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Supplementary Information

Low-Cost Solutions to Global Warming, Air Pollution, and

Energy Insecurity for 145 Countries

Mark Z. Jacobson, Anna-Katharina von Krauland, Stephen J. Coughlin,

Emily Dukas, Alexander J.H. Nelson, Frances C. Palmer, Kylie R. Rasmussen

This supplementary information file contains some additional description of the models

plus additional tables and figures to help explain more fully the methods and results found

in this study.

Supporting Text

Note S1. Summary

Countries around the world are undergoing a transition to clean, renewable energy to

reduce air pollution, climate-damaging pollutants, and energy insecurity. To minimize

damage, all energy should ideally be transitioned by 2035. Whether this occurs will depend

substantially on social and political factors. One potential barrier is the concern that a

transition to intermittent wind and solar will cause blackouts. To analyze this issue, we

examine the ability of 145 countries grouped into 24 world regions to avoid blackouts

under realistic weather conditions that affect both energy demand and supply, when energy

for all purposes originates from 100% clean, renewable (zero air pollution and zero carbon)

Wind-Water-Solar (WWS) and storage. The 24 regions include a mix of seven large multi-

country regions (Africa, Central America, Central Asia, China region, Europe, India

region, the Middle East, South America, and Southeast Asia) and 17 individual countries

or pairs of countries (Australia, Canada, Cuba, Haiti-Dominican Republic, Israel, Iceland,

Jamaica, Japan, Mauritius, New Zealand, the Philippines, Russia-Georgia, South Korea,

Taiwan, and the United States). Three-year (2050-52) grid stability analyses for all regions

indicate that transitioning to WWS can keep the grid stable, even under variable weather

conditions, at low-cost, everywhere. Annual energy costs are 62.7 (38.9-77.8)% lower and

social costs (energy plus health plus climate) costs are 92.0 (72.2-96.2)% lower than in

business-as-usual (BAU) cases. Batteries are the main electricity storage option in most

Electronic Supplementary Material (ESI) for Energy & Environmental Science.

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2022

regions. No batteries with more than 4 hours of storage are needed. Instead, long-duration

storage is obtained by concatenating batteries with 4-hour storage. The new land footprint

and spacing areas required for WWS systems are small relative to the land taken up by the

fossil fuel industry. The transition may create millions more long-term, full-time jobs than

lost and will eliminate not only carbon, but also air pollution, from energy. There is little

downside to a transition.

Note S2. Methodology

This section describes the methodology for developing year-2050 roadmaps to transition

each of 145 countries to 100% WWS among all energy sectors to meet annual average

load. It then describes the grid integration studies for each region or country to meet

continuous load every 30 seconds for three years. The main steps in performing the analysis

described here are as follows:

(1) Projecting business-as-usual (BAU) end-use energy demand from 2018 to 2050 for

each of seven fuel types in each of six energy-use sectors, for each of 145 countries;

(2) estimating the 2050 reduction in demand due to electrifying or providing direct heat

for each fuel type in each sector in each country and providing the electricity and

heat with WWS;

(3) performing resource analyses then estimating mixes of wind-water-solar (WWS)

electricity and heat generators required to meet the aggregate demand in each

country in the annual average;

(4) using a prognostic global weather-climate-air pollution model (GATOR-

GCMOM), which accounts for competition among wind turbines for available

kinetic energy, to estimate wind and solar radiation fields and building heat and

cold loads every 30 seconds for three years in each country;

(5) grouping the 145 countries into 24 world regions and using a model

(LOADMATCH) to match variable energy demand with variable energy supply,

storage, and demand response (DR) in each region every 30 seconds, from 2050 to

2052;

(6) evaluating energy, health, and climate costs of WWS vs BAU;

(7) calculating land area requirements of WWS;

(8) calculating changes in WWS versus BAU jobs numbers; and

(9) discussing and evaluating uncertainties.

Thus, three types of models are used for this study: a spreadsheet model (Steps 1-3), a 3-D

global weather-climate-air pollution model (Step 4), and a grid model (Steps 5-8). We start

with 2018 business-as-usual (BAU) end-use energy consumption data for each country

from IEA (2021). End-use energy is energy directly used by a consumer. It is the energy

embodied in electricity, natural gas, gasoline, diesel, kerosene, and jet fuel that people use

directly, including to extract and transport fuels themselves. It equals primary energy minus

the energy lost in converting primary energy to end-use energy, including the energy lost

during transmission and distribution. Primary energy is the energy naturally embodied in

chemical bonds in raw fuels, such as coal, oil, natural gas, biomass, uranium, or renewable

(e.g., hydroelectric, solar, wind) electricity, before the fuel has been subjected to any

conversion process.

For each country, the data include end-use energy in each of the residential, commercial,

transportation, industrial, agriculture-forestry-fishing, and military-other sectors, and for

each of six energy categories (oil, natural gas, coal, electricity, heat for sale, solar and

geothermal heat, and wood and waste heat).

These data are projected for each fuel type in each sector in each country from 2018 to

2040 using “BAU reference scenario” projections for each of 16 world regions (EIA,

2016). This is extended to 2075 using a ten-year moving linear extrapolation. The reference

scenario is one of moderate economic growth and accounts for policies, population growth,

economic and energy growth, the growth of some renewable energy, modest energy

efficiency measures, and reduced energy use. EIA refers to their reference scenario as their

BAU scenario. The 2050 BAU end-use energy for each fuel type in each energy sector in

each of 145 countries is then set equal to the corresponding 2018 end-use energy from IEA

(2021) multiplied by the EIA 2050-to-2018 energy consumption ratio, available after the

extrapolation, for each fuel type, energy sector, and region containing the country.

The 2050 BAU end-use energy for each fuel type in each sector and country is then

transitioned to 2050 WWS electricity and heat using the factors in Table S3. Thus, for

example, the source of residential and commercial building heat is converted from fossil

fuel, wood, or waste heat to air- and ground-source heat pumps running on WWS

electricity. Building cooling is also provided by heat pumps powered by WWS electricity.

Liquid fuel (mostly gasoline and diesel) and natural gas vehicles are transitioned primarily

to battery electric (BE) vehicles and some hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) vehicles, where the

hydrogen is produced with WWS electricity (i.e., green hydrogen). BE vehicles are

assumed to dominate short- and long-distance light-duty ground transportation,

construction machines, agricultural equipment, short- and moderate-distance (<1,200 km)

heavy-duty trucks, trains (except where powered by electric rails or overhead wires),

ferries, speedboats, and ships. Batteries will also power short-haul (<1,500 km) aircraft

flights. HFC vehicles will make up all long-distance, heavy payload transport by road, rail,

water, and air, as well as heavy-duty air, water, and land military transportation machines

(Katalenich, 2020).

High- and medium-temperature industrial processes are electrified with electric arc

furnaces, induction furnaces, resistance furnaces, dielectric heaters, and electron beam

heaters. Low-temperature heat for industry is assumed to be provided with electric heat

pumps.

Next, in each country, a mix of WWS resources is estimated to meet the all-sector annual-

average end-use energy demand. The mix is determined after a WWS resource analysis is

performed for each country and after the technical potential of each WWS resource in each

country is estimated. Jacobson et al. (2017) provide the methodology for the resource

analysis performed here for each country.

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1SupplementaryInformationLow-CostSolutionstoGlobalWarming,AirPollution,andEnergyInsecurityfor145CountriesMarkZ.Jacobson,Anna-KatharinavonKrauland,StephenJ.Coughlin,EmilyDukas,AlexanderJ.H.Nelson,FrancesC.Palmer,KylieR.RasmussenThissupplementaryinformationfilecontainssomeadditionaldescriptionofthemodelsplusadditionaltablesandfigurestohelpexplainmorefullythemethodsandresultsfoundinthisstudy.SupportingTextNoteS1.SummaryCountriesaroundtheworldareundergoingatransitiontoclean,renewableenergytoreduceairpollution,climate-damagingpollutants,andenergyinsecurity.Tominimizedamage,allenergyshouldideallybetransitionedby2035.Whetherthisoccurswilldependsubstantiallyonsocialandpoliticalfactors.Onepotentialbarrieristheconcernthatatransitiontointermittentwindandsolarwillcauseblackouts.Toanalyzethisissue,weexaminetheabilityof145countriesgroupedinto24worldregionstoavoidblackoutsunderrealisticweatherconditionsthataffectbothenergydemandandsupply,whenenergyforallpurposesoriginatesfrom100%clean,renewable(zeroairpollutionandzerocarbon)Wind-Water-Solar(WWS)andstorage.The24regionsincludeamixofsevenlargemulti-countryregions(Africa,CentralAmerica,CentralAsia,Chinaregion,Europe,Indiaregion,theMiddleEast,SouthAmerica,andSoutheastAsia)and17individualcountriesorpairsofcountries(Australia,Canada,Cuba,Haiti-DominicanRepublic,Israel,Iceland,Jamaica,Japan,Mauritius,NewZealand,thePhilippines,Russia-Georgia,SouthKorea,Taiwan,andtheUnitedStates).Three-year(2050-52)gridstabilityanalysesforallregionsindicatethattransitioningtoWWScankeepthegridstable,evenundervariableweatherconditions,atlow-cost,everywhere.Annualenergycostsare62.7(38.9-77.8)%lowerandsocialcosts(energyplushealthplusclimate)costsare92.0(72.2-96.2)%lowerthaninbusiness-as-usual(BAU)cases.BatteriesarethemainelectricitystorageoptioninmostElectronicSupplementaryMaterial(ESI)forEnergy&EnvironmentalScience.Thisjournalis©TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry20222regions.Nobatterieswithmorethan4hoursofstorageareneeded.Instead,long-durationstorageisobtainedbyconcatenatingbatterieswith4-hourstorage.ThenewlandfootprintandspacingareasrequiredforWWSsystemsaresmallrelativetothelandtakenupbythefossilfuelindustry.Thetransitionmaycreatemillionsmorelong-term,full-timejobsthanlostandwilleliminatenotonlycarbon,butalsoairpollution,fromenergy.Thereislittledownsidetoatransition.NoteS2.MethodologyThissectiondescribesthemethodologyfordevelopingyear-2050roadmapstotransitioneachof145countriesto100%WWSamongallenergysectorstomeetannualaverageload.Itthendescribesthegridintegrationstudiesforeachregionorcountrytomeetcontinuousloadevery30secondsforthreeyears.Themainstepsinperformingtheanalysisdescribedhereareasfollows:(1)Projectingbusiness-as-usual(BAU)end-useenergydemandfrom2018to2050foreachofsevenfueltypesineachofsixenergy-usesectors,foreachof145countries;(2)estimatingthe2050reductionindemandduetoelectrifyingorprovidingdirectheatforeachfueltypeineachsectorineachcountryandprovidingtheelectricityandheatwithWWS;(3)performingresourceanalysesthenestimatingmixesofwind-water-solar(WWS)electricityandheatgeneratorsrequiredtomeettheaggregatedemandineachcountryintheannualaverage;(4)usingaprognosticglobalweather-climate-airpollutionmodel(GATOR-GCMOM),whichaccountsforcompetitionamongwindturbinesforavailablekineticenergy,toestimatewindandsolarradiationfieldsandbuildingheatandcoldloadsevery30secondsforthreeyearsineachcountry;(5)groupingthe145countriesinto24worldregionsandusingamodel(LOADMATCH)tomatchvariableenergydemandwithvariableenergysupply,storage,anddemandresponse(DR)ineachregionevery30seconds,from2050to2052;(6)evaluatingenergy,health,andclimatecostsofWWSvsBAU;(7)calculatinglandarearequirementsofWWS;(8)calculatingchangesinWWSversusBAUjobsnumbers;and(9)discussingandevaluatinguncertainties.Thus,threetypesofmodelsareusedforthisstudy:aspreadsheetmodel(Steps1-3),a3-Dglobalweather-climate-airpollutionmodel(Step4),andagridmodel(Steps5-8).Westartwith2018business-as-usual(BAU)end-useenergyconsumptiondataforeachcountryfromIEA(2021).End-useenergyisenergydirectlyusedbyaconsumer.Itistheenergyembodiedinelectricity,naturalgas,gasoline,diesel,kerosene,andjetfuelthatpeopleusedirectly,includingtoextractandtransportfuelsthemselves.Itequalsprimaryenergyminustheenergylostinconvertingprimaryenergytoend-useenergy,includingtheenergylostduringtransmissionanddistribution.Primaryenergyistheenergynaturallyembodiedinchemicalbondsinrawfuels,suchascoal,oil,naturalgas,biomass,uranium,orrenewable(e.g.,hydroelectric,solar,wind)electricity,beforethefuelhasbeensubjectedtoanyconversionprocess.3Foreachcountry,thedataincludeend-useenergyineachoftheresidential,commercial,transportation,industrial,agriculture-forestry-fishing,andmilitary-othersectors,andforeachofsixenergycategories(oil,naturalgas,coal,electricity,heatforsale,solarandgeothermalheat,andwoodandwasteheat).Thesedataareprojectedforeachfueltypeineachsectorineachcountryfrom2018to2040using“BAUreferencescenario”projectionsforeachof16worldregions(EIA,2016).Thisisextendedto2075usingaten-yearmovinglinearextrapolation.Thereferencescenarioisoneofmoderateeconomicgrowthandaccountsforpolicies,populationgrowth,economicandenergygrowth,thegrowthofsomerenewableenergy,modestenergyefficiencymeasures,andreducedenergyuse.EIAreferstotheirreferencescenarioastheirBAUscenario.The2050BAUend-useenergyforeachfueltypeineachenergysectorineachof145countriesisthensetequaltothecorresponding2018end-useenergyfromIEA(2021)multipliedbytheEIA2050-to-2018energyconsumptionratio,availableaftertheextrapolation,foreachfueltype,energysector,andregioncontainingthecountry.The2050BAUend-useenergyforeachfueltypeineachsectorandcountryisthentransitionedto2050WWSelectricityandheatusingthefactorsinTableS3.Thus,forexample,thesourceofresidentialandcommercialbuildingheatisconvertedfromfossilfuel,wood,orwasteheattoair-andground-sourceheatpumpsrunningonWWSelectricity.BuildingcoolingisalsoprovidedbyheatpumpspoweredbyWWSelectricity.Liquidfuel(mostlygasolineanddiesel)andnaturalgasvehiclesaretransitionedprimarilytobatteryelectric(BE)vehiclesandsomehydrogenfuelcell(HFC)vehicles,wherethehydrogenisproducedwithWWSelectricity(i.e.,greenhydrogen).BEvehiclesareassumedtodominateshort-andlong-distancelight-dutygroundtransportation,constructionmachines,agriculturalequipment,short-andmoderate-distance(<1,200km)heavy-dutytrucks,trains(exceptwherepoweredbyelectricrailsoroverheadwires),ferries,speedboats,andships.Batterieswillalsopowershort-haul(<1,500km)aircraftflights.HFCvehicleswillmakeupalllong-distance,heavypayloadtransportbyroad,rail,water,andair,aswellasheavy-dutyair,water,andlandmilitarytransportationmachines(Katalenich,2020).High-andmedium-temperatureindustrialprocessesareelectrifiedwithelectricarcfurnaces,inductionfurnaces,resistancefurnaces,dielectricheaters,andelectronbeamheaters.Low-temperatureheatforindustryisassumedtobeprovidedwithelectricheatpumps.Next,ineachcountry,amixofWWSresourcesisestimatedtomeettheall-sectorannual-averageend-useenergydemand.ThemixisdeterminedafteraWWSresourceanalysisisperformedforeachcountryandafterthetechnicalpotentialofeachWWSresourceineachcountryisestimated.Jacobsonetal.(2017)providethemethodologyfortheresourceanalysisperformedhereforeachcountry.4SolarrooftopPVtechnicalpotentialsarecalculatedhereusingthemethodinSectionS5.2.2ofJacobsonetal.(2017).TableS7showstheresultsbycountry.The145-country-wide2050rooftopareasuitableforPV(southfacingintheNorthernHemisphere,northfacingintheSouthernHemisphere,andunshaded)overresidentialbuildingsandassociatedparkingstructuresis~116,000km2and,forallotherbuildings(commercial,government,industrial),is~49,000km2.TheassociatedtechnicalpotentialsofsolarPVare~27.8TWand~11.7TWnameplatecapacity,respectively.Next,wemakeafirstestimateofthenameplatecapacitiesofamixofWWSgeneratorsneededtomeetannualaverageall-purposeloadineachcountry.ThepenetrationofeachWWSelectricitygeneratorineachcountryislimitedbythefollowingconstraints:(1)eachgeneratortypecannotproducemoreelectricityinthecountrythanthetechnicalpotentialallows;(2)thelandareatakenupamongallWWSland-basedgeneratorsshouldbenomorethanafewpercentofthelandareaofthecountryofinterest;(3)theareaofinstalledrooftopPVineachcountrymustbelessthantherespectiverooftopareasuitableforPV(TableS7);(4)thenameplatecapacityofconventionalhydroisthesameasin2020;and(6)windandsolar,whicharecomplementaryinnature,areusedinroughlyequalproportionswherefeasible.Themixiscalculatediterativelywiththemethodintheaccompanyingspreadsheet(JacobsonandDelucchi,2021).Thespreadsheet-derivedfirst-estimatenameplatecapacitiesofonshoreandoffshorewindelectricity,rooftopandutilityPVelectricity,CSPelectricity,andsolarthermalheatsupplyaretheninputintotheglobalweather-climate-air-pollutionmodel,GATOR-GCMOM(NoteS3)topredictpoweroutputbycountryfromeachgeneratorevery30secondsduring2050-2052.Fromtheoffshorewindpredictions,time-dependentwavepowerestimatesarederived.Frommodeledoutdoortemperaturesineachnear-surfacegridcellinthemodel,heatingandcoolingloadsinbuildingsarecalculatedevery30seconds.Resultsarethenaggregatedbycountry(Jacobson,2021a).Thetime-dependentwind,solar,andwavepowersuppliesandbuildingthermalloadsfromGATOR-GCMOMaretheninputintotheLOADMATCHgridintegrationmodel(NotesS4-S6,TableS2).Geothermalelectricityandheatsuppliesandtidalelectricitysuppliesareassumedtobebaseloadandconstantthroughouttheyear.Hydroelectricityisconsumedasneededbutlimitedbythe2020peakdischargerate(nameplatecapacity)ofhydropowerandbytheamountofwaterthatgavethe2020annualaveragehydropoweroutput.Rainfallandrunoffreplenishhydropowerreservoirscontinuouslyduringtheyear(TableS13,footnotes).LOADMATCHisusedtomatchtime-dependent(30-sresolution)electricityandheatloadsandlosseswithsupply,storage,anddemandresponseduring2050-2052.NotesS4-S6describedemandresponse.Theregionssimulatedhere(TableS1)coverdifferentspatialscales,from11relativelysmallregions(Cuba,Haiti-DominicanRepublic,Iceland,Israel,Jamaica,Japan,Mauritius,NewZealand,Philippines,SouthKorea,andTaiwan)tothecontinentalscale.Inallcases,perfectly-interconnectedtransmissionisassumed.However,weaccountfortransmissionanddistributioncostsandlosses(TableS17).Long-distancetransmissioncostsincreasewhencountriesareinterconnectedversusisolated.Forthesmallestindividualcountiesor5pairsofcountries(Cuba,Haiti-DominicanRepublic,Iceland,Israel,Jamaica,Mauritius,SouthKorea,andTaiwan),nolong-distancetransmissionisassumedbecausethedistanceacrosssuchentitiesislessthanatypicalHVDCtransmissionlinelength(1,000-2,000km).ForNewZealand,15%ofallelectricityconsumedisassumedtobesubjecttolong-distancetransmission.ForCentralAmerica,Japan,andthePhilippines,20%isassumedtobesubjecttolong-distancetransmission.Forallothercountriesandregions,30%isassumedtobesubjecttolong-distancetransmission(TableS14).NoteS3.DescriptionofGATOR-GCMOManditsCalculationsThisnotebrieflysummarizestheGATOR-GCMOMmodelandthemainprocessesthatittreats.GATOR-GCMOMisathree-dimensionGas,Aerosol,Transport,Radiation,GeneralCirculation,Mesoscale,andOceanModel(Jacobson,2001;etal.,2007;andArcher,2012;andJadhav,2018).Itsimulatesweather,climate,andairpollutionontheglobalthroughurbanscales.Themainprocessestreatedareasfollows:Gasprocesses(emissions,gasphotochemistry,gastransport,gas-to-particleconversion,gas-cloudinteractions,andgasremoval);Aerosolprocesses(size-andcomposition-resolvedemissions,homogeneousnucleation,coagulation,condensation,dissolution,equilibriumandnon-equilibriumchemistry,aerosol-cloudinteractions,andaerosolremoval);Cloudprocesses(size-andcomposition-resolvedaerosolparticleactivationintoclouddrops,dropfreezing;collision-coalescence,condensation/evaporation,dissolution,icecrystalformation,graupelformation,lightningformation,convection,andprecipitation;dropbreakup);Transportprocesses(horizontalandverticaltransportofindividualgas,size-andcomposition-resolvedaerosolparticles,andsize-andcomposition-resolvedhydrometeorparticles)Radiativeprocesses(spectralsolarandthermalinfraredradiation;heatingrates;actinicfluxes;radiationthroughgases,aerosols,clouds,snow,seaice,andoceanwater);Meteorologicalprocesses(wind,temperature,pressure,humidity,size-andcomposition-resolvedclouds);Surfaceprocesses(drydepositionofgases,sedimentationofaerosolandhydrometeorparticles,dissolutionofgasesandparticlesintotheoceansandsurfacewater,soilmoistureandenergybalance,evapotranspiration,seaiceandsnowformationandimpacts;radiativetransferthroughsnow,seaice,andoceanwater)Oceanprocesses(2-Doceantransportand3-Doceandiffusionandchemistry,phytoplankton,radiativetransferthroughtheocean)6GATOR-GCMOMsimulatesfeedbacksamongalltheseprocesses,inparticularamongmeteorology,solarandthermal-infraredradiation,gases,aerosolparticles,cloudparticles,oceans,seaice,snow,soil,andvegetation.Modelpredictionshavebeencomparedwithdatain34peer-reviewedstudies.Themodelhasalsotakenpartin14modelinter-comparisons(Jacobsonetal.,2019).Themodelisrunhereat4o×5ohorizontalresolutionandwith68sigma-pressure-coordinatelayersinthevertical,fromthegroundto0.219hPa(~60km),with15layersinthebottom0.95km.Ofthese,thebottomfivelayersabovethegroundareat30-mresolution;thenextsevenareat50-mresolution,oneisat100-mresolution,andthelasttwoareat200-mresolution.Verticalresolutionfrom1to21kmis500m.Onshorewindturbines,withnameplatecapacitydeterminedfromtheinitialspreadsheetestimateofgeneratorsneededtomeet2050end-useload,areplacedinwindyareasineachcountryinGATOR-GCMOM.Offshoreturbinesareplacedincoastalwaterineachcountrywithacoastline.Thewindturbinebladesinthemodelcrossfiveverticalmodellayers.Spatially-varyingmodel-predictedwindspeedsareusedtocalculatewindpoweroutputfromeachturbineevery30s.Thiscalculationaccountsforthereductioninthewind’skineticenergyandspeedduetothecompetitionamongwindturbinesforlimitedavailablekineticenergy(JacobsonandArcher,2012).RooftopsolarPVpanels,utilityPVpanels,CSPplants,andsolarthermalplants,withnameplatecapacitydeterminedfromtheinitialestimateofgeneratorsneededtomeet2050end-useload,areplacedinurbanareas(rooftopPV)andinsouthernpartsofeachcountryintheNorthernHemisphereandnorthernpartsintheSouthernHemisphere(utilityPV,CSP,andsolarthermal)inGATOR-GCMOM.Themodelcalculatesthetemperature-dependenceofPVoutput(JacobsonandJadhav,2018)andthereductioninsunlighttobuildingsandthegroundduetotheconversionofradiationtoelectricitybysolardevices(JacobsonandJadhav,2018;Jacobsonetal.,2019).Italsoaccountsfor(1)changesinairandgroundtemperatureduetopowerextractionbysolarandwinddevicesandsubsequentelectricityuse(JacobsonandJadhav,2018;Jacobsonetal.,2019);(2)impactsoftime-dependentgas,aerosol,andcloudconcentrationsonsolarradiationandwindfields(Jacobsonetal.,2007);(3)radiationtorooftopPVpanelsatafixedoptimaltilt(JacobsonandJadhav,2018);and(4)radiationtoutilityPVpanels,halfofwhichareatanoptimaltiltandtheotherhalfofwhichtrackthesunwithsingle-axishorizontaltracking(JacobsonandJadhav,2018).Finally,GATOR-GCMOMcalculatesa30-s-resolutiontimeseriesofbuildingcoolingandheatingloadsineachcountryfor2050-2052.Themodelpredictstheambientairtemperatureineachofmultiplesurfacegridcellsineachcountryandcomparesitwithanidealbuildinginteriortemperature,sethereto294.261K(70oF).Itthencalculateshowmuchheatingorcoolingenergyisneededevery30stomaintaintheinteriortemperatureamongallbuildingsinthegridcell(assuminganaverageU-valueandsurfaceareaforbuildingsandagivennumberofbuildingsineachgridcell)(Jacobsonetal.,2021a).Thetimeseriesloadsamongallgridcellsinacountryarethensummedtoobtaincountryvalues,whichareoutputforuseinLOADMATCH.7NoteS4.DescriptionofandProcessesintheLOADMATCHModelThisnotediscussestheLOADMATCHmodel(Jacobsonetal.,2015;2018;2019,2021a,b)anditsmainprocesses.LOADMATCHisatrial-and-errorsimulationmodelwritteninFortran.Itworksbyrunningmultiplesimulationsforeachgridregion,oneatatime.Eachsimulationmarchesforwardonetimestepatatime,justastherealworlddoes,foranynumberofyearsforwhichsufficientinputdataareavailable.Inpaststudies,themodelhasbeenrunfor1to6years,butthereisnotechnicalorcomputationallimitforthemodelrunningforhundredsorthousandsofyears,givensufficientinputdata.Themainconstraintduringasimulationisthatthesummedelectricity,heat,cold,andhydrogenloadandlosses,adjustedbydemandresponse,mustmatchenergysupplyandstorageeverytimestepforanentiresimulationperiod.Ifloadisnotmetduringanytimestep,thesimulationstops.Inputs(eitherthenameplatecapacityofoneormoregenerators;thepeakchargerate,peakdischargerate,orpeakcapacityofstorage;orcharacteristicsofdemandresponse)arethenadjustedoneatatimebasedonanexaminationofwhatcausedtheloadmismatch(thusitisa“trial-and-error”model).Anothersimulationisthenrunfromthebeginning.Newsimulationsarerununtilloadismeteverytimestepofthesimulationperiod.Afterloadismetonce,additionalsimulationsareperformedwithfurther-adjustedinputsbasedonuserintuitionandexperiencetogenerateasetofsolutionsthatmatchloadeverytimestep.Thelowestcostsolutioninthissetisthenselected.Unlikewithanoptimizationmodel,whichsolvesamongalltimestepssimultaneously,atrial-and-errormodeldoesnotknowwhattheweatherwillbeduringthenexttimestep.Becauseatrial-and-errormodelisnon-iterative,itrequireslessthanaminutefora3-yearsimulationwitha30-stimestep.Thisis1/500thto1/100,000ththecomputertimeofanoptimizationmodelforthesamenumberoftimesteps,regardlessofcomputerarchitecture.Thedisadvantageofatrial-and-errormodelcomparedwithanoptimizationmodelisthattheformerdoesnotdeterminetheleastcostsolutionoutofallpossiblesolutions.Instead,itproducesasetofviablesolutions,fromwhichthelowest-costsolutionisselected.TableS2summarizesmanyoftheprocessestreatedinLOADMATCH.Modelinputsareasfollows:(1)time-dependentelectricityproducedfromonshoreandoffshorewindturbines,wavedevices,tidalturbines,rooftopPVpanels,utilityPVplants,CSPplants,andgeothermalplants;(2)ahydropowerplantpeakdischargerate(nameplatecapacity),whichissettothepresent-daynameplatecapacity,ahydropowerplantmeanrechargerate(fromrainfall),andahydropowerplantannualaverageelectricityoutput;(3)time-dependentgeothermalheatandsolar-thermalheatgenerationrates;(4)specificationsofhot-waterandchilled-watersensible-heatthermalenergystorage(HW-STESandCW-STES)(peakchargerate,peakdischargerate,peakstoragecapacity,lossesintostorage,andlossesoutofstorage);(5)specificationsofundergroundthermalenergystorage(UTES),includingborehole,waterpit,andaquiferstorage;8(6)specificationsoficestorage(ICE);(7)specificationsofelectricitystorageinpumpedhydropowerstorage(PHS),phase-changematerialscoupledwithCSP(CSP-PCM),andbatteries;(8)specificationsofhydrogen(foruseintransportation)electrolysis,compression,andstorageequipment;(9)specificationsofelectricheatpumpsforairandwaterheatingandcooling;(10)specificationsofademandresponsesystem;(11)specificationsoflossesalongshort-andlong-distancetransmissionanddistributionlines;(12)time-dependentelectricity,heat,cold,andhydrogenloads;and(13)specificationsofscheduledandunscheduledmaintenancedowntimesforgenerators,storage,andtransmission.Frommodelresults,differencesinenergy,health,andclimatecostsandjobcreationandlossbetweenBAUandWWSareestimated.LandrequirementsofWWSarealsocalculated.Calculationsofcostrequirespecificationsofgenerator,storage,transmission,anddistributioncostsandairpollutionandclimatecostsduetoBAUfuels.Changesinjobnumbersrequirespecificationsofjobdataforgenerators,storage,andtransmission/distribution.Landrequirementsrequirespecificationoftheinstalledpowerdensityofgenerators.Forthisstudy,boththenameplatecapacityandinstalledcapacityofhydropowerareassumedtobeequal.Thenameplatecapacityofatechnologyisthepeakoutput(discharge)rateofthetechnology’sgeneratorsorotherdevicesproducingelectricity.Theinstalledcapacityforalltechnologiesasidefromhydropowerequalsthenameplatecapacity.Forhydropower,itisthesmallerofthenameplatecapacityandtheupperlimitoftheannualaveragepowerproducedbyavailablewaterinahydropowerreservoir(RahiandKumar,2016).Thus,forexample,ahydropowerplantmayproducenomorethan1GWofannualaveragepower(installedcapacity)duetowaterlimitationsbuthaveamuchhigherpeakinstantaneouselectricityproductionrateof10GW(nameplatecapacity)duetotheconstructionofturbinestoallowhydropowertomeetpeaksingridelectricitydemandbetter.NoteS5.Time-DependentThermalandElectricityLoadProfilesinLOADMATCHThisnotediscussesthedevelopmentoftime-dependentloadprofilesat30-stimeresolutionforuseinLOADMATCH.Westartwiththeannual-average2050WWSenergyloadsforeachsectorineachcountryfromTableS4.Theseloadsareseparatedinto(1)electricityanddirectheatloadsneededforlow-temperatureheating,(2)electricloadsneededforcoolingandrefrigeration,(3)electricityloadsneededtoproduce,compress,andstorehydrogenforfuelcellsusedfortransportation,and(4)allotherelectricityloads(includingindustrialheatloads),asdescribedinSectionS1.3.3ofJacobsonetal.(2019)andupdatedinJacobson(2021).Eachoftheseloadsisthendividedfurtherintoflexibleandinflexibleloads.Flexibleloadsincludeelectricityanddirectheatloadsthatcanbeusedtofillcoldandlow-temperatureheatstorage(districtheatstorageorbuildingwatertankstorage),electricityloadsusedtoproducehydrogen(sinceallhydrogencanbestored),andremainingelectricityanddirectheatloadssubjecttodemandresponse.Inflexibleloadsare9allloadsthatarenotflexible.TableS14givesthepercentofbuildingheatingandcoolingloadssubjecttodistrictheatingineachregion.Loadssubjecttodemandresponsecanbeshiftedforwardintimeamaximumofeighthours.Loadssubjecttoheat/coldstoragecanbemetwithsuchstorageorwithelectricity,eithercurrentlyavailableorstored.Inflexibleloadsmustbemetimmediatelywithelectricitythatiscurrentlyavailableorstored.Tosummarizecoolingandlow-temperatureheating,totalannualaveragecoolingandlow-temperatureheatingloadsconsistofflexibleloadssubjecttostorage,flexibleloadssubjecttodemandresponse,andinflexibleloads.Suchannualaveragecoolingandlow-temperatureheatingloadsforeachcountryareconvertedtotime-dependentcoolingandlow-temperatureheatingloadsusingthetime-dependentcoolingandlow-temperatureheatingloadoutputfromGATOR-GCMOMforeachcountry(NoteS3).InLOADMATCH,thecoolingandlow-temperatureheatingloadtimeseriesfromGATOR-GCMOMaresummedforeachtimestepoverallcountriesineachregiontoobtainregionaltimeseries.Theannualaverageofeachregionaltimeseriesisthenfound.Eachregionaltimeseries,from2050to2052,isthenscaledbytheratiooftheannualaveragecoolingorlow-temperatureheatingloadrequiredfora100%WWSregionin2050fromTableS6totheannualaveragecoolingorheatingloadfromtheGATOR-GCMOMtimeseries,justcalculated.Thisgivestime-dependent2050-2052coolingandheatingloadsforeachregionthat,whenaveragedovertime,exactlymatchtheestimated2050annualaverageloadsfromTableS6.Annualaverage2050-2052inflexibleelectricloads(intheresidential,commercial,transportation,industrial,agriculture-forestry-fishing,andmilitary-othersectors)ineachregionareconvertedtotime-dependent2050-2052inflexibleelectricloadsfortheregionbyscalingcontemporarytime-dependentelectricloaddatafortheregionforwardto2050-2052.ContemporaryhourlyloaddataforEuropeanarefor2014(ENTSOE,2026).Thoseforalmostallremainingcountriesarefor2030(NeocarbonEnergy,2021).SinceloadprofilesforSudan,Zimbabwe,andEquatorialGuineadonotexistfromeitherofthesedatasets,theirprofilesareassumedtobethesameasanearbycountry,butwiththemagnitudeeachhourscaledsothattheannualaverageinflexibleloadreflectedthoseoftheoriginalcountries.The2050-2052inflexibletime-seriesloadsforeachcountryarethenobtainedbymultiplyingthe2014or2030time-serieselectricloads,respectively,forthecountrybytheratiooftheannualaverage2050inflexibleloadfortheregionthecountryresidesin(TableS6)tothesumoftheannualaverageinflexibleloadsfromthe2014or2030time-dependentprofilesamongthecountriesintheregion.Finally,allremainingloads(allnon-heating,non-coolingflexibleloads),whichincludemostelectricloadsfortransportation(forelectricandhydrogenfuelcellvehicles)andforhigh-temperatureindustrialheat,aredistributedevenlyduringtheyear.10Fortransportation,thisassumptionisroughlyjustifiedbythefactthat,between2016-2019intheU.S.,forexample,theminimumandmaximummonthlyU.S.gasolinesupplieswere7.76%and8.73%,respectively,oftheannualsupply(EIA,2021b),withthehighestconsumptionduringthesummerandthelowestduringthewinter.Bothgasolinevehicle(GV)andbattery-electricvehicle(BEV)rangesdropwithlowertemperature,withBEVrangesdroppingmore.Forexample,gasoline-vehiclefuelmileageisabout15-24%lowerat20oF(-6.67oC)thanat77oF(25oC)(U.S.DOE,2021),whereasBEVrangeis~40%lowerbetweenthosetwotemperatures(Geotab,2020).Sincegasolineconsumptionisgreaterduringsummerthanwinter,thisimpliesthatthesummer-winterdifferenceinBEVelectricityconsumptionwillbelessthanthesummer-winterdifferenceingasolineconsumption,justifyingarelativelyevenspreadduringtheyearofelectricityconsumptionwithBEVs.Eighty-fivepercentofelectricityloadsforvehiclesand70%ofelectricityloadsforhigh-temperatureindustrialheatareassumedtobeflexibleloadssubjecttodemandresponseorstorage.Assuch,theseloadscanbeshiftedforwardintimeifnecessaryorpulledfromstorageatwheneverstoragehassufficientelectricity.Loadsforproducinghydrogenforfuelcellvehiclescomprise13.5%ofalltransportationloadsand6.8%ofall-purposeloadsamongthe145countries(TablesS6andS5).Alltheseloadsareflexible,sohydrogencanbeproducedwheneverexcesselectricityisavailable,andthehydrogencanthenbestoredandusedasneeded.Since100%ofelectricloadsforhydrogenproductionforvehicles(13.5%oftransportationelectricloads)areflexibleand85%ofalltransportationloadsareflexible,82.7%ofallelectricloadsforelectricvehiclesareflexible.NoteS6.OrderofOperationinLOADMATCHInthissection,theorderofoperationsinLOADMATCH,includinghowthemodeltreatsexcessgenerationoverdemandandexcessdemandovergeneration,issummarized.Thefirstsituationdiscussedisoneinwhichthecurrent(instantaneous)supplyofWWSelectricityorheatexceedsthecurrentelectricityorheatload.Thetotalload,whetherforelectricityorheat,consistsofflexibleandinflexibleloads.Whereasflexibleloadsmaybeshiftedforwardintimewithdemandresponse,inflexibleloadsmustbemetimmediately.IfWWSinstantaneouselectricityorheatsupplyexceedstheinstantaneousinflexibleelectricityorheatload,thenthesupplyisusedtosatisfythatload.TheexcessWWSisthenusedtosatisfyasmuchcurrentflexibleelectricorheatloadaspossible.Ifanyexcesselectricityexistsafterinflexibleandcurrentflexibleloadsaremet,theexcesselectricityissenttofillelectricitystorageorusedtoproduceheat,cold,orhydrogen,whichiseitherstoredorusedimmediately.Electricitystorageisfilledfirst.ExcessCSPhigh-temperatureheatgoestoCSPthermalenergystorageinaphase-changematerial.IfCSPstorageisfull,remaininghigh-temperatureheatproduceselectricitythatisused,alongwithexcesselectricityfromothersources,tochargebatterystoragefollowedbypumpedhydropowerstorage,coldwaterstorage,icestorage,hotwatertankstorage,andundergroundthermalenergystorage.Remainingexcesselectricityisusedtoproducehydrogen.Anyresidualafterthatisshed.11Heatandcoldstoragearefilledbyusingexcesselectricitytopoweranairsourceorgroundsourceheatpumptomoveheatorcoldfromtheair,water,orgroundtothethermalstoragemedium.Hydrogenstorageisfilledbyusingelectricityinanelectrolyzertoproducehydrogenandinacompressortocompressthehydrogen,whichisthenmovedtoastoragetank.Ifanyexcessdirectgeothermalorsolarheatexistsafteritisusedtosatisfyinflexibleandflexibleheatloads,theremainderisusedtofilleitherdistrictheatstorage(watertankandundergroundheatstorage)orbuildingwatertankheatstorage.ThesecondsituationisoneinwhichcurrentloadexceedsWWSelectricityorheatsupply.WhencurrentinflexibleplusflexibleelectricityloadexceedsthecurrentWWSelectricitysupplyfromthegrid,thefirststepistouseelectricitystorage(CSP,battery,pumpedhydro,andhydropowerstorage,inthatorder)tofillinthegapinsupply.Theelectricityisusedtosupplytheinflexibleloadfirst,followedbytheflexibleload.Ifelectricitystoragebecomesdepletedandflexibleloadpersists,demandresponseisusedtoshifttheflexibleloadtoafuturehour.IftheinflexibleplusflexibleheatloadsubjecttostorageexceedsWWSdirectheatsupply,thenstoreddistrictheat(inwatertanksandundergroundstorage)isusedtosatisfydistrictheatloadssubjecttostorage,andbuildingheatstorage(inhotwatertanks)isusedtosatisfybuildingwaterheatloads.Ifstoredheatbecomesexhausted,thenanyremaininglow-temperatureairorwaterheatloadbecomeseitheraninflexibleload(85%),whichmustbemetimmediatelywithelectricity,oraflexibleload(15%),whichcaneitherbemetwithelectricityorshiftedforwardintimewithdemandresponseandturnedintoaninflexibleload.Similarly,iftheinflexibleplusflexiblecoldloadsubjecttostorageexceedscoldstorage(iniceorwater),excesscoldloadbecomeseitheraninflexibleload(85%),whichmustbemetimmediatelywithelectricity,oraflexibleload(15%),whichcanbemetwithelectricityorshiftedforwardintimewithdemandresponseandturnedintoaninflexibleload.Finally,ifthecurrenthydrogenloaddepleteshydrogenstorage,theremaininghydrogenloadbecomesaninflexibleelectricalloadthatmustbemetimmediatelywithcurrentelectricity.Inanyofthecasesabove,ifelectricityisnotavailabletomeettheremaininginflexibleload,thesimulationstopsandmustberestartedafterincreasingnameplatecapacitiesofgenerationand/orstorage.Becausethemodeldoesnotpermitloadlossatanytime,itisdesignedtoexceedtheutilityindustrystandardofloadlossonceevery10years.NoteS7.CalculationofAirPollutionandClimateCosts12BAUairpollutioncostestimatesarebasedontheprojectednumberofairpollutiondeathsperyearduetoenergyin2050bycountrymultipliedbyavalueofstatisticallifeforeachcountryandcostfactorsformorbidityandnon-healthenvironmentalimpacts.TableS21,Column(a)givestheestimatedtotalnumberofBAUairpollutiondeathsbycountryin2050.Multiplyingthetotalnumbersof2050airpollutiondeathsperyearfromTableS21by90%(theestimatedpercentageoftotalairpollutionmortalitiesthatareduetoenergy)givestheestimatednumbersofdeathsperyearduetoenergy.Multiplyingthosenumbersbyastatisticalcostoflife(milliondollarspermortality)updatedfor2020USDfromJacobsonetal.(2019)foreachcountryandamultiplierof1.15formorbidityandanothermultiplierof1.1fornon-healthimpacts(Jacobsonetal.,2019)givesthe2050annualBAUhealthcostbyregionandcountryinTableS20.BAUclimatecostsareestimatedbasedonthemeansocialcostofcarbonappliedtoestimatedanthropogenicCO2-equivalentemissionsin2050fromTableS21.Themeansocialcostofcarbonin2050ineachcountryisestimatedinTableS21,Column(f),whichisanupdatetoUSD2020fromJacobsonetal.(2019).NoteS8.CalculationofLandRequirementsFootprintisthephysicalareaonthetopsurfaceofsoilorwaterneededforeachenergydevice.Itdoesnotincludeareasofundergroundstructures.Spacingistheareabetweensomedevices,suchaswindturbines,wavedevices,andtidalturbines,neededtominimizeinterferenceofthewakeofoneturbinewithdownwindturbines.Spacingareacanbeusedformultiplepurposes,includingrangeland,ranchingland,industrialland(e.g.,installingsolarpanels),openspace,oropenwater.TableS22providesestimatedfootprintandspacingareaspermegawattofnameplatecapacityofWWSelectricityandheatgenerationtechnologiesconsideredhere.ApplyingthefootprintandspacingareaspermegawattnameplatecapacityfromTableS22tothenewnameplatecapacitiesneededtoprovidegridstability(obtainedbysubtractingtheexistingnameplatecapacitiesinTableS8fromtheexistingplusnewnameplatecapacitiesinTableS9)givesthetotallandfootprintandspacingareasrequiredforeachcountryandregion,asshowninTableS23.NewlandfootprintarisesonlyforsolarPVplants,CSPplants,onshorewindturbines,geothermalplants,andsolarthermalplants.Offshorewind,wave,andtidalgeneratorsareinwater,sotheydon’ttakeupnewland,androoftopPVdoesnottakeupnewland.Thefootprintareaofawindturbineisrelativelytrivial(primarilytheareaofthetowerandofexposedcementabovethegroundsurface).Thetotalnewlandareaforfootprint(beforeremovingthefossilfuelinfrastructure)requiredwith100%WWSisabout0.17%ofthe145-countrylandarea(TableS23),almostallforutilityPVandCSP.WWShasnofootprintassociatedwithminingfuelstoruntheequipment,butbothWWSandBAUenergyinfrastructuresrequireone-timeminingforrawmaterialsfornewplusrepairedequipmentconstruction.13Theonlyspacingareaoverlandneededina100%WWSworldisbetweenonshorewindturbines.TableS23indicatesthatthespacingareaforonshorewindtopowertheU.S.isabout0.36%ofthe145-countrylandarea.Together,thenewlandfootprintandspacingareasfor100%WWSacrossallenergysectorsare0.53%ofU.S.landarea,andmostofthislandareaismulti-purposespacingland.NoteS9.CalculationofJobChangesAfinalmetricdiscussedrelevanttopolicydecision-makingisnetjobcreationandloss.TableS24providesestimatednumbersofpermanent,full-timeconstructionandoperationjobspermegawattofnewnameplatecapacityorkilometerofnewtransmissionlineforseveralelectricity-generatingandstoragetechnologiesandfortransmissionanddistributionexpansion.Thetotalnumberofjobsproducedinaregionequalsthenewnameplatecapacityofeachelectricitygeneratororstoragedeviceorthenumberofkilometersofnewtransmission/distributionlinesmultipliedbytherespectivevalueinthetable.ThejobsperunitnameplatecapacityinthetablewerederivedfortheUnitedStatesprimarilyfromtheJobsandEconomicDevelopmentImpact(JEDI)models(NREL,2019).Thesemodelsestimatethenumberofconstructionandoperationjobsplusearningsduetobuildinganelectricpowergeneratorortransmissionline.Themodelstreatdirectjobs,indirectjobs,andinducedjobs.ValuesarethesameasinJacobsonetal.(2019),exceptthatnewvaluesforconstructingandoperatingheatpumpsfordistrictheatwereaddedandHVDCjobnumberswereupdated.Transmission/distributionjobnumberscamefromJacobsonetal.(2017).Directjobsarejobsforprojectdevelopment,onsiteconstruction,onsiteoperation,andonsitemaintenanceoftheelectricitygeneratingfacility.Indirectjobsarerevenueandsupplychainjobs.Theyincludejobsassociatedwithconstructionmaterialandcomponentsuppliers;analystsandattorneyswhoassessprojectfeasibilityandnegotiateagreements;banksfinancingtheproject;allequipmentmanufacturers;andmanufacturersofbladesandreplacementparts.Thenumberofindirectmanufacturingjobsisincludedinthenumberofconstructionjobs.Inducedjobsresultfromthereinvestmentandspendingofearningsfromdirectandindirectjobs.Theyincludejobsresultingfromincreasedbusinessatlocalrestaurants,hotels,andretailstores,andforchildcareproviders,forexample.Changesinjobsduetochangesinenergypricesarenotincluded.Energypricechangesmaytriggerchangesinfactorallocationsamongcapital,energyinput,andlaborthatresultinchangesinthenumberofjobs.SpecificoutputfromtheJEDImodelsforeachnewelectricpowergeneratorincludestemporaryconstructionjobs,permanentoperationjobs,andearnings,allperunitnameplatecapacity.Atemporaryconstructionjobisdefinedasafull-timeequivalentjobrequiredforbuildinginfrastructureforoneyear.Afull-timeequivalent(FTE)jobisajobthatprovides2,080hoursperyearofwork.Permanentoperationjobsarefull-timejobsthatlastaslongastheenergyfacilitylastsandthatareneededtomanage,operate,andmaintainanenergygenerationfacility.Ina100%WWSsystem,permanentjobsareeffectivelyindefinite14because,onceaplantisdecommissioned,anotheronemustbebuilttoreplaceit.Thenewplantrequiresadditionalconstructionandoperationjobs.Thenumberoftemporaryconstructionjobsisconvertedtoanumberofpermanentconstructionjobsasfollows.Onepermanentconstructionjobisdefinedasthenumberofconsecutiveone-yearconstructionjobsforLyearstoreplace1/Lofthetotalnameplatecapacityofanenergydeviceeveryyear,alldividedbyLyears,whereListheaveragefacilitylife.Inotherwords,suppose40GWofnameplatecapacityofanenergytechnologymustbeinstalledover40years,whichisalsothelifetimeofthetechnology.Also,supposetheinstallationof1MWcreates40one-yearconstructionjobs(direct,indirect,andinducedjobs).Inthatcase,1GWofwindisinstalledeachyearand40,000one-yearconstructionjobsarerequiredeachyear.Thus,over40years,1.6millionone-yearjobsarerequired.Thisisequivalentto40,00040-yearjobs.Afterthetechnologylifeof40years,40,000more1-yearjobsareneededcontinuouslyeachyearinthefuture.Assuch,the40,000constructionjobsarepermanentjobs.JobslossesduetoatransitiontoWWSwillincludelossesinthemining,transport,processing,anduseoffossilfuels,biofuels,bioenergy,anduranium.JobswillalsobelostintheBAUelectricitygenerationindustryandinthemanufacturingofappliancesthatusecombustionfuels.Inaddition,whencomparingthenumberofjobsinaBAUversusWWSsystem,jobsarelostduetonotconstructingBAUelectricitygenerationplants,petroleumrefineries,andoilandgaspipelines.TableS25estimatesthenumberofpermanent,full-timejobscreatedandlostduetoatransitionineachcountryto100%WWSby2050.Thejobcreationaccountsfornewdirect,indirect,andinducedjobsintheelectricity,heat,cold,andhydrogengeneration,storage,andtransmission(includingHVDCtransmission)industries.Italsoaccountsforthebuildingofheatpumpstosupplydistrictheatingandcooling.Howeveritdoesnotaccountforchangesinjobsintheproductionofelectricappliances,vehicles,andmachinesorinincreasingbuildingenergyefficiency.ConstructionjobsarefornewWWSdevicesonly.Operationjobsarefornewandexistingdevices.ThejoblossesinTableS25areduetoeliminatingjobsformining,transporting,processing,andusingfossilfuels,biofuels,anduranium.Fossil-fueljobsduetonon-energyusesofpetroleum,suchaslubricants,asphalt,petrochemicalfeedstock,andpetroleumcoke,areretained.Fortransportationsectors,thejobslostarethoseduetotransportingfossilfuels(e.g.,throughtruck,train,barge,ship,orpipeline);thejobsnotlostarethosefortransportingothergoods.Thetabledoesnotaccountforjobslostinthemanufactureofcombustionappliances,includingautomobiles,ships,orindustrialmachines.TableS25indicatesthattransitioningto100%WWSmaycreateabout28.4millionmorelong-term,full-timejobsthanlostamong145countries.Netjobgainsoccurinallregions,butnotinallcountrieswithineachregion.OnlytheregionsofAfrica,Canada,andRussiaexperiencenetjoblosses.Locationswithfewernetjobgainsornetjoblossesareusuallylocationswithhighjoblossesinthefossilfuelindustry.However,somecountrieswith15highfossilfuelemployment(e.g.,SaudiArabia)havenetjobgainsbecauseofthelargebuildoutofWWSinfrastructurepercapitainthosecountries.16SupportingTablesTableS1.The24worldregionscomprisedof145countriestreatedinthisstudy.RegionCountry(ies)WithinEachRegionAfricaAlgeria,Angola,Benin,Botswana,Cameroon,Congo,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Côted'Ivoire,Egypt,EquatorialGuinea,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Gabon,Ghana,Kenya,Libya,Morocco,Mozambique,Namibia,Niger,Nigeria,Senegal,SouthAfrica,SouthSudan,Sudan,Tanzania,Togo,Tunisia,Zambia,ZimbabweAustraliaAustraliaCanadaCanadaCentralAmericaCostaRica,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Honduras,Mexico,Nicaragua,PanamaCentralAsiaKazakhstan,KyrgyzRepublic,Pakistan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,UzbekistanChinaChina,HongKong,DemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea,MongoliaCubaCubaEuropeAlbania,Austria,Belarus,Belgium,Bosnia-Herzegovina,Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus,CzechRepublic,Denmark,Estonia,Finland,France,Germany,Gibraltar,Greece,Hungary,Ireland,Italy,Kosovo,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Macedonia,Malta,MoldovaRepublic,Montenegro,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,Romania,Serbia,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Ukraine,UnitedKingdomHaitiDominicanRepublic,HaitiIcelandIcelandIndiaBangladesh,India,Nepal,SriLankaIsraelIsraelJamaicaJamaicaJapanJapanMauritiusMauritiusMideastArmenia,Azerbaijan,Bahrain,Iran,Iraq,Jordan,Kuwait,Lebanon,Oman,Qatar,SaudiArabia,SyrianArabRepublic,Turkey,UnitedArabEmirates,YemenNewZealandNewZealandPhilippinesPhilippinesRussiaGeorgia,RussiaSouthAmericaArgentina,Bolivia,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Curacao,Ecuador,Paraguay,Peru,Suriname,TrinidadandTobago,Uruguay,VenezuelaSoutheastAsiaBruneiDarussalam,Cambodia,Indonesia,LaoPDR,Malaysia,Myanmar,Singapore,Thailand,VietnamSouthKoreaKorea,RepublicofTaiwanTaiwanUnitedStatesUnitedStates17TableS2.SeveraloftheprocessestreatedintheLOADMATCHmodelsimulationsformatchingdemandwithsupply,storage,anddemandresponse.ParameterIstheprocesstreated?OnshoreandoffshorewindelectricityYesResidential,commercial/governmentrooftopPVelectricityYesUtilityPVelectricityYesCSPelectricityYesGeothermalelectricityYesTidalandwaveelectricityYesDirectsolarandgeothermalheatYesBatterystorageYesCSPstorageYesPumpedhydropowerstorageYesExistinghydropowerdamstorageYesAddedhydropowerturbinesNoHeatstorage(watertanks,underground)YesColdstorage(watertanks,ice)YesHydrogenstorageintanksYesHydrogenfuelcellvehiclesforlong-distance,heavytransportYesBattery-electricvehiclesforallothertransportYesDistrictheatingYesElectricheatpumpsforbuildingcoolingandair/waterheatingYesElectricfurnacesandheatpumpsforindustrialheatYesWind,PV,CSP,solarheat,wavesupplycalculatedinGATOR-GCMOMYesBuildingheatandcoldloadscalculatedinGATOR-GCMOMYesArraylossesduetowindturbinescompetingforkineticenergyYesLossesfromT&D,storage,shedding,downtimeYesPerfecttransmissioninterconnectionsYesCostsofallgeneration,allstorage,short-andlong-distanceT&DYesAvoidedcostofairpollutiondamageYesAvoidedcostofclimatedamageYesLandfootprintandspacingrequirementsYesChangesinjobnumbersYes18TableS3.FactorstomultiplyBAUend-useenergyconsumptionbyineachofsixenergysectorstoobtainequivalentWWSend-useenergyconsumption.ThefactorsaretheratioofBAUwork-output/energy-inputtoWWSwork-output/energy-input,byfuelandsector.ResidentialComm./Govt.IndustrialTransportationAg-for-fishMilitary-otherFuelElec:fuelratioExtraeffic-iencyElec:fuelratioExtraeffic-iencyElec:fuelratioExtraeffic-iencyElec:fuelratioExtraeffic-iencyElec:fuelratioExtraeffic-iencyElec:fuelratioExtraeffic-iencyOil0.2a0.840.2a0.950.78e0.98.21/.52f0.960.210.960.210.96Naturalgas0.2a0.810.2a10.78e0.98.21/.52g0.880.20.910.20.91Coal0.2a10.2a10.78e0.97----0.2--0.2--Electricity1b0.771b0.781b0.921b110.7810.78Heatforsale0.25c1.00.25c10.25c1----0.2510.251WWSheat1d11d11d1----1111Biofuels/waste0.2a0.870.2a10.78e10.21/h0.960.20.930.20.93Residentialloadsincludeelectricityandheatconsumedbyhouseholds,excludingtransportation.Comm./Govt.loadsincludeelectricityandheatconsumedbycommercialandpublicbuildings,excludingtransportation.Industrialloadsincludeenergyconsumedbyallindustries,includingiron,steel,andcement;chemicalsandpetrochemicals;non-ferrousmetals;non-metallicminerals;transportequipment;machinery;mining(excludingfuels,whicharetreatedundertransport);foodandtobacco;paper,pulp,andprint;woodandwoodproducts;construction;andtextileandleather.Transportationloadsincludeenergyconsumedduringanytypeoftransportbyroad,rail,domesticandinternationalaviationandnavigation,orbypipeline,andbyagriculturalandindustrialuseofhighways.Forpipelines,theenergyrequiredisforthesupportandoperationofthepipelines.Thetransportationcategoryexcludesfuelusedforagriculturalmachines,fuelforfishingvessels,andfueldeliveredtointernationalships,sincethoseareincludedundertheagriculture/forestry/fishingcategory.Agriculture-forestry-fishingloadsincludeenergyconsumedbyusersclassifiedasagriculture,hunting,forestry,orfishing.Foragricultureandforestry,itincludesconsumptionofenergyfortraction(excludingagriculturalhighwayuse),electricity,orheatinginthoseindustries.Forfishing,itincludesenergyforinland,coastal,anddeep-seafishing,includingfuelsdeliveredtoshipsofallflagsthathaverefueledinthecountry(includinginternationalfishing)andenergyusedbythefishingindustry.Military-otherloadsincludefuelusedbythemilitaryforallmobileconsumption(ships,aircraft,tanks,on-road,andnon-roadtransport)andstationaryconsumption(forwardoperatingbases,homebases),regardlessofwhetherthefuelisusedbythecountryoranothercountry.Elec:fuelratio(electricity-to-fuelratio)istheratiooftheenergyinputofend-useWWSelectricitytoenergyinputofBAUfuelneededforthesameworkoutput.Forexample,avalueof0.5meansthattheWWSdeviceconsumedhalftheend-useenergyasdidtheBAUdevicetoperformthesamework.ExtraefficiencyistheeffectoftheadditionalefficiencyandenergyreductionmeasuresintheWWSsystembeyondthoseintheBAUsystemandarebasedontheassumptionofmoderateeconomicgrowth.Forexample,inthecaseofnaturalgas,oil,andbiofuelsforresidentialairandwaterheating,itistheadditionalefficiencyduetobetterinsulationofpipesandweatherizinghomes.Forresidentialelectricity,itisduetomoreefficientlightbulbsandappliances.Intheindustrialsector,itisduetofasterimplementationofmoreenergyefficienttechnologiesthanintheBAUcase.Theimprovementsarecalculatedastheproductof(a)theratioofenergyuse,byfuelandenergysector,oftheEIA(2021)’shighefficiencyallscenarios(HEAS)caseandtheirreference(BAU)caseand(b)additionalestimatesofslightefficiencyimprovementsbeyondthoseintheHEAScase(Jacobsonetal.,2019).Oilincludesend-useenergyembodiedinoilproducts,includingrefinerygas,ethane,liquefiedpetroleumgas,motorgasoline(excludingbiofuels),aviationgasoline,gasoline-typejetfuel,kerosene-typejetfuel,otherkerosene,gasoil,dieseloil,fueloil,naphtha,whitespirit,lubricants,bitumen,paraffinwaxes,petroleumcoke,andotheroilproducts.Doesnotincludeoilusedtogenerateelectricity.Naturalgasincludesend-useenergyembodiedinnaturalgas.Doesnotincludenaturalgasusedtogenerateelectricity.Coalincludesend-useenergyembodiedinhardcoal,browncoal,anthracite,cokingcoal,otherbituminouscoal,sub-bituminouscoal,lignite,patentfuel,cokeovencoke,gascoke,coaltar,browncoalbriquettes,gasworksgas,cokeovengas,blastfurnacegas,otherrecoveredgases,peat,andpeatproducts.Doesnotincludecoalusedtogenerateelectricity.Electricityincludesend-useenergyembodiedinelectricityproducedbyanysource.Heatforsaleisend-useenergyembodiedinanyheatproducedforsale.Thisincludesmostlywasteheatfromthecombustionoffossilfuels,butitalsoincludessomeheatproducedbyelectricheatpumpsandboilers.WWSheatisend-useenergyintheheatproducedfromgeothermalheatreservoirsandsolarhotwaterheaters.19Biofuelsandwasteincludeend-useenergyforheatandtransportationfromsolidbiomass,liquidbiofuels,biogas,biogasoline,biodiesel,biojetkerosene,charcoal,industrialwaste,andmunicipalwaste.aTheratio0.2assumeselectricheatpumps(meancoefficientofperformance,COP,of4,witharangeof3.2to5.2)replaceoil,gas,coal,biofuel,andwastecombustionheaters(COP=0.803)forlowtemperatureairandwaterheatinginbuildings.TheratioiscalculatedbydividingtheCOPofBAUheatersbythatofheatpumps.ThemeanheatpumpCOPof4assumes60%ofheatpumpsareair-sourceatthelowendoftherange(COP=3.2)and40%aregroundsourceatthehighendoftherange(COP=5.2).TheCOPofcombustionheatersassumes98%haveaCOPof0.8and2%haveaCOPof0.95.bSinceelectricityisalreadyend-useenergy,thereisnoreductioninend-useenergy(onlyinprimaryenergy)fromusingWWStechnologiestoproduceelectricity.cSinceheatforsaleislow-temperatureheat,itwillbereplacedbyheatfromelectricheatpumps(meanCOP=4)givinganelectricity-to-fuelratioof0.25(=1/4).Heatforsaleisalsolow-temperatureheatintheindustrialsector,soitisreplacedinthatsectorwithheatpumpsaswell.dSinceWWSheatisalreadyfromWWSresources,thereisnoreductioninend-useorprimaryenergyuponatransitionto100%WWSforthissource.eTheratio0.78forindustrialheatprocessesassumesamixtureofelectricresistancefurnaces,arcfurnaces,inductionfurnaces,anddielectricheatersreplaceoil,gas,coal,biofuels,andwastecombustionheatersformediumandhigh-temperatureheatingprocesses(above100oC).Italsoassumesthatheatpumpsreplacethosefuelsforlow-temperatureheatingprocesses.Theelectricity-to-fuelratioforhigh-temperaturereplacementis0.88(=0.854/0.97),where0.854isthemeanCOPfornaturalgas,coal,oroilboilersand0.97isthatforelectricresistancefurnaces.TheCOPforfossilfuelboilersassumes80%haveaCOPof0.8and20%haveaCOPof107%,whichcanoccurbecausesomeindustrialboilersrecapturewasteheatandlatentheatofcondensation,andtheCOPisbasedonthelowerheatingvalue).Theelectricity-to-fuelratioforheatpumpsreplacinglow-temperatureindustrialheatprocessesis0.21(=0.854/4),where0.854wasjustdefinedand4isthemeanCOPofaheatpump.Itisassumedthat15%ofindustrialheatwillbewithheatpumps(electricity-to-fuelratioof0.21)and85%withhigh-temperaturereplacements(0.88),givingameanreplacementratioof0.78.Theindustrialsectorelectricity-to-fuelratioandextraefficiencymeasurefactorsareappliedonlyafterindustrialsectorBAUenergyusedforminingandprocessingfossilfuels,biofuels,bioenergy,anduranium(industry“ownuse”)hasbeenremovedfromeachfuelsector.TheamountofindustryownuseisgiveninIEA(2021)foreachcountry.fTheelectricity-to-fuelratioforabattery-electric(BE)vehicleis0.21;thatforahydrogenfuelcell(HFC)vehicleis0.52.TheratioforBEvehiclesiscalculatedassuming85%ofvehicleshavearatioof0.19and15%havearatioof0.31.The0.19ratioiscalculatedastheratioofthelowtank-to-wheelefficiencyofinternalcombustionengine(ICE)vehicles(0.17)tothehighplug-to-wheelefficiencyofaBEvehicle(0.89).The0.31valueiscalculatedasthehighefficiencyofanICEvehicle(0.2)dividedbythelowefficiencyofaBEvehicle(0.64).The0.52ratioforHFCvehiclesiscalculatedassuming85%ofvehicleshavearatioof0.46and15%havearatioof0.87.The0.46valueisthelowtank-to-wheelefficiencyofanICEvehicle(0.17)dividedbythehighefficiencyofanHFCvehicle(0.37).The0.87valueisthehighefficiencyofanICEvehicle(0.20)dividedbythelowefficiencyofanHFCvehicle(0.23).2%ofBAUenergyintheformofoilinthetransportationsectorisusedtotransportfossilfuels,biofuels,bioenergy,anduranium.ThatBAUenergyiseliminatedina100%WWSworld.Oftheremainingend-usefuelfromoilusedfortransportation,76%isreplacedwithelectricity(therestisreplacedwithelectrolytichydrogen).The76%ismultipliedbytheelectricity-to-fuelratioforBEvehiclestodeterminetheWWSelectricityusedforBEtransportationreplacingoiland24%ismultipliedbytheelectricity-to-fuelratioforHFCtransportationreplacingoil.gAbout80%ofnaturalgasenergyinthetransportationsectorisusedtotransportfossilfuels,biofuels,bioenergy,anduranium(e.g.,throughpipelinesorothermeans).ThatBAUenergyiseliminatedina100%WWSworld.Oftheremainder,95%iselectrifiedwithBEvehiclesand5%iselectrifiedwithHFCvehicles.hItisassumedthat100%ofbiofuelsandwastecurrentlyusedintransportationwillbeelectrifiedin2050thuswillhavetheelectricity-to-fuelratioofaBEvehicle.20TableS4.1strowofeachcountry:2018annually-averagedend-useload(GW)andpercentageoftheloadbysector.2ndrow:projected2050annually-averagedend-useBAUload(GW)andpercentageofthetotalloadbysector.3rdrow:estimated2050totalend-useload(GW)andpercentageoftotalloadbysectorif100%ofend-usedeliveredBAUloadin2050isinsteadprovidedbyWWS.Column(k)showsthepercentagereductionsintotal2050BAUloadduetoswitchingfromBAUtoWWS,includingtheeffectsof(h)energyusereductionduetothehigherworktoenergyratioofelectricityovercombustion,(i)eliminatingenergyusefortheupstreammining,transporting,and/orrefiningofcoal,oil,gas,biofuels,bioenergy,anduranium,and(j)policy-drivenincreasesinend-useefficiencybeyondthoseintheBAUcase.Column(l)istheratioofelectricityload(=allenergyload)inthe2050WWScasetotheelectricityloadinthe2050BAUcase.WhereasColumn(l)showsthatelectricityconsumptionincreasesintheWWSversusBAUcases,Column(k)showsthatallenergydecreases.CountryScenario(a)Totalannualaverageend-useload(GW)(b)Resi-den-tial%oftotalend-useload(c)Com-mercial%oftotalend-useload(d)Indus-try%oftotalend-useload(e)Trans-port%oftotalend-useload(f)Ag-for-fish%oftotalend-useload(g)Mil-itary-other%oftotalend-useload(h)%changeend-useloadwithWWSduetohigherwork:energyratio(i)%changeend-useloadwithWWSduetoelim-inatingup-stream(j)%changeend-useloadw/WWSduetoeffic-iencybeyondBAU(k)Over-all%changeinend-useloadwithWWS(l)WWS:BAUelec-tricityloadAlbaniaBAU20183.022.79.523.838.75.230BAU20504.42711.720.536.93.970WWS20502.134.615.927.220.22.160-39.3-4.5-9-52.81.38AlgeriaBAU201858.029.41.327.536.60.44.81BAU2050142.621.71.121.351.60.344.02WWS205043.323.52.137.531.30.614.92-44-18.2-7.5-69.72.36AngolaBAU201814.354.25.113.127.50.060.05BAU205024.544.54.314.836.20.060.05WWS20508.0412.526.929.60.040.03-55.1-4.2-8-67.42.51ArgentinaBAU201883.522.47.433.131.65.530BAU2050144.421.46.829.6384.180WWS205051.021.411.643.620.92.550-40.8-16.5-7.3-64.71.96ArmeniaBAU20183.031.631634.61.4213.44BAU20504.832.63.212.540.61.0210.2WWS20501.536.55.128.214.81.5413.96-39.7-18.5-10-68.11.41AustraliaBAU2018132.210.68.33939.52.650BAU2050208.810.411.841.234.52.150WWS205092.312.519.146.121.11.260-34.6-14.8-6.4-55.81.58AustriaBAU201837.722.38.333.234.31.870BAU205047.921.68.730.337.91.540WWS205020.618.511.643.625.31.120-39.1-11.2-6.8-571.68AzerbaijanBAU201812.634.76.923.3305.10BAU205019.137.49.321.5283.840WWS20506.53518.919.922.63.590-45.9-10.7-9.4-661.37BahrainBAU20189.411.57.454.426.60.070BAU205017.614.58.652.424.40.070WWS20509.320.312.754.612.30.10-24.4-15.6-7.1-47.11.32BangladeshBAU201842.848.22.130.914.63.720.42BAU205082.738.12.531.923.63.510.42WWS205035.826.63.857.89.21.850.75-39.7-8.1-8.8-56.71.96BelarusBAU201825.826.710.934.5225.920BAU205037.528.312.531.722.74.7021WWS205012.825.217.836.416.73.840-47.6-12.7-5.7-661.85BelgiumBAU201863.516.89.630.341.51.660.1BAU205073.316.710.630.940.21.550.09WWS205030.213.113.544.927.21.150.04-44.2-8-6.6-58.92.09BeninBAU20185.937.78.21.851.90.450BAU205011.0269.2262.50.480WWS20502.919.910.16.163.40.530-66.5-1.2-6.1-73.88.01BoliviaBAU201810.012.83.431.449.62.750BAU205018.38.93.226.659.42.040WWS20505.413.27.240.236.52.940-41.7-23.2-5.8-70.73.07Bosnia&Herz.BAU20186.2377.527.926.70.90BAU20509.038.69.125.6260.690WWS20503.737.313.731.417.10.470-41.7-9-8.4-59.11.33BotswanaBAU20182.832.54.817.243.51.440.58BAU20505.424.86.117.149.91.50.62WWS20502.22110.831.633.51.961.14-50.5-2.2-7.6-60.32.08BrazilBAU2018325.610.85.242.436.25.030.37BAU2050591.38.85.142.138.84.830.33WWS2050271.910.88.256.819.93.680.72-37-11.5-5.5-542.14BruneiBAU20182.77.77.656.526.701.48BAU20505.28.210.348.231.901.38WWS20501.618.627.124.828.600.94-35.8-29.5-5.1-70.31.49BulgariaBAU201814.82010.234.833.41.670BAU205022.423.11330.332.31.270WWS205010.027.11935.117.90.780-36.3-11.3-7.6-55.11.32CambodiaBAU20189.644.55.820.928.100.65BAU205017.334.5721.636.200.66WWS20506.922.711.241.82400.33-51.2-1.1-7.5-59.82.98CameroonBAU20189.964.515.25.912.90.071.44BAU205015.852.719.47.518.30.091.88WWS20504.439.616.222.117.50.254.3-63-0.9-8.2-72.12.41CanadaBAU2018320.914.91142.328.830.03BAU2050442.513.411.845.526.52.760.02WWS2050168.016.319.341.520.82.020.04-33.3-22.6-6.1-621.42ChileBAU201838.815.86.539.735.22.510.2BAU205067.514.710.338.933.42.370.22WWS205035.212.411.456.917.21.780.42-36-4.8-7-47.91.78ChinaBAU20182,798.816.44.457.116.42.143.62BAU20504,970.517.64.548.724.91.472.83WWS20502,317.016.45.66211.21.213.66-32.9-14.2-6.3-53.41.73ColombiaBAU201843.818.7532.337.40.755.9BAU205070.516.55.231.640.90.625.3WWS205028.218.48.444.224.80.573.58-42.4-11-6.5-602.05CongoBAU20182.757.413.85.523.300BAU20504.645.417.76.230.700WWS20501.437.422.712.327.600-60.1-2-8.3-70.42.29Congo,DRBAU201826.090.20.14.44.21.030BAU205035.884.40.36.76.91.640WWS20508.567.91227.81.280-65-0.6-10.6-76.23.70CostaRicaBAU20185.511.39.623.752.91.820.65BAU20508.611.610.62055.61.570.56WWS20504.016.816.233.431.71.460.41-44.7-1.5-7.2-53.31.95Côted'IvoireBAU201810.059.39.6920.81.330.01BAU205016.646.912.710.628.21.590.02WWS20505.235.216.323.123.81.570.04-58-2-8.5-68.42.45CroatiaBAU201810.030.410.824.7313.110BAU205014.831.91422.129.62.370WWS20505.930.92225.620.11.350-43.4-8-8.5-59.91.51CubaBAU201811.0153.355.614.12.569.41BAU205015.816.44.15216.62.358.55WWS20509.0185.463.88.61.163-31.8-4.9-6.2-42.92.4822CuracaoBAU20183.23.30.915.280.600BAU20505.22.4114.182.600WWS20501.54.12.81479.100-58.8-9.4-4.1-72.29.22CyprusBAU20182.815.211.211.958.82.060.8BAU20504.216.715.39.656.21.590.62WWS20501.925.224.51533.21.440.66-44.7-2-8.3-54.91.62CzechRepublicBAU201835.825.611.534.326.12.290.15BAU205043.925.612.433.826.11.970.13WWS205018.020.116.542.819.21.350.06-41.2-11.2-6.7-59.11.56DenmarkBAU201821.926.712.120.436.54.290.03BAU205026.127.813.521.233.63.860.03WWS20509.824.9202724.83.370.01-47.5-8.2-6.6-62.31.74DominicanRep.BAU20189.121.36.725.544.12.360BAU205014.016.97.625.4482.140WWS20506.516.811.541.527.62.560-43.6-2.9-7.3-53.91.93EcuadorBAU201818.412.77.317.951.32.598.15BAU205028.010.37.716.955.92.227.05WWS205010.41412.328.140.11.24.33-51.7-4.9-6.2-62.82.11EgyptBAU201883.222.45.539.630.12.30.1BAU2050186.819.5734.137.32.070.08WWS205087.223.211.645.417.72.080.04-33.7-11.9-7.8-53.31.72ElSalvadorBAU20183.720.95.723.548.601.29BAU20505.516.6721.353.801.26WWS20502.516.511.837.53202.2-46.2-1.4-7.5-55.21.98Equator.GuineaBAU20183.15.42.375.615.401.27BAU20506.64.32.575.416.701.2WWS20504.23.32.486.7700.54-29.3-3.8-3.4-36.510.26EritreaBAU20180.773.173.516.300BAU20501.161.7104.523.700WWS20500.349.615.112.622.700-61.7-0.8-9.6-72.12.33EstoniaBAU20184.825.813.424.332.83.420.3BAU20506.026.414.925.729.82.960.27WWS20502.123.624.526.922.22.240.6-45.1-12.8-6.7-64.61.32EthiopiaBAU201855.086.71.43.77.30.450.45BAU205076.979.52.25.211.80.630.63WWS205018.163.84.417.313.30.540.54-66-0.2-10.2-76.46.39FinlandBAU201836.21911.146.919.62.620.71BAU205042.6211344.318.82.350.65WWS205022.018.414.854.410.81.410.26-34.9-6.9-6.5-48.31.59FranceBAU2018204.623.91523.634.42.850.34BAU2050248.62516.823.132.32.520.3WWS2050111.324.221.830221.710.18-40.3-6.3-8.6-55.21.34GabonBAU20186.127.90.965.85.20.090.11BAU205011.8201.172.66.10.090.11WWS20507.391.187.12.70.10.06-31.1-4.1-3.5-38.610.41GeorgiaBAU20185.62912.119.834.50.643.9BAU20508.629.915.315.835.40.493.03WWS20503.623.123.129.518.10.445.62-40.1-7.7-10.2-57.91.47GermanyBAU2018301.723.812.83229.81.580.03BAU2050361.023.713.831.429.71.390.03WWS2050154.418.716.743.620.10.880.01-41.5-8.3-7.4-57.21.64GhanaBAU201810.740.44.817.435.81.610BAU205020.7326.118.341.91.630WWS20508.628.88.734.726.90.790-49.3-1.2-8-58.52.11GibraltarBAU20185.600.10.199.500.36BAU20506.000.10.199.400.37WWS20501.600.30.298.401.08-67.1-1.9-4.2-73.155.04GreeceBAU201826.8199.123.945.41.391.14BAU205032.519.512.125.640.61.251.01WWS205013.22421.525.326.71.910.5-40-12-7.5-59.41.43GuatemalaBAU201816.260.23.68.427.70023BAU205020.249.74.39.436.700WWS20506.136.78.622.132.500-59.6-1.8-8.6-69.92.80HaitiBAU20184.674.71.68.814.900BAU20505.166.41.510.321.900WWS20501.346.21.430.122.200-64.4-0.5-8.9-73.815.64HondurasBAU20186.040.99.41532.91.720.09BAU20508.233.110.214.840.11.660.08WWS20503.125.414.331.4280.870.04-53-0.8-8.1-61.82.25HongKongBAU201836.04.910.78.276.200.03BAU205082.64.711.66.67700.02WWS205030.58.523.112.855.500.03-54.6-2-6.5-63.12.29HungaryBAU201825.929.810.830263.290.19BAU205031.730.110.929.126.82.870.17WWS205012.622.613.641.719.62.330.12-43.6-9.2-7.6-60.41.75IcelandBAU20185.013.513.742.1237.430.27BAU20505.614.414.641.522.27.010.26WWS20503.29.113.462.311.33.880.11-34.6-2.1-5.9-42.61.22IndiaBAU2018797.9294.340.818.34.882.67BAU20501870.820.3440.5284.552.65WWS2050926.716.33.958.5145.142.11-37.4-6.4-6.7-50.52.34IndonesiaBAU2018215.421.53.738.834.71.130.18BAU2050423.916.14.637.240.91.050.16WWS2050193.914.67.453.823.60.620.07-42.2-6.1-6-54.22.80IranBAU2018253.827.95.835.726.34.090.22BAU2050444.0245.138.328.14.350.24WWS2050184.917.55.856.814.94.580.45-39.8-11.2-7.3-58.42.80IraqBAU201836.719.50.832.244.203.36BAU205062.117.9132.544.903.69WWS205024.026.1233.730.907.33-41.2-13.8-6.3-61.32.06IrelandBAU201816.721.711.622.7421.970BAU205018.921.213.322.640.91.880WWS20508.11916.738.224.71.390-45.3-4.2-7.7-57.11.77IsraelBAU201821.512.910.324.7461.584.52BAU205026.115.114.224.840.41.454.07WWS205013.123.321.22821.42.253.87-33.8-7.4-8.4-49.61.32ItalyBAU2018168.425.213.325.833.22.390.09BAU2050215.724.113.924.535.52.010.07WWS205083.918.720.333.925.41.610.04-42.2-11.1-7.8-61.11.52JamaicaBAU20183.75.47.738.747.70.50BAU20505.55.56.43552.60.440WWS20502.67.44.558.329.60.190-47.1-1-4.8-52.94.21JapanBAU2018370.815.217.436.129.51.660.19BAU2050355.415.919.134.429.21.240.17WWS2050174.516.9224218.30.610.07-34.6-8.5-7.7-50.91.42JordanBAU20189.121.37.313.950.23.43.87BAU205015.821.17.314.549.63.643.84WWS20507.130.610.521.629.36.31.71-43.4-3.3-8.2-54.91.56KazakhstanBAU201865.423.110.745.7143.363.06BAU205087.222.111.245.615.232.82WWS205033.219.110.155.711.21.991.85-42-15-5-61.91.94KenyaBAU201823.669.40.67.721.60.280.36BAU205037.157.11.29.831.10.350.45WWS205010.740.33.127.328.70.240.31-61.7-0.6-8.8-71.14.20Korea,DPRBAU20186.93.1052.18.9035.95BAU205013.31.9051.710.7035.7WWS20507.30.6071.35.2022.9-37.5-2.3-5.4-45.22.58Korea,Rep.ofBAU2018217.413.113.140.830.51.60.81BAU2050304.911.415.242.528.81.490.66WWS2050151.38.620.554.314.61.680.27-33.5-9.6-7.3-50.41.44KosovoBAU20182.037.510.12228.42.020BAU20503.041.711.817.927.11.56024WWS20501.442.81525.315.61.330-40-3.5-10.2-53.61.24KuwaitBAU201831.312.33.353.130.80.510BAU205057.416450.728.90.520WWS205024.028.27.445.118.30.970-30.4-21.8-5.9-58.11.54KyrgyzstanBAU20185.562.87.615.812.30.630.94BAU20507.362.78.314.613.10.560.82WWS20503.461.27.921.97.50.740.73-40.3-1.6-11-52.91.21LaoPDRBAU20184.240.312.113.334.20.060BAU20507.632.49.71443.90.070WWS20502.925.912.23130.80.140-53.4-0.8-7.8-62.12.06LatviaBAU20185.728.513.723.130.24.350.14BAU20508.129.516.620.130.23.50.11WWS20503.322.721.733.120.32.210.05-50.5-2.6-6.8-59.92.07LebanonBAU20187.318.85.313.955.306.71BAU205013.220.36.314.352.506.74WWS20506.527.41024.628.409.55-40.8-1-9.2-50.91.37LibyaBAU201814.413.41.525.355.313.45BAU205031.412.8223.557.40.973.35WWS205014.0183.536.634.31.75.87-45.8-3.2-6.5-55.52.55LithuaniaBAU20188.622.61028.836.91.660.11BAU205012.623.71226.736.21.330.08WWS20504.523.618.330.526.41.10.05-47.6-10.5-6-641.83LuxembourgBAU20185.811.310.915.461.90.520BAU20506.511.512.315.660.10.50WWS20502.58.916.930.643.30.360-52.7-2.3-6.6-61.62.15Macedonia,Nor.BAU20182.525.611.224.138.11.060BAU20503.831.113.619.335.30.80WWS20501.935.91727.618.70.720-37.4-2.6-9.7-49.71.29MalaysiaBAU201879.15.67.44540.21.710BAU2050169.05.48.740.344.11.460WWS205082.67.813.354.3240.70-37.5-7.8-5.8-51.12.03MaltaBAU20183.834.22.190.40.240.07BAU20505.54.25.91.7880.190.06WWS20501.89.512.94.3730.170.14-60.5-1.8-5.6-67.93.12MauritiusBAU20182.385.81273.80.230.12BAU20505.17.56.710.974.50.210.11WWS20502.012.612.423.251.40.270.22-53.5-1.5-6.3-61.42.26MexicoBAU2018189.112.72.938.4413.111.91BAU2050312.512.64.83839.53.062.1WWS2050136.814.26.449.823.42.493.75-38.5-11.6-6.1-56.21.83Moldova,Rep.BAU20184.343.38.920.123.73.550.44BAU20506.044.110.917.624.22.830.37WWS20502.334.41531.916.61.820.22-50.2-2.4-8.9-61.41.88MongoliaBAU20185.425.27.933.618.72.2112.3BAU20509.919.96.33523.52.2413.04WWS20504.016.93.953.115.41.359.29-52.5-3.4-3.7-59.62.38MontenegroBAU20181.032.411.519.535.90.650BAU20501.636.6151532.90.480WWS20500.838.42122.517.80.310-37-1.9-10.9-49.81.17MoroccoBAU201822.324.17.72040.97.270BAU205044.617.68.720.246.37.250WWS205019.418.79.437.528.75.760-48.3-0.9-7.2-56.42.04MozambiqueBAU20186.837.714.723.922.90.080.78BAU205012.7281626.528.40.090.88WWS20505.317.49.154.217.70.11.64-49.4-1.5-7-57.91.63MyanmarBAU201826.955.53.720.810.76.572.69BAU205044.745.94.223.116.77.172.95WWS205015.830.86.246.410.74.081.78-52.3-4.3-8-64.73.25NamibiaBAU20182.59.10.19.939.418.7922.74BAU20505.15.60.19.843.517.9623WWS20502.02.5020.529.99.337.73-53.4-0.8-7.1-61.21.9725NepalBAU201818.773.52.68.113.52.170.18BAU205028.563.82.610.220.52.60.23WWS20508.045.63.428.719.52.140.63-62.3-0.4-9.2-71.94.79NetherlandsBAU201888.414.410.230.838.95.690.1BAU2050104.51511.531.636.65.230.09WWS205040.912.216.340.826.24.560.05-44.3-10-6.6-60.92.06NewZealandBAU201820.79.57.733.544.74.30.28BAU205032.41010.636.9384.120.33WWS205017.012.614.549.619.43.480.49-35.5-5.2-6.9-47.61.78NicaraguaBAU20183.542.511.115.828.12.060.41BAU20504.734.411.716.434.92.050.45WWS20501.726.414.830.1261.840.98-52.8-3.4-8-64.22.07NigerBAU20184.278.41.4416.10.030BAU20506.368.525.224.20.040WWS20501.656.83.314.824.90.130-63.6-0.9-9.6-74.13.53NigeriaBAU2018193.272.62.38.716.300.12BAU2050294.061.33.31124.200.15WWS205074.146.94.42325.500.12-62.8-3.6-8.3-74.88.44NorwayBAU201834.016.111.549.5211.730.2BAU205047.316.812.748211.350.16WWS205020.326.920.33912.41.390.07-23.6-25.8-7.5-570.99OmanBAU201835.25.927.237.925.80.173.04BAU205059.9821.64126.10.193.11WWS205025.513.717.25116.30.341.46-41.3-11.6-4.5-57.42.86PakistanBAU2018124.346.63.327.121.61.070.33BAU2050233.136.83.528.3301.120.32WWS205097.625.54.851.416.12.060.15-45.1-5-8-58.13.00PanamaBAU201811.56.66.2978.10.150.01BAU205018.55.56.87.480.10.120.01WWS20506.58.614.116.2610.070.02-57.6-1.6-5.8-653.27ParaguayBAU20188.826.76.225.741.400BAU205012.922.47.82346.700WWS20505.920.513.339.22700-45.8-1.4-7.3-54.52.19PeruBAU201829.417.86.230.9441.010BAU205047.413628.851.30.880WWS205019.012.58.84928.51.220-42.1-11.4-6.3-59.92.09PhilippinesBAU201847.221.213.12539.41.240BAU205093.91712.523.445.91.180WWS205041.817.715.53827.41.350-45-3.1-7.4-55.51.79PolandBAU2018103.82510.229.530.35.040BAU2050126.722.911.629.331.84.360WWS205048.018.118.139.321.92.580-43.8-12.4-5.9-62.11.67PortugalBAU201825.21410.431.1422.430.14BAU205030.215.113.330.738.62.190.12WWS205013.616.220.438.223.61.570.05-39-8.8-7.1-54.91.59QatarBAU201844.15.72.270.120.901.07BAU205078.87.82.768.320.101.12WWS205030.914.85.36413.702.23-27.7-29.1-4.1-60.82.55RomaniaBAU201834.130.17.734.125.22.20.82BAU205048.431.99.231.325.11.790.65WWS205018.825.611.943.217.71.230.34-44.9-9-7.3-61.21.76RussiaBAU2018683.128.87.239.1231.860BAU2050779.227.57.336.627.11.390WWS2050251.025.911.345.216.31.370-42.3-19.2-6.3-67.81.63SaudiArabiaBAU2018188.49.27.745.7370.30.03BAU2050349.011.69.144.634.40.30.03WWS2050185.21613.452.917.30.440.04-32.4-8-6.6-46.92.17SenegalBAU20183.739.96.415370.361.3BAU20506.929.28.11644.80.411.47WWS20502.72113.331.430.50.812.92-51.4-1.4-8.1-60.92.26SerbiaBAU201812.5309.434.624.11.8026BAU205018.834.611.23022.81.370WWS20508.83813.733.913.40.930-36.4-8.5-8.4-53.31.25SingaporeBAU201895.412.613.982.400.04BAU2050216.612.911.284.800.03WWS205072.52.16.621.569.700.07-58.4-3.6-4.5-66.54.78SlovakRepublicBAU201815.317.811.445.224.41.160BAU205020.016.811.74228.60.940WWS20508.213.815.853.416.30.680-34.8-17.7-6.3-58.81.70SloveniaBAU20187.120828.441.71.370.45BAU20508.321.71027.239.31.250.41WWS20503.918.614.342.224.10.610.18-42-3.5-7.4-531.62SouthAfricaBAU2018117.615.16.948.126.22.551.21BAU2050234.212.98.445.229.72.561.21WWS2050105.014.810.453.618.31.950.92-35.7-13.9-5.5-55.21.65SouthSudanBAU20180.727.82.11947.23.920BAU20501.421.42.11755.54.050WWS20500.4252.615.352.44.570-55.2-10.9-5.7-71.82.89SpainBAU2018136.514.410.529.542.62.660.31BAU2050166.015.112.230.439.62.350.28WWS205068.817.818.435.326.51.670.28-39.6-12.1-6.8-58.61.57SriLankaBAU201814.829.84.62439.701.92BAU205028.622.1523.347.701.81WWS205011.917.17.943.630.400.87-50.4-1.4-6.4-58.23.07SudanBAU201817.243.513.711.329.41.510.56BAU205032.034.315.212.635.61.650.59WWS205011.431.212.726.726.62.550.33-55.9-1.1-7.3-64.32.59SurinameBAU20180.817.27.915.742.316.50.34BAU20501.216914.845.814.10.32WWS20500.522.61525.329.66.890.61-47.7-3.4-7.7-58.81.46SwedenBAU201845.921.711.935.928.61.890BAU205055.42414.132.627.71.630WWS205029.924.116.242.716.10.890-33.9-4.6-7.6-46.11.33SwitzerlandBAU201826.525.315.919.537.80.531.03BAU205032.124.917.518.437.90.480.92WWS205015.022.620.727.128.60.680.39-40.9-3.7-8.6-53.21.35SyriaBAU20188.521.34.328.639.13.593.15BAU205014.419.14.129.839.93.673.36WWS20506.423.74.941.923.81.654.1-41.6-6.4-7.2-55.31.73TaiwanBAU201880.49.68.453.426.71.030.81BAU2050165.39.59.34930.50.940.76WWS205090.711.611.759.415.70.770.82-30.5-7.7-6.9-45.11.40TajikistanBAU20183.927.67.729.114.96.5514.22BAU20505.833.911.724.114.35.2910.71WWS20503.536.215.131.86.46.893.59-28.1-1.1-10.9-40.11.13TanzaniaBAU201824.269.60.810.9115.052.61BAU205038.157.31.414.815.87.033.65WWS205011.637.73.538.113.84.512.4-60.5-0.3-8.7-69.55.90ThailandBAU2018122.310.15.344.236.63.150.7BAU2050257.58.16.138.943.52.720.65WWS2050118.49.39.556.522.41.231.09-38.4-10-5.7-542.43TogoBAU20182.866.510.14.618.900BAU20504.554.4135.926.700WWS20501.242.712.718.326.400-64.1-0.5-8.4-733.34Trinidad&Tob.BAU20189.651.273.82000BAU205015.451.37320.700WWS20505.093.170.817.100-30.3-34.4-3.1-67.83.02TunisiaBAU201811.624.9828.232.96.020BAU205030.015.16.821.851.64.620WWS205010.817.411.644.322.74.060-38.9-17.7-7.3-642.15TurkeyBAU2018144.618.911.535.5304.160BAU2050173.719.312.934.229.93.69027WWS205080.617.216.247.3163.240-37.8-8.6-7.2-53.61.84TurkmenistanBAU201828.01.83418.622.81.6221.06BAU205040.02.233.519.1271.3516.75WWS20508.76.630.820.820.74.8216.37-55.9-18.8-3.4-78.13.14UkraineBAU201871.131.1839.118.33.530BAU2050104.233.99.534.719.12.770WWS205042.128.712.144.912.22.140-41.5-10.2-7.9-59.61.58UnitedArabEm.BAU2018108.54.64.243.544.603.08BAU2050205.664.845.740.503.02WWS2050113.78.16.861.419.504.21-37-2.2-5.5-44.73.58UnitedKingdomBAU2018195.325.811.622.937.81.010.84BAU2050232.426.612.824.334.60.910.76WWS205087.82418.829.726.40.840.38-44.8-9.3-8.1-62.21.58UnitedStatesBAU20182,172.816.613.325.741.91.291.24BAU20502,397.714.914.930.137.41.381.32WWS2050979.018.319.43622.71.032.53-39.9-12.2-7-59.21.60UruguayBAU20186.8166.343.429.94.450BAU205010.015.47.539.533.640WWS20505.216.110.254.7172.120-37.3-4.1-6.4-47.82.19UzbekistanBAU201848.530.89.937.715.94.511.26BAU205073.231.19.935.4193.571.04WWS205020.529.811.239.29.69.520.72-42.1-22.9-7-721.95VenezuelaBAU201849.2106.352.231.30.110BAU205078.7106.850.732.40.10WWS205028.915.212.648.623.40.20-35.4-22.9-4.9-63.22.15VietnamBAU201880.816.54.754.622.12.060BAU2050159.115.23.952.826.11.970WWS205097.014.9369.311.41.370-31.5-1.2-6.4-392.05YemenBAU20183.027.73.519.3442.083.4BAU20504.822.43.121.247.62.263.42WWS20501.8273.132.733.31.192.8-49.7-5.2-7-61.92.59ZambiaBAU201813.060.41.229.87.30.520.8BAU205021.949.31.737.69.80.630.93WWS205010.3272.363.95.60.680.51-44.4-0.6-8-532.77ZimbabweBAU201813.973.91.2810.25.541.23BAU205021.563.22.110.614.87.691.57WWS20506.446.25.52813.16.011.18-59.7-0.8-9.7-70.22.57AllCountriesBAU201813,102.320.88.238.129.22.221.52BAU205020,358.819.1837.631.72.051.48WWS20508,880.617.510.550.517.91.841.84-38.4-11.3-6.64-56.41.852018BAUvaluesarefromIEA(2021).Thesevaluesareprojectedto2050usingU.S.EnergyInformationAdministration(EIA,2016)“referencescenario”projections,asdescribedinthetext.TheEIAprojectionsaccountforpolicies,populationgrowth,modesteconomicandenergygrowth,somemodestrenewableenergyadditions,andmodestenergyefficiencymeasuresandreducedenergyuseineachsector.Thetransportationloadincludes,amongotherloads,energyproducedineachcountryforaircraftandshipping.2050WWSvaluesareestimatedfrom2050BAUvaluesassumingelectrificationofend-usesandeffectsofadditionalenergy-efficiencymeasuresbeyondthoseintheBAUcase,asdescribedinthetext.28TableS5.2050annualaverageend-useelectricplusheatload(GW)bysectorandregionafterenergyinallsectorshasbeenconvertedtoWWS.Instantaneousloadscanbehigherorlowerthanannualaverageloads.ValuesforeachregionequalthesumoverallcountryvaluesfromTableS4ineachregion,whereTableS1definestheregions.RegionTotalResi-dentialCom-mercialTrans-portIndustrialAgricul-ture-fores-try-fishingMilitary-otherAfrica488.5139.037.1193.1105.67.895.77Australia92.311.517.642.519.41.170.00Canada168.027.432.469.735.03.390.06CentralAmerica160.724.611.874.341.33.545.22CentralAsia167.041.313.880.423.75.312.49China2,358.8383.0136.91446.7277.128.1386.96Cuba9.001.620.495.740.780.110.27Europe948.7199.7167.9355.0210.114.881.17Haiti7.801.710.763.092.080.170.00Iceland3.240.290.432.020.370.130.00India982.4166.639.1570.3138.048.4719.94Israel13.13.072.793.682.810.300.51Jamaica2.600.190.121.510.770.010.00Japan174.529.538.573.432.01.070.12Mauritius1.990.250.250.461.020.010.00Mideast708.1117.068.7375.8123.713.069.79NewZealand17.02.132.478.423.290.590.08Philippines41.87.416.4915.911.40.560.00Russia254.765.929.1114.541.53.450.21SouthAmerica467.961.343.2246.5100.612.823.56SoutheastAsia591.769.346.7310.4158.35.211.80SouthKorea151.313.031.182.222.02.550.40Taiwan90.710.510.653.914.20.690.75UnitedStates979.0179.4190.3352.8221.710.0624.73Total20508880.61555.7928.54482.21587.0163.52163.84SectorvaluesineachregionareobtainedbymultiplyingthetotalWWS2050valueforeachcountrybythepercentageofthetotalineachsector,giveninTableS4,andsummingtheresultoverallcountriesinaregion.29TableS6.AnnualaverageWWSall-sectorinflexibleandflexibleloads(GW)for2050byregion.“Totalload”isthesumof“inflexibleload”and“flexibleload.”“Flexibleload”isthesumof“coldloadsubjecttostorage,”“low-temperatureheatloadsubjecttostorage,”“loadforH2”production,compression,andstorage(accountingforleaksaswell),and“allotherloadssubjecttodemandresponse(DR).”Annualaverageloadsaredistributedintimeat30-sresolution,asdescribedinthetext.Instantaneousloads,eitherflexibleorinflexible,canbemuchhigherorlowerthanannualaverageloads.Alsoshownistheannualhydrogenmassneededineachregion,estimatedastheH2loadmultipliedby8,760h/yranddividedby59.01kWh/kg-H2.TableS1definestheregions.RegionTotalend-useload(GW)Inflex-ibleload(GW)Flex-ibleload(GW)Coldloadsubjecttostorage(GW)Low-temp-eratureheatloadsubjecttostorage(GW)LoadforH2(GW)Allotherloadssub-jecttoDRH2needed(Tg-H2/yr)Africa488.5232.6255.89.430.645.2170.66.71Australia92.347.145.10.52.98.033.81.18Canada168.084.683.40.69.710.962.21.62CentralAmerica160.772.887.91.75.317.963.02.66CentralAsia167.088.478.60.27.69.761.11.45China2,3591,0761,283.28.3170.784.11,00012.5Cuba9.004.394.610.250.400.293.660.04Europe948.7419.4529.311.1128.374.1315.911.00Haiti7.803.774.030.080.310.912.740.13Iceland3.241.182.060.040.550.141.330.02India982.4456.9525.511.542.156.4415.68.37Israel13.16.776.370.270.731.244.130.18Jamaica2.601.121.4800.030.331.120.05Japan174.595.379.30.37.111.260.61.67Mauritius1.990.661.330.070.080.450.730.07Mideast708.1339.5368.62.922.453.6289.77.95NewZealand17.08.808.180.010.401.446.320.21Philippines41.818.023.81.72.84.914.40.72Russia254.7103.4151.33.241.514.092.72.08SouthAmerica467.9219.2248.77.313.038.1190.35.65SoutheastAsia591.7256.4335.28.119.366.7241.19.91SouthKorea151.379.871.50.46.89.355.01.38Taiwan90.743.347.40.64.25.836.90.86UnitedStates979.0483.9495.07.453.390.9343.413.50Total8,880.64142.94,73895.6570.1605.63,467.89.930TableS7.2050rooftopareassuitableforsolarPVpanelsandthepotentialPVnameplatecapacityfittinginthesuitablerooftopareas,for145countries.Residentialvaluesincluderooftopsoverassociatedresidentialparkingareas.Commercial/governmentvaluesincludeinstitutionalbuildings(e.g.,schools)andindustrialbuildings.About12.3%and50.4%ofpotentialresidentialandcommercial/governmentrooftopareas,respectively,areproposedtobeinstalledby2050basedonthefinalnameplatecapacitiesforallcountriesfromTableS9.ThemethodologyfordeterminingsuitablerooftopareaisdescribedinJacobsonetal.(2017)andsummarizedinthefootnotebelow.CountryResiden-tialroof-topareasuitableforPVsin2050(km2)Potentialnameplatecapacityofsuitableareain2050(MWdc-peak)Com-mercial/govt.roof-topareasuitableforPVsin2050(km2)Potentialnameplatecapacityofsuitableareain2050(MWdc-peak)CountryResidentialrooftopareasuitableforPVsin2050(km2)Potentialnameplatecapacityofsuitableareain2050(MWdc-peak)Commer-cial/govt.rooftopareasuitableforPVsin2050(km2)Potentialnameplatecapacityofsuitableareain2050(MWdc-peak)Albania276,343194,457Kuwait296,825153,595Algeria722172,65741098,090Kyrgyzstan7918,874327,772Angola786188,04129470,253LaoPDR17040,5715012,073Argentina635151,995445106,496Latvia122,970225,206Armenia296,928174,072Lebanon235,485122,888Australia953227,927574137,246Libya21250,62412028,693Austria8119,3966515,613Lithuania215,046399,261Azerbaijan14634,9789121,679Luxembourg23862375Bahrain112,58841,017Macedonia,Nor.215,117143,273Bangladesh1,412337,61922453,511Malaysia966231,14937088,532Belarus378,7836315,031Malta24121175Belgium225,244194,545Mauritius256,01171,766Benin27565,8904410,639Mexico2,080497,5691,053251,800Bolivia27766,31711026,413Moldova163,70982,011Bosnia&Herz.419,825266,317Mongolia5212,5274911,822Botswana6515,572368,495Montenegro61,47951,139Brazil3,877927,2031,725412,470Morocco482115,33122052,718Brunei204,70781,851Mozambique726173,71111126,507Bulgaria5413,0075212,537Myanmar1,033247,09024157,733Cambodia35985,7866315,045Namibia4711,325245,631Cameroon513122,76111928,555Nepal438104,8456114,548Canada40496,685778185,972Netherlands337,9175513,036Chile25360,40616739,873NewZealand8520,3976515,491China16,0043,827,7779,8172,347,998Nicaragua11326,912348,235Taiwan30873,77613431,964Niger843201,5917217,248Colombia1,008241,20738291,371Nigeria5,2111,246,2281,422340,101Congo20950,0516916,496Norway4210,1478119,311Congo,DR2,162517,04026864,009Oman11226,6806314,990CostaRica7317,423307,236Pakistan2,756659,132761181,931Côted'Ivoire549131,27611828,309Panama11627,8144611,082Croatia4510,675348,246Paraguay14234,0036214,855Cuba14935,6937117,064Peru718171,66228768,628Curacao23941160Philippines2,230533,393577137,913Cyprus307,223102,377Poland20549,02635584,886CzechRepublic5813,8765914,070Portugal13933,3217016,657Denmark245,662419,775Qatar174,10881,899DominicanRep.10023,8064610,900Romania18243,5598821,058Ecuador456109,07714935,601Russia926221,4491,727413,101Egypt2,053490,921742177,350SaudiArabia1,142273,130634151,583ElSalvador5914,194225,146Senegal32978,7096315,154EquatorialGuinea4611,034184,393Serbia6214,8336114,699Eritrea15436,809163,882Singapore296,96461,540Estonia61,413112,657SlovakRepublic4210,152399,366Ethiopia3,872926,14829570,628Slovenia174,034194,444Finland307,0997417,640SouthAfrica701167,70436587,27131France535128,062466111,490SouthSudan498119,2015813,804Gabon9823,374419,925Spain554132,42425059,716Georgia409,475266,296SriLanka585139,82012229,109Germany454108,574493117,809Sudan1,584378,95536888,066Ghana535127,96113131,387Suriname245,771102,402Gibraltar01406Sweden4811,4118720,764Greece8420,1067217,291Switzerland8319,9487116,895Guatemala30973,9749322,318Syria31174,45514935,642Haiti9422,573153,620Tajikistan11627,860358,298Honduras16338,8904911,631Tanzania1,085259,62218744,778HongKong143,43351,215Thailand1,410337,161518123,983Hungary7217,2297217,134Togo19446,516215,089Iceland377761,499Trinidad&Tob.276,55492,113India20,0754,801,5285,5261,321,635Tunisia13432,0437317,506Indonesia6,2641,498,2142,015481,900Turkey948226,706656156,988Iran1,279305,786773184,810Turkmenistan12930,8758520,346Iraq682163,12938592,192Ukraine23255,60220448,719Ireland4811,4585412,963UnitedArabEm12329,5316515,503Israel7818,770368,556UnitedKingdom19245,93432477,400Italy703168,25825460,670UnitedStates8,0871,934,2685,5091,317,664Jamaica4310,326143,294Uruguay409,650255,934Japan757181,054425101,686Uzbekistan33981,16017541,924Jordan7417,612409,654Venezuela697166,68427365,343Kazakhstan419100,13838592,186Vietnam1,397334,07235384,501Kenya1,265302,45020749,611Yemen674161,29716840,098Korea,DPR14835,3344510,874Zambia602143,99415236,250Korea,Rep.of481114,93226563,459Zimbabwe34682,8654911,788Kosovo133,08481,909AllCountries116,22527,798,04949,07311,737,091Rooftopsconsideredincludethoseoverresidentialbuildings(excludingparking),residentialparking,commercial/government/institutionalbuildings(includingparking),andindustrialbuildings(includingparking).Residentialrooftopsandresidentialparkingrooftopareasarethencombinedintoresidentialrooftopvaluesreportedhereandcommercial/government/institutionalbuildingrooftopsandindustrialbuildingrooftopsarecombinedintocommercial/governmentvaluesreportedhere.Thetotalrooftopareaforeachtypeofbuildingistheproductofthefloorareapercapita,thepopulation,anoverhangmultiplier,andapitch(slope)multiplier,dividedbytheaveragenumberofstories(Jacobsonetal.,2017).Thefloorareapercapitadependsonthefractionofthecountry’spopulationthatisurbanversusruralandsomeotherfactors.Thepotentialrooftoporcanopyareaoverresidentialparkingspacesineachcountryiscomputedasafunctionofthenumberofpassengercarsperperson,thenumberofparkingspacespercar,theaverageparkingspaceareapercar,thepercentageofparkingspacesthatarecovered,andthepercentageofcoveredspaceswithexposedroof(Jacobsonetal.,2017).TherooftopareasuitableforPVisthefractionofroofareathatissouthfacing(intheNorthernHemisphere)orflatandnon-shaded.Thefractioniscalculatedasafunctionofthefollowingparametersineachcountry:averagebuildingheight(thegreatertheaverageheight,thegreaterthevariationinheight,andthemorelikelybuildingsshadeone-another);averagerooftoparea(thegreaterthearea,themorelikelysomesignificantportionoftheareaisunshaded);thepercentageofrooftopareathatisflat(theentireareaofaflatroofisoftensuitableforPV);andtheaverageslopeofpitchedroofs(thesteepertheroof,thelesssuitableitisforPVsifitispitchedawayfromthesun)(Jacobsonetal.,2017).ThepotentialnameplatecapacityofPVisthesuitableareamultipliedbyamaximumpossibleinstalledpowerdensityofPVin2050,estimateat239W/m2.32TableS8.Existingnameplatecapacity(GW)byWWSgeneratorineachregionandeachcountrywithineachregionin2020(exceptsolarheatdataarefrom2018andgeothermalheatdataarefrom2019).RegionorcountryOn-shorewindOff-shorewindResi-dentialroofPVCom/govroofPVUtilityPVCSPwithstorageGeo-ther-malelec-tricityHydroTidalWaveSolarheatGeothermalheatAfrica6.48301.7511.7515.2531.0760.831331.5160.000402.6540.1942Algeria0.01000.0850.0850.2540.02500.2690000.0777Angola000.0030.0030.008003.8360000Benin000.0010.0010.002000.0330000Botswana000.0010.0010.004000000.0090Cameroon000.0030.0030.008000.8220000Congo000.0000.0000.001000.2180000Congo,DR000.0040.0040.012002.760000Côted'Ivoire000.0030.0030.008000.8790000Egypt1.46500.3350.3351.0040.02102.8760000.044Equator.Guinea000.0000.0000.000000.1280000Eritrea0.00100.0040.0040.0130000000Ethiopia0.32400.0040.0040.01200.00734.0740000.0022Gabon000.0000.0000.001000.3310000Ghana000.0140.0140.042001.5840.000400.0020Kenya0.33800.0210.0210.06400.8240.8370000.0185Libya000.0010.0010.0030000000Morocco1.40500.0410.0410.1220.5301.305000.3160.005Mozambique000.0110.0110.033002.216000.0020Namibia0.00600.0290.0290.087000.347000.0320Niger000.0050.0050.0160000000Nigeria0.00300.0060.0060.017002.111000.0030.0007Senegal0.05000.0310.0310.093000.081000.0030SouthAfrica2.63601.0981.0983.2940.500.684001.5210.0023SouthSudan000.0000.0000.0010000000Sudan000.0040.0040.011001.9230000Tanzania000.0050.0050.016000.5960000Togo000.0010.0010.002000.0490000Tunisia0.24500.0190.0190.057000.066000.7240.0438Zambia000.0200.0200.059002.40000Zimbabwe000.0030.0030.010001.091000.0420Australia9.45703.5253.52510.5750.0020.00017.4500.0016.4510.0944Canada13.57700.6650.6651.9950081.82300.020.6371.8313CentralAmerica9.32701.3891.3894.1670.0141.613619.857003.0270.1655CostaRica0.39400.0110.0110.03400.2622.3310000.0018ElSalvador000.0860.0860.25700.20440.5750000.0034Guatemala0.10700.0200.0200.06100.04921.5590000.0023Honduras0.24100.1030.1030.30800.0390.8370000.0019Mexico8.12801.1261.1263.3780.0140.90612.612003.0270.1561Nicaragua0.18600.0030.0030.01000.1530.1570000Panama0.27000.0400.0400.119001.7860000CentralAsia1.77400.4920.4921.4760024.9560000.0029Kazakhstan0.48600.3440.3441.031002.730000KyrgyzRepublic000.0000.0000.000003.8920000Pakistan1.28700.1470.1470.442009.9290000Tajikistan00000006.3950000.0029Turkmenistan00000000.0050000Uzbekistan0.00100.0010.0010.002002.0050000ChinaRegion278.489.99650.79350.793152.3800.5210.0258343.700.005337.6240.63China278.329.99650.76750.767152.3000.5210.0258338.6700.005337.6240.61HongKong000.0000.0000.0000000000Korea,DPR0.00100.0080.0080.025005.010000Mongolia0.15600.0180.0180.054000.0230000.022733Cuba0.01200.0330.0330.098000.0680000Europe184.9025.01532.22732.22796.6802.32120.896166.30.00010.243139.16631.637Albania000.0030.0030.010002.39000.1810.0162Austria3.22400.4440.4441.33200.00099.001003.5831.0958Belarus0.12000.0320.0320.095000.0970000.01Belgium2.4592.2621.1291.1293.388000.12000.4830.3057Bosnia-Herzeg.0.13500.0070.0070.021002.0930000.036Bulgaria0.70300.2150.2150.644001.725000.10.1094Croatia0.80300.0170.0170.05100.011.848000.1610.0793Cyprus0.15800.0400.0400.120000000.5510.0103CzechRep.0.33700.4150.4151.244001.097000.7810.3245Denmark4.4781.7030.2600.2600.780000.009001.1750.7436Estonia0.32000.0260.0260.078000.008000.0120.063Finland2.5150.0710.0780.0780.235003.263000.0482.3France17.9470.0022.3452.3457.0340.0090.015919.67100.2141.9512.5976Germany55.1227.68910.75610.75632.2690.0020.044.6580013.8774.8063Gibraltar000.0000.0000.0000000.0001000Greece4.11300.6490.6491.948002.697003.2990.2595Hungary0.32900.3910.3911.17200.0030.056000.2291.0237Ireland4.3260.0250.0080.0080.024000.237000.2330.2009Italy10.85204.3194.31912.9560.00610.79714.908003.3051.425Kosovo0.03200.0020.0020.006000.0920000Latvia0.06600.0010.0010.004001.576000.0110.0016Lithuania0.54800.0300.0300.089000.116000.0130.1255Luxembourg0.16600.0390.0390.117000.034000.0460Macedonia0.03700.0190.0190.056000.674000.0680.0474Malta000.0370.0370.110000000.0510Moldova0.03400.0010.0010.003000.0760000Montenegro0.11800.0010.0010.004000.6580000Netherlands4.1742.6112.0432.0436.128000.03800.00210.461.7191Norway3.9770.0020.0300.0300.0910031.556000.0311.1502Poland6.61400.7870.7872.362000.605001.7910.756Portugal5.4610.0250.2050.2050.61500.02914.373000.770.0211Romania3.03000.2770.2770.8320.00010.00016.221000.1430.2451Serbia0.39700.0060.0060.017002.4840000.1153Slovakia0.00300.1190.1190.356001.505000.1210.2303Slovenia0.00300.0530.0530.160001.344000.1040.2656Spain27.2590.0052.3572.3577.0712.304014.29200.0053.0180.544Sweden9.8110.1920.2830.2830.8500016.379000.3746.68Switzerland0.08700.6240.6241.8710013.852001.1862.1968Ukraine1.40201.4661.4664.399004.6660001.607UnitedKingdom13.74010.4282.7132.7138.138001.87900.0221.010.5247HaitiRegion0.37000.0750.0750.224000.6760000DominicanRep.0.37000.0740.0740.222000.6160000Haiti000.0010.0010.002000.060000Iceland0.00200.0010.0010.00400.7562.0860002.373IndiaRegion38.88007.9157.91523.7440.2285049.08009.4570.3612Bangladesh0.00300.0600.0600.181000.230000India38.62507.7977.79723.3900.2285045.763009.4570.3576Nepal000.0120.0120.036001.2780000.0036SriLanka0.25200.0460.0460.138001.8090000Israel0.02700.2380.2380.7140.24800.007003.3510.0824Jamaica0.09900.0190.0190.056000.030000Japan4.3730.08513.40013.40040.20000.52522.379002.582.5705Mauritius0.01100.0170.0170.050000.061000.0930Mideast10.26202.4152.4157.2460.20111.61348.8490019.0613.7754Armenia0.00300.0190.0190.057001.2930000.0015Azerbaijan0.06600.0080.0080.024001.1310000Bahrain0.00100.0020.0020.0060000000Iran0.30300.0830.0830.2480011.1290000.0822Iraq000.0430.0430.130002.5130000Jordan0.51500.2720.2720.815000.012000.8820.153334Kuwait0.01200.0090.0090.0260.05000000Lebanon0.00300.0130.0130.039000.282000.5830Oman0.05000.0220.0220.0650000000Qatar000.0010.0010.0030000000SaudiArabia0.00300.0720.0720.2150.05000000.045Syria0.00100.0000.0000.001001.5050000Turkey9.30501.3331.3334.0000.0011.61330.9840017.5963.4884UAE000.4880.4881.4630.1001000000Yemen000.0510.0510.1520000000.005NewZealand0.78400.0280.0280.08500.9845.354000.1120.518Philippines0.44300.2100.2100.62901.92793.70000.0017RussiaRegion0.96600.2860.2860.85700.07451.97600.0020.0180.5022Georgia0.0210000.001003.4490000.0692Russia0.94500.2860.2860.85700.07448.52700.0020.0180.433SouthAmerica25.76902.5242.5247.5720.10.04175.630.0001011.5900.6207Argentina2.62400.1530.1530.4580010.366000.03110.2048Bolivia0.02700.0240.0240.072000.7350000.001Brazil17.75001.5761.5764.72900109.240.0001011.2580.3634Chile2.82900.6210.6211.8640.10.046.945000.2480.0226Colombia0.51000.0210.0210.0640011.9410000.02Curacao0.04700.0020.0020.0070000000Ecuador0.02100.0060.0060.017005.0760000.0052Paraguay000.0000.0000.000008.810000Peru0.37600.0660.0660.199005.3960000.003Suriname000.0010.0010.004000.190000Trinidad/Tobago000.0010.0010.0020000000Uruguay1.51400.0510.0510.154001.538000.0530Venezuela0.07100.0010.0010.0030015.3930000.0007SoutheastAsia2.2060.0994.3594.35913.0780.0052.131345.057000.110.154Brunei000.0000.0000.0010000000Cambodia000.0420.0420.125001.330000Indonesia0.15400.0340.0340.10302.1316.1210000.0023LaoPDR000.0040.0040.013007.3760000Malaysia000.2990.2990.896006.2750000.005Myanmar000.0170.0170.050003.3310000Singapore0.00100.0660.0660.1970000000Thailand1.53800.5970.5971.7900.0050.00033.513000.110.1285Vietnam0.5130.0993.3013.3019.9020017.1110000.0182SouthKorea1.5150.1362.9152.9158.745001.80600.2561.3241.4898Taiwan0.7260.1281.1631.1633.490002.092001.220.0001UnitedStates122.280.04214.76314.76344.2881.7582.58779.1450017.93520.713Allregions712.7235.50141.20141.20423.616.4714.011,1640.00060.53456.40107.72Onshoreandoffshorewind,solarPV,CSP,geothermalelectricity,andwaveelectricityarefromIRENA(2021).Duetoalackofdata,existingsolarPVisassumedtobesplit20%residentialrooftopPV,20%commercial/govt.rooftopPV,and60%utilityPV.HydropowervaluesarefromIHA(2021).Solarthermalvaluesarefor2018andfromWeissandSpork-Dur,2020).Tidalvaluesarefromvarioussources.Geothermalheatvaluesarefor2019andfromLundandToth(2020).35TableS9.Final2050total(existingplusnew)nameplatecapacity(GW)bygeneratorneededineachcountryandregiontosupply100%ofallloadpluslossescontinuouslywithWWSacrossallenergysectorsineachregion(asdeterminedbyLOADMATCH).Nameplatecapacityequalsthemaximumpossibleinstantaneousdischargerate.Thenameplatecapacityforeachgeneratorineachregionmultipliedbythemeancapacityfactorforthegeneratorintheregion(TableS11)givesthesimulation-averagedpoweroutputfromthegeneratorintheregion(TableS12).RegionorcountryOn-shorewindOff-shorewindRes-ident-ialroofPVCom/govroofPVUtil-ityPVCSPwithstor-ageGeo-ther-malelec-tricityHydroWaveTidalSolarther-malGeo-ther-malheatAfrica489.9154.1357.62641.51549.5728.173.6131.523.6040.8392.6540.194Algeria33.525.2630.7470.7959.612.4800.2690.3470.02000.078Angola19.733.913.287.162.530.3503.8360.0530.02700Benin5.771.723.074.253.510.2500.0330.0580.00500Botswana2.510.001.202.712.770.1200000.0090Cameroon12.600.582.525.504.820.2700.8220.0650.01100Congo4.541.260.972.151.13000.2180.0260.00600Congo,DR25.840.835.0711.1510.830.5402.7600.0930.00200Côted'Ivoire14.952.312.876.273.280.3100.8790.0810.01300Egypt62.5737.1651.41117.7459.334.5102.87600.03600.044Equator.Guinea1.344.397.573.4010.550.3500.1280.0830.00900Eritrea0.310.100.190.420.210.020000.00800Ethiopia19.720.009.7321.2021.961.001.714.0740000.002Gabon12.9610.417.708.038.94000.3310.1350.01800Ghana11.874.497.4315.958.470.6201.5840.1440.0130.0020Kenya17.373.514.8110.675.600.551.810.8370.1540.01300.019Libya12.878.1411.4723.9712.510.930000.02900Morocco14.277.3012.6929.2914.681.1101.3050.1470.0300.3160.005Mozambique7.971.432.204.892.530.2602.2160.0320.1250.0020Namibia2.890.701.232.781.420.1400.3470.0150.0270.0320Niger2.0901.282.822.920.12000000Nigeria45.09067.76147.71154.544.9802.1111.2350.0180.0030.001Senegal3.220.941.663.641.900.1700.0810.0420.0130.0030SouthAfrica88.8847.4986.5172.38100.016.0600.6840.6740.0391.5210.002SouthSudan0.3300.250.550.570.02000000Sudan9.603.827.4116.318.480.6601.92300.01800Tanzania17.065.317.8617.208.960.7000.5960.1940.33300Togo2.840.711.301.651.480.1000.0490.0240.00300Tunisia7.312.348.8014.4416.270.6300.06600.0220.7240.044Zambia20.3904.8510.6311.090.570.092.4000000Zimbabwe9.4903.785.908.670.3601.091000.0420Australia80.3019.2138.0465.16257.684.860.407.4500.5760.5006.4510.094Canada173.636.2914.01103.4441.7005.0081.820.9262.0000.6371.831CentralAmerica428.095.8352.50118.26258.828.2910.6919.862.4610.3373.0270.166CostaRica8.311.850.631.383.100.111.192.3310.0310.02400.002ElSalvador5.750.680.461.022.280.081.020.5750.0220.00900.003Guatemala16.871.891.152.535.630.202.261.5590.0540.01100.002Honduras14.291.531.012.224.950.170.590.8370.0460.01800.002Mexico346.083.4746.92106.05231.517.355.1812.612.1950.1003.0270.156Nicaragua7.110.910.491.072.390.080.450.1570.0220.01900Panama29.745.501.844.008.970.3101.7860.0920.15700CentralAsia193.221.23118.50161.50239.798.01024.961.6690.02100.003Kazakhstan50.77015.3839.8137.11002.7300000KyrgyzRepublic3.9100.932.322.520.1303.8920000Pakistan91.8521.2389.0986.92166.096.1909.9291.6690.02100Tajikistan1.4600.360.890.980.0506.3950000.003Turkmenistan14.3204.049.8810.460.5200.0050000Uzbekistan30.8808.6921.6722.631.1202.0050000ChinaRegion2,100735.41,016.989.794,296128.301.86343.708.7112.174337.640.63China2,082640.71,011.983.844,245128.191.86338.78.3752.000337.640.6136HongKong0.1493.030.930.4335.560000.3360.01600Korea,DPR10.161.732.182.327.580.1105.01000.15700Mongolia7.0801.243.207.96000.0230000.023Cuba17.614.824.7614.9419.150.4800.0680.0510.04700Europe1,174450.0337.79500.751,109.16.173.19166.34.8165.57039.1731.64Albania1.720.490.521.710.870.0802.39000.0100.1810.016Austria30.0708.0510.8426.80009.001003.5831.096Belarus17.2904.005.9433.7100.010.0970000.010Belgium10.3315.662.052.88108.62000.12000.0030.4830.306Bosnia-Herzeg.3.100.451.234.143.220.0502.09300.00200.036Bulgaria13.008.264.278.787.19001.72500.0100.1000.109Croatia3.370.003.775.5712.660.220.011.84800.0660.1610.079Cyprus0.661.491.101.631.860.09000.0280.0150.5510.010CzechRep.22.6206.249.6442.83001.097000.7810.325Denmark15.805.302.582.2212.58000.0090.1540.0731.1750.744Estonia3.321.730.670.842.84000.00800.0480.0120.063Finland44.1512.213.342.6326.64003.26300.0230.0482.300France125.544.9956.8576.3798.844.480.0419.670.8071.0001.9512.598Germany231.572.2149.1180.75164.3900.044.6581.1290.03513.884.806Gibraltar0.008.440.000.000.150000.0180.00100Greece22.134.093.7511.856.350.650.452.6970.1870.1093.2990.260Hungary8.3507.8210.5738.7400.380.056000.2291.024Ireland13.113.644.982.029.31000.2370.0510.0250.2330.201Italy126.535.5039.0940.5760.244.711.0014.911.2070.0753.3051.425Kosovo1.4200.280.940.920.020.800.0920000Latvia4.991.311.401.452.25001.57600.0130.0110.002Lithuania7.832.872.413.694.89000.11600.0040.0130.126Luxembourg0.7000.150.2412.43000.034000.0460.000Macedonia1.5301.012.443.41000.674000.0680.047Malta0.144.340.160.113.470.09000.0270.0080.0510Moldova3.7001.440.984.82000.0760000Montenegro0.830.200.230.760.370.0100.65800.00900Netherlands17.5340.563.143.9097.13000.03800.0120.4601.719Norway9.442.543.971.396.320031.560.0460.1580.0311.150Poland68.5418.8922.1759.4936.2300.110.60500.0121.7910.756Portugal18.913.474.2511.417.220.700.104.3730.0970.3260.7700.021Romania27.436.227.6712.2412.4600.106.22100.0080.1430.245Serbia5.3005.5010.2518.16002.484000.0000.115Slovakia11.9103.654.7811.97001.505000.1210.230Slovenia5.971.041.362.892.6800.101.34400.0030.1040.266Spain110.422.1028.5940.2047.495.070.0514.290.4671.0003.0180.544Sweden44.7012.085.314.1228.100016.3800.1000.3746.680Switzerland16.580.003.3011.3411.010013.85001.1862.197Ukraine58.0516.9023.1024.4236.19004.66600.03901.607UnitedKingdom65.87103.119.2624.75103.67001.8790.5982.3851.0100.525HaitiRegion5.312.742.269.3518.190.390.680.67600.05200DominicanRep.4.382.051.687.4813.530.310.680.61600.02400Haiti0.930.690.581.874.660.0800.06000.02900Iceland1.540.000.000.000.0000.892.0860.0100.03802.373IndiaRegion651.2108.286.511,361.2,158.90.580.2849.084.9450.8749.4570.361Bangladesh5.357.855.4530.08167.694.1400.2300.5930.15000India629.796.9779.101,305.1,93884.300.2845.764.1720.7009.4570.358Nepal5.7101.276.4540.471.1101.2780000.004SriLanka10.443.340.6919.5211.781.0401.8090.1790.02400Israel3.345.421.1514.3261.650.6400.00700.0093.3510.082Jamaica0.383.302.742.673.500.1600.03000.02000Japan10.81274.322.2714.99441.060.001.4622.382.4872.2002.5802.571Mauritius0.163.730.460.263.150.0400.0610.0130.0070.0930Mideast707.7139.9331.6356.131,674.36.861.7448.850.4360.28419.063.775Armenia2.2900.400.991.520.060.031.2930000.002Azerbaijan9.1803.258.0412.440.1301.1310000Bahrain0.212.901.110.5436.660.470000.0060037Iran241.144.01122.63112.38287.4810.030.0111.1300.03600.082Iraq39.391.0512.9830.7448.731.5202.51300.00300Jordan9.350.473.515.8912.940.3600.01200.0020.8820.153Kuwait1.349.003.171.9999.551.280000.01300Lebanon0.924.063.031.7516.830.3300.28200.0080.5830Oman23.269.2513.758.7251.411.34000.4040.03200Qatar0.8710.161.851.04129.931.570000.01400SaudiArabia186.929.09116.0389.55408.999.370000.03800.045Syria8.452.142.756.585.290.3201.50500.00700Turkey142.43.5831.2576.64107.784.221.6130.9800.07217.603.488UAE40.0323.7714.808.93451.205.760000.02400Yemen1.870.391.082.372.880.110.1000.0320.03000.005NewZealand21.471.685.116.9716.260.592.005.3540.0790.2000.1120.518Philippines23.9320.8015.5655.72129.271.645.733.7000.5760.50000.002RussiaRegion487.050.2455.4974.18143.9600.5051.9761.9360.3590.0180.502Georgia3.960.320.360.910.95003.44900.00900.069Russia483.049.9255.1273.26143.0000.5048.5271.9360.3500.0180.433SouthAmerica1,155101.0122.59260.13321.8423.125.35175.634.8091.19811.590.621Argentina66.499.1411.8128.5329.572.351.0110.36600.0570.0310.205Bolivia9.3401.082.385.280.211.260.7350000.001Brazil752.759.3471.33156.65174.1413.030109.243.5110.20011.260.363Chile32.797.8811.2318.3524.912.521.636.9450.1870.1000.2480.023Colombia84.527.077.9217.3919.431.44011.9410.3390.50000.020Curacao0.182.760.170.074.160.0800.00000.01000Ecuador30.721.242.134.718.770.420.045.0760.0560.22100.005Paraguay4.2300.430.962.090.0808.8100000Peru57.750.014.199.1320.360.831.415.3960.1200.03500.003Suriname1.010.140.150.320.360.0200.1900.0060.01100Trinidad/Tobago0.274.712.810.979.870.26000.0740.01000Uruguay8.100.851.182.772.900.2301.5380.0690.0150.0530Venezuela106.67.858.1817.9019.991.63015.390.4470.03900.001SoutheastAsia54.351,459496.06582.091,743.28.9213.7645.064.4150.6350.1100.154Brunei0.054.041.711.445.400.09000.0240.00600Cambodia1.576.964.7410.3614.870.4101.33000.01200Indonesia39.25239.6143.14316.00455.5011.159.796.1211.5100.26900.002LaoPDR0.0100.010.020.050.0007.3760000Malaysia2.84210.894.4767.49328.974.6606.2751.1630.05400.005Myanmar5.7510.908.4018.6726.520.9803.3310.2690.20000Singapore0.02684.43.440.9749.8503.85000.00700Thailand4.42145.2133.5799.14526.466.640.123.51300.0430.1100.129Vietnam0.43157.0106.6068.00335.684.99017.111.4490.04500.018SouthKorea2.14365.167.56162.82353.778.8901.80601.0001.3241.490Taiwan3.73104.934.0660.46119.82033.642.0920.9140.0271.220.0001UnitedStates1,645263.6239.15355.172,286.33.556.5279.156.8950.35017.9420.71Allregions9,4304,4213,4225,91216,244419.797.31,16450.319.2456.4107.738TableS10.LOADMATCHcapacityadjustmentfactors(CAFs),whichshowtheratioofthefinalnameplatecapacityofageneratortomeetloadcontinuously,afterrunningLOADMATCH,tothepre-LOADMATCHinitialnameplatecapacityestimatedtomeetloadintheannualaverage.Thus,aCAFlessthan1.0meansthattheLOADMATCH-stabilizedgridmeetingcontinuousdemandrequireslessthanthenameplatecapacityneededtomeetannualaveragedemand(whichisourinitial,pre-LOADMATCHnameplate-capacityassumption).Region(a)OnshorewindCAF(b)Off-shorewindCAF(c)Res.RoofPVCAF(d)Com./GovRoofPVCAF(e)UtilityPVCAF(f)CSPturbinefactor(g)SolarThermalCAFAfrica1.15111111Australia1.180.70.750.751.9511Canada1.150.90.20.70.501CentralAmerica1.71.50.70.7311CentralAsia1.60.90.850.85110China1.40.70.550.551.711Cuba1.91.311.43.510Europe1.410.680.9111Haiti0.80.90.513.510Iceland0.440.0300000India0.90.60.11.31.51.61Israel1.30.880.12.32.611Jamaica0.81.450.91110Japan0.220.20.21.701Mauritius1.62.50.20.21.20.41Mideast2.10.80.750.751.2511NewZealand1.490.40.60.61.650.71Philippines1.90.90.550.940.80Russia1.80.60.350.350.801SouthAmerica1.250.720.60.61.2811SoutheastAsia0.22112.7511SouthKorea0.120.93.41.211Taiwan0.51.80.72.51.2101UnitedStates1.70.650.450.452.411AllgeneratorsnotonthislisthaveaCAF=1.TableS9providesfinalnameplatecapacitiesaccountingfortheCAFs.TheinitialestimatednameplatecapacityofeachgeneratorineachcountryorregionequalsthefinalnameplatecapacitydividedbytheCAFofthegeneratorintheregionthatthecountryresidesorintheregionitself,respectively.TheCAFsarealsousedtoadjustthetime-dependentwindandsolarsuppliesprovidedfromGATOR-GCMOMtoLOADMATCH.SuchsuppliesarecalculatedbasedontheinitialnameplatecapacitiesfedintoLOADMATCH.ThesuppliesfromGATOR-GCMOMmustbemultipliedbytheCAFstobeconsistentwiththenewnameplatecapacitiesusedinLOADMATCH.TableS1liststhecountriesineachregion.39TableS11.Simulation-averaged2050-2052capacityfactors(percentageofnameplatecapacityproducedaselectricitybeforetransmission,distributionormaintenancelosses)byregioninthisstudy.Themeancapacityfactorsinthistableequalthesimulation-averagedpoweroutputsuppliedbyeachgeneratorineachregionfromTableS12dividedbythefinalnameplatecapacityofeachgeneratorineachregionfromTableS9.RegionOnshorewindOff-shorewindRooftopPVUtilityPVCSPwithstorageGeo-thermalelec-tricityHydropowerWaveTidalSolarthermalGeo-thermalheatAfrica0.3730.4430.2020.2170.760.8090.4370.1750.2230.1110.54Australia0.3370.4270.1970.2290.790.9040.4770.3320.2470.1090.54Canada0.5010.5870.1770.18--0.8620.5830.2970.2350.0970.54CentralAmerica0.2930.3060.1990.2210.820.840.4390.1260.2290.120.54CentralAsia0.5380.5080.20.2370.82--0.430.1210.216--0.54China0.4710.3720.20.2210.730.8960.4890.1390.2430.1090.54Cuba0.4230.3060.1660.1780.7--0.4490.3790.232----Europe0.4440.5130.1710.1760.670.8610.4670.2030.2370.0930.54Haiti0.3210.4280.2130.2320.790.8760.455--0.216----Iceland0.5730.625------0.9250.6110.3130.253--0.54India0.4540.4110.1970.2270.780.8570.4490.1330.2330.110.54Israel0.470.3650.2360.2590.89--0.484--0.2520.1320.54Jamaica0.3440.3880.2130.230.79--0.408--0.208----Japan0.3880.4490.1770.20--0.9090.4790.1410.2480.0970.54Mauritius0.4370.4080.2040.2220.75--0.4830.3170.2510.113--Mideast0.490.4920.2210.2510.860.7980.4290.1350.2330.1130.54NewZealand0.5060.5630.1770.1970.650.8850.4690.3520.2420.0970.54Philippines0.2410.2990.2060.2290.80.8580.4530.1330.234--0.54Russia0.4780.5790.1730.197--0.8630.4730.2560.2360.0950.54SouthAmerica0.1770.3620.1890.2070.720.8830.6120.150.2390.110.54SoutheastAsia0.1240.2170.1990.2140.730.8790.4460.1780.2260.1160.54SouthKorea0.3660.3520.1790.1930.63--0.485--0.2510.0970.54Taiwan0.2660.3450.1820.196--0.9270.4890.1440.2550.100.54UnitedStates0.3790.2940.1970.2070.860.8910.470.2940.2440.1040.54Average0.4010.3430.1960.2180.770.8870.4990.1820.2390.1080.54Capacityfactorsofoffshoreandonshorewindturbinesaccountforarraylosses(extractionofkineticenergybyturbines).Inallcases,capacityfactorsarebeforetransmission,distribution,maintenance,storage,andsheddinglosses,whicharesummarizedforeachregioninTablesS15andS16.T&DlossratesaregiveninTableS17.Thesymbol“--“indicatesnoinstallationofthetechnology.RooftopPVpanelsarefixed-tiltattheoptimaltiltangleofthecountrytheyresidein;utilityPVpanelsarehalffixedoptimaltiltandhalfsingle-axishorizontaltracking(JacobsonandJadhav,2018).40TableS12.LOADMATCH2050-2052simulation-averagedall-sectorprojectedWWSend-usepowersupplied(whichequalspowerconsumedpluspowerlostduetotransmission,distribution,andmaintenancelosses;storagelosses;andsheddinglosses),byregionandpercentageofsuchsupplymetbyeachgenerator.Simulation-averagepowersupply(GW)equalsthesimulationtotalenergysupply(GWh/yr)dividedbythenumberofhoursofsimulation.Thepercentagesforeachregionaddto100%.Multiplyeachpercentagebythe2050totalsupplytoobtaintheGWsupplybyeachgenerator.DividetheGWsupplyfromeachgeneratorbyitscapacityfactor(TableS11)toobtainthefinal2050nameplatecapacityofeachgeneratorneededtomeetthesupply(TableS9).The2050totalWWSsupplyisalsoobtainedfromColumn(f)ofTableS15.RegionAnnualaveragetotalWWSsupply(GW)On-shorewind(%)Off-shorewind(%)RoofPV(%)UtilityPV(%)CSPwithstor-age(%)Geothermalelec-tricity(%)Hydropower(%)Wave(%)Tidal(%)Solarther-malheat(%)Geo-ther-malheat(%)Africa611.129.9211.1832.9419.533.500.482.250.1030.0310.0480.017Australia123.321.966.6616.4847.773.100.292.890.1550.1000.5680.041Canada190.545.7011.1810.943.93--2.2625.050.1440.2470.0320.520CentralAmerica271.546.2610.7912.5221.102.503.313.210.1150.0290.1340.033CentralAsia245.142.444.4022.8723.162.67--4.380.0830.002--0.001China2,93633.689.3113.6332.353.200.065.720.0410.0181.2580.748Cuba16.046.579.2220.4221.302.12--0.190.1210.068----Europe1,20643.2819.1511.9016.200.890.236.450.0810.1100.3041.418Haiti10.815.7810.8922.9639.042.865.522.85--0.105----Iceland4.320.650.04------19.2529.790.0730.225--29.98India1,21124.423.6823.5540.495.860.021.820.0540.0170.0860.016Israel24.26.488.1615.1165.862.35--0.014--0.0091.8210.181Jamaica3.53.7336.4332.8422.933.60--0.35--0.120----Japan237.01.7752.002.7937.28--0.564.530.1480.2310.1060.586Mauritius2.52.7860.545.8327.771.26--1.170.1680.0640.419--Mideast1,04533.186.5814.5540.103.040.132.010.0060.0060.2050.195NewZealand22.249.004.279.6414.451.717.9811.310.1250.2180.0491.262Philippines64.38.979.6822.8245.932.047.652.610.1190.182--0.001Russia338.368.768.606.628.37--0.137.280.1460.0250.0010.080SouthAmerica511.139.947.1514.1813.033.250.9321.020.1410.0560.2500.066SoutheastAsia966.60.7032.8022.2038.692.181.252.080.0810.0150.0010.009SouthKorea246.40.3252.1516.7127.732.25--0.36--0.1020.0520.327Taiwan110.40.9032.7715.6121.31--28.240.930.1190.0060.1110.000UnitedStates1,37945.185.628.5034.402.080.422.700.1470.0060.1350.812Allregions11,77632.1012.8915.5630.022.730.734.930.0780.0390.4190.49441TableS13.Aggregate(amongallcountriesineachregion)maximuminstantaneouschargerates,maximuminstantaneousdischargerates,andmaximumenergystoragecapacitiesofthedifferenttypesofelectricitystorage(PHS,CSP-PCM,batteries,hydropower),coldstorage(CW-STES,ICE),andheatstorage(HW-STES,UTES)technologiestreatedhere,byregion.TableS14givesthemaximumnumberofhoursofstorageatthemaximumdischargerate.Theproductofthemaximumdischargerateandhoursofstoragegivesthemaximumenergystoragecapacity.Themaximumstoragecapacitiesareeitherofelectricityfortheelectricitystorageoptionsorofthermalenergyforthehotandcoldstorageoptions.AfricaAustraliaCanadaCentralAmericaStoragetechnologyMaxchargerateGWMaxdis-chargerateGWMaxstor-agecapac-ityTWhMaxchargerateGWMaxdis-chargerateGWMaxstor-agecapac-ityTWhMaxchargerateGWMaxdis-chargerateGWMaxstor-agecapac-ityTWhMaxchargerateGWMaxdis-chargerateGWMaxstor-agecapac-ityTWhPHS27.827.80.3910.710.70.15016.616.60.2336.006.000.084CSP-elec.28.228.2--4.864.86--00--8.298.29--CSP-PCM45.4--0.67.84--0.1100--013.36--0.187Batteries7507503.002502501.001001000.4001,1001,1004.40Hydropower13.431.5117.23.467.4530.336.2281.82317.38.4619.8674.1CW-STES3.773.770.0530.2080.2080.00290.2370.2370.00330.6680.6680.0094ICE5.665.660.0790.3120.3120.00440.3550.3550.00501.001.000.0140HW-STES143.9143.91.159.179.170.07324.1724.170.33827.6627.660.221UTES-heat2.85143.92103.66.559.170.8802.4724.175.8013.1927.660.664UTES-elec.143.9------9.17----24.17----27.66----CentralAsiaChinaRegionCubaEuropePHS12.012.00.168126.2126.21.7673.003.000.042208.1208.12.91CSP-elec.8.018.01--128.3128.3--0.4820.482--16.1716.17--CSP-PCM12.92--0.181206.9--2.8960.777--0.01126.08--0.365Batteries7307302.922,6002,60010.401001000.4001,2001,2004.80Hydropower10.4424.9691.4158.0343.71384.00.0300.0680.26075.36166.3660.2CW-STES0.0660.0660.000911.3011.300.15830.1010.1010.00144.444.440.0621ICE0.0980.0980.001416.9616.960.23740.1520.1520.00216.656.650.0931HW-STES27.0227.020.216553.9553.92.7701.671.670.013309.7309.71.858UTES-heat0.002927.0212.969378.2553.9358.90.001.672.00470.80309.774.332UTES-elec.27.02------553.9----1.67----309.7----HaitiIcelandIndiaIsraelPHS2.002.000.02800028.828.80.40311.111.10.155CSP-elec.0.3890.389--00--90.5890.58--0.6430.643--CSP-PCM0.63--0.0090--0146.1--2.0451.04--0.015Batteries25250.1000004,6004,60018.402002000.800Hydropower0.3000.6762.630.992.098.721.4449.08187.80.00330.00700.0289CW-STES0.0330.033.000460.0180.0180.000254.584.580.06410.1090.1090.0015ICE0.0490.049.000690.0270.027.000376.876.870.09620.1640.1640.0023HW-STES0001.051.050.0084326.1326.12.6082.952.950.024UTES-heat03.970.0950009.82326.170.433.432.951.063UTES-elec.3.97----0----326.1----8.86----JamaicaJapanMauritiusMideastPHS3.003.000.042176.7176.72.4740.040.00.56014.514.50.203CSP-elec.0.1600.160--00--0.0420.042--36.8636.86--CSP-PCM0.258--0.00360--00.068--0.001059.44--0.832Batteries660.02404804801.92330.01002,3002,3009.20Hydropower0.0120.030.104210.4522.3891.50.0290.0610.25120.4248.85178.9CW-STES0000.1330.1330.00190.0280.028.000391.151.150.0161ICE0000.2000.2000.00280.0420.042.000591.731.730.0242HW-STES0.920.920.007421.3121.310.1700.1010.1010.000872.4072.400.579UTES-heat00.920.06655.1521.312.5570.0930.1010.060422.8472.4017.375UTES-elec.0.28----21.31----0.101----217.2----NewZealandPhilippinesRussiaSouthAmericaPHS6.06.00.08422.422.40.31420.820.80.29219.519.50.273CSP-elec.0.590.59--1.641.64--00--23.1223.12--CSP-PCM0.94--0.0132.64--0.0370--037.28--0.52242Batteries1301300.5201901900.76015150.06010100.040Hydropower2.435.3521.31.633.7014.323.1651.98202.877.73175.63680.9CW-STES0.00430.0043.000060.680.680.00951.271.270.01782.912.910.0408ICE0.010.010.00011.021.020.01421.911.910.02674.374.370.0611HW-STES1.071.070.00926.5026.500.21299.2299.220.99261.6961.690.493UTES-heat0.631.070.2570.0026.509.5410.5299.2211.9112.2161.6944.415UTES-elec.1.07----5.30----99.22----61.69----SoutheastAsiaSouthKoreaTaiwanUnitedStatesPHS53.553.50.74996.596.51.3549.149.10.68796.096.01.34CSP-elec.28.9228.92--8.898.89--00--33.5533.55--CSP-PCM46.63--0.65314.33--0.2010--054.09--0.757Batteries9509503.801,3901,3905.561,3001,3005.202,7002,70010.80Hydropower19.3845.06169.70.851.817.4731.002.098.72436.2579.15317.5CW-STES3.233.230.04520.1420.1420.00200.230.230.00322.942.940.0412ICE4.844.840.06780.2130.2130.00300.350.350.00494.414.410.0618HW-STES129.6129.61.03718.1618.160.14520.4220.420.163167.3167.31.338UTES-heat0.264129.615.5492.8118.164.3601.2220.424.90038.65167.340.14UTES-elec.129.6----18.16----20.42----167.3----AllregionsPHS1,0501,05014.70CSP-elec.420420--CSP-PCM677--9.47Batteries21,12921,12984.51Hydropower5211,1644,567CW-STES38.338.30.536ICE57.457.40.803HW-STES2,0462,04614.43UTES-heat5622,049781.94UTES-elec.2,178----PHS=pumpedhydropowerstorage;PCM=Phase-changematerials;CSP=concentratedsolarpower;CW-STES=Chilled-watersensibleheatthermalenergystorage;ICE=icestorage;HW-STES=Hotwatersensibleheatthermalenergystorage;andUTES=Undergroundthermalenergystorage(eitherboreholes,waterpits,oraquifers).Thepeakenergystoragecapacityequalsthemaximumdischargeratemultipliedbythemaximumnumberofhoursofstorageatthemaximumdischargerate.TableS14givesmaximumstoragetimesatthemaximumdischargerate.Pumpedhydrostoragefor2050inacountryorregionisestimatedastheexisting(in2020)nameplatecapacityinthecountryorregionmultipliedbytheratioofexistingpluspendingcapacitytoexistingcapacityfortheU.S.(fromFERC,2021).Ifacountryhasnoexistingpumpedhydro,aminimumisimposedtoaccountfortheadditionofpumpedhydrobetween2021and2050.HeatcapturedinaworkingfluidbyaCSPsolarcollectorcanbeeitherusedimmediatelytoproduceelectricitybyevaporatingwaterandrunningitthroughasteamturbineconnectedtoagenerator,storedinaphase-changematerial,orboth.ThemaximumdirectCSPelectricityproductionrate(CSP-elec)equalsthemaximumelectricitydischargerate,whichequalsthenameplatecapacityofthegenerator.ThemaximumchargerateofCSPphase-changematerialstorage(CSP-PCM)issetto1.612multipliedbythemaximumelectricitydischargerate,whichallowsmoreenergytobecollectedthandischargeddirectlyaselectricity.Thus,sincethehigh-temperatureworkingfluidintheCSPplantcanbeusedtoproduceelectricityandchargestorageatthesametime,themaximumoverallelectricityproductionplusstoragechargerateofenergyis2.612multipliedbythemaximumdischargerate.Thisratioisalsotheratioofthemirrorsizewithstorageversuswithoutstorage.Thisratiocanbeupto3.2inexistingCSPplants(footnotetoTableS17).Themaximumenergystoragecapacityequalsthemaximumelectricitydischargeratemultipliedbythemaximumnumberofhoursofstorageatfulldischarge,setto22.6hours,or1.612multipliedbythe14hoursrequiredforCSPstoragetochargewhenchargingatitsmaximumrate.Hydropower’smaximumdischargeratein2050isits2020nameplatecapacity.Hydropowercanberechargedonlynaturallybyrainfallandrunoff,anditsannual-averagerechargerateapproximatelyequalsits2020annualenergyoutput(TWh/yr)dividedbythenumberofhoursperyear.Hydroisrechargedeachtimestepatthisrechargerate.Themaximumhydropowerenergystoragecapacityavailableinallreservoirsisalsoassumedtoequalhydro’s2020annualenergyoutput.Whereasthepresenttablegiveshydro’smaximumstoragecapacity,itsoutputfromstorageduringagiventimestepislimitedbythesmallestamongthreefactors:thecurrentenergyavailableinthereservoir,thepeakhydrodischargeratemultipliedbythetimestep,andtheenergyneededduringthetimesteptokeepthegridstable.TheCW-STESpeakdischargerateissetequalto40%oftheannualaveragecoldload(forairconditioningandrefrigeration)subjecttostorage,whichisgiveninTableS6foreachregion.TheICEstoragedischargerateissetto60%ofthesameannualaveragecoldloadsubjecttostorage.Thepeakchargerateissetequaltothepeakdischarge43rate.TheexceptionisHawaii,whereitis10%ofthedischargerate.Heatpumpsareusedtoproducebothcoldwaterandice.TableS18(footnotes)providesthecostoftheheatpumpsperkW-electricityconsumedtochargestorage.TheHW-STESpeakdischargerateissetequaltothemaximuminstantaneousheatloadsubjecttostorageduringany30-secondperiodofthetwo-yearsimulation.Thevalueshavebeenconvertedtoelectricityassumingtheheatneededforstorageisproducedbyheatpumps(withacoefficientofperformanceof4)runningonelectricity.TableS18(footnotes)providesthecostoftheheatpumpsperkW-electricityconsumedtochargestorage.Becausepeakdischargeratesarebasedonmaximumratherthantheannualaverageloads,theyarehigherthantheannual-averagelow-temperatureheatloadssubjecttostorageinTableS6.Thepeakchargerateissetequaltothepeakdischargerate.TheexceptionisHawaii,whereitis10%ofthedischargerate.UTESheatstoredinundergroundsoil(boreholestorage)orwater(waterpitoraquiferstorage)canbechargedwitheithersolarorgeothermalheatorexcesselectricity(assumingtheelectricityproducesheatwithanelectricheatpumpatacoefficientofperformanceof4).Themaximumchargerateofheat(convertedtoequivalentelectricity)toUTESstorage(UTES-heat)issettothenameplatecapacityofsolarthermalcollectorsdividedbythecoefficientofperformanceofaheatpump=4).Whennosolarthermalcollectorsareused,suchasinallsimulationshere,themaximumchargerateforUTES-heatiszero,andUTESischargedonlywithexcessgridelectricityrunningheatpumps.ThemaximumchargerateofUTESstorageusingexcessgridelectricity(UTES-elec.)issetequaltothemaximuminstantaneousheatloadsubjecttostorageduringany30-secondperiodofthetwo-yearsimulation.TheexceptionisHawaii,whereitissetto10%ofthisvalue.ThemaximumUTESheatdischargerateissetequaltothemaximuminstantaneousheatloadsubjecttostorage.Themaximumchargerate,dischargerate,andcapacityofUTESstorageareallinunitsofequivalentelectricitythatwouldgiveheatatacoefficientofperformanceof4.TableS18(footnotes)providesthecostoftheheatpumpsperkW-electricityconsumedtochargestoragewithelectricity.44TableS14.Maximumnumberofdaysofstorageatthemaximumdischargerate(giveninTableS13foreachregion)of(a)undergroundthermalenergystorage(UTES),(b)hotwaterthermalenergystorage(HW-STES),and(c)hydrogenstorage(H2).(d)Batteryfullcyclesperyear;(e)themaximumdischargerateduringanytimeintervalofthesimulation;and(f)thenumberofhoursofbatterystorageactuallyneededforthesimulation,whichequalstheratioofthestoragecapacityofbatteries(TWh)fromTableS13dividedbythemaximumdischargerateduringanytimeintervalofthesimulation(TW)fromColumn(e).ThemaximumdischargerateactuallyoccurringisalwayslessthanorequaltothemaximumdischargerateallowedinTableS13.(g)additionalHVDClinelengthneededineachregion;(h)additionalHVDClinecapacityneededineachregion;(i)fractionofnon-roofPVandnon-shedenergythatissubjecttoHVDCtransmissionineachregion;(j)themaximumnumberofhoursthatflexibleloadscouldbeshiftedforwardintimeduetodemandresponse,duringsensitivitytests,thatgavetheexactsameresultaswhenthebaselinecasemaximumofeighthourswasused;and(k)thefractionofbuildingheatingandcoolingloadthatwassubjecttodistrictheatingandcoolinginthebaselinecase.Region(a)UTES(days)(b)HW-STES(hours)(c)H2(days)(d)Batteryfullcyclesperyear(e)Maxbatterydischargerateoccurringduringsimulation(TW)(f)Ratioofmaxstoragecapacity(TWh)tomaxbatterydischargerate(TW)duringsimu-lation(hours)(g)HVDClinelength(km)(h)HVDClinecapacity(MW)(i)Fractionofnon-roofPV/non-shedenergysubjecttoHVDC(j)Maxhoursofdemandresponseneeded(k)Fractionofbuildingheating/coolingsubjecttodistrictheating/coolingAfrica30891730.3438.73,053194,6250.340.1Australia48101680.08212.32,85747,5800.340.1Canada10140710.0745.43,36796,7170.340.2CentralAmerica1810170.13333.22,26157,7180.260.1CentralAsia20810330.12623.12,60274,3890.380.01China27552451.5596.73,0681,284,7490.360.3Cuba50865300.0139.000020.2Europe10650860.6387.53,006538,5000.320.5Haiti10101260.00812.600020.05Iceland081----0.000000.92India9861130.93619.73,099460,4560.300.1Israel15825380.01649.200000.2Jamaica38151570.0039.500040Japan585660.13314.42,81374,6250.200.1Mauritius258351180.0025.000000.2Mideast1087740.51317.92,587374,4430.340.05NewZealand10810160.01828.22,9234,8330.1580.05Philippines15810870.05513.72,48212,6650.240.2Russia5105900.0154.02,875158,4050.320.5SouthAmerica308902900.014.03,496253,4040.340.1SoutheastAsia5851820.4318.82,337262,4890.340.1SouthKorea10818240.15136.800020.15Taiwan10840200.08462.100040.15UnitedStates10820650.70115.42,712579,9310.320.2Forallregions,themaximumnumberofhoursofCSPstorageatthemaximumdischargerateis22.6h;thoseforPHS,coldwaterstorage(CW-STES),andICEstorageare14h;andthatforbatterystorageis4h.ThemaximumnumberofhoursofstoragemultipliedbythemaximumdischargerateinTableS13equalsthemaximumstoragecapacityinTableS13.Nobattery-relatedvaluesareshownforIcelandsinceIcelandrequiresnobatterystorage(TableS13).TheproductofColumns(g),(h)and$400/MW-km(Jacobsonetal.,2017)givesthecapitalcostofHVDCtransmission.45TableS15.Budgetofsimulation-averagedend-usepowerdemandmet,energylost,WWSenergysupplied,andchangesinstorage,duringthethree-year(26,291.4875hour)simulationsforeachregionandsummedforallregions.AllunitsareGWaveragedoverthesimulationandarederivedfromthedatainTableS16bydividingvaluesfromthetableinunitsofTWhpersimulationbythenumberofhoursofsimulation.FigureS2showsthetimeseriesofmatchingdemandwithsupplyandchangesinstorageforeachregion.TD&Mlossesaretransmission,distribution,andmaintenancelosses.Windturbinearraylossesarealreadyaccountedforinthe“WWSsupplybeforelosses”numbers,”sincewindsupplyvaluescomefromGATOR-GCMOM,whichaccountsforsuchlosses.Region(a)Annualaverageend-useload(GW)(b)TD&Mlosses(GW)(c)Storagelosses(GW)(d)Sheddinglosses(GW)(e)End-useload+losses=a+b+c+d(GW)(f)WWSsupplybeforelosses(GW)(g)Changesinstorage(GW)(h)Supply+changesinstorage=f+g(GW)Africa488.4833.7519.1671.0612.4611.21.18612.4Australia92.268.002.7420.3123.3123.3-0.01123.3Canada167.9713.042.357.4190.7190.50.19190.7CentralAmerica160.6818.312.0690.4271.5271.5-0.04271.5CentralAsia166.9615.024.0259.2245.2245.10.08245.2China2,358.8194.5791.50300.52,945.32,936.78.592,945.3Cuba9.001.000.375.616.016.0-0.0116.0Europe948.7481.6633.90140.81,205.11,205.8-0.661,205.1Haiti7.800.660.411.910.810.80.0010.8Iceland3.190.320.000020.774.284.28-0.000064.28India982.4073.6640.79115.91,212.81,210.91.831,212.8Israel13.141.580.648.9124.2624.200.0624.26Jamaica2.600.190.060.73.53.50.003.5Japan174.5417.373.5741.5237.0237.00.00237.0Mauritius1.990.180.050.32.52.50.012.5Mideast708.0869.1917.89250.61,045.81,045.50.251,045.8NewZealand16.981.540.163.522.222.20.0022.2Philippines41.793.942.0016.864.564.30.1964.5Russia254.6624.039.6550.0338.4338.30.03338.4SouthAmerica467.9333.946.056.1514.1511.22.83514.1SoutheastAsia591.6759.6414.69300.9966.9966.9-0.07966.9SouthKorea151.2516.003.7075.4246.4246.4-0.03246.4Taiwan90.707.242.699.7110.4110.4-0.03110.4UnitedStates978.9696.3120.98282.41,378.71,379.0-0.321,378.7Allregions8,880.5771.2279.41,861.411,79311,778.414.111,79346TableS16.Budgetoftotalend-useenergydemandmet,energylost,WWSenergysupplied,andchangesinstorage,duringthethree-year(26,291.4875hour)simulationforeachregionandsummedoverallregions.AllunitsareTWhoverthesimulation.Dividebythenumberofhoursofsimulationtoobtainsimulation-averagedpowervalues,whichareprovidedinTableS15forkeyparameters.FigureS2showsthetimeseriesofmatchingdemandwithsupplyandchangesinstorageforeachregion.AfricaAustraliaCanadaCentralAmericaCentralAsiaA1.Totalendusedemand12,8432,4264,4164,2244,390Electricityforelectricityinflexibledemand6,2761,2692,3051,9382,337Electricityforelectricity,heat,coldstorage+DR5,3799471,8241,8161,797ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,188209287470256A2.Totalendusedemand12,8432,4264,4164,2244,390Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,+H211,9762,3724,2414,0704,201Low-Theatloadmetbyheatstorage80652174140188Coldloadmetbycoldstorage61.262.420.9114.451.14A3.Totalendusedemand12,8432,4264,4164,2244,390Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,DR10,6012,1273,8603,5703,929ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,188209287470256Electricity+heatforheatsubjecttostorage80676254140200Electricityforcoldloadsubjecttostorage248.0113.6615.5443.944.31B.Totallosses3,2578175992,9132,058Transmission,distribution,downtimelosses887210343481395LossesCSPstorage3.6710.000.400.74LossesPHSstorage0.230.04971.21630.01980.0425Lossesbatterystorage17355.99.4224.232.6LossesCW-STES+ICEstorage110.40.162.60.2LossesHW-STESstorage1065.52326.926.1LossesUTESstorage2109.4280.046.1Lossesfromshedding1,8665341942,3781,557Netend-usedemandpluslosses(A1+B)16,1003,2425,0157,1376,447C.TotalWWSsupplybeforeT&Dlosses16,0693,2435,0107,1386,445Onshore+offshorewindelectricity6,6039282,8494,0733,019Rooftop+utilityPV+CSPelectricity8,9952,1847452,5783,138Hydropowerelectricity362.393.51,254.8229.3282.5Waveelectricity16.565.027.248.185.32Geothermalelectricity76.78549.5047113.2666236.20560Tidalelectricity4.90873.248812.3872.0350.117Solarheat7.740618.42751.62659.55280Geothermalheat2.75991.341626.02542.35160.0416D.Nettakenfrom(+)oraddedto(-)storage31.0671-0.35165.0783-0.98742.1793CSPstorage0.13440.01640-0.0187-0.011PHSstorage-0.0389-0.03740.1745-0.0084-0.042Batterystorage0.7392-0.03020.3-0.44-0.73CW-STES+ICEstorage0.11890.0055-0.0004-0.0023-0.0006HW-STESstorage1.0362-0.01830.2538-0.02210.162UTESstorage26.4577-0.224.3505-0.06642.9158H2storage2.6197-0.06760-0.4295-0.115Energysuppliedplustakenfromstorage(C+D)16,1003,2425,0157,1376,447ChinaCubaEuropeHaitiIcelandA1.Totalendusedemand62,01523724,943.820584Electricityforelectricityinflexibledemand29,04311911,251.21003147Electricityforelectricity,heat,coldstorage+DR30,76010911,744.98149ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage2,21281,947.6244A2.Totalendusedemand62,01523724,943.820584Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,+H257,68522421,544.419669Low-Theatloadmetbyheatstorage4,232103,369.0815Coldloadmetbycoldstorage98.032.1830.410.590.00A3.Totalendusedemand62,01523724,943.820584Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,DR54,57121219,332.317166ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage2,21281,947.6244Electricity+heatforheatsubjecttostorage4,489113,372.3815Electricityforcoldloadsubjecttostorage743.006.67291.532.140.00B.Totallosses15,4221836,7417929Transmission,distribution,downtimelosses5,115262,146.95178LossesCSPstorage17.310.030.74310.050.00LossesPHSstorage11.40200.003850.00100.0000Lossesbatterystorage8464.021374.20.00LossesCW-STES+ICEstorage180.3950.10.00LossesHW-STESstorage3281.065360.00.00LossesUTESstorage1,1854.162066.30.00Lossesfromshedding7,9001473,702.350.620.2Netend-usedemandpluslosses(A1+B)77,43742031,684.4283.7112.5C.TotalWWSsupplybeforeT&Dlosses77,21142031,701.7284113Onshore+offshorewindelectricity33,18423419,787.57623Rooftop+utilityPV+CSPelectricity37,9711849,191.61840Hydropowerelectricity4,416.80.82,044.08.133.5Waveelectricity31.780.5125.740.000.08Geothermalelectricity43.8315072.1315.669721.6528Tidalelectricity13.8790.28734.7790.2980.253Solarheat971.8804096.33200Geothermalheat577.45660449.6054033.7242D.Nettakenfrom(+)oraddedto(-)storage225.909-0.2931-17.3316-0.0431-0.0015CSPstorage1.4127-0.0011-0.0365-0.00090PHSstorage-0.1767-0.0042-0.2913-0.00280Batterystorage5.4043-0.04-0.48-0.010CW-STES+ICEstorage-0.0263-0.0004-0.0155-0.0001-0.0003HW-STESstorage2.4927-0.0013-0.18580-0.0042UTESstorage216.5664-0.2004-7.4332-0.00910H2storage0.2359-0.0458-8.8893-0.02020.003Energysuppliedplustakenfromstorage(C+D)77,43742031,684.4283.7112.5IndiaIsraelJamaicaJapanMauritiusA1.Totalendusedemand25,829346684,58952Electricityforelectricityinflexibledemand12,361184292,52019Electricityforelectricity,heat,coldstorage+DR11,986129301,77422ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,48232929512A2.Totalendusedemand25,829346684,58952Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,+H224,830326674,41250Low-Theatloadmetbyheatstorage9521811752Coldloadmetbycoldstorage46.661.360.001.440.59A3.Totalendusedemand25,829346684,58952Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,DR22,939287594,09937ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,4823292951248Electricity+heatforheatsubjecttostorage1,1071911862Electricityforcoldloadsubjecttostorage301.047.170.008.771.84B.Totallosses6,057292241,64314Transmission,distribution,downtimelosses1,9374154575LossesCSPstorage12.880.080.020.000.00LossesPHSstorage0.00240.030.060.860.44Lossesbatterystorage693101420LossesCW-STES+ICEstorage8.430.250.000.260.11LossesHW-STESstorage123.8810200LossesUTESstorage234.6250300Lossesfromshedding3,048234171,0928Netend-usedemandpluslosses(A1+B)31,886638926,23266C.TotalWWSsupplybeforeT&Dlosses31,837636926,23266Onshore+offshorewindelectricity8,94393373,35142Rooftop+utilityPV+CSPelectricity22,254530552,49723Hydropowerelectricity578.9002821Waveelectricity17.260090Geothermalelectricity6.310034.89240Tidalelectricity5.360.0570.11114.3740.043Solarheat2711.587106.59450.2775Geothermalheat51.171036.53040D.Nettakenfrom(+)oraddedto(-)storage48.00231.59820.01450.04440.3312CSPstorage0.93540.0131-0.000400.0003PHSstorage-0.0201-0.0155-0.0042-0.2474-0.0497Batterystorage3.78550.2387-0.00240.20580.009CW-STES+ICEstorage0.0010.00140-0.00030.0009HW-STESstorage20.0213-0.00070.15340.0007UTESstorage40.91410.95690.0338-0.11030.0543H2storage-0.09160.3825-0.01160.04330.3156Energysuppliedplustakenfromstorage(C+D)31,886638926,23266MideastNewZealandPhilip-pinesRussiaSouthAmericaA1.Totalendusedemand18,6164461,0996,69512,302Electricityforelectricityinflexibledemand8,9842325002,8035,889Electricityforelectricity,heat,coldstorage+DR8,2241774713,5255,413ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,409381283681,001A2.Totalendusedemand18,6164461,0996,69512,302Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,+H218,0214361,0135,62211,914Low-Theatloadmetbyheatstorage57811731,055343Coldloadmetbycoldstorage17.570.0513.1717.6345.31A3.Totalendusedemand18,6164461,0996,69512,302Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,DR16,5433988535,15410,768ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,409381283681,001Electricity+heatforheatsubjecttostorage58911731,090343Electricityforcoldloadsubjecttostorage75.650.2844.5183.65191.38B.Totallosses8,8791375972,2011,213Transmission,distribution,downtimelosses1,81940104632892LossesCSPstorage4.470.030.200.002.37LossesPHSstorage0.020.020.096.2025.71Lossesbatterystorage2283222449LossesCW-STES+ICEstorage3.170.012.383.198.18LossesHW-STESstorage5511020543LossesUTESstorage1801183876Lossesfromshedding6,589924411,315162Netend-usedemandpluslosses(A1+B)27,4955831,6968,89613,515C.TotalWWSsupplybeforeT&Dlosses27,4895831,6918,89513,441Onshore+offshorewindelectricity10,9283113156,8816,331Rooftop+utilityPV+CSPelectricity15,8591501,1971,3334,092Hydropowerelectricity55266446472,825Waveelectricity2121319Geothermalelectricity36.55846.5203129.300111.3466124.2522Tidalelectricity1.7371.2713.0842.2347.538Solarheat56.45190.285200.044833.6144Geothermalheat53.65427.36160.02377.13718.8217D.Nettakenfrom(+)oraddedto(-)storage6.5028-0.01765.08740.76274.3895CSPstorage0.5889-0.00130.02200.3912PHSstorage-0.0203-0.0084-0.0157-0.0730.2459Batterystorage0.4223-0.01040.1757-0.0150.036CW-STES+ICEstorage-0.00290.00010.0215-0.01110.0917HW-STESstorage0.5213-0.00070.2014-0.2480.0764UTESstorage5.3121-0.02574.7206-0.4006-0.4364H2storage-0.31860.0288-0.03811.509773.9847Energysuppliedplustakenfromstorage(C+D)27,4955831,6968,89613,515SoutheastAsiaSouthKoreaTaiwanUnitedStatesAllregionsA1.Totalendusedemand15,5563,9762,38525,738233,482Electricityforelectricityinflexibledemand6,8532,1041,15112,863111,161Electricityforelectricity,heat,coldstorage+DR6,9481,6281,08210,485106,399ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,7552451522,39015,921A2.Totalendusedemand15,5563,9762,38525,738233,482Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,+H214,9663,7972,27424,307218,616Low-Theatloadmetbyheatstorage5081781101,40214,397Coldloadmetbycoldstorage81.741.671.2629.15469A3.Totalendusedemand15,5563,9762,38525,738233,482Electricityfordirectuse,electricitystorage,DR13,0813,5442,10721,753200,059ElectricityforH2directuse+H2storage1,7552451522,39015,921Electricity+heatforheatsubjecttostorage5081781101,40214,988Electricityforcoldloadsubjecttostorage212.299.3515.18193.362,513B.Totallosses9,8642,50151710,50976,544Transmission,distribution,downtimelosses1,5684211902,53220,274LossesCSPstorage3.110.700.002.2650LossesPHSstorage1.430.320.320.0854Lossesbatterystorage23145342352,835LossesCW-STES+ICEstorage14.770.300.235.2785LossesHW-STESstorage9225172071,852LossesUTESstorage4427191022,471Lossesfromshedding7,9101,9832567,42548,923Netend-usedemandpluslosses(A1+B)25,4206,4782,90136,248310,026C.TotalWWSsupplybeforeT&Dlosses25,4226,4792,90236,256309,656Onshore+offshorewindelectricity8,5163,39997718,418139,31850Rooftop+utilityPV+CSPelectricity16,0333,0261,07116,307149,600Hydropowerelectricity528232797915,278Waveelectricity210353241Geothermalelectricity318.07870819.6151152.8262,269Tidalelectricity3.7806.6080.1792.243121Solarheat0.33493.38583.213549.0651,298Geothermalheat2.188921.17190.0014294.35941,531D.Nettakenfrom(+)oraddedto(-)storage-1.896-0.7517-0.8032-8.3417370CSPstorage-0.03260.14570-0.07573.4819PHSstorage-0.0374-0.135-0.0344-0.1344-0.9768Batterystorage-0.19-0.3218-0.1916-0.91697.9382CW-STES+ICEstorage-0.00560-0.0001-0.010.1651HW-STESstorage-0.05180.13080.13871.0048.1379UTESstorage-0.7774-0.315-0.245-4.014288.0287H2storage-0.8009-0.2563-0.4708-4.194763.3732Energysuppliedplustakenfromstorage(C+D)25,4206,4782,90136,248310,026End-usedemandsinA1,A2,A3shouldbeidentical.Transmission/distribution/maintenancelossratesaregiveninTableS17.Round-tripstorageefficienciesaregiveninTableS18.Generatedelectricityisshedwhenitexceedsthesumofelectricitydemand,coldstoragecapacity,heatstoragecapacity,andH2storagecapacity.OnshoreandoffshorewindturbinesinGATOR-GCMOM,usedtocalculatewindpoweroutputforuseinLOADMATCH,areassumedtobeSenvion(formerlyRepower)5MWturbineswith126-mdiameterblades,100mhubheights,acut-inwindspeedof3.5m/s,andacut-outwindspeedof30m/s.RooftopPVpanelsinGATOR-GCMOMweremodeledasfixed-tiltpanelsattheoptimaltiltangleofthecountrytheyresidedin;utilityPVpanelsweremodeledashalffixedoptimaltiltandhalfsingle-axishorizontaltracking.Allpanelswereassumedtohaveanameplatecapacityof390Wandapanelareaof1.629668m2,whichgivesa2050panelefficiency(WattsofpoweroutputperWattofsolarradiationincidentonthepanel)of23.9%,whichisanincreasefromthe2015valueof20.1%.EachCSPplantbeforestorageisassumedtohavethemirrorandlandcharacteristicsoftheIvanpahsolarplant,whichhas646,457m2ofmirrorsand2.17km2oflandper100MWnameplatecapacityandaCSPefficiency(fractionofincidentsolarradiationthatisconvertedtoelectricity)of15.796%,calculatedastheproductofthereflectionefficiencyof55%andthesteamplantefficiencyof28.72%.TheefficiencyoftheCSPhotfluidcollection(energyinfluiddividedbyincidentradiation)is34%.51TableS17.Parametersfordeterminingcostsofenergyfromelectricityandheatgenerators.Capitalcostnewinstallations($million/MW)O&MCost($/kW/yr)Decom-missioningcost(%ofcapitalcost)Lifetime(years)TDMlosses(%ofenergygenerated)Onshorewind1.02(0.85-1.18)37.5(35-40)1.25(1.2-1.3)30(25-35)7.5(5-10)Offshorewind1.96(1.49-2.44)80(60-100)2(2-2)30(25-35)7.5(5-10)ResidentialPV1.93(1.76-1.10)27.5(25-30)0.75(0.5-1)44(41-47)1.5(1-2)Commercial/governmentPV1.29(0.93-1.66)16.5(13-20)0.75(0.5-1)46(43-49)1.5(1-2)Utility-scalePV0.75(0.67-0.84)19.5(16.5-22.5)0.75(0.5-1)48.5(45-52)7.5(5-10)CSPwithstoragea4.58(3.59-5.57)50(40-60)1.25(1-1.5)45(40-50)7.5(5-10)Geothermalelectricity4.63(3.97-5.29)45(36-54)2.5(2-3)45(40-50)7.5(5-10)Hydropower2.78(2.36-3.20)15.5(15-16)2.5(2-3)85(70-100)7.5(5-10)Wave4.10(2.82-5.39)175(100-250)2(2-2)45(40-50)7.5(5-10)Tidal3.65(2.93-4.38)125(50-200)2.5(2-3)45(40-50)7.5(5-10)Solarthermalheat1.17(1.06-1.29)50(40-60)1.25(1-1.5)35(30-40)3(2-4)Geothermalheat4.63(3.97-5.29)45(36-54)2(1-3)45(40-50)7.5(5-10)Capitalcosts(perMWofnameplatecapacity)areanaverageof2020and2050values.2050costsarederivedandsourcedinJacobsonandDelucchi(2021),whichusesthesamemethodologyasinJacobsonetal.(2019).Forcomparisonthecapitalcostsofonshorewindandutility-scalePVfromLazard(2021)for2021are$1.025-1.35million/MWand$0.8-0.95million/MW,respectively.O&M=Operationandmaintenance.TDM=transmission/distribution/maintenance.TDMlossesareapercentageofallenergyproducedbythegeneratorandareanaverageovershortandlong-distance(high-voltagedirectcurrent)lines.Short-distancetransmissioncostsare$0.0105(0.01-0.011)/kWh.Distributioncostsare$0.02375(0.023-0.0245)/kWh.Long-distancetransmissioncostsare$0.0089(0.0042-0.010)/kWh(inUSD2020)(Jacobsonetal.,2017,butbroughtuptoUSD2020),whichassumes1,500to2,000kmHVDClines,acapacityfactorusageofthelinesof~50%andacapitalcostof~$400(300-460)/MWtr-km.TableS14givesthetotalnewHVDClinelengthandcapacityneededandthefractionofallnon-rooftop-PVandnon-shedelectricitygeneratedthatissubjecttoHVDCtransmissionbyregion.Thediscountrateusedforgeneration,storage,transmission/distribution,andsocialcostsisasocialdiscountrateof2(1-3)%.aThecapitalcostofCSPwithstorageincludesthecostofextramirrorsandlandbutexcludescostsofphase-changematerialandstoragetanks,whicharegiveninTableS18.ThecostofCSPwithstoragedependsontheratiooftheCSPstoragemaximumchargerateplusdirectelectricityuserate(whichequalsthemaximumdischargerate)totheCSPmaximumdischargerate.Forthistable,forthepurposeofbenchmarkingthe“CSPwithstorage”cost,weusearatioof3.2:1.(Inotherwords,if3.2unitsofsunlightcomein,amaximumof2.2unitscangotostorageandamaximumof1unitcanbedischargeddirectlyaselectricityatthesametime.)Theratiofor“CSPnostorage”is1:1.Inouractualsimulationsandcostcalculations,weassumearatioof2.612:1forCSPwithstorage(footnotetoTableS13)andfindthecostforthisassumedratiobyinterpolatingbetweenthe“CSPwithstorage”benchmarkvalueandthe“CSPnostorage”valueinthistable.52TableS18.Presentvalueofmean2020to2050lifecyclecostsofnewstoragecapacityandround-tripefficienciesofthestoragetechnologiestreatedhere.StoragetechnologyPresent-valueoflifecyclecostofnewstorage($/kWh—electricityorequivalentelectricity,inthecaseofcoldandheatstorage)Round-tripcharge/store/dischargeefficiency(%)MiddleLowHighElectricityPHS14121680CSP-PCM20152355,28.72,99LIBatteries60309089.5ColdCW-STES120.44084.7ICE1004016082.5HeatHW-STES120.44083UTES1.60.4456PHS=pumpedhydropowerstorage;CSP-PCM=concentratedsolarpowerwithphasechangematerialforstorage;LIBatteries=lithiumionbatteries;CW-STES=coldwatersensible-heatthermalenergystorage;ICE=icestorage;HW-STES=hotwatersensible-heatthermalenergystorage;UTES=undergroundthermalenergystorage(modeledasborehole).Allvaluesreflectaveragesbetween2020and2050.FromJacobsonetal.(2019),exceptasfollows.PHSefficiencyistheratioofelectricitydeliveredtothesumofelectricitydeliveredandelectricityusedtopumpthewater.The2020-2050meanPHSround-tripefficiencyestimatedhere(80%)canbecomparedwiththeU.S.-averagevaluein2019of79%(EIA,2021a).TheCSP-PCMcostisforthePCMmaterialandstoragetanks.Inthemodel,onlytheheatcapturedbytheworkingfluidduetoreflectionofsunlightoffofCSPmirrorscanbestored.ThethreeCSP-PCMefficienciesareasfollows.55%ofincomingsunlightisreflectedtothecentraltower,whereitisabsorbedbytheworkingfluid(theremaining45%ofsunlightislosttoreflectionandabsorptionbytheCSPmirrors);withoutstorage,28.72%ofheatabsorbedbytheworkingfluidisconvertedtoelectricity(theremaining71.28%ofheatislost);andwithstorage,99%ofheatreceivedbytheworkingfluidthatgoesintostorageisrecoveredandavailabletothesteamturbineafterstorage(Mancini,2006)and,ofthat,28.72%isconvertedtoelectricity.Thus,theoverallefficiencyofCSPwithoutstorageis15.785%andthatwithstorageis15.638%.IrvineandRinaldo(2020)projectLIbatterycellcostsforTeslabatteriestobe~$25/kWhby2035.Weestimatethatthetotalsystemcostforaninstalledbatterypackwillbemorethantwicethis,~$60/kWh,by2035andtakethisasthemeanbetween2020and2050.ForLIbatterystorage,the2020-2050meanround-tripefficiencyistakenastheroundtripefficiencyofa2021TeslaPowerpackwithfourhoursofstorage(Tesla,2021).Batteryefficiencyistheratioofelectricitydeliveredtoelectricityputintothebattery.CW-STES,ICE,HW-STES,andUTEScostswereupdatedtoreflectaveragevaluesbetween2020and2050ratherthanvaluesin2016,whichtheywerepreviouslybasedon.UTEScostswerealsoupdatedwithdatafromDenmark(Jacobson,2020,p.65).Inaddition,thethermalenergystorage(CW-STES,ICE,HW-STEES,andUTES)costsin$/kW-thweremultipliedbythemeancoefficientofperformance(COP)ofheatpumpsusedhere(=4kWh-th/kWh/electricity)togivethecostsin$/kW-equivalentelectricity.Thereasonisthatmostallenergyinthisstudyiscarriedinunitsofelectricity,andheatpumpsareassumedtoprovideheatorcoldforthermalstoragemedia.Thus,storagecapacitiesarelimitedtotheelectricityneededtoproducealargeramountofheatorcold.Sincethestoragesizeforheatorcoalasequivalentelectricityissmallerthanthestoragesizeoftheheatorcolditself,thestoragecostperunitequivalentelectricitymustbeproportionatelylarger(byafactorofCOP)forcoststobecalculatedconsistently.Thecostofheatpumpsisassumedtobe$160(132-188)/kW-electricity,or$40(33-47)/kW-th,basedondataforlargeheatpumps(>500tons)projectedtobetween2020and2050.CW-STESandHW-STESefficienciesaretheratiosoftheenergyreturnedascoolingandheating,respectively,afterstorage,totheelectricityinputintostorage.TheUTESefficiencyisthefractionofheatedfluidenteringundergroundstoragethatisultimatelyreturnedduringtheyear(eithershortorlongterm)asairorwaterheatforabuilding.Storagecostsperunitenergygeneratedaretheproductofthemaximumenergystoragecapacity(TableS13)andthelifecycle-averagedcapitalcostofstorageperunitmaximumenergystoragecapacity(thistable),annualizedwiththesamediscountrateasforpowergenerators(TableS17),butwithaverage2020to2050storagelifetimesof17(12to22)yearsforbatteriesand32.5(25to40)yearsallotherstorage,alldividedbytheannualaverageend-useloadmet.Atleastonestationarystoragebattery(lithium-iron-phosphate)iswarrantiedupto15,000cycles(or15years)(Sonnen,2021).15,000cyclesisequivalenttoonecycleperday(365cyclesperyear)for41.1years,sothisbatterymaylastmuchlongerthanthe15yearwarranty.Assuch,the17-yearmeanbatterylifehereislikelyunderestimated.53TableS19.Summaryof2050WWSmeancapitalcostsofnewelectricityplusheatgenerators;electricity,heat,cold,andhydrogenstorage(includingheatpumpstosupplydistrictheatingandcooling),andall-distancetransmission/distribution($trillionin2020USD)andmeanlevelizedprivatecostsofenergy(LCOE)(USD¢/kWh-all-energyor¢/kWh-electricity-replacing-BAU-electricity)averagedovereachsimulationforeachregion.Alsoshownistheenergyconsumedperyearineachcaseandtheresultingaggregateannualenergycosttotheregion.ThelastrowineachcaseisthepercentincreaseinthetotalLCOEandthetotalannualenergycostifthebaselinebatterysystemcostisincreasedfromthemeanvalueinTablesS18($60/kWh-electricitystorage)tothehighvalue($90/kWh-electricitystorage),orafactorof1.5.AfricaAustraliaCanadaCentralAmericaCentralAsiaChinaCubaCapitalcostnewgeneratorsonly($tril)2.8710.4700.4561.1460.89510.1020.073Capcostgenerators-storage-H2-HVDC($tril)3.6580.6170.6451.5331.21413.3330.106ComponentsoftotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)Short-dist.transmission1.0501.0501.0501.0501.0501.0501.050Long-distancetransmission0.1420.1720.2260.0950.1350.1950.000Distribution2.3752.3752.3752.3752.3752.3752.375Electricitygeneration3.8403.5912.5045.4843.6093.2085.498Additionalhydroturbines0000000Geothermal+solarthermalheatgeneration0.0060.0720.0280.0210.0000.1820.000LIbatterystorage0.3570.6310.1391.5941.0180.2572.587CSP-PCM+PHSstorage0.0230.0280.0130.0200.0230.0210.058CW-STES+ICEstorage0.0030.0010.0010.0020.0000.0020.004HW-STESstorage0.0180.0060.0160.0110.0100.0090.012UTESstorage0.2210.0100.0360.0040.0810.1590.232Heatpumpsforfillingdistrictheating/cooling0.0820.0280.0400.0480.0450.0650.052H2production/compression/storage0.2730.2670.1030.3450.1810.0840.373TotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)8.3918.2316.53011.0488.5277.60512.241LCOE(¢/kWh-replacingBAUelectricity)7.7847.9056.32010.6298.2027.28211.573GWannualavg.end-usedemand(TableS5)488.592.3168.0160.7167.02,358.89.0TWh/yend-usedemand(GWx8,760h/y)4,2798081,4711,4081,46320,66379Annualenergycost($billion/yr)359.166.596.1155.5124.71,571.59.6%riseinLCOE&annualcostif1.5xbatterycost2.133.831.067.215.971.6910.6EuropeHaitiIcelandIndiaIsraelJamaicaJapanCapitalcostnewgeneratorsonly($tril)3.9090.0450.0024.7760.0820.0190.888Capcostgenerators-storage-H2-HVDC($tril)5.9460.0560.00286.8680.1430.0231.151ComponentsoftotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)Short-dist.transmission1.0501.0501.0501.0501.0501.0501.050Long-distancetransmission0.1990.0000.0000.1690.0000.0000.140Distribution2.3752.3752.3752.3752.3752.3752.375Electricitygeneration3.4573.8061.7443.0884.0414.8694.318Additionalhydroturbines0000000Geothermal+solarthermalheatgeneration0.1160.0001.6660.0100.2690.0000.048LIbatterystorage0.2940.7460.0001.0903.5420.5380.640CSP-PCM+PHSstorage0.0260.0470.0000.0300.1190.1660.109CW-STES+ICEstorage0.0020.0020.0020.0020.0030.0000.000HW-STESstorage0.0150.0000.0210.0210.0140.0220.008UTESstorage0.0820.0130.0000.0750.0840.0270.015Heatpumpsforfillingdistrictheating/cooling0.0910.1420.0460.0920.1250.0640.034H2production/compression/storage0.7150.3600.0750.1430.5050.4920.151TotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)8.4218.5406.9798.14612.1289.6038.888LCOE(¢/kWh-replacingBAUelectricity)7.5038.0266.8377.80511.3998.9978.672GWannualavg.end-usedemand(TableS5)948.77.83.2982.413.12.6174.5TWh/yend-usedemand(GWx8,760h/y)8,31168288,606115231,529Annualenergycost($billion/yr)699.95.81.9701.014.02.2135.9%riseinLCOE&annualcostif1.5xbatterycost1.744.371.526.6914.62.803.60Mauri-tiusMideastNewZealandPhilip-pinesRussiaSouthAmericaSoutheastAsia54Capitalcostnewgeneratorsonly($tril)0.0113.4990.0640.2920.9132.3016.119Capcostgenerators-storage-H2-HVDC($tril)0.0234.6650.1070.3931.1943.5026.825ComponentsoftotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)Short-dist.transmission1.0501.0501.0501.0501.0501.0501.050Long-distancetransmission0.0000.1590.0970.0880.2080.2210.121Distribution2.3752.3752.3752.3752.3752.3752.375Electricitygeneration4.4453.3763.0524.6223.0124.1397.443Additionalhydroturbines0000000Geothermal+solarthermalheatgeneration0.0470.0390.0750.0000.0040.0280.001LIbatterystorage0.2930.7561.7821.0580.0140.0050.374CSP-PCM+PHSstorage2.5770.0180.0550.0780.0100.0200.026CW-STES+ICEstorage0.0050.0010.0000.0060.0020.0020.002HW-STESstorage0.0030.0060.0040.0400.0310.0080.014UTESstorage0.0320.0260.0160.2380.0490.0990.027Heatpumpsforfillingdistrictheating/cooling0.0140.0570.0180.1060.1080.0370.061H2production/compression/storage1.5580.2000.2630.3610.1291.2380.264TotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)12.3998.0628.78710.0226.9919.22111.758LCOE(¢/kWh-replacingBAUelectricity)10.7927.7618.4789.2666.6637.82211.378GWannualavg.end-usedemand(TableS5)2.0708.117.041.8254.7467.9591.7TWh/yend-usedemand(GWx8,760h/y)176,2031493662,2314,0995,183Annualenergycost($billion/yr)2.2500.113.136.7156.0378.0609.4%riseinLCOE&annualcostif1.5xbatterycost1.184.6910.145.280.100.031.59SouthKoreaTaiwanUnitedStatesAllregionsCapitalcostnewgeneratorsonly($tril)1.3510.5964.81645.696Capcostgenerators-storage-H2-HVDC($tril)1.7640.9866.71261.468ComponentsoftotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)Short-dist.transmission1.0501.0501.0501.050Long-distancetransmission0.0000.0000.1870.172Distribution2.3752.3752.3752.375Electricitygeneration6.5464.3383.7873.799Additionalhydroturbines0000Geothermal+solarthermalheatgeneration0.0310.0130.0660.079LIbatterystorage2.1393.3370.6420.554CSP-PCM+PHSstorage0.0950.0660.0200.027CW-STES+ICEstorage0.0000.0010.0010.002HW-STESstorage0.0080.0140.0110.013UTESstorage0.0300.0560.0430.092Heatpumpsforfillingdistrictheating/cooling0.0330.0630.0480.066H2production/compression/storage0.2660.4880.4290.310TotalLCOE(¢/kWh-all-energy)12.57311.8018.6578.538LCOE(¢/kWh-replacingBAUelectricity)12.23611.1808.1108.046GWannualavg.end-usedemand(TableS5)151.390.7979.08,880.6TWh/yend-usedemand(GWx8,760h/y)1,3257958,57677,794Annualenergycost($billion/yr)166.693.8742.46,641.9%riseinLCOE&annualcostif1.5xbatterycost8.5114.13.713.25LI=lithiumion;CSP=concentratedsolarpower;PCM=Phase-changematerials;PHS=pumpedhydropowerstorage;CW-STES=Chilled-watersensibleheatthermalenergystorage;ICE=icestorage;HW-STES=Hotwatersensibleheatthermalenergystorage;andUTES=Undergroundthermalenergystorage(eitherboreholes,waterpits,oraquifers).TheLCOEsarederivedfromcapitalcosts,annualO&M,andend-of-lifedecommissioningcoststhatvarybytechnology(TableS17)andthatareafunctionoflifetime(TableS17)andasocialdiscountrateforanintergenerationalprojectof2.0(1-3)%,alldividedbythetotalannualizedend-usedemandmet,giveninthepresenttable.Capitalcostsareanaveragebetween2020and2050,asaretheLCOEs.Capitalcostofgenerators-storage-H2-HVDC($trillion)isthecapitalcostofnewelectricityandheatgenerators;electricity,heat,cold,andhydrogenstorage;hydrogenelectrolyzersandcompressors;andlong-distance(HVDC)transmission.Sincethetotalend-useloadincludesheat,cold,hydrogen,andelectricityloads(allenergy),the“electricitygenerator”cost,forexample,isacostperunitallenergyratherthanperunitelectricityalone.The‘TotalLCOE’givestheoverallcostofenergy,andthe‘ElectricityLCOE’givesthecostofenergyfortheelectricityportionofloadreplacingBAUelectricityenduse.ItisthetotalLCOElessthecostsforUTESandHW-STESstorage,H2,andlesstheportionoflong-distancetransmissionassociatedwithH2.55Short-distancetransmissioncostsare$0.0105(0.01-0.011)/kWh.Distributioncostsare$0.02375(0.023-0.0245)/kWh.Long-distancetransmissioncostsare$0.0089(0.0042-0.010)/kWh(inUSD2020)(Jacobsonetal.,2017,butbroughtuptoUSD2020),whichassumes1,500to2,000kmHVDClines,acapacityfactorusageofthelinesof~50%andacapitalcostof~$400(300-460)/MWtr-km.TableS14givesthetotalHVDClinelengthandcapacityandthefractionofallnon-rooftop-PVandnon-shedelectricitygeneratedthatissubjecttoHVDCtransmissionbyregion.StoragecostsarederivedasdescribedinTableS18.H2costsarederivedasinNoteS38andNoteS43ofJacobsonetal.(2019).Thesecostsexcludeelectricitycosts,whichareincludedseparatelyinthepresenttable.56TableS20.2050regionalandcountryannual-averageend-use(a)BAUloadand(b)WWSload;(c)percentagedifferencebetweenWWSandBAUload;(d)presentvalueofthemeantotalcapitalcostfornewWWSelectricity,heat,cold,andhydrogengenerationandstorageandall-distancetransmissionanddistribution;meanlevelizedprivatecostsofall(e)BAUand(f)WWSenergy(¢/kWh-all-energy-sectors,averagedbetweentodayand2050);(g)meanWWSprivate(equalssocial)energycostperyear,(h)meanBAUprivateenergycostperyear,(i)meanBAUhealthcostperyear,(j)meanBAUclimatecostperyear,(k)BAUtotalsocialcostperyear;(l)percentagedifferencebetweenWWSandBAUprivateenergycost;and(m)percentagedifferencebetweenWWSandBAUsocialenergycost.Allcostsarein2020USD.H=8760hoursperyear.Regionorcountry(a)12050BAUAnnualaverageend-useload(GW)(b)12050WWSAnnualaverageend-useload(GW)(c)2050WWSminusBAUload=(b-a)/a(%)(d)2WWSmeantotalcapitalcost($tril2020)(e)3BAUmeanprivateenergycost(¢/kWh-allenergy)(f)4WWSmeanprivateenergycost(¢/kWh-allenergy)(g)5WWSmeanannualall-energyprivateandsocialcost=bfH($bil/y)(h)5BAUmeanannualall-energyprivatecost=aeH($bil/y)(i)6BAUmeanannualBAUhealthcost($bil/y)(j)7BAUmeanannualclimatecost($bil/y)(k)BAUmeanannualBAUtotalsocialcost=h+i+j($bil/y)(l)WWSminusBAUprivateenergycost=(g-h)/h(%)(m)WWSminusBAUsocialenergycost=(g-k)/k(%)Africa1,382488.5-64.73.65810.098.39359.11,2223,9821,782.66,987-70.6-94.9Algeria142.743.3-69.70.32210.098.3931.8126.174.7228.6429-74.8-92.6Angola24.58.0-67.40.06010.098.395.921.794.032.7148-72.9-96.0Benin11.02.9-73.80.02910.098.392.19.833.710.354-78.2-96.0Botswana5.42.2-60.30.01410.098.391.64.86.88.920-67.0-92.3Cameroon15.84.4-72.10.03810.098.393.214.068.912.896-76.8-96.6Congo4.61.4-70.40.01510.098.391.04.019.57.431-75.4-96.8Congo,DR35.88.5-76.20.07710.098.396.331.677.13.8112-80.2-94.4Côted'Ivoire16.65.2-68.40.04610.098.393.914.797.017.2129-73.7-97.0Egypt186.887.2-53.30.59010.098.3964.1165.1373.0323.3861-61.2-92.6Equat.Guinea6.64.2-36.50.04610.098.393.15.89.04.419-47.2-84.0Eritrea1.10.3-72.20.00210.098.390.21.010.90.913-76.9-98.3Ethiopia76.918.1-76.40.12410.098.3913.368.0243.523.1335-80.4-96.0Gabon11.87.3-38.60.07810.098.395.310.58.54.423-49.0-77.2Ghana20.78.6-58.50.07910.098.396.318.383.421.3123-65.5-94.9Kenya37.110.7-71.10.07610.098.397.932.846.725.1105-76.0-92.5Libya31.414.0-55.50.11810.098.3910.327.820.065.9114-63.0-91.0Morocco44.619.4-56.40.13510.098.3914.339.457.193.6190-63.8-92.5Mozambique12.75.3-57.90.03410.098.393.911.236.311.759-65.0-93.4Namibia5.12.0-61.30.01510.098.391.44.56.25.616-67.8-91.1Niger6.31.6-74.20.01410.098.391.25.563.13.072-78.5-98.3Nigeria294.074.1-74.80.63110.098.3954.5260.01,972127.02,358-79.1-97.7Senegal6.92.7-60.90.02010.098.392.06.128.612.447-67.5-95.8SouthAfrica234.2105.0-55.20.70810.098.3977.2207.1118.2626.4952-62.7-91.9SouthSudan1.40.4-71.90.00310.098.390.31.234.21.537-76.6-99.2Sudan32.011.4-64.30.08010.098.398.428.3215.327.0271-70.3-96.9Tanzania38.111.6-69.50.09610.098.398.633.773.616.9124-74.6-93.1Togo4.51.2-73.00.01310.098.390.94.018.13.626-77.5-96.5Tunisia30.010.8-64.00.08010.098.397.926.525.540.693-70.0-91.4Zambia21.910.3-53.00.07210.098.397.619.349.39.578-60.9-90.3Zimbabwe21.56.4-70.20.04310.098.394.719.018.713.851-75.2-90.9Australia208.892.3-55.80.61710.288.2366.5188.034.6399.5622-64.6-89.3Canada442.5168.0-62.00.6458.036.5396.1311.342.3518.3872-69.1-89.0CentralAmerica378.2160.7-57.51.53310.4911.05155.5347.6323.5588.91,260-55.3-87.7CostaRica8.64.0-53.40.03210.4911.053.97.96.68.923-50.9-83.4ElSalvador5.52.5-55.20.02110.4911.052.45.17.47.120-52.8-87.8Guatemala20.26.1-69.90.05610.4911.055.918.632.021.172-68.3-91.8Honduras8.23.1-61.80.03610.4911.053.07.510.710.328-59.8-89.4Mexico312.5136.8-56.21.29510.4911.05132.4287.1252.4524.11,064-53.9-87.6Nicaragua4.71.7-64.20.01910.4911.051.64.38.35.818-62.3-91.157Panama18.56.5-65.00.07410.4911.056.317.06.211.635-63.2-82.0CentralAsia446.5167.0-62.61.21410.308.53124.7402.71,011699.62,114-69.0-94.1Kazakhstan87.233.2-61.90.22210.308.5324.878.691.5235.7406-68.5-93.9KyrgyzRep.7.33.4-52.90.01810.308.532.66.616.010.133-61.0-92.1Pakistan233.197.6-58.10.76410.308.5372.9210.2795.7288.51,294-65.3-94.4Tajikistan5.83.5-40.10.01110.308.532.65.219.67.632-50.4-92.0Turkmenistan40.08.7-78.10.06210.308.536.536.020.276.9133-81.9-95.1Uzbekistan73.220.5-72.00.13810.308.5315.366.068.380.7215-76.8-92.9ChinaRegion5,076.32,358.8-53.513.3339.557.611,571.54,248.410,7578,495.723,501-63.0-93.3China4,970.52,317.0-53.413.0169.557.611,543.74,159.810,6028,338.223,100-62.9-93.3HongKong82.730.5-63.10.2559.557.6120.369.254.756.8181-70.6-88.7Korea,DPR13.37.3-45.20.0389.557.614.911.281.854.4147-56.4-96.7Mongolia9.94.0-59.60.0259.557.612.78.318.346.473-67.8-96.4Cuba15.89.0-42.90.10611.6412.249.616.137.530.984-40.0-88.6Europe2,287.7948.7-58.55.94610.018.42699.92,005.41,7722,8586,635-65.1-89.5Albania4.42.1-52.80.01110.018.421.53.914.34.823-60.3-93.3Austria47.920.6-57.00.11910.018.4215.242.020.353.3116-63.8-86.9Belarus37.512.8-66.00.08510.018.429.432.950.256.3139-71.4-93.3Belgium73.330.2-58.90.18210.018.4222.364.326.176.9167-65.4-86.7Bosnia-Herzeg.9.03.7-59.10.02210.018.422.77.929.128.565-65.6-95.9Bulgaria22.410.0-55.10.07410.018.427.419.638.236.895-62.2-92.2Croatia14.85.9-59.90.04110.018.424.413.021.516.351-66.3-91.4Cyprus4.21.9-54.90.01410.018.421.43.73.66.314-62.1-89.7CzechRep.43.918.0-59.10.11610.018.4213.338.532.077.8148-65.6-91.1Denmark26.19.8-62.30.05610.018.427.322.911.722.957-68.2-87.4Estonia6.02.1-64.60.01610.018.421.65.32.813.622-70.2-92.8Finland42.622.0-48.30.14310.018.4216.237.36.032.075-56.5-78.4France248.6111.3-55.20.73310.018.4282.1217.9115.0231.7565-62.3-85.5Germany361.0154.4-57.20.90610.018.42113.9316.5223.0517.41,057-64.0-89.2Gibraltar6.01.6-73.10.02010.018.421.25.20.20.56-77.3-80.2Greece32.513.2-59.40.08510.018.429.728.542.048.3119-65.8-91.8Hungary31.712.6-60.40.09310.018.429.327.837.837.5103-66.7-91.0Ireland18.98.1-57.10.05310.018.426.016.59.826.953-63.9-88.8Italy215.783.9-61.10.54510.018.4261.9189.1188.7244.1622-67.3-90.1Kosovo3.01.4-53.60.01110.018.421.02.61.77.212-61.0-91.1Latvia8.13.3-59.90.02110.018.422.47.110.07.124-66.2-90.1Lithuania12.64.5-64.00.03610.018.423.311.014.011.737-69.7-90.9Luxembourg6.52.5-61.60.01610.018.421.85.71.77.215-67.7-87.4Macedonia3.81.9-49.70.01310.018.421.43.411.07.622-57.6-93.5Malta5.61.8-68.00.01610.018.421.34.91.10.97-73.0-81.0Moldova6.02.3-61.40.01610.018.421.75.35.97.819-67.5-91.0Montenegro1.60.8-49.70.00510.018.420.61.43.93.79-57.7-93.5Netherlands104.540.9-60.90.24910.018.4230.291.643.8115.2251-67.1-88.0Norway47.320.3-57.00.06910.018.4215.041.47.735.384-63.8-82.2Poland126.748.0-62.10.34610.018.4235.4111.0131.4233.9476-68.1-92.6Portugal30.213.6-54.90.08210.018.4210.026.415.635.778-62.0-87.1Romania48.418.8-61.20.11610.018.4213.842.4141.866.8251-67.4-94.5Serbia18.88.8-53.30.06110.018.426.516.537.660.1114-60.7-94.3Slovakia20.08.2-58.80.05110.018.426.117.516.626.561-65.4-90.0Slovenia8.33.9-53.00.02510.018.422.97.35.211.324-60.4-87.9Spain166.068.8-58.60.42410.018.4250.7145.588.8190.9425-65.1-88.1Sweden55.429.9-46.10.15810.018.4222.048.611.633.093-54.7-76.3Switzerland32.115.0-53.20.07510.018.4211.128.113.929.071-60.6-84.4Ukraine104.242.1-59.60.27710.018.4231.191.3183.2166.9441-66.0-93.0UnitedKing.232.487.8-62.20.56710.018.4264.8203.7153.3268.5626-68.2-89.6HaitiRegion19.17.8-59.20.05610.908.545.818.336.230.785-68.0-93.1DominicanRep14.06.5-53.90.04410.908.544.813.420.327.161-63.9-92.1Haiti5.11.3-73.80.01210.908.541.04.915.93.624-79.5-95.9Iceland5.63.2-42.60.00287.516.981.93.70.42.97-47.5-72.2IndiaRegion2,010.5982.4-51.16.8689.888.15701.01,739.69,4723,756.514,968-59.7-95.3Bangladesh82.735.8-56.70.2949.888.1525.671.5523.1130.5725-64.3-96.5India1,870.8926.7-50.56.4229.888.15661.21,618.78,755.3,571.013,944-59.2-95.358Nepal28.58.0-71.90.0699.888.155.724.799.919.4144-76.9-96.0SriLanka28.611.9-58.20.0839.888.158.524.794.035.6154-65.6-94.5Israel26.113.1-49.60.14311.2112.1314.025.615.750.392-45.5-84.8Jamaica5.52.6-53.00.02311.389.602.25.53.47.416-60.3-86.6Japan355.4174.5-50.91.15110.488.89135.9326.3261.5678.11,266-58.3-89.3Mauritius5.22.0-61.40.02310.6412.402.24.83.75.514-55.0-84.6Mideast1,520.1708.1-53.44.66511.398.06500.11,517.3858.42,900.15,276-67.0-90.5Armenia4.81.5-68.10.00811.398.061.14.810.15.020-77.4-94.6Azerbaijan19.16.5-66.00.04711.398.064.619.137.830.687-76.0-94.8Bahrain17.69.3-47.10.05411.398.066.617.62.141.962-62.6-89.3Iran444.0184.9-58.41.27911.398.06130.6443.2171.2828.91,443-70.5-91.0Iraq62.124.0-61.30.19011.398.0617.061.990.6233.4386-72.6-95.6Jordan15.87.1-54.90.04611.398.065.015.711.333.560-68.1-91.7Kuwait57.424.0-58.10.14811.398.0617.057.312.6116.9187-70.3-90.9Lebanon13.26.5-50.90.04211.398.064.613.29.032.455-65.2-91.6Oman59.925.5-57.40.16811.398.0618.059.88.3109.6178-69.8-89.8Qatar78.830.9-60.80.18211.398.0621.878.73.6125.8208-72.3-89.5SaudiArabia349.0185.2-46.91.24111.398.06130.8348.4124.7725.81,199-62.5-89.1Syria14.46.4-55.20.04311.398.064.514.347.534.496-68.3-95.3Turkey173.780.6-53.60.52811.398.0656.9173.3229.7306.1709-67.2-92.0UAE205.6113.7-44.70.67711.398.0680.3205.211.2262.9479-60.9-83.2Yemen4.81.8-61.90.01411.398.061.34.888.812.9106-73.0-98.8NewZealand32.417.0-47.60.1078.118.7913.123.05.235.764-43.2-79.5Philippines93.941.8-55.50.39310.1910.0236.783.8677.3194.3955-56.2-96.2RussiaRegion787.8254.7-67.71.19410.186.99156.0702.4601.81,248.32,552-77.8-93.9Georgia8.63.6-57.90.01110.186.992.27.731.111.450-71.1-95.6Russia779.2251.0-67.81.18210.186.99153.7694.7570.61,236.82,502-77.9-93.9SouthAmerica1,090.8467.9-57.13.5028.449.22378.0806.4749.81,161.32,718-53.1-86.1Argentina144.451.0-64.70.3108.449.2241.2106.898.3198.1403-61.4-89.8Bolivia18.35.4-70.70.0398.449.224.313.522.724.361-67.9-92.8Brazil591.3271.9-54.02.0988.449.22219.6437.1352.7494.71,285-49.8-82.9Chile67.535.2-47.90.2168.449.2228.449.938.697.1186-43.0-84.7Colombia70.528.2-60.00.2348.449.2222.852.172.886.0211-56.3-89.2Curacao5.21.5-72.20.0138.449.221.23.90.15.910-69.6-88.1Ecuador28.010.4-62.90.0808.449.228.420.716.140.477-59.4-89.1Paraguay12.95.9-54.50.0238.449.224.79.512.48.430-50.3-84.4Peru47.419.0-59.90.1538.449.2215.435.177.055.9168-56.1-90.8Suriname1.20.5-58.70.0048.449.220.40.91.62.04-54.8-91.1Trinidad/Tob.15.45.0-67.80.0388.449.224.011.42.632.546-64.8-91.4Uruguay10.05.2-47.80.0318.449.224.27.45.26.519-43.0-78.0Venezuela78.828.9-63.20.2618.449.2223.458.249.8109.3217-59.8-89.2SoutheastAsia1,300.7591.7-54.56.82510.3911.76609.41,183.31,9362,046.65,166-48.5-88.2Brunei5.21.6-70.30.02010.3911.761.64.80.59.014-66.4-88.9Cambodia17.36.9-59.80.05910.3911.767.115.740.421.377-54.5-90.8Indonesia423.9193.9-54.21.86210.3911.76199.7385.61,038806.92,231-48.2-91.0LaoPDR7.62.9-62.10.00310.3911.762.96.931.68.847-57.1-93.8Malaysia169.082.6-51.11.05710.3911.7685.1153.795.6320.9570-44.6-85.1Myanmar44.715.8-64.70.11310.3911.7616.340.7197.562.3300-60.0-94.6Singapore216.672.5-66.51.49310.3911.7674.7197.033.268.9299-62.1-75.0Thailand257.5118.4-54.01.23910.3911.76122.0234.3289.6354.8879-47.9-86.1Vietnam159.197.0-39.00.98110.3911.7699.9144.7209.1393.8748-31.0-86.6SouthKorea304.9151.3-50.41.76410.5312.57166.6281.2104.4526.9913-40.8-81.7Taiwan165.390.7-45.10.98610.6011.8093.8153.585.9357.0596-38.9-84.3UnitedStates2,397.8979.0-59.26.71210.428.66742.42,188.6829.73,381.76,400-66.1-88.4Allregions20,3598,881-56.461.59.988.546,64217,80533,60131,75783,163-62.7-92.01FromTableS4.2ThetotalcapitalcostincludesthecapitalcostofnewWWSelectricityandheatgenerators;newelectricity,heat,cold,andhydrogenstorageequipment;hydrogenelectrolyzersandcompressors;andlong-distance(HVDC)transmissionlines.Capitalcostsareanaveragebetween2020and2050.3ThisistheBAUelectricity-sectorcostofenergyperunitenergy.ItisassumedtoequaltheBAUall-energycostofenergyperunitenergyandisanaveragebetween2020and2050.594TheWWScostperunitenergyisforallenergy,whichisalmostallelectricity(plusasmallamountofdirectheat).Itisanaveragebetween2020and2050.5TheannualprivatecostofWWSorBAUenergyequalsthecostperunitenergyfromColumn(f)or(g),respectively,multipliedbytheenergyconsumedperyear,whichequalstheend-useloadfromColumn(b)or(a),respectively,multipliedby8,760hoursperyear.6The2050annualBAUhealthcostequalsthenumberoftotalairpollutionmortalitiesperyearin2050fromTableS21,Column(a),multipliedby90%(theestimatedpercentageoftotalairpollutionmortalitiesthatareduetoenergy)andbyastatisticalcostoflifecalculatedforeachcountry,calculatedasinJacobsonetal.(2019),andamultiplierof1.15formorbidityandanothermultiplierof1.1fornon-healthimpacts(Jacobsonetal.,2019).7The2050annualBAUclimatecostequalsthe2050CO2eemissionsfromTableS21,Column(b),multipliedbythemeansocialcostofcarbonin2050fromTableS21,Column(f)(in2020USD),whichisupdatedfromvaluesinJacobsonetal.(2019),whichwerein2013USD.60TableS21.Regional(a)estimatedairpollutionmortalitiesperyearin2050-2052duetoanthropogenicsources(90%ofwhichareenergy);(b)carbon-equivalentemissions(CO2e)intheBAUcase;(c)costpertonne-CO2eofeliminatingCO2ewithWWS;(d)BAUenergycostpertonne-CO2eemitted;(e)BAUhealthcostpertonne-CO2eemitted;(f)BAUclimatecostpertonne-CO2eemitted;(g)BAUtotalsocialcostpertonne-CO2eemitted;(h)BAUhealthcostperunitall-BAU-energyproduced;and(i)BAUclimatecostperunit-all-BAU-energyproduced.Regionorcountry(a)12050BAUairpollutionmortal-ities(Deaths/y)(b)22050BAUCO2e(Mton-ne/y)(c)32050WWS($/tonne-CO2e-elim-inated)(d)42050BAUenergycost($/tonne-CO2e-emitted)(e)42050BAUhealthcost($/tonne-CO2e-emitted)(f)42050BAUclimatecost($/tonne-CO2e-emitted)(g)42050BAUsocialcost=d+e+f($/tonne-CO2e-emitted)(h)52050BAUhealthcost(¢/kWh)(i)52050BAUclimatecost(¢/kWh)Africa1,173,7373,192112.53831,2475582,18932.914.7Algeria10,78840977.73081835581,0496.018.3Angola19,99759100.53711,6065582,53543.715.2Benin17,08018115.15281,8225582,90834.910.7Botswana9401699.43014245581,28314.218.7Cameroon25,94023141.36103,0075584,17549.89.2Congo4,5351375.63081,4825592,34948.618.3Congo,DR93,2647927.44,67811,39155616,62624.61.2Côted'Ivoire33,70231125.44783,1575584,19366.711.8Egypt63,218579110.72856445581,48822.819.8Equator.Guinea9198388.87361,1405592,43515.67.7Eritrea6,9122131.55696,4105607,539113.79.9Ethiopia152,67641321.91,6435,8835588,08536.13.4Gabon1,0548676.21,3251,0805582,9638.24.2Ghana25,48938165.44802,1855583,22346.011.8Kenya17,75945175.47301,0395582,32814.47.7Libya2,94311887.02351695589637.324.0Morocco10,34016885.22353415591,13514.623.9Mozambique24,78521187.15351,7305592,82332.610.5Namibia96110145.34516245591,63414.012.5Niger52,0615222.51,03611,79555813,389114.95.4Nigeria417,387227239.71,1448,67655910,37976.64.9Senegal12,9932288.92741,2865592,11947.520.6SouthAfrica18,0751,12268.81851055588485.830.5SouthSudan19,2433102.643912,39355913,391284.912.9Sudan66,06648173.65854,4475585,59076.79.6Tanzania31,17830282.71,1152,4345594,10822.05.1Togo12,4506138.36162,8035583,97745.99.2Tunisia4,20973109.33653505581,2739.715.5Zambia15,98317444.31,1372,8975594,59325.75.0Zimbabwe10,79025190.97717585592,0879.97.3Australia3,03471693.0263485588691.921.8Canada3,764928103.5335465589391.113.4CentralAmerica45,6081,055147.43293075581,1949.817.8CostaRica1,00816243.54964165591,4708.811.8ElSalvador1,55813188.13985815581,53715.314.7Guatemala7,21738155.94928485581,89818.111.9Honduras3,16218163.74075815581,54615.014.4Mexico29,973939141.03062695581,1339.219.1Nicaragua1,90810156.94167925581,76620.014.1Panama78221302.88223005581,6803.87.1CentralAsia235,5601,25399.53218075581,68725.917.9Kazakhstan7,77442258.818621755896112.030.9KyrgyzRepublic3,79618141.83638835581,80525.015.8Pakistan204,993517141.14071,5405582,50639.014.161Tajikistan5,31514190.53841,4465592,38938.815.0Turkmenistan2,07313847.42621475589675.822.0Uzbekistan11,609145105.94564725581,48710.712.6ChinaRegion1,134,53515,212103.32797075581,54524.219.1China1,090,24414,930103.42797105581,54724.419.2HongKong3,982102199.86805385581,7767.67.8Korea,DPR37,7039749.91158395591,51270.046.6Mongolia2,6068332.09922155987921.253.7Cuba4,85155174.72916795591,52827.222.3Europe179,6035,119136.73923465581,2968.814.3Albania1,7669178.84501,6595582,66736.912.4Austria1,74195159.34402135581,2114.912.7Belarus5,00110193.23264975581,38115.317.1Belgium2,294138161.74671895591,2154.112.0Bosnia-Herzeg.3,6615153.21555715591,28436.936.1Bulgaria3,77266112.42985795581,43519.518.8Croatia1,96629150.54467415591,74516.612.5Cyprus28011124.03273185581,2039.717.1CzechRep.3,21713995.12762295581,0648.320.2Denmark1,00341177.05572845581,4005.110.0Estonia2982464.32161165598915.425.9Finland54457283.86521065581,3151.68.6France10,527415197.95252775581,3605.310.6Germany19,077926122.93422415581,1417.016.4Gibraltar200.921,2925,7002685586,5260.51.0Greece4,60686112.63304865581,37414.717.0Hungary4,16267138.24155645591,53813.613.5Ireland78248123.83432025581,1045.916.3Italy18,054437141.54324325581,42310.012.9Kosovo2761380.12051335588966.527.2Latvia87813188.45587875581,90214.110.0Lithuania1,34621159.05256695591,75312.710.6Luxembourg10313143.34441335591,1353.012.6Macedonia1,48614105.02488105581,61532.722.5Malta1042825.53,0627225604,3442.41.8Moldova1,38414121.83754185581,35211.214.9Montenegro481788.72105895581,35728.126.6Netherlands3,352206146.34442125581,2154.812.6Norway56763237.06551215581,3341.98.5Poland14,36041984.62653145581,13711.821.1Portugal1,65664157.14142455581,2175.913.5Romania13,080120115.63541,1855582,09733.515.8Serbia4,20810860.31543505581,06222.836.4Slovakia1,73247128.03693495581,2779.515.1Slovenia53320141.93592585581,1757.215.6Spain8,585342148.44262605581,2446.113.1Sweden97959373.38231965591,5782.46.8Switzerland1,08752213.05412675581,3664.910.3Ukraine26,812299103.93056135581,47720.118.3UnitedKingdom13,823481134.74233195581,3007.513.2HaitiRegion13,69555106.33336595581,55021.618.3DominicanRep.3,2174999.52754195581,25216.622.1Haiti10,4786158.07702,4965583,82435.47.9Iceland365376.7717805591,3560.85.8IndiaRegion1,658,2656,728104.22591,4085582,22553.821.3Bangladesh161,682234109.43062,2385583,10372.218.0India1,444,6346,396103.42531,3695582,18053.421.8Nepal38,31335164.57112,8795584,14840.07.8SriLanka13,63664133.63881,4765582,42337.614.2Israel1,54490155.02841755581,0176.922.0Jamaica69813165.04162585591,2327.115.3Japan27,1811,215111.92692155581,0428.421.862Mauritius41810219.94893775591,4248.212.2Mideast118,8665,19596.32921655581,0166.421.8Armenia1,4299119.75301,1175592,20624.012.0Azerbaijan3,7555583.83486895581,59622.518.3Bahrain1727587.8235285588211.327.1Iran21,4791,48587.92981155589724.421.3Iraq12,49541840.614821755892316.742.9Jordan1,8366083.82631885581,0098.224.2Kuwait88820981.1274605588922.523.3Lebanon1,2895879.02271565589417.828.0Oman74719691.9305435589051.620.9Qatar20322596.9349165589240.518.2SaudiArabia9,7711,300100.6268965589224.123.7Syria9,3106273.62337705581,56137.727.4Turkey28,516548103.83164195581,29315.120.1UAE787471170.5436245581,0180.614.6Yemen26,1892355.82073,8545594,620212.030.7NewZealand44464204.7361815591,0001.812.6Philippines126,965348105.42411,9465582,74682.423.6RussiaRegion59,1012,23669.83142695581,1428.718.1Georgia4,11121108.33751,5195582,45241.315.2Russia54,9902,21569.43142585581,1308.418.1SouthAmerica110,0822,080181.73883605581,3067.812.2Argentina12,153355116.13012775581,1367.815.7Bolivia5,5104499.53105215581,39014.215.2Brazil49,639886247.94933985581,4506.89.6Chile4,119174163.32872225581,0676.516.4Colombia11,703154147.93384735581,36911.813.9Curacao911111.436775589320.212.8Ecuador2,87372116.02862225581,0666.516.5Paraguay2,51115313.76328225582,01211.07.5Peru13,130100153.63507685581,67718.513.5Suriname2254109.32424255571,22414.819.4Trinidad/Tobago2715868.6195445587981.924.2Uruguay67512359.26304485581,6366.07.5Venezuela7,264196119.42972545581,1107.215.9SoutheastAsia316,2663,666166.23235285581,40917.018.0Brunei361698.6293335588841.219.7Cambodia12,11138187.64121,0605582,03026.714.1Indonesia155,5251,445138.22677185581,54328.021.7LaoPDR6,92016188.14382,0185583,01547.813.2Malaysia9,353575148.12671665589926.521.7Myanmar50,469112145.93651,7695582,69250.415.9Singapore2,107123605.81,5982695592,4261.83.6Thailand35,606635192.03694565581,38312.815.7Vietnam44,139705141.72052975581,06015.028.3SouthKorea8,980944176.52981115589673.919.7Taiwan6,649639146.62401345589335.924.6UnitedStates62,6946,057122.63611375581,0574.016.1Allregions5,292,57656,873116.793135915581,46218.817.812050countryBAUmortalitiesduetoairpollutionareextrapolatedfrom2016valuesfromWHO(2017)usingthemethoddescribedinJacobsonetal.(2019).2CO2e=CO2-equivalentemissions.ThisaccountsfortheemissionsofCO2plustheemissionsofothergreenhousegasesmultipliedbytheirglobalwarmingpotentials.Theemissionsfromthese145countriesrepresent99.7%ofallworldanthropogenicCO2eemissions.3CalculatedastheWWSprivateenergyandtotalsocialcostfromTableS20,Column(g)dividedbytheCO2eemissionsfromColumn(b)ofthepresenttable.4Columns(d)-(g)arecalculatedastheBAUprivateenergy,health,climate,andtotalsocialcostsfromTableS20,Columns(h)-(k),respectively,eachdividedbytheCO2eemissionsfromColumn(b)ofthepresenttable.5Columns(h)-(i)arecalculatedastheBAUhealthandclimatecostsfromTableS20,Columns(i)-(j),respectively,eachdividedbytheBAUend-useloadfromTableS20,Column(a)andby8,760hoursperyear.63TableS22.FootprintandspacingareasperMWofnameplatecapacityandinstalledpowerdensitiesforWWSelectricityorheatgenerationtechnologies.WWStechnologyFootprint(m2/MW)Spacing(km2/MW)Installedpowerdensity(MW/km2)Onshorewind3.220.050519.8Offshorewind3.220.1397.2Wavedevice7000.03330.3Geothermalplant3,2900304Hydropowerplant502,38002.0Tidalturbine2900.004250ResidentialroofPV5,2300191.2Commercial/govt.roofPV5,2300191.2SolarPVplant12,220081.8UtilityCSPplant29,350034.1Solarthermalforheat1,4300700FromJacobsonetal.(2019).SpacingareasforonshoreandoffshorewindarebasedondatafromEnevoldsenandJacobson(2021).Theinstalledpowerdensityistheinverseofthespacingexcept,ifspacingiszero,itistheinverseofthefootprint.64TableS23.FootprintareasfornewutilityPVfarms,CSPplants,solarthermalplantsforheat,geothermalplantsforelectricityandheat,andhydropowerplantsandspacingareasfornewonshorewindturbines,foreachcountrywithineachgridregionandforthegridregionasawhole.RegionorcountryRegionorcountrylandarea(km2)Footprintarea(km2)Spacingarea(km2)Footprintareaaspercentageoftheregionlandarea(%)Spacingareaasapercentageoftheregionlandarea(%)Africa23,016,1807,45624,4140.030.11Algeria2,381,7407971,6920.030.07Angola1,246,700419960.000.08Benin112,760502920.040.26Botswana566,730371270.010.02Cameroon472,710676360.010.13Congo341,500142290.000.07Congo,DR2,267,0501481,3050.010.06Côted'Ivoire318,000497550.020.24Egypt995,4508443,0860.080.31Equator.Guinea28,050139680.500.24Eritrea101,0003160.000.02Ethiopia1,000,0003039790.030.10Gabon257,6701096540.040.25Ghana227,5401216000.050.26Kenya569,140878600.020.15Libya1,759,5401806500.010.04Morocco446,3001956500.040.15Mozambique786,380384020.000.05Namibia823,290201460.000.02Niger1,266,700391060.000.01Nigeria910,7702,0342,2770.220.25Senegal192,530271600.010.08SouthAfrica1,213,0901,3454,3550.110.36SouthSudan619,7458170.000.00Sudan1,886,0001234850.010.03Tanzania885,8001308620.010.10Togo54,390211430.040.26Tunisia155,3602173570.140.23Zambia743,3981521,0300.020.14Zimbabwe386,8471164790.030.12Australia7,682,3003,1643,5780.040.05Canada9,093,5105028,0820.010.09CentralAmerica2,429,4603,38521,1440.140.87CostaRica51,060444000.090.78ElSalvador20,720302900.141.40Guatemala107,160818460.080.79Honduras111,890637090.060.63Mexico1,943,9503,01717,0610.160.88Nicaragua120,340323500.030.29Panama74,3401171,4880.162.00CentralAsia4,697,6703,1479,6670.070.21Kazakhstan2,699,7004412,5390.020.09KyrgyzRepublic191,800351980.020.10Pakistan770,8802,2064,5730.290.59Tajikistan139,96013740.010.05Turkmenistan469,9301437230.030.15Uzbekistan425,4003091,5590.070.37ChinaRegion11,063,25454,38891,9780.490.83China9,388,21153,76291,1080.570.97HongKong1,07343572.0/38.500.66Korea,DPR120,410965130.080.43Mongolia1,553,560973500.010.0265Cuba106,4402478890.230.83Europe5,671,86012,78649,9670.230.88Albania27,40013870.050.32Austria82,4093111,3560.381.64Belarus202,9104118670.200.43Belgium30,2801,2863974.251.31Bosnia-Herzeg.51,000411500.080.29Bulgaria108,560806210.070.57Croatia55,9601611300.290.23Cyprus9,24024260.260.28CzechRep.77,2305081,1250.661.46Denmark42,4301445720.341.35Estonia42,390341520.080.36Finland303,8903232,1020.110.69France547,5611,2535,4310.230.99Germany348,5401,6158,9080.462.56Gibraltar720.0772.0/24.481.10Greece128,900749100.060.71Hungary90,5304604050.510.45Ireland68,8901134440.160.64Italy294,1407175,8410.241.99Kosovo10,88714700.130.64Latvia62,180272490.040.40Lithuania62,674593670.090.59Luxembourg2,590150275.811.04Macedonia25,22041750.160.30Malta3204472.0/11.652.21Moldova32,860591850.180.56Montenegro13,4505360.040.27Netherlands33,7201,1126753.302.00Norway365,268762760.020.08Poland306,2204143,1270.141.02Portugal91,5901016790.110.74Romania230,0201421,2320.060.54Serbia87,4602222480.250.28Slovakia48,0881426010.301.25Slovenia20,140313010.151.50Spain498,8005754,2000.120.84Sweden407,3403331,7620.080.43Switzerland39,5161128330.282.11Ukraine579,3203892,8610.070.49UnitedKingdom241,9301,1672,6330.481.09HaitiRegion75,8802332490.310.33DominicanRep.48,3201742020.360.42Haiti27,56059470.220.17Iceland100,2500780.000.08IndiaRegion3,309,42028,72930,9210.870.93Bangladesh130,1702,1682701.670.21India2,973,19025,86129,8490.871.00Nepal143,3505272880.370.20SriLanka62,7101735140.280.82Israel21,6407561673.490.77Jamaica10,83047140.430.13Japan364,5604,9023251.340.09Mauritius2,0403981.920.37Mideast6,327,21821,44035,2180.340.56Armenia28,470201160.070.41Azerbaijan82,6581564600.190.56Bahrain760462112.0/58.741.39Iran1,628,5503,80412,1610.230.75Iraq434,3206381,9890.150.46Jordan88,7801594460.180.5066Kuwait17,8201,252677.030.38Lebanon10,230215462.100.45Oman309,5006671,1720.220.38Qatar11,6101,634442.0/12.070.38SaudiArabia2,149,6905,2699,4400.250.44Syria183,630744260.040.23Turkey769,6301,3926,7230.180.87UAE83,6005,6622,0216.772.42Yemen527,97037950.010.02NewZealand263,3102181,0450.080.40Philippines298,1701,6331,1860.550.40RussiaRegion16,446,3601,75024,5430.010.15Georgia69,490121990.020.29Russia16,376,8701,73824,3440.010.15SouthAmerica17,175,4664,53357,0100.030.33Argentina2,736,6904283,2250.020.12Bolivia1,083,300744700.010.04Brazil8,358,1402,45337,1160.030.44Chile743,5323581,5130.050.20Colombia1,109,5002794,2430.030.38Curacao4445372.0/10.01.47Ecuador248,3601201,5500.050.62Paraguay397,300282140.010.05Peru1,280,0002762,8980.020.23Suriname156,0005510.000.03Trinidad/Tobago5,130128142.500.27Uruguay175,020403330.020.19Venezuela882,0502925,3770.030.61SoutheastAsia4,027,64722,0302,6330.550.07Brunei5,2706831.300.05Cambodia176,520192790.110.04Indonesia1,811,5705,9171,9750.330.11LaoPDR230,800000.000.00Malaysia328,5504,1461431.260.04Myanmar653,2903522910.050.04Singapore68761912.0/88.160.14Thailand510,8906,6071461.290.03Vietnam310,0704,127-41.330.00SouthKorea97,3504,477314.600.03Taiwan36,1931,5321524.230.42UnitedStates9,147,42028,33576,9000.310.84Allregions121,464,428205,729440,1990.170.36FirstnumberispercentlandtakenupbyonshoreutilityPV;secondnumberispercentequivalentlandforoffshoreutilityPV.AppliestoBahrain,Curacao,Gibraltar,HongKong,Malta,Qatar,andSingapore.IfcountriesareunabletousesomuchoffshoreareaforfloatingPV,otheroptionsaremorerooftopPV,moreoffshorewind,ortransmissioninterconnectionwithnearbycountries.Footprintareasarethephysicallandareas,watersurfaceareas,orseafloorsurfaceareasremovedfromuseforanyotherpurposebyanenergytechnology.RooftopPVisnotincludedinthefootprintcalculationbecauseitdoesnottakeupnewland.Conventionalhydronewfootprintiszerobecausenonewdamsareproposedaspartoftheseroadmaps.Spacingareasareareasbetweenwindturbinesneededtoavoidinterferenceofthewakeofoneturbinewiththenext.Suchspacingareacanbeusedformultiplepurposes,includingfarmland,rangeland,openspace,orutilityPV.Offshorewind,wave,andtidalarenotincludedbecausetheydon’ttakeupnewland.TableS22givestheinstalledpowerdensitiesappliedinthistable.Areasaregivenbothasanabsoluteareaandasapercentageoftheregionlandarea,whichexcludesinlandorcoastalwaterbodies.Forcomparison,thetotalareaandlandareaofEarthare510.1and144.6millionkm2,respectively.67TableS24.Estimatedmeannumberoflong-term,full-timeconstructionandoperationjobsperMWnameplatecapacityofdifferentelectricpowersourcesandstoragetypesintheUnitedStates.Afull-timejobisajobthatrequires2,080hoursperyearofwork.Thejobnumbersincludedirect,indirect,andinducedjobs.ThesejobnumbersarescaledtodifferentcountriesasdescribedinthecaptionofTableS25.ElectricpowergeneratorConstructionJobs/MWorJobs/kmOperationJobs/MWorJobs/kmOnshorewindelectricity0.240.37Offshorewindelectricity0.310.63Waveelectricity0.150.57Geothermalelectricity0.710.46Hydropowerelectricity0.140.30Tidalelectricity0.160.61ResidentialrooftopPV0.880.32Commercial/governmentrooftopPV0.650.16UtilityPVelectricity0.240.85CSPelectricity0.310.86Solarthermalforheat0.710.85Geothermalheat0.140.46Pumpedhydrostorage(PHS)0.770.3CSPstorage(CSP-PCM)0.620.3Batterystorage0.0920.2Chilled-waterstorage(CW-STES)0.150.3Icestorage(ICE)0.150.3Hotwaterstorage(HW-STES)0.150.3Undergroundheatstorage(UTES)0.150.3Producingheatpumpsfordistrictheat0.150.3Producingandstoringhydrogen0.320.3ACtransmission(jobs/km)0.0730.062ACdistribution(jobs/km)0.0330.028HVDCtransmission(jobs/km)0.0940.080TakenfromJacobsonetal.(2019),except“producingheatpumpsfordistrictheat”valuesareestimatedhereandHVDCtransmissionjobnumberswereslightlyupdated.ValuesforsolarthermalforheatandgeothermalheatweretakenfromvaluesforutilityPVandgeothermalelectricity,respectively.ValuesfortransmissionwerederivedinJacobsonetal.(2017).Jobsforbatteryconstructionandoperationwereestimatedlowtoaccountforeconomiesofscaleandautomationofbatterymanufacturing.PleaseseeNoteS9formoredetails.68TableS25.ChangesintheNumbersofLong-Term,Full-TimeJobsEstimatedlong-term,full-timejobscreatedandlostduetotransitioningfromBAUenergytoWWSacrossallenergysectorsineachcountry.Thejobcreationaccountsfornewdirect,indirect,andinducedjobsintheelectricity,heat,cold,andhydrogengeneration,storage,andtransmission(includingHVDCtransmission)industries.Italsoaccountsforthebuildingofheatpumpstosupplydistrictheatingandcooling.Howeveritdoesnotaccountforchangesinjobsintheproductionofelectricappliances,vehicles,andmachinesorinincreasingbuildingenergyefficiency.ConstructionjobsarefornewWWSdevicesonly.Operationjobsarefornewandexistingdevices.Thelossesareduetoeliminatingjobsformining,transporting,processing,andusingfossilfuels,biofuels,anduranium.Fossil-fueljobsduetonon-energyusesofpetroleum,suchaslubricants,asphalt,petrochemicalfeedstock,andpetroleumcoke,areretained.Fortransportationsectors,thejobslostarethoseduetotransportingfossilfuels(e.g.,throughtruck,train,barge,ship,orpipeline);thejobsnotlostarethosefortransportingothergoods.Thetabledoesnotaccountforjobslostinthemanufactureofcombustionappliances,includingautomobiles,ships,orindustrialmachines.Regionorcountry(a)Constructionjobsproduced(b)Operationjobsproduced(c)Totaljobsproduced=a+b(d)Totaljobslost(e)Netchangeinjobs=c-dAfrica1,898,6351,691,9453,590,5804,545,041-954,461Algeria159,765135,891295,656411,482-115,826Angola29,16128,44357,604249,355-191,751Benin19,44317,60637,04936,585464Botswana8,4017,49715,8989,3206,578Cameroon23,17522,25245,42783,159-37,732Congo8,3387,97216,31065,555-49,245Congo,DR54,31652,888107,204284,465-177,261Côted'Ivoire25,45724,21649,67271,857-22,185Egypt271,433228,399499,833333,282166,551Equator.Guinea22,05021,92743,97735,4198,558Eritrea1,7921,5033,2967,991-4,695Ethiopia81,88373,517155,400334,804-179,404Gabon34,25834,45468,71251,51417,198Ghana45,61638,41384,02979,8534,176Kenya42,33939,25281,591160,636-79,045Libya57,01047,296104,306189,406-85,100Morocco70,95259,858130,81042,32088,490Mozambique21,52719,71641,243103,467-62,224Namibia8,2527,24015,49226,889-11,397Niger11,47210,11021,58233,811-12,229Nigeria345,505295,643641,1481,117,775-476,627Senegal12,92511,11324,03823,0101,028SouthAfrica312,147299,835611,983239,448372,535SouthSudan2,4172,0864,50326,622-22,119Sudan47,15238,71685,867130,461-44,594Tanzania56,01548,474104,489155,345-50,856Togo9,1148,42617,54030,216-12,676Tunisia44,36639,85184,21637,47746,739Zambia42,39240,47382,86587,949-5,084Zimbabwe29,96128,87758,83985,568-26,729Australia294,709370,042664,751364,616300,135Canada192,875234,612427,488702,683-275,195CentralAmerica629,663812,4001,442,063559,964882,099CostaRica14,63118,82133,45111,15922,292ElSalvador10,27313,95824,2308,18416,046Guatemala25,60631,52557,13150,9886,143Honduras18,94425,43944,38319,14325,240Mexico519,612669,4441,189,056444,220744,836Nicaragua9,64612,30021,94611,85510,091Panama30,95240,91371,86514,41557,450CentralAsia627,606646,2851,273,891885,570388,321Kazakhstan102,521100,618203,140216,438-13,29869KyrgyzRepublic11,24811,82423,0716,71616,355Pakistan404,109423,855827,965411,954416,011Tajikistan7,7478,71116,4586,9789,480Turkmenistan30,48930,15160,640121,282-60,642Uzbekistan71,49271,125142,617122,20220,415ChinaRegion5,277,6276,922,93912,200,5673,007,4069,193,161China5,173,3586,734,92011,908,2792,920,0288,988,251HongKong65,859142,857208,71638,140170,576Korea,DPR24,09229,14853,24027,39025,850Mongolia14,31816,01430,33221,8488,484Cuba53,70961,549115,25820,72694,532Europe2,317,0613,000,8165,317,8772,282,0913,035,786Albania5,6595,72711,3866,4384,948Austria53,09463,361116,45545,68270,773Belarus39,08049,12088,19930,24057,959Belgium81,793135,077216,87050,866166,004Bosnia-Herzeg.11,12410,64721,77113,9997,772Bulgaria28,62532,38761,01225,50235,510Croatia20,08421,74741,83118,07423,757Cyprus5,9566,63212,5882,9869,602CzechRep.53,17166,063119,23345,49373,740Denmark24,28638,79563,08135,57227,509Estonia6,4238,62815,05111,1953,856Finland49,43571,289120,72449,14971,575France264,003300,268564,271205,090359,181Germany347,190489,432836,622284,874551,748Gibraltar4,8649,24214,1063,33010,776Greece36,08243,39879,48032,29647,184Hungary46,87655,222102,09731,25470,843Ireland21,51629,08550,60118,56932,032Italy194,288240,063434,351159,664274,687Kosovo4,1063,8197,9254,6703,255Latvia8,6559,62518,28013,5014,779Lithuania14,77416,56731,34114,43216,909Luxembourg8,16612,57520,7414,31216,429Macedonia7,6127,49115,1034,08711,016Malta5,5839,47015,0533,30111,752Moldova9,67611,04120,7178,01512,702Montenegro2,3652,3814,7452,5252,220Netherlands92,766156,186248,951103,044145,907Norway29,09942,50971,608215,796-144,188Poland137,633137,729275,362107,651167,711Portugal34,37740,57774,95434,24840,706Romania46,21951,40797,62660,92536,701Serbia31,06431,39162,45522,11440,341Slovakia23,47625,94049,41617,26932,147Slovenia10,76411,42922,1939,16113,032Spain161,346207,535368,881129,201239,680Sweden59,39490,209149,60368,45581,148Switzerland33,43838,39871,83628,50543,331Ukraine114,893129,152244,045106,762137,283UnitedKingdom188,108289,205477,313253,844223,469HaitiRegion40,72544,51585,24139,34845,893DominicanRep.29,66432,05561,71915,91845,801Haiti11,06112,46023,52223,43092Iceland2,0025,8507,8524,6353,217IndiaRegion3,335,3033,966,8047,302,1072,611,9374,690,170Bangladesh184,794263,839448,634178,224270,410India3,056,8423,587,2666,644,1072,305,9494,338,158Nepal50,23870,633120,87181,59639,275SriLanka43,42945,06688,49546,16842,327Israel85,281117,882203,16333,687169,47670Jamaica15,96712,13028,0965,61722,479Japan556,469630,9951,187,464260,005927,459Mauritius36,70018,80455,5045,54349,961Mideast2,086,9992,628,2444,715,2433,692,4531,022,790Armenia4,9275,39910,3264,0536,273Azerbaijan24,12724,69848,82585,860-37,035Bahrain27,58244,30371,88552,12519,760Iran554,158637,9981,192,156845,831346,325Iraq95,149100,248195,396426,300-230,904Jordan27,07831,73258,81016,14542,665Kuwait69,274111,529180,803253,173-72,370Lebanon22,72333,93256,65513,16143,494Oman74,59797,366171,963157,68114,282Qatar82,038132,224214,263293,984-79,721SaudiArabia511,188609,9331,121,121988,951132,170Syria22,96424,90747,87024,56923,301Turkey257,168294,863552,031125,714426,317UAE304,686469,263773,949394,325379,624Yemen9,3419,84919,19010,5818,609NewZealand51,02264,623115,64539,96575,680Philippines228,355277,126505,481137,336368,145RussiaRegion409,432542,203951,6351,254,245-302,610Georgia5,9567,41513,3707,8555,515Russia403,476534,788938,2641,246,390-308,126SouthAmerica1,051,8061,175,9912,227,7971,965,734262,063Argentina93,13494,131187,265197,295-10,030Bolivia15,14215,80930,95254,397-23,445Brazil596,379672,2911,268,670925,761342,909Chile65,82169,778135,59991,12644,473Colombia76,39685,352161,748185,593-23,845Curacao5,0628,84113,9034,2619,642Ecuador28,80733,16961,97676,516-14,540Paraguay9,2869,99219,27836,392-17,114Peru52,77459,477112,25182,69129,560Suriname1,6171,7123,3295002,829Trinidad/Tobago13,59118,38531,97767,072-35,095Uruguay11,33812,73224,07017,2926,778Venezuela82,45994,321176,780226,838-50,058SoutheastAsia2,687,9132,413,0525,100,9651,987,5733,113,392Brunei8,1377,25515,39233,511-18,119Cambodia38,36232,65571,01744,55326,464Indonesia840,304692,7061,533,010761,441771,569LaoPDR4,8415,0329,87329,551-19,678Malaysia401,835381,186783,021293,793489,228Myanmar69,15559,102128,257131,930-3,673Singapore261,074129,808390,88297,357293,525Thailand574,682600,9381,175,620365,181810,439Vietnam489,523504,369993,893230,256763,637SouthKorea713,075673,2221,386,297195,9031,190,394Taiwan372,860446,729819,588109,361710,227UnitedStates2,406,3423,424,7305,831,0722,478,7203,352,352Allregions25,372,13630,183,48855,555,62527,190,15928,365,466Jobsforelectricitygenerationtechnologiesarethenumberoflong-term,full-timejobsperMWineachcountrymultipliedbythe2050finalnameplatecapacities(TableS9)minusthe2020nameplatecapacities(TableS8)foreachdeviceforconstructionjobsandthe2050nameplatecapacitiesaloneforoperationjobs.ThejobsperMWforeachdeviceineachcountryiscalculatedwiththemethodologyinJacobsonetal.(2017)toscaleU.S.jobsfromTableS24byyearandcountry.Forstorage,thenumberofjobsperMWfromTableS24ismultipliedbythemaximumdischargerateofthestoragetechnologyforeachregion(TableS13).Thetransmission/distributionjobsarecalculatedasinthespreadsheet(JacobsonandDelucchi,2021).71TableS26.Rvaluesfromscatterplotofhourly(duringtheyear)GATOR-GCMOM-modeled(a)heatloadversuswindenergyoutputand(b)windenergyoutputversussolarenergyoutput.TheplotsforeachvalueareshowninFigureS2,lastrow,foreachregionRegion(a)Heatloadvs.windpoweroutput(b)Windvs.solarpoweroutputAfrica0.35(0.33)Australia0.63(0.20)Canada0.82(0.22)CentralAmerica0.81(0.19)CentralAsia0.58(0.33)China0.73(0.18)Cuba(0.15)(0.19)Europe0.81(0.38)Haiti0.08(0.17)Iceland0.50--India0.45(0.17)Israel0.15(0.28)Jamaica0.24(0.19)Japan0.61(0.22)Mauritius0.04(0.16)Mideast0.44(0.33)NewZealand0.28(0.15)Philippines(0.05)(0.14)Russia0.76(0.36)SouthAmerica0.71(0.01)SoutheastAsia0.73(0.00)SouthKorea0.51(0.10)Taiwan0.71(0.16)UnitedStates0.73(0.23)CorrelationsareverystrongforR=0.8-1;strongforR=0.6-0.79;moderateforR=0.4-0.59;weakfor0.2-0.39;andveryweakfor0-0.19(Evans,1996).VerystrongandstrongRvaluesareinbold;moderatevaluesareinitalics,andtherestareplain.Parenthesesindicatenegativecorrelations.Allothercorrelationsarepositive.–meansnosolarinstalledfortheIcelandroadmap.72SupportingFiguresFigureS1.Maingeneration,transmission,storage,andusecomponentsofa100%WWSsystemtoprovideenergyforallpurposes.73FigureS2.2050-2052hourlytimeseriesshowingthematchingofall-energydemandwithsupplyandstoragefortheregionsdefinedinTableS1.Firstrow:modeledtime-dependenttotalWWSpowergenerationversusloadpluslossespluschangesinstorageplussheddingforthefullthree-yearsimulationperiod.Secondrow:sameasfirstrow,butforawindowof100daysduringthesimulation.Thirdrow:abreakdownofWWSpowergenerationbysourceduringthewindow.Fourthrow:abreakdownofinflexibleload;flexibleelectric,heat,andcoldload;flexiblehydrogenload;lossesinandoutofstorage;transmissionanddistributionlosses;changesinstorage;andshedding.Fifthrow:AbreakdownofsolarPV+CSPelectricityproduction,onshoreplusoffshorewindelectricityproduction,buildingtotalcoldload,andbuildingtotalheatload(asusedinLOADMATCH),summedovereachregionfor10days;Sixthrow:correlationplotsofbuildingheatloadversuswindpoweroutputandwindpoweroutputversussolarpoweroutput,obtainedfromallhourlydataduringthesimulation.NowindversussolarplotisshownforIcelandbecausenosolarisinstalledinIcelandforthisstudy.CorrelationsareverystrongforR=0.8-1(R2=0.64-1);strongforR=0.6-0.8(R2=0.36-0.64);moderateforR=0.4-0.6(R2=0.16-0.36);weakfor0.2-0.4(R2=0.04-0.16);andveryweakfor0-0.2(R2=0-0.04)(Evans,1996).Themodelwasrunat30-sresolution.Resultsareshownhourly,sounitsareenergyoutput(TWh)perhourincrement,thusalsoinunitsofpower(TW)averagedoverthehour.Noloadlossoccurredduringany30-sinterval.RawGATOR-GCMOMresultsforsolar,wind,heatload,andcoldloadwereprovidedandfedintoLOADMATCHat30-stimeincrements.LOADMATCHmodifiedthemagnitudes,butnottimeseries,ofGATOR-GCMOMresults,asdescribedinthemaintext.74AFRICA75AUSTRALIA76CANADA77CENTRALAMERICA78CENTRALASIA79CHINAREGION80CUBA81EUROPE82HAITIREGION83ICELAND84INDIAREGION85ISRAEL86JAMAICA87JAPAN88MAURITIUS89MIDEAST90NEWZEALAND91PHILIPPINES92RUSSIAREGION93SOUTHAMERICA94SOUTHEASTASIA95SOUTHKOREA96TAIWAN97UNITEDSTATES98FigureS3.Sensitivityofthelevelizedcostandsomeofitscomponentstothefractionofallbuildinghotandcoldairandwatersupplyfromdistrictheatingandcoolinginselectedcountries.Thecomponentsincludedarethecostofbatteries,thermalstorage,and/ortotalelectricitygeneration.ThermalstoragecostsincludethecostsofUTES,HW-STES,CW-STES,ICEstorage,andheatpumpstoprovideheatandcoldforthermalenergystorage(TableS19).Theonlycomponentoftotalelectricitygenerationthatischangingisthequantityofoffshorewind.Thelowfractiondistrictheatingandcoolingisthebaselinevalueforeachcountry.ThecountrieschosenareamongthosewiththehighestLCOEswith100%WWSatthebaselinefractionofdistrictheatingandcoolinginTable4.99SupportingReferencesEIA(EnergyInformationAdministration).U.S.InternationalEnergyOutlook2016.DOE/EIA-0484,2016,http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/pdf/0484(2016).pdf(accessedOct.6,2021).EIA(EnergyInformationAdministration).Monthlyround-tripefficiencybystoragetechnology(Jan2018-Dec2019).2021a.https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=46756.EIA(EnergyInformationAdministration).U.S.productsuppliedoffinishedmotorgasoline.2021b.https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s=MGFUPUS2&f=M.EnevoldsenP,JacobsonMZ.(2021),Datainvestigati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