTEMfields,andcommitmenttoworkforcetrainingwillproveenormouslyusefulforestablishingandsustainingalocalhydrogeneconomy.•Nimblyadaptpolicytomeetchangesinhydrogentech-nology.Policymakersmustnavigateuncertaintysurround-ingcutting-edgehydrogentechnologybyrespondingrap-idlyanddecisivelytochangingtechnologiesandmarketconditions.Regionalpolicymakersanddecision-makersshouldfollowH2marketconditionsverycarefully—espe-ciallystudiesonblendinghydrogeninnaturalgaspipe-lines—andadjusttheirgovernmentalorcorporatestrategyasneeded.•Thenortheastmustaddressobstaclestointra-regionalcleandeploymentandinter-regionalcleanenergytransmission.•Northeasternpolicymakersshould,overthemediumandlongterms,considersupportingregionalammonia-re-RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBRECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB26latedinfrastructure,giventhefuel’spotentialuseinthenortheast’smaritimesector.Asthefieldofhydrogencontinuestoevolve,regionaldeci-sion-makerswillneedtoattunepolicytothelatestdevelop-ments.H2marketconditionsandtechnologywillnotremainstatic;pipelineblendingpercentages,offshorewindeconom-ics,andmaritimetransportdynamicscouldallchangesignifi-cantlyoverthenextdecade.Thenortheasthydrogenmar-ketwillhavetoadapttochangingrealities.Thereareplentyofreasonstothinktheregioncanrisetothechallenge:aregionalhydrogen-supportivesupplychainisemerging,pol-icymakersandthepublicarelargelysupportiveofclimategoals,thereisarealneedtolowerregionalelectricityprices,andthenortheastenjoysaworld-classeducationsystem,includinginSTEM.Still,thenortheastmustovercomesignif-icantchallenges,includinglimitedonshoresolarandwindresources,whiletheregion’scast-ironpipelinesneedtobereplacedwithallpossiblehaste.Offshorewindisarguablythemostimportantelementinthesuccessofafuturenorth-easthydrogenhub:iftheregioncansuccessfullydevelopitsOSWpotentialintheAtlanticOcean(and,preferably,theGreatLakesaswell),climategoalswillbeineasierreach.Thenortheastneedstokeepworkingifitistodevelopitsfullhydrogenpotential.Ifitdoes,thefuturewillbebright—andgreen.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUB28AbouttheAuthorJosephWebsterisaseniorfellowattheAtlanticCouncil’sGlobalEnergyCenter,whereheservesashydrogenandoffshorewindlead.Websterpreviouslyworkedasafundamentalsenergyconsultantatabou-tiqueenergyfirminHouston,Texas,wherehisprojectworkincludedtopicsacrosshydrogen,ammonia,electricity,liquefiednaturalgas,andoilandgasmarkets.Paralleltohisenergywork,WebstereditstheChina-RussiaReport,anindependent,nonpartisannewslettercoveringdevelopmentswithinandbetweenthetwoauthoritariansuperpowers;healsowritesaweeklycolumnonChina-RussiarelationsforTheChinaProject.HeisproficientinMandarinChineseandhasbeenpublishedorcitedbyTheChinaProject,PoliticoEurope,Eurasianet,theBulwark,andmore.Webstercompletedamaster’sdegreeininternationalrela-tionsfromtheJohnsHopkinsUniversity’sPaulH.NitzeSchoolofAdvancedInternationalStudies,wherehewasaMountVernonfellow.Hereceivedabachelor’sdegreeineconom-icsfromtheUniversityofMaryland.RECOMMENDATIONSFORAUSNORTHEASTHYDROGENHUBExecutiveCommitteeMembersListasofOctober20,2022CHAIRMANJohnF.W.RogersEXECUTIVECHAIRMANEMERITUSJamesL.JonesPRESIDENTANDCEOFrederickKempeEXECUTIVEVICECHAIRSAdrienneArshtStephenJ.HadleyVICECHAIRSRobertJ.AbernethyC.BoydenGrayAlexanderV.MirtchevTREASURERGeorgeLundDIRECTORSToddAchillesTimothyD.AdamsMichaelAnderssonDavidD.AufhauserBarbaraBarrettColleenBellStephenBiegunLindenP.BlueAdamBoehlerJohnBonsellPhilipM.BreedloveMyronBrilliantEstherBrimmerRichardR.BurtTeresaCarlsonJamesE.CartwrightJohnE.ChapotonAhmedCharaiMelanieChenMichaelChertoffGeorgeChopivskyWesleyK.ClarkHelimaCroftAnkitN.DesaiDarioDestePaulaJ.DobrianskyJosephF.Dunford,Jr.RichardEdelmanThomasJ.Egan,Jr.StuartE.EizenstatMarkT.EsperMichaelFischAlanH.FleischmannJendayiE.FrazerMegGentleThomasH.GlocerJohnB.GoodmanSherriW.GoodmanJarosławGrzesiakMurathanGünalFrankHaunMichaelV.HaydenTimHoltKarlV.HopkinsKayBaileyHutchisonIanIhnatowyczMarkIsakowitzWolfgangF.IschingerDeborahLeeJamesJoiaM.JohnsonSafiKaloAndreKellenersBrianL.KellyHenryA.KissingerJohnE.KleinC.JeffreyKnittelJosephKonzelmannFranklinD.KramerLauraLaneAlmarLatourYannLePallecJanM.LodalDouglasLuteJaneHollLuteWilliamJ.LynnMarkMachinUmerManshaMarcoMargheriMichaelMargolisChrisMarlinWilliamMarronChristianMarroneGerardoMatoErinMcGrainJohnM.McHughJudithA.MillerDariuszMioduskiMichaelJ.MorellRichardMorningstarGeorgetteMosbacherMajidaMouradVirginiaA.MulbergerMaryClaireMurphyEdwardJ.NewberryFrancoNuscheseJosephS.NyeAhmetM.ÖrenSallyA.PainterAnaI.PalacioKostasPantazopoulosAlanPellegriniDavidH.PetraeusLisaPollinaDanielB.PonemanDinaH.PowelldddMcCormickMichaelPunkeAshrafQaziThomasJ.RidgeGaryRieschelLawrenceDiRitaMichaelJ.RogersCharlesO.RossottiHarrySachinisC.MichaelScaparrottiIvanA.SchlagerRajivShahGreggSherrillJeffShockeyAliJehangirSiddiquiKrisSinghWalterSlocombeChristopherSmithCliffordM.SobelJamesG.StavridisMichaelS.SteeleRichardJ.A.SteeleMaryStreettGilTenzerFrancesM.TownsendClydeC.TuggleMelanneVerveerCharlesF.WaldMichaelF.WalshRonaldWeiserAlWilliamsMaciejWituckiNealS.WolinJennyWoodGuangYangMaryC.YatesDovS.ZakheimHONORARYDIRECTORSJamesA.Baker,IIIAshtonB.CarterRobertM.GatesJamesN.MattisMichaelG.MullenLeonE.PanettaWilliamJ.PerryCondoleezzaRiceHorstTeltschikWilliamH.WebsterExecutiveCommitteeMembersListasofOctober20,2022CHAIRMANJohnF.W.RogersEXECUTIVECHAIRMANEMERITUSJamesL.JonesPRESIDENTANDCEOFrederickKempeEXECUTIVEVICECHAIRSAdrienneArshtStephenJ.HadleyVICECHAIRSRobertJ.AbernethyC.BoydenGrayAlexanderV.MirtchevTREASURERGeorgeLundDIRECTORSToddAchillesTimothyD.AdamsMichaelAnderssonDavidD.AufhauserBarbaraBarrettColleenBellStephenBiegunLindenP.BlueAdamBoehlerJohnBonsellPhilipM.BreedloveMyronBrilliantEstherBrimmerRichardR.BurtTeresaCarlsonJamesE.CartwrightJohnE.ChapotonAhmedCharaiMelanieChenMichaelChertoffGeorgeChopivskyWesleyK.ClarkHelimaCroftAnkitN.DesaiDarioDestePaulaJ.DobrianskyJosephF.Dunford,Jr.RichardEdelmanThomasJ.Egan,Jr.StuartE.EizenstatMarkT.EsperMichaelFischAlanH.FleischmannJendayiE.FrazerMegGentleThomasH.GlocerJohnB.GoodmanSherriW.GoodmanJarosławGrzesiakMurathanGünalFrankHaunMichaelV.HaydenTimHoltKarlV.HopkinsKayBaileyHutchisonIanIhnatowyczMarkIsakowitzWolfgangF.IschingerDeborahLeeJamesJoiaM.JohnsonSafiKaloAndreKellenersBrianL.KellyHenryA.KissingerJohnE.KleinC.JeffreyKnittelJosephKonzelmannFranklinD.KramerLauraLaneAlmarLatourYannLePallecJanM.LodalDouglasLuteJaneHollLuteWilliamJ.LynnMarkMachinUmerManshaMarcoMargheriMichaelMargolisChrisMarlinWilliamMarronChristianMarroneGerardoMatoErinMcGrainJohnM.McHughJudithA.MillerDariuszMioduskiMichaelJ.MorellRichardMorningstarGeorgetteMosbacherMajidaMouradVirginiaA.MulbergerMaryClaireMurphyEdwardJ.NewberryFrancoNuscheseJosephS.NyeAhmetM.ÖrenSallyA.PainterAnaI.PalacioKostasPantazopoulosAlanPellegriniDavidH.PetraeusLisaPollinaDanielB.PonemanDinaH.PowelldddMcCormickMichaelPunkeAshrafQaziThomasJ.RidgeGaryRieschelLawrenceDiRitaMichaelJ.RogersCharlesO.RossottiHarrySachinisC.MichaelScaparrottiIvanA.SchlagerRajivShahGreggSherrillJeffShockeyAliJehangirSiddiquiKrisSinghWalterSlocombeChristopherSmithCliffordM.SobelJamesG.StavridisMichaelS.SteeleRichardJ.A.SteeleMaryStreettGilTenzerFrancesM.TownsendClydeC.TuggleMelanneVerveerCharlesF.WaldMichaelF.WalshRonaldWeiserAlWilliamsMaciejWituckiNealS.WolinJennyWoodGuangYangMaryC.YatesDovS.ZakheimHONORARYDIRECTORSJamesA.Baker,IIIAshtonB.CarterRobertM.GatesJamesN.MattisMichaelG.MullenLeonE.PanettaWilliamJ.PerryCondoleezzaRiceHorstTeltschikWilliamH.Webster3132TheAtlanticCouncilisanonpartisanorganizationthatpromotesconstructiveUSleadershipandengagementininternationalaffairsbasedonthecentralroleoftheAtlanticcommunityinmeetingtoday’sglobalchallenges.103015thStreet,NW,12thFloor,Washington,DC20005(202)778-4952www.AtlanticCouncil.org

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