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FROM POLLUTION
TO SOLUTION
A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF MARINE LITTER
AND PLASTIC POLLUTION
© 2021 United Nations Environment Programme
ISBN: 978-92-807-3881-0
Job number: DEP/2379/NA
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United Nations Environment Programme (2021). From Pollution to
Solution. A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution Nairobi.
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FROM POLLUTION
TO SOLUTION
A GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF MARINE
LITTER AND PLASTIC POLLUTION
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FROMPOLLUTIONTOSOLUTIONAGLOBALASSESSMENTOFMARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTION©2021UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeISBN:978-92-807-3881-0Jobnumber:DEP/2379/NAThispublicationmaybereproducedinwholeorinpartandinanyformforeducationalornon-profitserviceswithoutspecialpermissionfromthecopyrightholder,providedacknowledgementofthesourceismade.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammewouldappreciatereceivingacopyofanypublicationthatusesthispublicationasasource.NouseofthispublicationmaybemadeforresaleoranyothercommercialpurposewhatsoeverwithoutpriorpermissioninwritingfromtheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.Applicationsforsuchpermission,withastatementofthepurposeandextentofthereproduction,shouldbeaddressedtotheDirector,CommunicationDivision,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme,P.O.Box30552,Nairobi00100,Kenya.DisclaimersMentionofacommercialcompanyorproductinthisdocumentdoesnotimplyendorsementbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeortheauthors.Theuseofinformationfromthisdocumentforpublicityoradvertisingisnotpermitted.Trademarknamesandsymbolsareusedinaneditorialfashionwithnointentionofinfringementoftrademarkorcopyrightlaws.TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.Weregretanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenunwittinglymade.©Maps,photosandillustrationsasspecifiedSuggestedcitationUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(2021).FromPollutiontoSolution.AglobalassessmentofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionNairobi.ProductionUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)Layoutandfigures:GRID-ArendalandStrategicAgendahttps://www.unep.org/SupportedbyUNEPpromotesenvironmentallysoundpracticesgloballyandinitsownactivities.OurdistributionpolicyaimstoreduceUNEP’scarbonfootprint.FROMPOLLUTIONTOSOLUTIONAGLOBALASSESSMENTOFMARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTION4MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTTableofContentsTableofContents...................................................................................................................................4Listoffigures,tables,boxes.................................................................................................................6Background............................................................................................................................................7Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................................8Abbreviationsandacronyms................................................................................................................9Glossaryoftermsanddefinitions......................................................................................................10Foreword..............................................................................................................................................13Keyfindings.........................................................................................................................................14Introduction.........................................................................................................................................17Environmental,health,economicandsocialimpactsandrisks......................................................221.1Evidenceofbiologicalandecologicalimpacts...................................................................................................................................231.2Potentialriskstohumanhealth.................................................................................................................................................................331.3Impactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollutiononmaritimeindustries........................................................................................391.4Economiccostsofmarinelitterandplasticpollution........................................................................................................................411.5Socialimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollution..........................................................................................................................431.6Riskframeworkformarinelitterandplasticpollution......................................................................................................................44SourcesandpathwaysofmarinelitterandplasticPollution..........................................................462.1Majorsourcesofmarinelitterandplastic...............................................................................................................................................47pollution.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................472.2Majorpathwaysoflitterandplasticpollution......................................................................................................................................54Monitoringmethods,indicators,standardsandprogrammes.......................................................653.1Developmentsinmonitoringmethods..................................................................................................................................................663.2Monitoringprogrammes,indicators,datanetworksandplatforms............................................................................................743.3Networks,citizenscienceandcommunityinitiatives........................................................................................................................783.4Technicalstandardsandtraceabilityofplasticpollution..................................................................................................................805MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTChallenges,responses,innovations,solutionsandopportunities.................................................834.1Thecurrentindustrial,socialandgovernancelandscaperelatingtomarinelitterandplasticpollution......................844.2Governance,legislation,coordinationandcooperation...................................................................................................................874.3Businesssolutionsandenvironmentallysoundtechnologiesandinnovations......................................................................994.4Researchanddevelopment......................................................................................................................................................................1054.5Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................................................................107ANNEXI:REGIONALACTIONPLANSONMARINELITTER5..............................................................110ENDNOTES...........................................................................................................................................111REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................1166MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTListoffigures,tables,boxesFigurei:Globalplasticproduction,accumulationandfuturetrends...........................................................................................................18Figureii:Directrisksandimpactsofmarinelitterandplastics.......................................................................................................................18Figureiii:Majorsourcesandsinksofmicroplasticsandmarinelitter...........................................................................................................19Figure1:Directrisksandimpactsofmarinelitterandplastics.......................................................................................................................23Figure2:Bio-basedplasticsandtheirbiodegradation......................................................................................................................................30Figure3a:Humanexposuretomicroplasticandnanoplasticparticles.......................................................................................................36Figure3b:Humanexposuretoplasticparticlesandassociatedchemicals................................................................................................37Figure3c:Humanhealthimpactsofexposuretoplastic-associatedchemicals.......................................................................................38Figure4:Majorsourcesandpathwaysofhuman-generatedplasticlitter.................................................................................................48Figure5:Agriculturalpracticescontributingtomarinelitterandplasticpollution................................................................................51Figure6a:Fisheriesandaquaculturepracticescontributingtomarinelitterandplasticpollution..................................................52Figure6b:Fisheriesandaquaculturepracticescontributingtomarinelitterandplasticpollution.................................................53Figure7:Naturalprocessesaffectingthedistributionandfateofmicroplastics.....................................................................................58Figure8:Aselectionofdatacoordination,collection,repositoryandportalinitiatives.......................................................................74Figure9:Timelineforglobalmarinelitterandplasticinitiatives,lawandpolicies.................................................................................87Table1:Estimatesofglobalannualemissionsofplasticwaste(millionmetrictonnes)fromland-basedsources......................50Table2:Researchneedsandgapsidentifiedinthisassessment.................................................................................................................108Box1:Fibresandmicrofibres.......................................................................................................................................................................................25Box2:Nanoplastics..........................................................................................................................................................................................................26Box3:Chemicalsassociatedwithmarinelitterandplastics............................................................................................................................28Box4:Biologicalandecologicalimpactsofplasticslabelledasbiodegradable.....................................................................................31Box5:Propertiesandprocessesaffectingthetransportanddegradationofplasticsinthemarineenvironment....................56Box6:TheGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter....................................................................................................................................................76Box7:TheBaselConventionPartnershiponPlasticWaste.............................................................................................................................887MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTBackgroundTheUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssemblycontinuestoaddressthegrowingproblemofmarinelitter,includingplastics,andmicroplastics,throughkeyresolutionsadoptedasfollows:UNEP/EA.1/Res.6:Marineplasticdebrisandmicroplastics(2014);UNEP/EA.2/Res.11:Marineplasticlitterandmicroplastics(2016);UNEP/EA.3/Res.7:Marinelitterandmicroplastics(2017);UNEP/EA.4/Res.6:Marineplasticlitterandmicroplastics(2019);andUNEP/EA.4/Res.9:Addressingsingle-useplasticproductspollution(2019).In2016theUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)publishedareport,MarinePlasticDebrisandMicroplastics–GlobalLessonsandResearchtoInspireActionandGuidePolicyChange,1inresponsetoUNEP/EA.1/Res1.6.Thereportfocusedon:•identificationofthekeysourcesofmarineplasticdebrisandmicroplastics;•possiblemeasuresandbestavailabletechniquesandenvironmentalpracticestopreventtheaccumulationandminimizethelevelofmicroplasticsinthemarineenvironment;•recommendationsforthemosturgentactions;•areasespeciallyinneedofmoreresearch,andotherrelevantpriorityareas.AtthefourthmeetingoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssemblytheExecutiveDirectorofUNEP,inresolutionUNEP/EA.4/Res.6paragraph2,wasrequestedto:“…immediatelystrengthenscientificandtechnologicalknowledgewithregardtomarinelitterincludingmarineplasticlitterandmicroplastics,throughthefollowingactivities:…(b)Compilingavailablescientificandotherrelevantdataandinformationtoprepareanassessmentonsources,pathwaysandhazardsoflitter,includingplasticlitterandmicroplasticspollution,anditspresenceinriversandoceans;scientificknowledgeaboutadverseeffectsonecosystemsandpotentialadverseeffectsonhumanhealth;andenvironmentallysoundtechnologicalinnovations;”Giventhatsubstantialnewresearchhasbeenconductedsincethe2016UNEPreport,thisassessmentprovidesanupdatebyhighlightingnewdevelopmentsandbuildingontheearlierreport.ThisassessmentisintendedtoinformdiscussionsatthefifthsessionoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssembly(UNEA-5.2).InearlierdraftsprovidedinputtotheAdhocopen-endedexpertgrouponmarinelitterandmicroplasticsonthedesignofpossibleactionsandthedevelopmentofpolicy-relevantrecommendations.In2019theExecutiveDirectorofUNEPestablishedaScientificAdvisoryCommitteeonMarineLitterandMicroplastics(SAC).ThemainobjectiveoftheSACwastoprovideinputandguidanceduringthepreparationofthisassessment.UnitedNationsMemberStates,membersofspecializedagencies,andaccreditedmajorgroupsandstakeholderswereinvitedtonominateexpertstoserveasmembersoftheSAC.OncetheSACwasestablished,theexpertswereinvitedtosupportthedevelopmentoftheassessmentbyprovidingscientificinformation,data,experiences,expertopinions,reviewsandadvicetoensurethehighestscientificqualityofitscontent.Anin-personmeetingofSACmembersinFebruary2019,aswellasanumberofonlineworkinggroupsandothermeetings,wereorganizedbyUNEPtoguideandinformtheimplementationofparagraph2ofUNEP/EA.4/Res.6,inparticularthedevelopmentoftheassessmentasrequestedinsubparagraph2(b).TheSACmembersrecommendedthatUNEPdeveloptheassessmentbasedonpublishedevidenceonthesourcesanddriversofmarinelitter,especiallyplasticsandmicroplastics;thetypesandvolumesofplasticsfoundinwastestreamsenteringtheoceansandtheirpathwaysincludingtransportbetweenandwithindifferentcompartmentsorzonesinfreshwater,soil,airandmarineecosystems,ingestionbyanimalsandhumansanduptakebyplantsandmicroorganisms;thehazardsandimpactsonoceans,marineecosystemsandhumanhealth;existingandnewmonitoringandobservationprogrammes,includingthoseinvolvingcitizenscience;andexamplesofsolutions,environmentallysoundtechnologiesandriskreductionmeasures.Theassessmentwastoprovideevidencetoenablepolicymakersandthewiderpublictocomprehendthemagnitudeandseverityoftheeffectsandrisksassociatedwithmarinelitter,especiallyplasticsandmicroplastics;identifygapsinknowledge;raiseawarenessofsolutions;andhelpstimulateglobalinterventionstocontrolandpreventmarineplasticpollutionandtosafeguardhumanandecologicalhealth.Inlinewithbestpracticeinglobalassessmentprocesses,theassessmentisbasedonopenaccesspublicationsfromthepeerreviewedliterature,intergovernmentalandnationalreports,and,whererelevant,stakeholderpublications.TheauthorsandSACmembersalsoprovidedregionalandnationalinformationoninterdisciplinaryandcontextuallyrelevantcasestudies.8MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTAcknowledgementsMembersoftheScientificAdvisoryCommittee(GovernmentandMajorGroupsandStakeholdernominatedexperts):AbidAbdeslam(NationalLaboratoryforPollutionMonitoring,Morocco),ZahraAlavian(DepartmentofEnvironment,Coasts,andWetlands,Iran),AndresHugoArias(ArgentineanInstituteofOceanography,Argentina),ThomasBackhaus(UniversityofGothenburg,Sweden),BushraHamidAhmedBashier(HigherCouncilofEnvironment-Khartoum,Sudan),BhaguthsingBeerachee(MinistryofEnvironment,Mauritius),LeeBell(InternationalPOPsEliminationNetwork,Sweden),ChristianSekomoBirame(UniversityofRwanda,Rwanda),StephanieB.Borrelle(UniversityofToronto,Canada),KalpanaChaudhari(InstituteforSustainableDevelopmentandResearch,India),BenqlilouChouaib(TheNationalSchoolofEngineeringENIMinRabat,Morocco),RoxanaDiaz(GrupoGEA,Peru),ThinleyDorji(NationalEnvironmentCommissionSecretariat,Bhutan),MariatouDumbuya(NationalEnvironmentAgency,TheGambia),SarahDunlop(TheMinderooFoundation,Australia),MarcusEriksen(5GyresInstitute,LeapLab,UnitedStates),JohannaEriksson(TheSwedishAgencyforMarineandWaterManagement,Sweden),TrisiaAngelaFarrelly(MasseyUniversity,NewZealand),AndrewForrest(TheMinderooFoundation,Australia),FrançoisGalgani(InstitutFrançaisdeRecherchepourl’ExploitationdelaMer(IFREMER),France),AzizaGeleta(EthiopianEmbassyinNairobi,Kenya),SamiaGharbi(AssociationAbelGranier,Tunisia),OlfatHamdan(MinistryofEnvironmentofLebanon,Lebanon),GeorgHanke(EuropeanCommission-JointResearchCentre,Belgium),MihailOtiliaHariclia(MinistryofEnvironment,WatersandForests,Romania),PatriciaHolm(UniversityofBasel,Switzerland),ShahriarHossain(EnvironmentandSocialDevelopmentOrganization-ESDO,Bangladesh),AtsuhikoIsobe(ResearchInstituteforAppliedMechanics,KyushuUniversity,Japan),AndreaA.Jacobs(MinistryofAgriculture,FisheriesandBarbudaAffairs,AntiguaandBarbuda),JennaJambeck(UniversityofGeorgia,UnitedStates),SarojiniJayasekara(CentralEnvironmentAuthority,SriLanka),LaDaanaKanhai(UniversityoftheWestIndies,TrinidadandTobago),CherylRitaKaur(MaritimeInstituteofMalaysia,Malaysia),AhmetErkanKideys(MiddleEastTechnicalUniversityInstituteofMarineSciences,Turkey),WinnieWingYeeLau(ThePewCharitableTrusts,UnitedStates),DaojiLi(EastChinaNormalUniversity,China),JuanPabloLozoya(RegionalCentrefortheEastZone,UniversityoftheRepublic,Uruguay),JeromeSebaddukaLugumira(NationalEnvironmentManagementAuthority,Uganda),YounaLyons(NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore),ThomasMaes,MilicaMandic(UniversityofMontenegro,Montenegro),MwitaMarwaMangora(InstituteofMarineSciences,Tanzania),CristianEnriqueBritoMartinez(MinistryofEnvironment,Chile),CollinsBrunoMboufack(MinistryofEnvironmentofCameroon,Cameroon),MiriamMekki(NorwegianEnvironmentAgency,Norway),VianaMartinezRoxanaMelitza(MinisteriodelPoderPopularparaelEcosocialismo,Venezuela),MaxineMonsanto(MinistryofAgriculture,Fisheries,Forestry,Environment,SustainableDevelopmentandImmigration,Belize),AlethiaVazquezMorillas(UniversidadAutonomaMetropolitana,Mexico),EvaS.Ocfemia(ManilaBayEnvironment,Philippines),OlgaPantos(InstituteofEnvironmentalScienceandResearch,NewZealand),GaliaPasternak(IndependentResearcher,Israel),ChelseaM.Rochman(UniversityofToronto,Canada),AlexJoseSaerSaker(MinistryofEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment,Colombia),SalieuKabbaSankoh(UniversityofSierraLeoneandWestAfricaRegionalFisheriesProgramme,SierraLeone),SureeSatapoomin(DepartmentofMarineandCoastalResources,Thailand),OutiSetala(FinnishEnvironmentInstitute(SYKE),Finland),MohamedLamineSidibe(MinistryofEnvironment,Guinea),FaustineSinzogan(MinistryoftheEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment,Benin),RuthSpencer(MarineEcosystemsProtectedAreas(MEPA)Trust,TrinidadandTobago),JakobStrand(AarhusUniversity,Denmark),HideshigeTakada(TokyoUniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,Japan),NeilTangri(GlobalAllianceforIncineratorAlternatives,Philippines),LeonardoTrasande(NewYorkUniversitySchoolofMedicine,UnitedStates),PeroTutman(InstituteforOceanographyandFisheries,Croatia),GodsonCudjoeVoado(EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyofGhana,Ghana),MengjiaoWang(GreenpeaceInternational,TheNetherlands),KarenWatson(EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Guyana),MohsinaZubair(EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyPakistan,Pakistan).Overallleadauthor:JacquelineMcGlade(UniversityCollegeLondon;andStrathmoreUniversityBusinessSchool,UnitedKingdom).Leadauthors:IreneSamyFahim(NileUniversity,Egypt),DannielleGreen(AngliaRuskinUniversity,UnitedKingdom),PhilipLandrigan(HarvardSchoolofPublicHealthandMountSinaiSchoolofMedicine,UnitedStates).Contributingauthors:AnthonyAndrady(NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,UnitedStates),MonicaCosta(UniversidadeFederaldePernambuco,Brazil),RolandGeyer(UniversityofCaliforniaSantaBarbara,UnitedStates),RachelGomes(UniversityofNottingham,UnitedKingdom),AileenTanShauHwai(UniversitiSainsMalaysia),JennaJambeck(UniversityofGeorgia,UnitedStates),DaojiLi(EastChinaNormalUniversity,China),ChelseaRochman(UniversityofToronto,Canada),PeterRyan(UniversityofCapeTown,SouthAfrica),MartinThiel(UniversidadCatólicadelNorte,Chile),RichardThompson(UniversityofPlymouth,UnitedKingdom),KathyTownsend(UniversityoftheSunshineCoast,Australia),AlexanderTurra(UniversityofSãoPaulo,Brazil).Reviewers:TatsuyaAbe,StefanoAliani,SandraAverous-Monnery,MichaelBank,EvaBildberg,AnneBowser,BethanieCarneyAlmroth,JenniferdeFrance,JostDittkrist,MariaDeudero,ClaudiaGiacovelli,KirstenGilardi,JulieGoodhew,NatalieHarms,NilsHeuer,AndreaHinwood,KitakangIyaJoyce,YasuhikoKamakura,PeterKershaw,BartKoelmans,ArvindKumar,StephanieLaruelle,CaroleManceau,NikolaiMaximenko,AllanMeso,LlorençMilaICanals,TapiwaNxele,KeiOhno,SabinePahl,CatalinaPizarro,JordiPon,AmelieRitscher,AmparoRoda,MartaRuiz,AphroditeSmagadi,EmilySmail,KarstenSteinfatt,AnthonyTalouli,FrancoTeixeiradeMello,ElisaTonda,NoamvanderHal,ErikvanSebille,YegorVolovik,JanAndriesvanFraneker,KarlVrancken,FengWang,RanXie,RiccardoZennaro,WeiweiZhang,ShuangZhuandDrorZurel.ProductionTeam:LeticiaCarvalho,CarlaFriedrich,TessaGoverse,HeidiSavelliandTabeaZwimpfer(UNEP).Editor:JohnSmith.9MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTAbbreviationsandacronymsABNJAreasbeyondnationaljurisdictionALDFGAbandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggearAMRAntimicrobialresistanceASTMInternationalstandardsorganization,formerlytheAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterialsDFGDerelictfishinggearEFSAEuropeanFoodSafetyAuthorityFADFishaggregationdeviceFAOFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsGESAMPJointGroupofExpertsontheScientificAspectsofMarineEnvironmentalProtectionGHGGreenhousegas(es)GPMLGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitterIMOInternationalMaritimeOrganizationISOInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationPOPsPersistentorganicpollutantsUNCLOSUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaUNEAUnitedNationsEnvironmentAssemblyUNEPUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWHOWorldHealthOrganizationWTOWorldTradeOrganizationCommonpolymers:ABSacrylonitrilebutadienestyreneACacrylicEPepoxyresin(thermoset)EPSexpandedpolystyreneHDPEpolyethylenehighdensityLDPEpolyethylenelowdensityLLDPEpolyethylenelinearlowdensityPApolyamide(nylon)4,6,11,66PCpolycarbonatePCLpolycaprolactonePEpolyethylenePETpolyethyleneterephthalatePGApoly(glycolicacid)PLApoly(lactide)PMMApoly(methylmethacrylate)PPpolypropylenePSpolystyrenePUpolyurethane(alsoabbreviatedasPUR)PVApolyvinylalcoholPVCpolyvinylchlorideSBRstyrene-butadienerubberTPUthermoplasticspolyurethaneCommonchemicaladditivesinplastics:BFRsbrominatedflameretardantsBPAbisphenolABPFbisphenolFBPSbisphenolSDBPdibutylphthalateDEPdiethylphthalateDEHPdi-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalateFRsflameretardantsHBCDhexabromocyclododecaneNPnonylphenolNPEnonylphenolethoxylatePBDEspolybrominateddiphenylethers(penta,octaanddecaforms)PhthalatesphthalateestersTBBPAtetrabromobisphenolCommonorganiccontaminantssorbedbyplastics:DDTdichlorodiphenyltrichloroethaneHCHshexcyclohexanePAHspolycyclicaromatichydrocarbonsPCBspolychlorinatedbiphenyls10MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTGlossaryoftermsanddefinitionsThisglossaryhasbeencompiledbytheleadauthorsofthereport,drawingonglossariesandotherresourcesavailableonthewebsitesofvariousorganizations,networksandprojects.Additives:Additivesusedinamanufacturingprocessincludefillers,plasticizers,flameretardants,UVandthermalstabilizers,antimicrobialagents,colorants,residualmonomersandcatalyststrappedinplasticresins.Theycontainanumberofhazardouschemicals,suchasphthalatesandpolybrominateddiphenylethers,andpotentiallytoxicsubstances,i.e.hazardoussubstancesthathavetobeleached-released-emittedbeforeanytoxicityisexpressed(Andrady2017;Hahladakisetal.2018;AndradyandRajapakse2019;GESAMP2020a).ManyofthechemicalsassociatedwithplasticsarelistedashazardousundertheStockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutantsandinnationallegislationorregulations,suchastheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(2014)prioritypollutantslist,97becausetheyarepersistent,bioaccumulativeand/ortoxic(Galloetal.2018).Atmosphericdistillation:Plasticadditivessuchaspolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)andfluorinatedcompoundsvolatilizeatequatorialandtemperatelatitudes,movepolewardintheatmosphere,andprecipitatetolandandinwaterfromthecoldairofthefarnorth,aphenomenontermed“atmosphericdistillation”(AtlasandGiam1981;Houdeetal.2011;Tekmanetal.2020).Highconcentrationsofpersistentpollutantsarethusingestedbymarinemicroorganismsinthecircumpolarregionsandaccumulateintoppredatorfishspeciesandmarinemammals(Pengetal.2020;Rubioetal.2020),includingfishandmarinemammalstraditionallyconsumedbycoastalcommunitiesandindigenouspeoplesintheArctic.Bacterialbiofilms:Surface-associatedbacterialcommunitieswhichareembeddedwithinanexopolymericsubstancematrix.Baseline/reference:Thestateagainstwhichchangeismeasured.Inthecontextofpathways,theterm“baselinescenarios”referstocurrentconditions.Baselinescenariosarenotintendedtobepredictionsofthefuture,butrathercounterfactualconstructionsthatcanservetohighlightthelevelofemissionsthatwouldoccurwithoutfurtherpolicyeffort.Typically,baselinescenariosarethencomparedtomitigationscenariosthatareconstructedtomeetdifferentgoalsforgreenhousegasemissions,atmosphericconcentrationsortemperaturechange.Theterm“baselinescenario”isusedinterchangeablywith“referencescenario”and“nopolicyscenario”.Inmuchoftheliteraturethetermisalsosynonymouswiththeterm“business-as-usual(BAU)scenario”,althoughthistermhasfallenoutoffavourbecausetheideaofbusiness-as-usualincentury-longsocioeconomicprojectionsishardtofathom.Bathymetriclidar:Atechniquetocapturenear-shorewaterdepth(bathymetry)asgeospatialdatarelatingtothecoastlineand(shallow)waters.Itcanbecarriedoutfromairborneplatformsandsatellites.Itisamethodpotentiallyfacilitatingefficientandfastcreationofhydrographicdata.Thesemeasurementshavebeenproblematichistoricallysinceshipscannotoperateclosetotheshorewhilecollectingacousticbathymetricsoundings.Becausehighlydynamiccoastalshorelinescanbeaffectedbyerosion,wetlandloss,hurricaneimpacts,sealevelrise,urbandevelopmentandpopulationgrowth,consistentbathymetricdataareimportantandareneededtobetterunderstandsensitivecoastalland/waterinterfaces.Bio-basedplasticsarepolymersthatareeitherbiosourced,biodegradableorboth.Itisforthisreasonthattheterm“bioplastic“shouldneverstandaloneandwhyitisnecessarytospecify,eachtimethiswordisused,theplastic’sorigin(biosourcedornot)andendoflife(biodegradableornot).Biodegradable:Meansamaterialcanbedecomposedundertheactionofmicroorganismssuchasbacteria,fungi,algaeorearthworms.Tobetrulymeaningful,thetermmustbelinkedtotheendproducts,toatimescalethatiscompatiblewithahumanscale,andtotheconditionsofbiodegradation.Biodegradableplastics:Polymersthatundergobiodegradationunderspecifiedenvironmentalconditions(aprocessinwhichthedegradationresultsfromtheactionofnaturallyoccurringmicroorganismssuchasbacteria,fungi,andalgae)andaboveaspecifieddegradationtimeasperacceptedindustrystandards.Acceptedindustrystandardspecificationsincluded,butwerenotlimitedto:ASTMD6400,ASTMD6868,ISO17088andEN13432.Biodegradation:Thebiologicalprocessthatresultsintheformationofwater,carbondioxide(CO2)and/ormethane,energyandby-products(residues,newbiomass).Itisinfluencedbythephysicochemical(temperature,humidity,pH)andmicrobiologicalvariables(quantityandnatureofmicroorganisms)oftheenvironmentinwhichitoccurs.Biogenichabitat:Ahabitatcreatedbyplantsandanimals.Itmaybetheorganismitself,suchasaseagrassmeadoworabedofhorsemussels,orarisefromanorganism’sactivities,suchastheburrowscreatedbycrabs.Biogenichabitat-formingspeciesalsoperformotherimportantroleswithintheecosystemandsomeareharvestedintheirownright.Examplesofbiogenichabitatsincludemangroveforests,seagrassmeadows,musselandoysterreefs,andkelpforests.Biologicalendpoint:Adirectmarkerofdiseaseprogression(e.g.diseasesymptomsordeath)usedtodescribeahealtheffect(oraprobabilityofthathealtheffect)resultingfromexposuretoachemical.Biopolymers:Naturalpolymersderivedfromrenewableresourcesofplantsoranimals.Theycanbedirectlysynthesizedbyplantsoranimalssuchaspolysaccharides(starch,cellulose,chitosan,etc.),proteins(collagen,gelatin,casein,etc.)andlignins,orsynthesizedfrombiologicalresourcessuchasvegetableoils(rape,soybean,sunflower,etc.).Otherbiopolymers,suchasPHA,areproducedbymicroorganisms(bacteria)throughfermentationfromsugarsandstarch.Biosourced:Biosourcedpolymersaremanufactured,inpartorinwhole,fromrenewablebiologicalresources,mostoftenvegetable.Thesourcesofrawmaterialsareveryvaried.Wefindeverythingrelatedtobiomass,organicmatter,inparticularstarches,sugarsandvegetableoils.Carbonintensity:TheamountofemissionsofCO2releasedperunitofanothervariablesuchasgrossdomesticproduct,outputenergyuse,transportoragricultural/forestryproducts.Carbonprice:ThepriceofavoidedorreleasedCO2orCO2-eq(CO2equivalent)emissions.Thismayrefertotherateofacarbontaxorthepriceofemissionpermits.Inmanymodelsthatareusedtoassesstheeconomiccostsofmitigation,carbonpricesareusedasaproxytorepresentthelevelofeffortinmitigationpolicies.Carbontax:Alevyonthecarboncontentoffossilfuels.BecausevirtuallyallofthecarboninfossilfuelsisultimatelyemittedasCO2,acarbontaxisequivalenttoanemissiontaxonCO2emissions.Co-benefits:Thepositiveeffectsthatapolicyormeasureaimedatoneobjectivemighthaveonotherobjectives,withoutyetevaluatingtheneteffectonoverallsocialwelfare.Co-benefitsareoftensubjecttouncertaintyanddependon,amongothers,localcircumstancesandimplementationpractices.Co-benefitsareoftenreferredtoasancillarybenefits.Compostable:Intermsofpolymers,thosethatarecompostablearecapableofbeingbiodegradedatelevatedtemperaturesinsoilunderspecifiedconditionsandtimescales,usuallyonlyencounteredinanindustrialcomposter.Forindustrialcomposting,standardsapply:ISO17088,EN13432,ASTM6400.Thisisincontrasttodomesticcomposting(seeComposting).Composting:Anaerobictransformationprocess(i.e.inthepresenceofoxygen,unlikemethanizationwhichisananaerobicreaction,i.e.withoutoxygen)offermentablematerialsundercontrolledconditions.Ithelpsobtainastabilizedfertilizingmaterial,richinhumiccompounds,calledcompost.Itisaccompaniedbythereleaseofheatandcarbondioxide.Itisaprocesswidelyused,especiallyinagriculturalenvironments,becausecomposthelpsamendsoilbyimprovingitsstructureandfertility.11MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTCoreindicators:Generallyconsideredtobegenericindicatorswhichcanbemeasuredinallcontextsbyparticipatingorganizations,countries,andlegalpartiescommittedtocollectingdataonandreportingonspecificissues.Theyareoftencombinedwithregionalorsite-specificindicators.Coreindicatorsareoftendesignedtoanswerkeypolicyquestionsandsupportallphasesofenvironmentalpolicymaking,fromdesigningpolicyframeworkstosettingtargets,andfrompolicymonitoringandevaluationtocommunicatingtopolicymakersandthepublic.Theycanbeestablishedformonitoringtrends,measuringperformance(e.g.reachingatarget),measuringefficiency(e.g.whetherthesituationimproving)andmeasuringpolicyeffectiveness(i.e.whetherthemeasuresworking).ExamplesofcoreindicatorsetsincludethosemaintainedbytheEuropeanEnvironmentAgency(2014)(forits32membercountries),HELCOM(RuizandStankiewicz2019),andtheRegionalSeasProgramme(UNEP2014).Degradation:Thepartialorcompletebreakdownofapolymerasaresultof,forexample,UVradiation,oxygenattackorbiologicalattack.Thisimpliesalterationofproperties,suchasdiscolouration,surfacecracking,andfragmentation.Forbiodegradation,seeBiodegradable.Inthecontextofpolymerdegradation,mineralization(seeMineralization)isthecompletebreakdownofapolymerasaresultofcombinedabioticandmicrobialactivityintoCO2,water,methane,hydrogen,ammoniaandothersimpleinorganiccompounds.Thisisdifferentfromcompostable(seeCompostable)oroxo-degradable(seeOxo-degradable).Downcycling:Aformofrecyclingthatinvolvesreusingmaterialinlessdemandingapplicationsandacceptingreducedperformanceofthematerialintermsofspecificationssuchashardness,tensilestrength,orductility.Initsnewapplicationthedowncycledmaterialreplacesamaterialoflowereconomicvaluethantheoriginalapplication.Labelling(plasticsrecycling):Varioussystemsoflabellingthedifferenttypesofplasticsareinuse.Anexampleisthenumberingsystemforrecycling:1.PET(orPETE)–polyethyleneterephthalate,usedinhouseholdcontainerssuchascarbonatedbeveragebottles,microwavablefoodtrays,medicinebottles,haircombsandrope.Ifrecycled,itiscommonlyfoundincarpet,fibrefillforcoatsandsleepingbags,cassettetapesandsailsforboats.2.HDPE–high-densitypolyethylene.Manypackagingapplicationsusethismaterialasamoisturebarrierandforitschemicalresistance.SaferthanPET,productsmadeofHDPEwillnottransmitchemicalsintofoodordrinks,sotheyaretypicallyusedinsnackfoodpackagesandmilkandmargarinecontainers.HPDEisalsousedforshampoo,detergentandbleachbottles,motoroilcontainersandchildren’stoys.Whenrecycled,HDPEisusedforplasticlumber,fencingorstoragecrates.LikePET,itiscommonlyfoundinlabbottlesandlargerchemicalstoragecontainers.3.PVC–polyvinylchloride,commonlyusedinplumbingpipes,floorcoveringsandbuildings,butalsofoundinsyntheticleatherproducts,showercurtains,cardashboardsandcableandwiresheathing.Duetoitsabilitytoresistmostchemicalsandbacteria,itisfoundinbloodbagsandmedicaltubing.4.LDPE–low-densitypolyethylene.Adurable,flexibleplasticknownforitstransparencyandtoughness,itisoftenusedforsandwichbags,clingwrap,squeezebottles,grocerybagsanddry-cleaningbags.Itisalsopopularinwireandcableapplicationsbecauseithasstableelectricalqualities.Itisnotcommonlyrecycled,butcanbeusedinlumber,garbagecansandfurniture.LikeotherPEproducts,LDPEisoftenusedinlabbottles,particularlythosewithnarrowneckssuchaswashanddropperbottles.5.PP–polypropylene.Astrongfilmwithexcellentchemicalresistance,thisisapopularsyntheticforbothsolidandflexiblepackaging.Itcanhandlehighertemperatures,soisespeciallygoodforfillingwithhotliquids.Itisusedforfoodstoragecontainers,ketchupbottles,diapers,prescriptionbottlesandyoghurtcontainers,aswellasplasticbottlecaps.Itisalsofoundinautomotivebatterycasings.Ifrecycled,itisusedinrakes,batterycablesoricescrapers.Duetoitswideservicetemperaturerange,itisoneofthemostpopularplasticsusedinlaboratorytesttubes,vials,bottles,jars,racksandmicroplates.6.PS–(expanded)polystyreneusedineitherrigidorfoamform.Becauseofitsclarity,itisusedformedicalandlaboratoryspecimencontainerssuchasculturetubes,Petridishes,pipettes,wellsandmicroplates.Itispopularinfoodpackagingandplasticcutlery;asexpandablefoam,itcanbeeasilyshapedintodisposablecoffeecups,meat,fishandcheesetraysandrestauranttake-outboxes.Itisalsopopularforpackagingfoamand“peanuts”.Whenrecycled,itisusedforinsulation,rulersandlicenseplateframes.7.OTHER–Coversallotherplasticswhicharehardesttorecycle.AnexampleisAcrylonitrileButadieneStyrene(ABS),knownforitsstrengthandrigidityandusedinmusicalinstruments,golfclubheads,automotivetrimandbumpers,luggageandsmallkitchenappliances.Leaching:Thewashingoutofsolubleionsandcompoundsbywaterdrainingthroughsoil.Macroplastic:Anythingplasticthatcanbeeasilyseen.Someexamplesareplasticbags,waterbottlesandnets.Whiletheystillhaveanegativeimpactontheenvironment,theyarelesslikelytoenterthefoodchainbecausetheyarehardtoingestduetotheirsize.Marinedebris:ConsideredassynonymouswithmarinelitterintheHonoluluStrategy,whereitisdefinedtoincludeanyanthropogenic,manufactured,orprocessedsolidmaterial(regardlessofsize)discarded,disposedof,orabandonedthatendsupinthemarineenvironment.Itincludes,butisnotlimitedto,plastics,metals,glass,concreteandotherconstructionmaterials,paperandcardboard,polystyrene,rubber,rope,textiles,timberandhazardousmaterials,suchasmunitions,asbestosandmedicalwaste.Insomeinstances,marinedebrismayalsobeavesselfordangerouspollutantsthatareeventuallyreleasedintothemarineenvironment.Marinedebrismayresultfromactivitiesonlandoratsea.Marinedebrisisacomplexculturalandmulti-sectoralproblemthatexactstremendousecological,economic,andsocialcostsaroundtheglobe.Adistinctionmaybemadebetweennaturalandartificialmarinedebris(Maximenkoetal.2019).Naturaldisasterscanalsogreatlyincreaseinputsofallkindsofnaturalandartificialdebris.Forexample,the2011tsunamiinJapanwashedabout5millionmetrictonsofdebrisintotheoceanwithinhours(JapanMinistryoftheEnvironment2012).Ofthisamount,3.5millionmetrictonssankontheshelf,severelydamagingthebenthicecosystemand,togetherwiththeradioactivespillfromtheFukushimanuclearplant,badlyaffectingthelocalfishingindustry.Theremaining1.5milliontons(anamountclosetoafull-yearinputofland-basedplasticdebrisfortheentireNorthPacificbecameflotsamandafractionofthisdriftedtoNorthAmericaandHawai‘i.Thecompositionoftsunamidebriswasverycomplex:accordingtoMurrayetal.(2018),countsofallcategoriesofdebris,monitoredonbeachesintheStateofWashington(UnitedStates),increasedin2012byafactorof10comparedtopre-tsunamilevels.Seealso:Marinelitter.Marinelitter:AsdefinedbyUNEP(1995),marinelitterisanypersistent,manufacturedorprocessedsolidmaterialdiscarded,disposedoforabandonedinthemarineandcoastalenvironment.Marinelitterconsistsofitemsthathavebeenmadeorusedbypeopleanddeliberatelydiscardedintotheseaorriversoronbeaches;broughtindirectlytotheseawithrivers,sewage,stormwaterorwinds;accidentallylost,includingmateriallostatseainbadweather(fishinggear,cargo);ordeliberatelyleftbypeopleonbeachesandshores.SeealsoMarinedebris.Methanization:Methanization(oranaerobicdigestion)isthenaturalbiologicalprocessofdegradingorganicmatterintheabsenceofoxygen(anaerobic).Itoccursnaturallyinsomesediments,marshes,ricepaddiesandlandfills,aswellasinthedigestivetractofsomeanimalssuchastermitesorruminants.Someoftheorganicmatterisdegradedtomethane,whilesomeisusedbymethanogenicmicroorganismsfortheirgrowth.Thedecompositionisnotcompleteandleavesthe“digestate“(partlycomparabletocompost),whichrequirescompostinginordertobestabilized.Methanizationisalsoatechniqueusedin“methanizers“,wheretheprocessisacceleratedandmaintainedtoproduceusablemethane(biogas).Organicwastecanthusprovideenergy.Microplastics:Microplasticshavebeenthefocusofongoingdebateastotheirsizelimit(Thompson2015).Someauthorstakeabroadview,includingitemslessthan5mmdiameter(Arthuretal.2009),whereasothersrestrictthetermtoitemslessthan2mm,lessthan1mmorevenlessthan500μm(Coleetal.2011).Dependingontheuppersizelimit,industrialpelletsmayormaynotbeincludedintheterm.Microplasticsarecategorizedasprimaryandsecondary(seebelow).Theproportionofprimarymicroplasticsintheenvironmentisprobablysmallcomparedwithsecondarymicroplastics,exceptinsomeareasoftheGreatLakesintheUnitedStates(Eriksenetal.2013),butitisalargelyavoidablesourceofpollution.Inthisassessment,thedefinitionofmicroplasticsasparticleslessthan5mmindiameterisused(Arthuretal.2009).Primarymicroplasticsarepurposefullymanufacturedtocarryoutaspecificfunction(Coleetal.2011).Theyincludecertaincosmetics,handcleaners,airblastcleaningmedia,andplasticbeadsmanufacturedspecificallyforthispurpose(e.g.abrasiveparticles,powdersforinjectionmoulding).Nurdlesorpre-productionpelletsandresinbeadsarebulktransportedbetweenmanufacturingsites.Theyareproducedseparatelyandmelted12MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTdownforusebyplasticsproducers(plasticspellets),bymanufacturersofhouseholdproducts(personalcareproductsandcosmetics),forshipandbuildingcleaning(abrasivepowders),andinmanufacturing(powdersforinjectionmouldsand3Dprinting).Secondarymicroplasticsrepresenttheresultsofwearandtearorfragmentationoflargerobjects,bothduringuseandfollowinglosstotheenvironment(e.g.textileandropefibres,weatheringandfragmentationoflargerlitteritems,vehicletyrewear,paintflakes).Mineralization:Mineralizationinthecontextofpolymerdegradationisthecompletebreakdownofapolymerasaresultofthecombinedabioticandmicrobialactivity,intoCO2,water,methane,hydrogen,ammonia,andothersimpleinorganiccompounds.Monitoring:Theintenttomeasurethecurrentstatusofanenvironmentortodetecttrendsinspaceortimeofenvironmentalparameters.Monitoringshouldbeperformedsystematicallybyharmonizedsamplingmethodsandaconsistentdataandmetadatamanagementprocedure.Nanoplastics:Asubcategoryofmicroplasticscreatedbydegradation.Duetotheextremelysmallsizeofnanoplastics,theyenterthefoodchainwheningestedbyunicellularandmulticellularmarineorganisms.Nanoplasticsalsohaveahighsurfaceareatovolumeratio,makingthemmorelikelytoabsorborganicpollutantsandotherhazardouscontaminants.Theprecisedefinitionofnanoplasticsisstillunderdebate(Gigaultetal.2018);someauthorsusesize,withsomefavouringlessthan1μm(e.g.Pintoetal.(2016),whileothersusemorethan1μm(RiosandBalcer2019).Gigaultetal.(2018)definenanoplasticsas“particlesunintentionallyproduced(i.e.fromthedegradationandthemanufacturingoftheplasticobjects)andpresentingacolloidalbehaviour,withinthesizerangefrom1to1,000nm”.Noanalogiesorextrapolationscanbemadebetweennanoplasticsandother“nanomaterials”duetothedifferentproductionpathwaysandphysicalandchemicalproperties.Nanoplasticsarehighlypolydisperseinphysicalpropertiesandheterogeneousincomposition(Gigaultetal.2016;LambertandWagner2016;terHalleetal.2016).Indeed,becausenanoplasticsareproducedunintentionallyfromthedegradationofmicroscaleplasticlitter,itishighlyprobablethatnanoplasticswillformhetero-aggregateswithothernaturaland/oranthropogenicmaterials(Hüfferetal.2017);inthissensethecolloidalbehaviourofnanoplasticsisrelevant.Littleisknownabouttheadversehealtheffectsofnanoplasticsinorganisms,includinghumans(Barriaetal.2020).Natural(bio-)polymers:Polyamideswhichoccurinproteinsandformmaterialssuchaswoolandsilk.Bio-polymersareverylargemoleculeswithalongchain-likestructureandahighmolecularweight,producedbylivingorganisms.Theyareverycommoninnatureandformthebuildingblocksofplantandanimaltissue.Cellulose(C6H10O5)nisapolysaccharide(carbohydratechains),andisconsideredthemostabundantnaturalpolymeronEarth,formingakeyconstituentofthecellwallsofterrestrialplants.Chitin(C8H13O5N)nisapolymerofaderivativeofglucose(N-acetylglucosamine)andisfoundintheexoskeletonofinsectsandcrustaceans.Lignin(C31H34O11)nisacomplexpolymerofaromaticalcoholsandformsanotherimportantcomponentofcellwallsinplants,providingstrengthandrestrictingtheentryofwater.Cutinisformedofawaxypolymerthatcoversthesurfaceofplants.Oxo-biodegradation:Theoxo-biodegradationofplasticsisdegradationidentifiedasresultingfromoxidativeandcell-mediatedphenomena,eithersimultaneouslyorsuccessively(CENTC249/WG9).Oxo-degradable:Oxo-degradableplastics(or“fragmentable“,“oxo-fragmentable“,oreven“biofragmentable“or“oxo-biodegradable”plastics)arepolymersofpetrochemicalorigincontainingpre-oxidants,suchasmineraloxidizingadditives,thatpromotetheirdegradationintosmallpieces(untiltheybecomeinvisibletothenakedeye).Theseplasticscanfragment,undercertainconditions(light,heat,etc.),butarenotbiodegradableaccordingtocurrentstandards.Inaddition,theseadditivesseemtocontainheavymetalswhoseenvironmentaleffectsarecurrentlyunknown.ThenewEuropeanSingle-UsePlasticProductsDirective,approvedbytheEuropeanParliamenton27March2019,providesfortheprohibitionoftheseoxo-degradableplasticswhatevertheiruse.Plastics:Definedassyntheticorganicpolymerswiththermo-plasticsorthermo-setproperties(synthesizedfromhydrocarbonorbiomassrawmaterials),elastomers(e.g.butylrubber),materialfibres,monofilamentlines,coatingsandropes(GESAMP2019).Manyplasticsareproducedasamixtureofdifferentpolymersandvariousplasticizers,colorants,stabilizersandotheradditives.Mostplasticscanbedividedintotwomaincategories:thermoplastics(capableofbeingdeformedbyheating),whichincludepolyethylene,polypropyleneandpolystyrene;andthermoset(non-deformable),whichincludepolyurethane,paintsandepoxyresins.About15percentoftotalsyntheticpolymerproductionconsistsoffibres,suchaspolyesterandacrylic.Anothersignificantcomponentofmarinelitterissemi-syntheticmaterial,suchascellulosenitrateandrayon,madefrombiomass(UNEP2018b).Plasticsdebrisandlitter:Thesetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably.Thereisnoagreedorofficialtextonthecategorizationofplasticsdebrisorlitter;theterminologyusedinthisreportthusfollowsthatofGESAMP(2019).Size:Therehasbeenanongoingdiscussionaboutthedefinitionofdifferentsizedplastics(Galganietal.2015).Forexample,Andrady(2011)arguedtheneedforthreesizeterms:mesoplastics(500μm-5mm),microplastics(50-500μm)andnanoplastics(<50μm),eachwiththeirownsetofphysicalcharacteristicsandbiologicalimpacts.InthisassessmentthesizeclassesproposedbyLusheretal.(2017)areused:Mega>1m;Macro25mm-1m;Meso5mm-25mmandMicro<5mm(seeMicroplastics).Plasticparticleswithasizeof1μmorlessaretermednanoplastics(seeNanoplastics).Shape:Thereiscurrentlynostandardizedschemeforthedifferentshapesofplasticsdebris.Thefiveshapecategoriesusedformarinelitterare:1)fragmentsorirregularshapedparticles,crystals,fluff,powder,granules,shavings;2)fibres/filaments,microfibres,strands,andthreads;3)beadsgrains,sphericalmicrobeads,microspheres;4)films/sheets,andpolystyrene,expandedpolystyrenefoams;5)pelletsresinpellets,nurdles,pre-productionpellets,nibs(Lusheretal.2017).Colour:Colourisnotregardedasacrucialparameterforcategorizationofplasticsdebris(GESAMP2019:Hartmannetal.2019).Plastisphere:Atermusedtodescribethehabitatsonmicroplasticswhichfosterdifferentmicrobialcommunities.Polymer:Referstoamoleculeofhighmolecularweightconsistingofarepetitivesequenceofalargenumberofsimplemoleculescalledmonomers,whichmayormaynotbethesame.Thenumberofmonomerunitsconstitutingthemacromoleculeiscalledthe“degreeofpolymerization”.Polymersaregenerallypolymolecular,i.e.theyarecomposedofblendsofmoleculesofdifferentsizes.Sugars,starchandproteinsarenaturalpolymerssynthesizedbyprokaryotes,plants,animalsorbacteria;thesearecalled“biopolymers”.Productlightweighting:Aprocessofcreatinglighterproductsthroughdesignsthatrequirelessmaterialorsubstituteheaviermaterialwithlighterand/orlessenergyintensivematerials.Lightermaterialalternatives,bothinweightorvolume,cangeneratesubstantialenergysavingsinthetransportandbuildingsectors.Source:Anyprocess,activityormechanismthatcanleadtoreleasesoflitterandplasticsintotheenvironment.Sustainabledevelopment:Developmentthatmeetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds.Uncertainty:Acognitivestateofincompleteknowledgethatcanresultfromalackofinformationorfromdisagreementaboutwhatisknownorevenknowable.Itmayhavemanytypesofsources,fromimprecisioninthedatatoambiguouslydefinedconceptsorterminology,oruncertainprojectionsofhumanbehaviour.Uncertaintycanthereforeberepresentedbyquantitativemeasures(forexample,aprobabilitydensityfunction)orbyqualitativestatements(forexample,reflectingthejudgementofateamofexperts)13MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTDecadesofrelentlessuseofplasticsacrossoureconomieshasledtoaseeminglyunstoppableflowofplasticsintotheenvironmentincludingoutintothedeepoceans.Largelyaresultofunsustainableproductionandconsumptionpatternsandinadequatewastemanagement,thechallengeofplasticsisnowbeingcompoundedbytheCOVID-19pandemic.Largeamountsofplasticwastefrompersonalprotectiveequipmentandadditionalpackagingarebeingdiscardeddirectlyintotheenvironment.Thisassessmentprovidesthestrongestscientificargumenttodatefortheurgencyofacting,andforcollectiveactiontoprotectandrestoreouroceans.Theassessmentdetailstheimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollution–fromthepopulationleveltothesub-cellular–revealingpreviouslyunknownaspectsoftheeffectsofmicroplasticsonphysiologyaswellastheirecotoxicologicaleffectsonecosystems,wildlifeandhumans.Drawingonacomprehensivesynthesisofthelatestfindingsaboutthesources,pathwaysandfateofmarinelitterandplasticpollution,theassessmenthighlightsthepervasivenessofplasticsandmicroplastics,fromthedeepestabyssalenvironmentstothemostremoteoceanicislands,andtheextremepressurebeingexertedontheplanet.Theevidencepresentedintheassessmentpaintsacomprehensivepictureofhoweverystageinthelifecycleofplasticsisaffectingtheoceans,themainrisks,andwheregapsinourknowledgeexist.Amajorconcernisthefateofbreakdownproducts,suchaschemicaladditivesandmicroplastics,manyofwhichareknowntobehazardoustobothhumanandwildlifehealthaswellastoecosystems.Thereisevidencethatmicroplasticsappearinarangeofseafoodsafterbeingingestedbymanydifferentmarineorganisms.Whileourunderstandingofthedirecthumanhealtheffectsisstilllimited,theimpactsofhazardouschemicalsandmicroplasticsonthephysiologyofmarineorganismsisabundantlyclear.Theassessmentalsodrawsattentiontoplasticssupplyanddemand,examiningtheabsolutevolumesofplasticsproduced,theslowgrowthofalternatives,thelowlevelsofrecycling,andpoorwastemanagement.Itlooksatcriticalmarketfailuressuchasthelowpriceofvirginfossilfuelfeedstockscomparedtothatofrecycledmaterials,disjointedeffortsinregardtoinformalandformalplasticwastemanagement,andlackofconsensusonsolutions.Importantly,theassessmentoffersguidanceonwhatitwilltaketoaddressmarinelitterandplasticpollutionandprovidesexamplesoftransformativeactionsandsolutionsthatarefairandjust.Thespeedatwhichoceanplasticpollutioniscapturingpublicattentionisencouraging.Itisvitalthatweusethismomentumtofocusonopportunitiesacrossthelifecycleofplasticsandfromsource-to-seaforclean,healthyandresilientoceans,whileatthesametimecontributingtovitalEarthsystemprocesses,suchasclimateregulation,andtocleanwater,healthyecosystemsandbiodiversityintegrity.IngerAndersen,ExecutiveDirector,UNEPForeword14MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTKeyfindingsandrespirationrates.Theycanalterthereproductivesuccessandsurvivalofmarineorganismsandcompromisetheabilityofkeystonespeciesandecological“engineers”tobuildreefsorbioturbatedsediments.Humanhealthandwell-beingareatrisk.Riskstohumanhealthandwell-beingarisefromtheopenburningofplasticwaste,ingestionofseafoodcontaminatedwithplastics,exposuretopathogenicbacteriatransportedonplastics,andleachingoutofsubstancesofconcerntocoastalwaters.Thereleaseofchemicalsassociatedwithplasticsthroughleachingintothemarineenvironmentisreceivingincreasingattention,assomeofthesechemicalsaresubstancesofconcernorhaveendocrinedisruptingproperties.Microplasticscanenterthehumanbodythroughinhalationandabsorptionviatheskinandaccumulateinorgansincludingtheplacenta.Humanuptakeofmicroplasticsviaseafoodislikelytoposeseriousthreatstocoastalandindigenouscommunitieswheremarinespeciesarethemainsourceoffood.Thelinksbetweenexposuretochemicalsassociatedwithplasticsinthemarineenvironmentandhumanhealthareunclear.However,someofthesechemicalsareassociatedwithserioushealthimpacts,especiallyinwomen.Marineplasticshaveawidespreadeffectonsocietyandhumanwell-being.Theymaydeterpeoplefromvisitingbeachesandshorelinesandenjoyingthebenefitsofphysicalactivity,socialinteraction,andgeneralimprovementofbothphysicalandmentalhealth.Mentalhealthmaybeaffectedbytheknowledgethatcharismaticmarineanimalssuchasseaturtles,whales,dolphinsandmanyseabirdsareatrisk.Theseanimalshaveculturalimportanceforsomecommunities.Imagesanddescriptionsofwhalesandseabirdswiththeirstomachsfullofplasticfragments,whichareprevalentinmainstreammedia,canprovokestrongemotionalimpacts.Therearehiddencostsfortheglobaleconomy.Marinelitterandplasticpollutionpresentseriousthreatstothelivelihoodsofcoastalcommunitiesaswellastoshippingandportoperations.Theeconomiccostsofmarineplasticpollutionwithrespecttoitsimpactsontourism,fisheriesandaquaculture,togetherwithothercostssuchasthoseofclean-ups,areestimatedtohavebeenatleastUnitedStatesdollars(US$)6-19billiongloballyin2018.Itisprojectedthatby2040plasticleakageintotheoceanscouldrepresentaUS$100billionannualfinancialriskforbusinessesifgovernmentsrequirethemtocoverwastemanagementcostsatexpectedvolumesandrecyclability.Bycomparison,theglobalplasticmarketin2020hasbeenestimatedataroundUS$580billionwhilethemonetaryvalueoflossesofmarinenaturalcapitalisestimatedtobeashighasUS$2,500billionperyear.Theamountofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionhasbeengrowingrapidly.Emissionsofplasticwasteintoaquaticecosystemsareprojectedtonearlytripleby2040withoutmeaningfulaction.Thescaleandrapidlyincreasingvolumeofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionareputtingthehealthofalltheworld’soceansandseasatrisk.Plastics,includingmicroplastics,arenowubiquitous.TheyareamarkeroftheAnthropocene,thecurrentgeologicalera,andarebecomingpartoftheEarth’sfossilrecord.Plasticshavegiventheirnametoanewmarinemicrobialhabitat,the“plastisphere”.Despitecurrentinitiativesandefforts,theamountofplasticsintheoceanshasbeenestimatedtobearound75-199milliontons.Estimatesofannualglobalemissionsfromland-basedsourcesvaryaccordingtotheapproachesused.Underabusiness-as-usualscenarioandintheabsenceofnecessaryinterventions,theamountofplasticwasteenteringaquaticecosystemscouldnearlytriplefromsome9-14milliontonsperyearin2016toaprojected23-37milliontonsperyearby2040.Usinganotherapproach,theamountisprojectedtoapproximatelydoublefromanestimated19-23milliontonsperyearin2016toaround53milliontonsperyearby2030.Marinelitterandplasticspresentaseriousthreattoallmarinelife,whilealsoinfluencingtheclimate.Plasticsarethelargest,mostharmfulandmostpersistentfractionofmarinelitter,accountingforatleast85percentoftotalmarinewaste.Theycauselethalandsub-lethaleffectsinwhales,seals,turtles,birdsandfishaswellasinvertebratessuchasbivalves,plankton,wormsandcorals.Theireffectsincludeentanglement,starvation,drowning,lacerationofinternaltissues,smotheringanddeprivationofoxygenandlight,physiologicalstress,andtoxicologicalharm.Plasticscanalsoalterglobalcarboncyclingthroughtheireffectonplanktonandprimaryproductioninmarine,freshwaterandterrestrialsystems.Marineecosystems,especiallymangroves,seagrasses,coralsandsaltmarshes,playamajorroleinsequesteringcarbon.Themoredamagewedotooceansandcoastalareas,theharderitisfortheseecosystemstobothoffsetandremainresilienttoclimatechange.Whenplasticsbreakdowninthemarineenvironment,theytransfermicroplastics,syntheticandcellulosicmicrofibres,toxicchemicals,metalsandmicropollutantsintowatersandsedimentsandeventuallyintomarinefoodchains.Microplasticsactasvectorsforpathogenicorganismsharmfultohumans,fishandaquaculturestocks.Whenmicroplasticsareingested,theycancausechangesingeneandproteinexpression,inflammation,disruptionoffeedingbehaviour,decreasesingrowth,changesinbraindevelopment,andreducedfiltration123415MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTMarinelitterandplasticsarethreatmultipliers.Themultipleandcascadingrisksposedbymarinelitterandplasticsmakethemthreatmultipliers.Theycanacttogetherwithotherstressors,suchasclimatechangeandoverexploitationofmarineresources,tocausefargreaterdamagethaniftheyoccurredinisolation.Habitatalterationsinkeycoastalecosystemscausedbythedirectimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticsaffectlocalfoodproductionanddamagecoastalstructures,leadingtowide-reachingandunpredictableconsequencesincludinglossofresiliencetoextremeeventsandclimatechangeincoastalcommunities.Therisksofmarinelitterandplasticsthereforeneedtobeassessedacrossthewidercumulativerisks.Themainsourcesofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionareland-based.Approximately7,000millionoftheestimated9,200milliontonsofcumulativeplasticproductionbetween1950and2017becameplasticwaste,three-quartersofwhichwasdiscardedandplacedinlandfills,becamepartofuncontrolledandmismanagedwastestreams,orwasdumpedorabandonedintheenvironment,includingatsea.Microplasticscanentertheoceansviathebreakdownoflargerplasticitems,leachatesfromlandfillsites,sludgefromwastewatertreatmentsystems,airborneparticles(e.g.fromwearandtearontyresandotheritemscontainingplastic),run-offfromagriculture,shipbreaking,andaccidentalcargolossesatsea.Extremeeventssuchasfloods,stormsandtsunamiscandeliversignificantvolumesofdebrisintotheoceansfromcoastalareasandaccumulationsoflitteronriverbanks,alongshorelinesandinestuaries.Withglobalcumulativeplasticproductionbetween1950and2050predictedtoreach34,000milliontons,itisurgenttoreduceglobalplasticproductionandflowsofplasticwasteintotheenvironment.Themovementandaccumulationofmarinelitterandplasticsoccuroverdecades.Themovementofmarinelitterandplasticson-andoffshoreiscontrolledbyoceantides,currents,wavesandwinds,withfloatingplasticsaccumulatingintheoceangyresandsinkingitemsconcentratinginthedeepsea,riverdeltas,mudbeltsandmangroves.Therecanbesignificanttimeintervalsbetweenlossesonlandandaccumulationinoffshorewatersanddeep-seasediments.Morethanhalftheplasticsfoundfloatinginsomegyreswereproducedinthe1990sandearlier.Therearenowagrowingnumberofhotspotsinwhichthereispotentialforlong-term,large-scaleriskstoecosystemfunctioningandhumanhealth.MajorsourcesincludetheMediterraneanSea,wherelargevolumesofmarinelitterandplasticaccumulatedueitsenclosednature,presentingriskstomillionsofpeople;theArcticOceanbecauseofpotentialdamagetoitspristinenatureandharmtoindigenouspeoplesandiconicspeciesthroughingestionofplasticsinmarinefoodchains;andtheEastandSoutheastAsianregion,wheretherearesignificantvolumesofuncontrolledwasteinproximitytoverylargehumanpopulationswithahighdependencyontheoceans.Technologicaladvancesandthegrowthofcitizenscienceactivitiesareimprovingdetectionofmarinelitterandplasticpollution,butconsistencyofmeasurementsremainsachallenge.Therehavebeensignificantimprovementsinregardtoeffectiveandaffordableglobalobservationalandsurveyingsystems,aswellastheprotocolsfordetectingandquantifyinglitterandmicroplasticsinphysicalandbioticsamples.However,concernsremainamongscientistsaboutsamplingbiasesinthedeterminationoftheabsolutevolumesofmicroplasticsfoundindifferenthabitatsowingtohighvariabilityinphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsandtheneedforgreaterconsistencyamongdifferentsamplingandobservationplatformsandinstruments.Therearecurrently15majoroperationalmonitoringprogrammeslinkedtomarinelitteractionco-ordination,datacollectionframeworks,andlarge-scaledatarepositoryandportalinitiatives,butthedataandinformationfromthemarelargelyunconnected.Alongsidetheseprogrammesareindicatorprocessesandbaselinedatacollectionactivities,supportedbyagrowingnumberofnetworks,citizenscienceprojectsandparticipatoryprocessesworldwide.Plasticrecyclingratesarelessthan10percentandplastics-relatedgreenhousegasemissionsaresignificant,butsomesolutionsareemerging.Duringthepastfourdecadesglobalplasticproductionhasmorethanquadrupled,withtheglobalplasticmarketvaluedataroundUS$580billionin2020.Atthesametime,theestimatedglobalcostofmunicipalsolidwastemanagementissettoincreasefromUS$38billionin2019toUS$61billionin2040underabusiness-as-usualscenario.Thelevelofgreenhousegasemissionsassociatedwiththeproduction,useanddisposalofconventionalfossilfuel-basedplasticsisforecasttogrowtoapproximately2.1gigatonsofcarbondioxideequivalent(GtCO2e)by2040,or19percentoftheglobalcarbonbudget.Usinganotherapproach,GHGemissionsfromplasticsin2015wereestimatedtobe1.7GtCO2eandprojectedtoincreasetoapproximately6.5GtCO2eby2050,or15percentoftheglobalcarbonbudget.Amajorproblemisthelowrecyclingrateofplastics,whichiscurrentlylessthan10percent.Millionsoftonsofplasticwastearelosttotheenvironment,orsometimesshippedthousandsofkilometrestodestinationswhereitisgenerallyburnedordumped.TheestimatedannuallossinthevalueofplasticpackagingwasteduringsortingandprocessingaloneisUS$80-120billion.Plasticslabelledasbiodegradablepresentanotherproblem,astheymaytakeanumberofyearstodegradeintheoceansand,aslitter,canpresentthesamerisksasconventionalplasticstoindividuals,biodiversityandecosystemfunctioning.Asingle-solutionstrategywillbeinadequatetoreducetheamountofplasticsenteringtheoceans.Multiplesynergisticsysteminterventionsareneededupstreamanddownstream5867916MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTofplasticproductionanduse.Suchinterventionsarealreadyemerging.Theyincludecircularitypolicies,phasingoutofunnecessary,avoidableandproblematicproductsandpolymers,fiscalinstrumentssuchastaxes,feesandcharges,deposit-refundschemes,extendedproducerresponsibilityschemes,tradeablepermits,removalofharmfulsubsidies,greenchemistryinnovationsforsaferalternativepolymersandadditives,initiativestochangeconsumerattitudes,and“closingthetap”inregardtovirginplasticproductionthroughnewservicemodelsandecodesignforproductreuse.Progressisbeingmadeatalllevels,withapotentialglobalinstrumentinsight.Agrowingnumberofglobal,regionalandnationalactivitiesarehelpingtomobilizetheglobalcommunityinordertobringanendtomarinelitterandplasticpollution.Cities,municipalitiesandlargefirmshavebeenreducingwasteflowstolandfills;regulatoryprocessesareexpanding,drivenbygrowingpublicpressure;andtherehasbeenanupsurgeinlocalactivismandlocalgovernmentactionsincludingkerbsidecollections,plasticsrecyclingandcommunityclean-ups.However,thecurrentsituationisamixtureofwidelyvaryingbusinesspracticesandnationalregulatoryandvoluntaryarrangements.Therearealreadysomeinternationalcommitmentstoreducemarinelitterandplasticpollution,especiallyfromland-basedsources,aswellasseveralapplicableinternationalagreementsandsoftlawinstrumentsrelatingtotradeinplasticsortoreducingimpactsonmarinelife.However,noneoftheinternationalpoliciesagreedsince2000includesaglobal,binding,specificandmeasurabletargetlimitingplasticpollution.Thishasledmanygovernments,aswellasbusinessandcivilsociety,tocallforaglobalinstrumentonmarinelitterandplasticpollution.1017MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTIntroductionandplasticpollution?•Whatisthelatestunderstandingofthesources,pathways,behaviourandfateofmarinelitter,especiallyplastics?•Whatarethemosteffectivefield,laboratoryandmodellingapproachesformonitoringandmeasurementofthesources,pathways,behaviourandfateofmarinelitterandplasticpollution?•Whatongoingresponsesandactions,environmentaltechnologiesandbusinesssolutionsexisttotacklethisurgentglobalproblem?Section1looksatthelatestevidenceconcerningtheimpactsofexposuretomarinelitterandplasticpollution,includingtheeffectsofchemicalleachatesonmarinelifeandhumans.Ingestion,physicalentanglement,smothering,andthetransportofpathogensinbiofilmsarecauseingarangeoflethalandnon-lethaleffectsinmarineorganisms,includingphysiologicaldisturbances,disease,changesingeneexpression,alterationsofbehaviour,andshiftsinspeciesassemblagesandbiodiversity.Theseinturn,haveimpactsonecosystems,leadingtoawiderangeofsocialandeconomicconsequencessuchaslossofrevenuefromnaturalresourcesanddamagetomaritimeindustriesandcoastalinfrastructure(Figureii).Atthesametime,therearemanysignificantknowledgegapswithrespecttopotentiallong-termclimateeffects,healthimpactsonmarineorganismsandhumans(e.g.viaconsumptionofseafood)andthefulleconomicandsocialcostsofthelossofecosystemservices.Section2providesarecentestimateofthevolumeofplasticsbeingproduced.Italsodescribesthemajorsourcesofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionandthepathwaysalongwhichlitter,especiallyplasticsandmicroplastics,flowsintothemarineenvironmentandaccumulatesindifferenthabitats.Nearly85percentofplasticpackagingwastegoestolandfillorendsupasunregulatedoruncollectedwaste,withahighlikelihoodofenteringtheoceans(Andradesetal.2016).Thevolumeofplasticwastefrombothland-basedsourcesandsea-basedactivitiescontinuestogrow,whilepersonalprotectiveequipmentandotherplasticitemssuchasthosewidelyusedandquicklydisposedofduringtheCOVID-19pandemicareofincreasingconcern.Thepathwaysbywhichmarinelitterandplasticpollutionenterandflowthroughthemarineenvironment,andtheirdistributionandfate,havebeenstudiedinmuchgreaterdetailoverthepastfiveyearsthanpreviously(Figureiii).However,theabsolutevolumesofplasticsindifferentmarinezonesandhabitatsremainpoorlyknown.Thisismainlyduetopoorsamplingcoverageandthelackofstandardizedsamplingprotocols.Currentglobalestimateshavethereforebeendeterminedprimarilythroughmodellingbasedonproxies,suchaspopulationdensities,ratherthanondirectmeasurements(Harrisetal.2021).Inthissectionthreeregionalhotspotsareexaminedindetail:theSincethe2016UNEPreportMarinePlasticDebrisandMicroplastics–GlobalLessonsandResearchtoInspireActionandGuidePolicyChange,substantialnewresearchhasbeencarriedoutandfindingshavebeenpresentedonmarinelitter,especiallyplastics.Researchhasfocusedmainlyonestimatingthevolumesofplasticsflowingintotheoceans;themajorsourcesofmarinelitterandplasticpollution;thepathwaysandfateofplasticswithintheoceans;theimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollution,includingmicroplasticsandchemicalleachates,onmarinelife,ecosystemfunctioningandplanetaryprocesses;therisksthatmicroplasticsposetohumanhealth;andthetypesofpolicies,technologiesandbusinesssolutionsthatmayhelptotackletheproblemsthatmarinelitterandplasticpollutionpresenttosocietyandtheeconomy.2Thisassessmentdescribesthefar-reachingimpactsofplasticsinouroceansandacrosstheplanet.Plasticsareamarkerofthecurrentgeologicalera,theAnthropocene(Zalasiewiczetal.2016).Theyhavegiventheirnametoanewmicrobialhabitatknownastheplastisphere(Amaral-Zettleretal.2020;seeGlossary).Increasedawarenessofthenegativeimpactsofmicroplasticsonmarineecosystemsandhumanhealthhasledthemtobereferredtoasatypeof“OceanPM2.5”akintoairpollution(i.e.particulatematterlessthan2.5micrometres[μm]indiameter)(Shu2018).Withcumulativeglobalproductionofprimaryplasticbetween1950and2017estimatedat9,200millionmetrictonsandforecasttoreach34billionmetrictonsby2050(Geyer2020)(Figurei),themosturgentissuesnowtobeaddressedarehowtoreducethevolumeofuncontrolledormismanagedwastestreamsgoingintotheoceans(Andradesetal.2018)andhowtoincreasethelevelofrecycling.Ofthe7billiontonsofplasticwastegeneratedgloballysofar,lessthan10percenthasbeenrecycled(Geyer2020).Todaycumulativeannualeconomiclossesasaresultofdamagetomaritimeindustries,includingthecostsofclean-ups,areestimatedtototalsomeUS$6-19billion(Deloitte2019).Sincethisestimatedoesnotincludethecostsofdegradationofecosystemgoodsandservicesduetomarinelitter(Beaumontetal.2019),itislikelytosignificantlyunderestimatethetotaleconomiclosses.Thecombinationofcheapfossilfuelfeedstocksandpoorwasteinfrastructureandrecyclinghasledtoprojectionsthatby2040theexpectedmassofplasticleakageintotheoceanscouldrepresentaUS$100billionannualfinancialriskforbusinessesifgovernmentsrequirethemtocoverwastemanagementcosts(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Thesefigurespointtosignificantmarketfailuresandunderlinetheneedforurgentaction.Theassessmentsetsouttoaddressfourkeyquestionstohelpguidefutureactions:•Whatcannewresearchandevidencetellusabouttheenvironmentalandhumanhealthimpactsofmarinelitter18MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTResinandbresMilliontonsStillinuse9200milliontons1950-2017YearAccumulationYearlyproductionDiscardedRecycledIncinerated2004006008001000120020502040203020202010200019901980197019601950Sources:UNEP2021,adaptedfromJambecketal.2018;PlasticsEurope2019;Geyer2020.700milliontons1000milliontons5300milliontons2900milliontonsGlobalplasticproductionandaccumulation....andfuturetrendsIllustratedbyGRID-ArendalMARINELITTERANDMACROPLASTICSMICROPLASTICSNANOPLASTICSIngestionRaftingoforganismsRaftingofpathogensPhysicalcontactwithecosystemsIngestionChemicalsassociatedwithplasticsPathogenicagentsBenthichabitatsLimitedresearchDamageGenderinequalityPhysicalhealthBlockageLiabilityMentalhealthEntanglementIllustratedbyGRID-ArendalBIOLOGICALIMPACTSECONOMICIMPACTSSOCIETALIMPACTSDirectrisksfromlostandleakedlitterandplasticsTurtlesMarinemammalsSeabirdsSource:UNEP2021.Figurei:Globalplasticproduction,accumulationandfuturetrendsFigureii:Directrisksandimpactsofmarinelitterandplastics19MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTMediterraneanSeabecauseofitsenclosednatureandproximitytomillionsofpeople;theArcticOceanbecauseofitspristinenatureandimpactsonindigenouspeoples;andtheEastAsiaandAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)regionbecauseofitsextensivecoastlineinproximitytoverylargepopulationswhicharehighlydependentonthemarineenvironmentforsurvivalbutoftenhaveinsufficientwastemanagementsystems.Section3coversthelatestimprovementsinandmodificationstomonitoringmethodsandsurveysoflitterandmacroplasticsinriverine,shoreline,coastalandoffshoreenvironments.Inthepastfiveyearstherehavebeensignificanteffortstodevelopeffectiveglobalmonitoringprogrammes.Currentlythereare15majoroperationalmonitoringprogrammesindifferentgeographicalranges,linkedtothreetypesofactivity:marinelitteractioncoordination,datacollectionframeworks,andlarge-scaledatarepositoryandportalinitiatives.Todate,thedataandinformationbeingcollectedremainlargelyunconnectedandfragmented.Digitaltechnologies,satellites,aircraftanddrones,combinedwithshipbornesensors,samplersandautonomousplatforms(e.g.floats,gliders,benthiclandersandcrawlers),areopeningupthepossibilityforaffordableglobalmonitoringprogrammestotrackanddeterminethedensitiesofmarinelitterandmacroplasticsfromcoastalareasoutintotheopenoceanandintothehadaldepths.Datafromsuchplatformsareespeciallyimportantfordeterminingvolumesinsedimentsandriverinedischargeoverlargeareas,particularlywhenusedwithgroundcalibration.Themainchallengenowistheirintercalibration,sothatthedatacanbeusedformodellingandpredictionofthedistributionandquantitiesofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionindifferenthabitats.Therearestillwidespreadconcernsamongscientistsaboutthesamplingbiasesofdifferentfieldandlaboratorytechniquesforidentifyinganddeterminingthevolumeofmicroplasticsintheenvironment.Intrinsicdifficultiesexistduetothehighvariabilityinthesize,shape,colour,anddegreeofdegradationofplastics.Withoutsignificantimprovementsinqualityassuranceandcontrolprotocolsforsamplingandanalyticaltechniques,itwillremaindifficulttodemonstratethereliabilityandrepeatabilityofpublishedresults.Alongsidelarge-scalemonitoringprogrammes,thereareindicatorprocessesandbaselinedatacollectionactivitiesatspecificlocations.Thegrowingnumberofnetworks,citizenscienceprojectsandparticipatoryprocessesinvolvedinmeasuringandtacklingmarinelitterandplasticpollutionareyieldingresultsthatcansupportlocaldecision-making.However,inmostcountriesthereisnoconsistentdatacollectionapproachsuitablefornationalreporting.Streamliningmethodologies,dataflowsandindicatorsetstoestablishbaselinesisnowveryimportant,especiallyinthecaseoftransboundarywaters.Thereisalsoaneedtofacilitatejointanalyses,unifieddefinitions,standardsandformats,andwell-developedinfrastructuresfordataflow,storageandsharing.DeepsedimentsCITYANDINDUSTRYAGRICULTURESHIPPINGFISHINGACTIVITYSinkforplastics:ItaliclettersAQUACULTURERECREATIONALFISHINGRECREATIONALBOATINGShelfmudbeltFansystemdepositFjordDriftdepositWave-dominatedestuaryTide-dominatedestuaryCanyonBeachsedimentsShallowcoastalenvironmentMajorsourcesandsinksofmicroplasticsandmarinelitterSourceofplastics:CAPITALLETTERSSource:UNEP2021.IllustratedbyGRID-ArendalFigureiii:Majorsourcesandsinksofmicroplasticsandmarinelitter20MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTInaddition,Section3reviewscurrentstandardsforbiodegradabilityandtraceabilityinplasticsthroughlabellingschemes.Thereareveryfewverificationschemesforthemanufacturingandprocessingofplasticsorrecyclates,andnonethatrequirelistingconstituentpolymersorchemicaladditivesinconsumerproductsorprovidetraceability.Thoseschemesthatdoexistrefermainlytotherecyclingandbiodegradabilityofplasticsundercontrolledconditions.However,thespecificconditionssetoutbystandards-settingbodies,suchasindustrialcompostingrequirementsforbiodegradation,maynotbemetoutsidehighlyregulatedwastemarkets.Lackofinformationaboutrecyclatesisalsoabarriertoincreasingrecyclingratesandthedevelopmentofmarkets.Section4looksatongoingresponses,actionsandpotentialsolutionstotacklingmarinelitter,especiallyplastics.Thegrowingnumberofglobal,regional,nationalandlocalresponsesandactionsareraisingawarenessand,insomecases,helpingtoreduceflowsofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionintothemarineenvironment.However,theyareunevenlydeployedandarefragmented.Connectingallthedifferentresponsesandactionsofgovernments,businessandcitizensisnowcriticallyimportant.Ontheglobalscaletherearenumerousinternationalagreements,conventionsandorganizationsrelatedtomarinelitterandpollution.TheyincludetheBasel,RotterdamandStockholmConventions,theInternationalMaritimeOrganizationandtheConferenceofthePartiesoftheLondonConventiononthePreventionofMarinePollutionbyDumpingofWastesandOtherMatteranditsProtocol,andtheCommitteeonFisheriesoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.PartiestotheBaselConventionarenowrequiredtocontroltransboundarymovementsoftheplasticwastecoveredundertheproceduresestablishedbytheConvention.TheamendmentstotheBaselConventionconcerningplasticsdonotimplyabanontheimport,transitorexportofplasticwaste,butratheraclarificationofwhenandhowtheConventionappliestosuchwaste.WorldTradeOrganizationmemberscanalsotakeactiontosupportinternationaleffortstoreduceandphaseoutplasticpollution,aligntradepolicies,andadvancedialogueandactionsatministerialleveltostrengthenthemultilateraltradingsysteminordertoreduceplasticpollution.Moreover,arangeoflegislativeresponsesareshowingsuccess,withbans,taxes,improvedwasteoperations,economicincentives,extendedproducerresponsibility,regionalconventions,marinelitteractionplans,educationinitiativesandpublicawarenesscampaignsbeingwidelyimplemented.Shiftsinpublicattitudesandgreaterlevelsofpublicconcern,awarenessandactivismregardingtheuse,reuseorreplacementofplasticswithalternativesarealsoprovidinganimpetusforaction.Manyenvironmentallysoundtechnologiesandinnovationsareappearingintheplasticsandwastesector(EllenMacArthurFoundation2020).Anumberofthemareaimedatimprovingthelabellingandtraceabilityofplasticproductsthroughouttheirlifecycle,forexampleusingblockchaintechnologiestohelpreducethelossofmaterialsalongsupplychains.Recentlytherehasbeenaproliferationofbusiness-ledjoint-industryinitiativesandpartnershipsfocusingonpackaging,thewastehierarchyandcircularity;thedevelopmentofbiodegradableplasticsandalternativematerials;andtheapplicationofecodesign(UNEP2019;EllenMacArthurFoundation2020;WWF,theEllenMacArthurFoundationandBC[BostonConsulting]2020;EllenMacArthurFoundation2021;IRP[InternationalResearchPanel]2021).Someglobalbrandcompanieshavealsoputinplaceplanstoretoolandreconfiguretheirsupplychainstoalignthemwithnational-levelschemes,shiftingproductionawayfromfossilfuel-basedplasticstowardsrecycledmaterials.Theattentiongiventoplasticshasgeneratedlargeamountsofresearch.Howevertheexpertsinvolvedinthisassessmenthaveidentifiedanumberofcriticalresearchareasthatstillneedurgentattention.Theyincludequantificationofthevolumesofdifferentplasticfractionsfromkeysourcesandtheirfateindifferentmarinehabitats;quantificationofthedamageandeconomiccostsofmarinelitterandplasticstomaritimeindustriesandintermsofecosystemandhumanhealth;improvementstorecyclingtechnologiesandstandardsforplasticrecyclates;thedevelopmentofcircularityandecodesignforplasticproducts,includingtheuseofalternativematerialsandbiodegradabilityoutsideindustrialconditions;improvedriskassessmentframeworks;andadeeperunderstandingoftheimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticsonsocietalnorms,attitudesandbehaviour.©iStock/JosephineJullian21MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT22MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTENVIRONMENTAL,HEALTH,ECONOMICANDSOCIALIMPACTSANDRISKSSECTION1©iStock/KNeville23MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1.1EvidenceofbiologicalandecologicalimpactsAquaticorganismsarecontinuouslyexposedtolitterandplasticpollution.Thelargest,mostpersistentfractionsofmarinelitteraresyntheticpolymersandthermosets,knowncollectivelyasplastics;theseaccountforatleast85percentoftotalmarinewaste(Law2017;Agamuthuetal.2019).Infreshwatersystemsthethreatofphysicalharmfromlitterandmacroplasticdebrisremainsrelativelyunder-researched(Blettleretal.2019).Bycontrast,therehavebeenmorethan100,000marinestudiesonthelethalandnon-lethaleffectsoflitterandplasticsateverylevelofthefoodweb,includingalgae,zooplankton,crustaceaandinvertebrates,fish,birds,turtlesandmammals(e.g.Boergeretal.2010;Fossietal.2012;Fossietal.2014;Avioetal.2015;Sbranaetal.2017;Fossietal.2018;Laversetal.2018;Waiteetal.2018;Akhbarizadehetal.2019;Lietal.2019;Zhu,C.etal.2019;Zhu,L.etal.2019).Themaineffectsobservedcomefromentanglement,smothering,raftingofpathogenicorganisms(AlianiandMolcard2003;Woodsetal.2019),ingestionofplasticfragments(AnbumaniandKakkar2018)andexposuretoplastic-associatedchemicals(AlimbaandFaggio2019).Theimpactsdependonthetype,sizeandhabitat(Rochmanetal.2016b;Lusheretal.2017a;Buccietal.2019;Windsoretal.2019)(Figure1).Inthefollowingsubsectionsthedirectrisks,impactsandeffectsofdifferentsizedplasticsonmarinelife,humanhealth,societyandtheeconomyarelookedatinmoredetail.1.1.1ImpactsofmarinedebrisandmacroplasticsonmarinelifeOngoingmonitoringresultscontinuetoshowthatphysicalcollisionswithmacro-sizedplasticsbymarinemammals,fish,birds,reptilesandplantsareadirectsourceoffatalities(AlomarandDeudero2017;Alomaretal.2017;Franco-Trecuetal.2017;Reinertetal.2017;Fossietal.2018;Thieletal.2018;Buccietal.2019;Woodsetal.2019).Itisdifficulttodetermineandquantifythecausallinksbetweenmortalityandingestionoflargeplasticfragments,buttherearegrowingnumbersofinvestigationstobetterunderstandtheoriginoftheplasticsandthecausesofdeath(Ungeretal.2016).WhatiswidelyreportedistheFigure1:DirectrisksandimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticsMARINELITTERANDMACROPLASTICSMICROPLASTICSNANOPLASTICSIngestionRaftingRaftingPhysicalcontactIngestionChemicals/additivesPathogenicagentsBenthichabitatsLimitedresearchDamageGenderinequalityPhysicalhealthBlockageLiabilityMentalhealthDeathPhysicaldamageBiodiversityreductionAlterationofspeciesassemblageCreationofmicrobialhabitats(theplastisphere)InvasivespeciesReductionofshpopulationBiologicalactivityreductionDisturbanceofecosystemprocessesIncreasingspreadofbacteriaProductivityreductionHumanhealthReducedcondenceinproductsWastemanagementissuesExperimentalrecreationreductionHeritagelossHumanwell-beingreductionEntanglementTransportofpathogensintocoastalareasPropellersandshaftsentangledbymarinedebris.Over2300reportedcasesfrom2010to2015e.g.collisionwithoatingcontainerse.g.drinkingwatere.g.Aeromonassp.canpopulateoatingplasticsFunctional,llers,colourants,reinforcementinplasticproductsApplyprecautionaryapproachDirectrisksfromlostandleakedlitterandplasticsLeadingtophysicaldamage,smotheringordeathPlasticsarefoundin380taxarecordedonoatingdebris,potentiallyleadingtoinvasionofdistanthabitats,e.g.damagetocoralreefsandadverseimpactsonhumanhealthMaritimeworkersinjuredonsharplitter,entangled,andexposedtounsanitaryitemsWorkingconditionsConsiderablylargerconcentrationsinsedimentscomparedtothewatercolumnThediseaserateincoralsincreasesfrom5%to89%whenincontactwithplasticsBIOLOGICALIMPACTSECONOMICIMPACTSSOCIETALIMPACTSDirectrisksandimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticsPresentationofselectedinformationandnumbersTurtlesMarinemammalsSeabirdsSpendingtimeatlitteredcoastsandocean.ExperienceofanimalsaectedbymarinelitterIllustratedbyGRID-ArendalSources:UNEP2021,adaptedfromAlianiandMolcard2003;Boergeretal.2010;Fossietal.2012;Fossietal.2014;Goldsteinetal.2014;Avioetal.2015;Kiesslingetal.2015;Santosetal.2015;Rechetal.2016;Rochmanetal.2016b;Hongetal.2017b;Lusheretal.2017a;Sbranaetal.2017;Steeretal.2017;AnbumaniandKakkar2018;GodoyandStockin2018;Duncanetal.2018a;Duncanetal.2018bFossietal.2018;Lambetal.2018;Laversetal.2018;Schymanskietal.2018;Waiteetal.2018;Akhbarizadehetal.2019;AlimbaandFaggio2019;Battistietal.2019;Besselingetal.2019;Buccietal.2019;Koelmansetal.2019;Lietal.2019;Windsoretal.2019;Woodsetal.2019;Zhu,C.etal.2019;Zhu,L.etal.2019;Amaral-Zettleretal.2020;Harris2020;Landriganetal.2020;Prataetal.2020a.24MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTpresenceofplasticfragmentsinthegutsandtissuesofawiderangeofmarinespeciesatallstagesoftheirlifecycle(Lusheretal.2017a;Steeretal.2017),includingthosedirectlyvitaltofoodprovisionsuchasfishandshellfish(Rochmanetal.2016a;Law2017;Qiaoetal.2019;Rochmanetal.2019),eitherdirectlyfromtheenvironmentorviaplastic-contaminatedprey(Setäläetal.2014;Prataetal.2020a).Macroplasticdebrishasbeenfoundinthedigestivesystemofaquaticorganisms,includingallmarineturtlespeciessampledandnearlyhalfofallsurveyedseabirdandmarinemammalspecies(Poppietal.2012;Kühnetal.2015;Provencheretal.2015;Duncanetal.2018a;Duncanetal.2018b;GodoyandStockin2018;Verlisetal.2018;Battistietal.2019).Floatingmacroplasticsremainamajorconcernintheconservationofseaturtles,astheirvisualfeedingstrategiesmeanthattheyselectstructuresanalogoustothoseofjellyfish,suchassoftfloatingplastics.Theirbackwardfacingoesophagealpapillaealsoinhibitregurgitationandfacilitateparticleaccumulationinthegut(Schuyleretal.2014;Vegteretal.2014).Plasticbottlefragments,fishinglinesandpaintchipsarecommonlyencounteredinthegutsofseaturtles(Wedemeyer-Strombeletal.2015;Phametal.2017;Clukeyetal.2018).InBrazil70percentofjuvenileturtlesanalysedshowedplasticingestion(Santosetal.2015).IntheNorthPacificOceanandtheMediterraneanSeamorethan80percentofturtleswereshowntohaveingestedsomeformofdebris(Wedemeyer-Strombeletal.2015;Matiddietal.2017;Duncanetal.2018a;Duncanetal.2018b).InNewZealand63percentofendangeredgreenturtles,Cheloniamydas,hadingestedsyntheticdebris(GodoyandStockin2018).Non-lethaleffectsincludelacerationsfromtheparticlesastheytranslocateacrossthecellmembraneintothecirculatory,lymphatic,respiratoryand/orotherbiologicalsystems(Browneetal.2008;Hämeretal.2014;Brenneckeetal.2015;Landriganetal.2020;VethaakandLegler2021),suffocationandstarvation(Wrightetal.2013a;Wrightetal.2013b;Adimeyetal.2014;AnbumaniandKakkar2018;Sunetal.2019),physiologicaldisturbances(Auetal.2015;AnbumaniandKakkar2018),changesingeneexpression(Rochmanetal.2014b)andalterationsinbehaviour(Greenetal.2017).Evidenceoftheseeffectshasbeendocumentedforalgae(e.g.Carsonetal.2013),zooplankton(e.g.Desforgesetal.2015),andconsumerssuchasfish(e.g.Lusheretal.2017a;McNeishetal.2018;Ariasetal.2019),turtles(e.g.Duncanetal.2018a;Duncanetal.2018b),birds(e.g.Wilcoxetal.2015;Hollandetal.2016;ReynoldsandRyan2018;Battistietal.2019),whales(e.g.Nelmsetal.2019a)andseals(e.g.HallangerandGabrielsen2018;Donohueetal.2019),althoughanabsenceofplasticsinsealstomachsintheArcticandAntarcticwasreportedbyBourdagesetal.(2020)andGarcia-Garinetal.(2020),respectively.1.1.2EffectsofmicroplasticsinmarinelifeIthasbeenrecognizedformorethanadecadethatmicroplasticscantransferarangeoftoxicchemicals,metalsandmicropollutantsintoopensurfacewaters,wheretheycanbeingestedbyawiderangeoffauna(Arthuretal,2009;Ashtonetal.2010;Mattssonetal.2015;Haward2018;Karlssonetal.2018;UNEP2018a).Overthepastdecadeabroadrangeoflaboratoryandexperimentalstudieshavecomplementedfieldobservationsinthehopeofachievingabetterunderstandingoftheeffectsofmicro-and/ornanoplasticsondifferentorganisms(e.g.corals,birds,fishandmammals).However,monitoringmicroplasticsremainschallengingbothintheenvironmentandunderlaboratoryconditions.Plasticparticlesareoftennaturallyorexperimentallyco-contaminatedwithdiversechemicalpollutants(Setäläetal.2019;Jacobetal.2020).Ithasthereforebeenconcludedthatmoreinnovative,robustandscientificallysoundexperimentsinthefieldareneeded.Forexample,thenetscommonlyusedtocollectmicroplastics,andwhichhavemeshsizesrangingfrom>500μmto>200μm,undersamplemicroplasticsandleadtolowerestimatescomparedtostudiesusingfinermeshnetsof0.45µm.Previousreportsonthequantitiesofmicroplasticsinthemarineenvironmentarelikelytohavebeenunderestimated(UNEP2016a;Barrowsetal.2017;Barrowsetal.2018a;Greenetal.2018;Whitakeretal.2019;Lindequeetal.2020)andopentomisinterpretation.Samplelocationisalsoimportant;forexample,Ryanetal.(2019)collectedmicrofibres(Box1)inthreeoceanbasinsandfoundthatfibredensitieswere2.5timesgreaterattheseasurfacethan5metressubsurface.Properlyestimatingquantitiesofnanoplastics(Box2)presentsanevengreaterchallenge.Despitethesedifficulties,thebodyofliteraturelookingattheeffectsofmicroplasticscontinuestoincrease(Lusheretal.2017a;Anbumanietal.2018;Arthuretal.2019;Bradneyetal.2019;Maesetal.2020;Peng,L.etal.2020;Xuetal.2020).However,theeffectsofmicroplasticsandthecausalmechanismsofharminmarinebiotaareunevenlystudiedandtherearemanydiscrepanciesamongreports(EuropeanUnion2019a;SAPEA[ScienceAdviceforPolicyfromEuropeanAcademies]2019;deRuijteretal.2020;Lindequeetal.2020;Peng,L.etal.2020;Xuetal.2020).Basedonanassessmentofmorethan100studies,deRuijteretal.(2020)performedaweightofevidenceanalysisforcausalmechanismsofharminfieldandlaboratorysettings.Theyfoundthatonlythreemechanismscouldbeconsideredtohavebeen“demonstrated”:inhibitionoffoodassimilationand/ordecreasednutritionalvalueoffood,internalphysicaldamage,andexternalphysicaldamage.Theresthadtobediscardedbecauseofpoorqualityassurance/qualitycontrolofstudies,orauthorsspeculatingratherthandemonstratingmechanisms.Theirrecommendationisthatriskassessmentshouldaddressthesemechanismswithhigherpriority.Physically,justaswithmacroplastics,microplasticsmaylaceratethegutorcauseananimaltofeelfull,andthereisevidence(albeitusingveryhighdoses)thatverysmallingestedmicroplasticsmaycrossthegutliningandaccumulateintissues(Browneetal.2008;Rosenkranzetal.2009;Dengetal.2017;Schüretal.2019)wheretheycanpotentiallyhavedeleteriouseffectssuchasinflammation(Dengetal.2017).Severaleffectsappeartobeexacerbatedwhenorganismsareexposedtoplasticswithsorbedcontaminants(Lithneretal.2012;Browneetal.2013;Rochmanetal.2014a;Martínez-Gómezetal.2017;Rochmanetal.2019).Variationsinstudyfindingsarelikelyto25MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTThevolumeofcellulosic(naturalandregenerated)andsyntheticfibresenteringtheoceanseveryyearhasbeenestimatedtorangebetween8,000and520,000metrictons(BoucherandFriot2017;Belzaguietal.2019).Aglobalcompilationofdatasetsfrom916seawatersamplescollectedinsixoceanbasinsshowedthatalthoughsyntheticpolymerscurrentlyaccountfortwo-thirdsofglobalfibreproduction,oceanicfibresaremainlycomposedofnaturalpolymers.Infraredcharacterizationof~2,000fibresrevealedthatonly8.2percentofoceanicfibresaresynthetic,withmostbeingcellulosic(79.5percent)orofanimalorigin(12.3percent)(Suariaetal.2020).Thisagreeswithstudiesthatreportcellulosicfibresaccountingfor60-80percentofallfibresinseafloorsediments(Woodalletal.2015;Sanchez-Vidaletal.2018),marineorganisms(Remyetal.2015;Tayloretal.2016),wastewater(Primpkeetal.2019),freshwater(Drisetal.2017;Milleretal.2017),icecores(Obbardetal.2014)andairbornefibrepopulations(Drisetal.2017;Stantonetal.2019b).Microfibres,thebreakdownproductoffibres,areubiquitousinwater,soilandair(Avioetal.2017;Windsoretal.2018;Zambranoetal.2019).Inthemarineenvironmenttheyarefoundsuspendedinthewatercolumn(Bagaevetal.2017;Songetal.2018),ontheseafloor(Woodalletal.2014;Sanchez-Vidaletal.2018)andthroughoutmarineecosystems,wheretheyareingestedbyawiderangeofbiota(Tayloretal.2016;WeldenandCowie2016;Henryetal.2019;Rondaetal.2019;Suariaetal.2020).Syntheticmicrofibresareadistinctsub-categoryofthemicroplasticsfamily,spanningawiderangeofsizes(roughly3to30micrometres[µm]inwidth)andoriginatingmainlyfromclothingandtextilesaswellasfromusesintransportationsuchaswearandtearontyres.Theycomprisevariouspolymermaterials,includingsynthetics,semi-syntheticsandnaturalproducts(e.g.polyester,nylon,spandex,PLA-polylacticacid,cotton,hempandsilk).Gaviganetal.(2020)estimatethat5.6metrictonsofsyntheticmicrofibreswereemittedintotheenvironmentfromclotheswashingbetween1950and2016,witha12.9percentgrowthrateduringthepastdecade.Thisfigureissmallcomparedtothetotalvolumeofplasticsintheocean,butislikelytobeanunderestimategiventhepoorunderstandingofthequantitiesinvolvedintheemissionpathwaysfromclothingproduction,useandwashing,alongwithemissionandretentionratesduringwashing,wastewatertreatmentandsludgemanagement.Microfibreswerepreviouslyconsideredthemostcommontypeofmicroplasticsfoundinsamples(Browneetal.2011;Rochmanetal.2015;Obbard2018;Maximenkoetal.2019).However,inhundredsofstudiescellulosicfibres(naturalandregenerated)wereincludedinthesyntheticrealm,inflating“microplastic”countsinbothenvironmentalmatricesandorganisms(Weschetal.2016;Cesaetal.2017).Thiserrorresultedeitherfromtheassumptionthatallcolouredfibresweresynthetic(Remyetal.2015)ortheassumptionthatman-madecellulosicfibrescouldbeconsideredsyntheticandincludedinmicroplasticcountsbecausetheyareextrudedandprocessedindustrially(Obbardetal.2014;Woodalletal.2014).Theseerrorswerecompoundedbyapreviouslarge-scaleinvestigationwhichreportedthat69percentofmarinefibresweresynthetic(Barrowsetal.2018a);however,thisstudywasbasedonthecharacterizationofasmallnumberoffibresusinginfraredtechniques(Comnea-Stancuetal.2017;Käppleretal.2018).Visualandchemometricmethodsarebeingdeveloped(Caietal.2019),butthepresenceofdyes,oxidationandmicrobialdegradationcanaltercelluloseabsorptionbands,makingitverydifficulttodistinguishnaturalandman-madecellulose,especiallywhendealingwithenvironmentallydegradedpolymers(Stark2019).Differentmicrofibreshavedifferentsurfaceproperties,makingthemvariablycapableofadsorbingmaterialsfromthesurroundingenvironmentandbeingmodifiedbytheadditionofchemicalsthatconveyspecificpropertiessuchasUVprotection,waterrepellenceandcolours.Becausemicrofibresaredenserthanseawater,theyarelikelytoaccumulateontheoceanfloorandslowlydegradeovertensifnothundredsofyears(Bejgarnetal.2015;Andrady2017)whilebeingingestedbydeepseaorganisms(Tayloretal.2016;Barrowsetal.2018a).Allthesefactorscomplicatetheassessmentoftheirtoxicityandhealthhazards(Botterelletal.2019;RoyerandDeheyn2019).Box1:Fibresandmicrofibres©iStock/ИгорьСалов26MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTbetheconsequenceofdifferentpolymertypes,associatedchemicals,thestudyspecies,thedosesusedduringtesting,andthedurationoftheexposure(Brandonetal.2016;LenzandLabrenz2018;Buccietal.2019).Underlaboratoryconditions,microplasticshavebeenshowntocauseavarietyofbiologicaleffectsincrustaceans,molluscsandpolychaetes(AnbumaniandKakkar2018;Silvaetal.2020),includingchangesingeneandproteinexpression(Paul-Pontetal.2016;Greenetal.2019),inflammation(vonMoos2012),disruptionoffeedingbehaviour(Coleetal.2015),decreasesingrowth(Auetal.2015),decreaseinreproductivesuccess(Auetal.2015;Sussarelluetal.2016;Silvaetal.2020),changesinlarvaldevelopment(Nobreetal.2015),reducedfiltrationandrespirationrates(Paul-Pontetal.2016),anddecreasedsurvival(Auetal.2015;Cuietal.2017).However,therearealsostudiesinwhichnoeffectsweredetected(Hämeretal.2014;Bateletal.2016;Espinosaetal.2018;Romanetal.2019).Jacobetal.(2020)reviewedatotalof782directmarkersofdiseaseprogression,knownasbiologicalendpoints(seeGlossary),in46studies;nearlyone-thirdofthemarkersweresignificantlyaffectedbyexposuretovirginmicroplastics.Moreeffectswereobservedforsmallplasticparticles≤20μminsize;forfishtheseeffectsincludedchangesinbehaviour,sensoryandneuromuscularfunctions,activityandmotion,shoaling,Nanoplasticsareasub-categoryofmicroplasticsintentionallyusedinmanyproducts,forexampletextiles(PatraandGouda2013;Radetić2013)andcosmetics.Theyarefoundthroughouttheoceans,includinginlargeoceangyres(terHalleetal.2016).Thedefinitionofnanoplasticsisstillunderdiscussion(Gigaultetal.2018);someauthorsuse≤1μmasthedefinitionofsize(daCostaetal.2016)whileothersuse1μmto500μm(RiosMendozaandBalcer2019)(seeGlossary).Gigaultetal.(2018)definenanoplasticsas“particlesunintentionallyproduced(i.e.fromthedegradationandmanufacturingofplasticobjects)andpresentingacolloidalbehaviour,withinthesizerangefrom1to1,000nm[nanometres]”.Analogiesorextrapolationsbetweennanoplasticsandothernanomaterialsshouldbetreatedwithcautionduetodifferentproductionpathwaysandphysicalandchemicalproperties.AccordingtotheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),amanufacturednanomaterialis“intentionallyproducedforcommercialpurposestohavespecificpropertiesorspecificcomposition”(ISO/TS80004e1:2015).Nanoplasticsarehighlypolydisperseinphysicalpropertiesandheterogeneousincomposition(Gigaultetal.2016;LambertandWagner2016;terHalleetal.2016).Becausetheyareproducedunintentionallyfromthedegradationofmicroscaleplasticlitter(e.g.secondarynanoplasticsfrombiodegradablemicroplastics,González-Pleiteretal.2019),itishighlyprobablethatnanoplasticswillformheteromorphicaggregateswithothernaturalandanthropogenicmaterials(Hüfferetal.2017).Inthissensethecolloidalbehaviourofnanoplasticsisrelevant.Theadversehealtheffectsofnanoplasticsinorganisms,includinghumans,arelargelyunknown(Barríaetal.2020;Landriganetal.2020;UNEP2020e).Thereisasignificantmismatchbetweenlaboratorystudiesandenvironmentalconcentrations.Forexample,laboratorystudiesdemonstratetheabilityofmicroplasticstodegradeintonanoplastics,butinthefieldscientistsremainunabletoquantifyandcharacterizethem.Somestudiessuggestthatnanoplasticsmaybemorehazardousthanmicroplastics(AnbumaniandKakkar2018;Bellingerietal.2019;Peng,L.etal.2020;Rubioetal.2020).Thisisbecauseitislikelytheirsmallsizewillmakethemmorelikelytotranslocatebeyondthegutandtheirhighsurface-to-volumeratioenablesthemtobeefficientvectorsforchemicalcontaminants.Theavailabledatashowsomeevidencethatnanoparticles,onceingested,canpassfromtheintestinesintoananimal’scirculatorysystemandgenerateanimmuneresponse.Inonelaboratoryexperimentnanoparticleswereabletopassintothefoodweb,fromalgaetozooplanktonandthentofish,wheretheyenteredthebrainandincitedbehaviouraldisorder(Peng,L.etal.2020).Therearelongstandingdatashowingahighpotentialforbioaccumulationandbiomagnificationalongpartsofthemarinefoodchain(Suedeletal.1994;Akhbarizadehetal.2019;Saley2019).However,thelackofstandardizedmethodologyfornanoplasticsdetectionmakesdemonstratingthattheseprocessesoccurachallenge.Studieshaveshownthatdifferentphylareactdifferently,sothatitisdifficultatthisstagetopredicttheecologicalrisksofnanoplasticstothemarineenvironment(Besselingetal.2019).Morerecently,thepotentialriskofnanoplasticsinseafoodhasbeenraised.Comparedtomicroplastics,nanoplasticshaveincreasedmobilityinthetissuesoflivingorganismsandtheirlargersurfacetovolumeratioincreasesthepotentialconcentrationofharmfulchemicalstheycanadsorb.Nevertheless,asindicatedintherecentreviewbyFerreiraetal.(2019),themarinedistributionandimpactofplasticnanoparticlesarerelativelyunknown.Thispresentsanunknownrisktomarineorganisms,aswellastohumanswhoconsumeseafood.Asthemostrecentreviewsstress,thereisanurgentneedforfurtherresearchandexperimentaldatatobetterunderstandthedifferentprocessesandmechanismsthatmayaffectmarinelifeandhumanhealth(Rubioetal.2020).Box2:Nanoplastics27MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTfeeding,boldnessandexploration,andvision.Incontrast,aggressivitymarkerswerenotaffected.Nervoussystemmarkerswerespecificallyaffectedbysmallparticles(24-45μminsize),buttheunderlyingmechanismsremainunclear.Thereviewalsohighlightedtheimpactsofvirginmicroplasticsonbraindevelopmentandstructure,andneurotoxicologicalindicatorssuchasacetylcholinesteraseactivity,indicatingthattranslocationofsmallplasticparticlesintothebraincoulddirectlyinitiatebraindisorders.However,theaccuracyofthemethodsused(e.g.fluorescenceandbraindissection)wasdebated.Inaddition,thereviewfoundthatparticles>500nanometres[nm]insizewereveryunlikelytopasstheblood-brainbarrierandthatinsteadtheunderlyingmechanismsresponsiblefortheirneurotoxicitycamefromalteredimmuneresponsesandmetabolism,culminatinginimpairedbrainfunctionsandbehaviour.Jacobetal.(2020)concludedthatthetoxicityofvirginmicroplasticstofishshouldbemoresystematicallyevaluated,usingrigorouslaboratory-basedmethods,inordertoobtainabetterunderstandingoftheunderlyingmechanismsofmicroplastictoxicityinmarineorganisms.Microplasticshavebeendemonstratedtosorbpersistentorganicpollutants(POPs)suchaspolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs),polychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)anddichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane(DDT),aswellastracemetals(e.g.copperorlead)(AnbumaniandKakkar2018;Bradneyetal.2019;Camachoetal.2019;GuoandWang2019;Fred-Ahmaduetal.2020;Pozoetal.2020).Thishasbeenshownexperimentallywithvirginplasticpelletsinseawater(Bakiretal.2016;Galloetal.2018;GuoandWang2019a).Naturalsedimentsandorganicmatteralsohavethecapacitytoadsorbhydrophobicorganicchemicals(Koelmansetal.2016;Prataetal.2020a).Althoughthemechanismsofaccumulationandconcentrationofchemicals,andhowchemicalsadsorbanddesorbtoandfromplastics,arewellresearched,theseconceptsarenottypicallyincludedintestsofmicroplasticbiologicaleffects,wheremanyfactorsotherthaningestion(Bakiretal.2016;Herzkeetal.2016;Hermsenetal.2018),suchasthehydrophobicityofthepollutant,typeofpolymer,ageoftheplastic,water,temperature,pressure,presenceofbiofoulingontheplasticsurface,andsalinity,allmatter(Rochman2015;Bakiretal.2016;AnbumaniandKakker2018;Peng,L.etal.2020).Inthecaseofnanoplastics,Koelmansetal.(2014,2016)andYuetal.(2019)concludedthattheirlargesurfaceareacouldleadtohigherconcentrationsoforganictoxicchemicalsorheavymetalsbeingretainedcomparedtomicroplastics,whichcouldleadtotheriskofgradientsbuildingupwithinanorganism’stissues(Boxes2and3).Primaryorvirginmicroplasticsmaybeconsideredharmfulbecauseoftheirpotentialtoreleasechemicalsintotheenvironment(Ashtonetal.2010;Mattssonetal.2015;Haward2018;UNEP2018a;Santanaetal.2020).Jacobetal.(2020)pointoutthatitistheirpotentialtoactasvectorsofcontaminantsthathasbeenstudied,ratherthanthetoxicityofthemicroplasticsthemselves.UNEP(2019)notesthatcurrentevidencesuggestsingestionofmicroplasticsdoesnotsignificantlyenhanceexposure/bioaccumulationoforganicpollutants(includingPOPs)comparedtoothertypesofparticlespresentintheenvironmentorotherexposurepathways(e.g.water,diet)ingeneral.Jacobetal.(2020)recommendmorein-depthresearchontheeffectsofsize,concentrationandcharge,usingenvironmentallyrelevantexposures,todeterminetoxicologicaltippingpointsanddoseorthresholdresponses.However,theyalsoconcludethateveninworstcasescenariosofplasticpollution,microplasticswilllikelyremainaminorfractionoftheothermicroparticlesnaturallypresentinwaterandsediment.Thus,researchersshouldconsiderusingthesameconcentrationsofnaturalparticlesascontrolstoaddresstheinducedeffectsofmicroplastics.Theyalsorecommendpublishingpositive,negativeandneutraleffectsofvirginmicroplasticstogethertohelppreventpotentialbiasduringmeta-analysisandtoenhancegeneralunderstandingoftheimpactsandnon-impactsofvirginmicroplasticsonfishandothermarineorganisms.1.1.3Impactsonhabitats,assemblagesandecosystemfunctionPlasticdebris,whetherflexibleorrigid,canalterthestructureandcompositionofmacrofaunal,microfaunalandbacterialassemblages(e.g.Katsanevakisetal.2007;Goldsteinetal.2012;Greenetal.2015;Carvalho-Souzaetal.2018;GESAMP2019;Peng,G.etal.2020).Flexibleplasticitemssuchasplasticbagsalsoaffectkeyecosystemprocessesbyblockinggasexchangeanddecreasingthefluxofinorganicnutrientsfromsediment,therebydecreasingprimaryproductivity(Greenetal.2015).Furthermore,abandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggear(ALDFG)likenets,ropes,cagesandnylonlinescandamagekeyhabitat-formingmarineorganismssuchascoralsandseagrassesthroughtissueabrasionandsmothering(Ballesterosetal.2018),sometimessignificantlyreducingtheirextent(RichardsandBeger2011;Carvalho-Souzaetal.2018).Onceonshore,debrisandmacroplasticscaninteractwithmarinebiota.Theycanbeingestedbyawidevarietyoforganisms(e.g.vanCauwenbergheetal.2015;Waiteetal.2018;Lietal.2019,Peng,L.etal.2019),provideadditionalsubstratesfororganismstodisperse(e.g.Majeretal.2012;Kirsteinetal.2016)andhavewiderecologicalimpacts.Forexample,thereducedabilityofcarbonatereefsandprimaryproducerstoabsorbcarbonduetouptakeofmicroplasticscanaffecttheirfunctioning(Carvalho-Souzaetal.2018;GESAMP2019)andpotentiallyhaveaknock-oneffectwithrespecttoglobalwarming(CenterforInternationalEnvironmentalLaw2019).Lambetal.(2018)demonstratedalinkbetweenmacroplasticpollutionandanincreasedlikelihoodofcoraldisease.Thelikelihoodofdiseaseincoralsrosefrom4percentto89percentwhentheyhadbeenincontactwithplastics,butthemechanismisunknown.Macroplasticdebriscancausedirectdamagetothetissueofcorals,openingthemuptopathogenicagentssuchasciliates(SweetandBythell2015;SweetandBrown2016;SweetandSéré2016;Carvalho-Souzaetal.2018).Speciesassemblagescanalsobealteredthroughtheintroductionofalienspeciesthathavebeentransportedbyplastics,andasaresultofthelossoffoundationalspeciessuch28MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTThechemicalsfoundinplasticsareeitheraddedduringtheproductionprocess(includingadditivessuchasflameretardants,plasticizers,antioxidants,UVstabilizersandpigments,anumberofwhichmaybesubstancesofconcern)oraddedunintentionally(e.g.whenthecompositionoftheinputmaterialisnotknownexactlyorchemicalsareaccumulatedfromtheenvironment)(Hongetal.2017a;Grohetal.2019;GuoandWang2019).Certainchemicalsfoundinplasticsmayhavebeenintentionallyaddedtoachievedesirableproperties,butplasticscanalsoincludesolventsorsubstancesnotintentionallyaddedsuchasimpuritiesfromthepackagingofpesticidesorcleaningagents.Forseveraldecadesithasbeenunderstoodthatplasticstransferchemicalstowildlife;theymaybedirectlyreleasedfromplasticswhentheyreachtheintestinaltissuesofmarinespecies,orleachintothemarineenvironmentastheplasticsweather(Pettitetal.1981).Therateofthesetransferswilldependuponfactorssuchasthenatureandstrengthofthebondbetweenadditiveandpolymer,porediameter,themolecularweightoftheadditive,temperature,pressureandbiofouling(DeFrondetal.2019).Intentionaladditivesinplastics,suchasplasticizersandflameretardants,arerelevantinelevatedexposurecases.However,therehavebeenmanystudiesspecificallyfocusingonthosechemicaladditivesusedinplasticsthatexhibitendocrinedisruptingpropertiesandwhichmayleadtoavarietyofhealtheffectsinwildlifeandhumans(UNEP/IPCP[InternationalPanelonChemicalPollution]2016;Hermabessiereetal.2017;M’Rabatetal.2018;Flawsetal.2020;UNEP2020e).Awiderangeofchemicalsinmarineplasticscollectedfromurbanandremotebeachesandopenoceanswereanalysedandfoundtocontain“non-persistent”additivessuchasalkylphenols(i.e.nonylphenol,octylphenolandBPA)inconcentrationsrangingfromnanogramspergramtomicrogramspergram(Teutenetal.2009;Hiraietal.2011).Chemicaladditiveswithendocrinedisruptingpropertieshavealsobeenrecordedasprominentcontaminantsinmarinespeciesfromareaswherethesetypesofchemicalsarebeingused,forexampleinaquacultureoperations(Hongetal.2013)andwherethereislocalproductionoftextiles,polyurethanefoamsandtoys(Chenetal.2009;Darbraetal.2011;Wangetal.2017).Bainietal.(2017)reportedthepresenceofsevendifferentphthalateestersinsamplesofmicroplastics,planktonandblubberfromdifferentcetaceanspeciestakeninthesamearea;othersarefoundinfishinsomeEuropeanwaters(Rüdeletal.2012).Controlledlaboratoryexperimentshavedemonstratedthatingestedplasticscantransfersorbedandadditivechemicals,includingpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs),antimicrobialsandhalogenatedflameretardants(HFRs),tomarineworms(vanCauwenbergheetal.2015),fish(Karlssonetal.2017),amphipods(Chuaetal.2014)andplankton(Katijaetal.2017).Severalstudieshavealsotestedforthetransferofchemicalsfromplasticsintowildlifethroughlaboratoryexperiments,modelling,andobservationalstudiesinnaturalsettings.Infieldstudiescomparisonsweremadebetweenabdominalfattissuesamplesandplasticsfoundinthegutofseveralseabirdspecies(Tanakaetal.2013;Hardestyetal.2015;Tanakaetal.2020);however,becausethepreyorganisms,inwhichthechemicalswereabsent,hadbeencollectedseveralyearsaftertheseabirdstheresultscouldnotbeconsideredreliable(Tanakaetal.2020).Morerecentstudies(Thaysenetal.2020)showthatthetransferofchemicalsiscontextdependent,i.e.thelikelihoodofchemicaltransferdependsonseveralfactorsincludingthegutresidencetime,conditions(e.g.thepresenceofsurfactants,pH,temperature)andthepolymertypeoftheplastic(Gouinetal.2011;Koelmansetal.2014;Bakiretal.2016;Rummeletal.2016;Koelmansetal.2019).Laboratorystudiesconfirmthatthecontributionofchemicalburdensbyingestedplasticsdependsontheconcentrationsintheingestedplasticsandthegut(Bakiretal.2016;Herzkeetal.2016;Koelmansetal.2016;Rummeletal.2016;AnbumaniandKakkar2018).UNEP(2020e)notedthatingestionisunlikelytoincreasetheexposuretohydrophobicorganicchemicalsfromadsorptionbecause,overall,thefluxofthesechemicalsfromnaturalpreyoverwhelmsthefluxfromingestedmicroplasticsfororganismsinmosthabitats.Inthecaseofhighlycontaminant-exposedanimalsingestingallsizesofplasticswithlowconcentrationsofcontaminantssorbedfromtheambientenvironment,theconcentrationgradientisexpectedtobefromtheguttoplastics.Thisisreferredtoasdepurating,wherebytheingestedplasticsinthegutsorbchemicalspresentintheorganism,essentially“cleaningout”theanimal(Rosenkranzetal.2009;Koelmansetal.2014;Herzkeetal.2016;Rummeletal.2016;Thaysenetal.2020).Theoppositetrend(i.e.transferfromplasticstothegut)ispossibleforchemicalswithahigherconcentrationintheplastic,asoccurswithpolymericadditivesorinthecaseoflesscontaminant-exposedanimalsingestinghighlycontaminatedplastics(MohamedNorandKoelmans2019;Thaysenetal.2020).Finally,thechemicalthreatpresentedbycertainalternativebio-basedplastics(seeBox4)issimilartothethreatpresentedbyconventionalplastics(Zimmermannetal.2020).Box3:Chemicalsassociatedwithmarinelitterandplastics29MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTascorals,cordgrass,seagrassesandmangrovesarisingfromcontaminantsofemergingconcern,deprivationofoxygenandlight,changesinreproductiveoutput,andphysicallosses(GallowayandLewis2016;Rochmanetal.2016a;Sussarelluetal.2016;Campbelletal.2017;AnbumaniandKakkar2018;Carvalho-Souzaetal.2018;Lambetal.2018;Paul-Pontetal.2018;Buccietal.2019UNEP2019a;Kroonetal.2020;Tanakaetal.2020;Yuetal.2020).Becauseplasticdebrisislightweightandcanfloatlonger,itcandisperseorganismsfurtherthanothertypesofnaturalflotsam(ThielandGutow2005;Bryantetal.2016;Kirsteinetal.2016;Rechetal.2016;Viršeketal.2017;Lambetal.2018).Over380taxa,includingmicroorganisms,seaweedsandinvertebrates,havebeenfoundraftingonfloatinganthropogeniclitterintheoceans(Kiesslingetal.2015),includingpathogenicagents(Rechetal.2016;Besselingetal.2019).Goldsteinetal.(2014)recordedtheciliatepathogenHalofolliculina,knowntocauseskeletalerodingbanddiseaseincorals,onfloatingplasticdebrisinthewesternPacificandsuggestedthatthespreadofthediseasetoCaribbeanandHawaiiancoralswasduetoraftingontheenormousquantitiesoflitterreportedinthatarea.Otherstudieshavehighlightedthepossibilitythatplasticscanactasplatformsfor“chemicalcocktails”ofresidualmonomers,chemicaladditivesandcontaminants,suchasheavymetalsandpersistentorganicpollutants(POPs),sorbedfromthesurroundingenvironment(Rochman2015etal.;Turner2016;GuoandWang2019;Yuetal.2019).Whenplasticsfragmentintomicroplasticsandsmallersizedparticles(Corcoran2021),theysinkduetobuoyancylossandaredepositedindifferentreservoirs(YeandAndrady1991),includingonshorelines(McDermidandMcMullen2004)andtheseafloor(e.g.Zhu,L.etal.2019andpapersincluded),wheretheycanimpactdifferentbenthiccommunities.Microplasticspossiblyaccumulatemoreindeepsedimentaryhabitats(Zhangetal.2020)andwithinsubsurfacesedimentlayers(Näkkietal.2017;Wangetal.2019a).Onceinthesediment,theycanbeingestedandreducedfurtherinsize(e.g.duetodigestivegrinding)and/orbetransportedtotheseaflooruponegestion.Thereisalsoevidenceoforganismsformingmicroplasticsthroughbioerosion(e.g.polychaetesinpolystyrenedebris[Jangetal.2018]andseaurchins[Porteretal.2019]).Theuptakeandaccumulationofmicroplasticsthroughoutmarinefoodchainsisenhancedbythefactthatorganismsatlowertrophiclevelsmay“preyon”microplasticsofasimilarsizeastheirnaturalpreybymistake(IvarDoSulandCosta2014;Santanaetal.2017;Clukeyetal.2018;Choyetal.2019;Peng,L.etal.2020;Prataetal.2020a;Rubioetal.2020).Theyarealsoingestedindiscriminatelybyfish(DavisonandAsch2011;Chanetal.2019)andfilterfeeders,accumulatedandabsorbedviatheintestinaltract,andthentranslocatedacrosstrophiclevels(e.g.Avery-Gommetal.2018;Renzietal.2018).Largefilterfeeders,includingsomewhales,maydevourmicroplasticsdirectlyorindirectlyviacontaminatedorganismsinseawater(e.g.humpbackwhales[Megapteranovaeangliae])(Xiongetal.2018;Besselingetal.2019;Burkhardt-HolmandN’Guyen2019).Studiesofingestedmicroplasticsshowthattheygenerallystaywithinthedigestivesystem,insideorganssuchasgills,intestines,stomachsandtubules(e.g.mussels[Mytilusedulis]andlugworms[Arenicolamarina],Cauwenbergheetal.2015;fishandprawns,Güvenetal.2017,Abbasietal.2018,Azevedo-Santosetal.2019),wheretheyaretakenupbylargerpredators.Inaddition,microplasticscantranslocateandaccumulateinothertissues,suchasthehaemolymphandcirculatorysystem,afterjustafewdays(Browneetal.2008;Peng,L.etal.2020).Withseawatersbecomingenrichedbyplastics,thelikelihoodofmicroplasticsenteringmarinetrophicwebswhereawidevarietyofmarineanimalsandhumanswillbeexposedtothemisincreasing(Prataetal.2020a).Microplasticshavebeenobservedtocompromisetheabilityofkeystonespeciesandecological“engineers”inaquaticsystems,suchascoralsandworms,tobuildreefsortobioturbatesediments(Bradneyetal.2019;Renzietal.2019).Forexample,theattachmentstrengthofbluemusselswashalvedafterexposuretohigh-densitypolyethylene(HDPE)microplastics,potentiallyimpactingtheirabilitytoformreefs(Greenetal.2019),andtherewasareducedvolumeofsandoverturnedbylugwormsexposedtomicroplastics(Greenetal.2016).Inlaboratory-basedmarinemesocosmstudiestheingestionofmicroplasticsreducesthehealthoflugwormsinmarinesedimentbydeliveringharmfulchemicalstothem,includinghydrocarbons,antimicrobialsandflameretardants(Wrightetal.2013a;Wrightetal.2013b).Furthermore,theenergyreservesoflugwormslivinginsedimentcontaminatedwithmicroplasticparticleswerereducedbyupto50percentduetoreducedfeedingactivity,withadverseeffectsontheirhealth.Lugwormsperformvitalecosystemfunctions.Theyareasourceoffoodforwaderbirds,fishandbaitforfisheries.Lugwormsprovideanotherimportantecosystemservicebyturningoverhugevolumesofsand,replenishingorganicmaterialandoxygenatingtheupperlayerstokeepthesedimenthealthyforotheranimalsandmicroorganisms(includingmicroscopicprimaryproducers)tothrivein.Afollow-upexperimentbyGreenetal.(2016)foundthatlugwormsexposedtoeitherHDPE,PVCorpolylacticacid(PLA)microplasticsbioturbatedlessandthattherewasacorrespondingdecreaseinthebiomassofimportantprimaryproducersinthesediment.Mesocosmexperimentsinmarinesedimentaryhabitatsfoundthatmicroplasticsalteredecosystemfunctioningbydecreasingthefluxofinorganicnutrients(includingammoniumandsilicate)fromthesedimentandreducedthebiomassofmicroscopicprimaryproducersinthesediment(Greenetal.2017).Thereisalsoevidencethatplasticscanaltercarboncyclingthroughtheireffectonprimaryproductioninmarine,freshwaterandterrestrialsystems(Coleetal.2016;Yokotaetal.2017;Porteretal.2018;Bootsetal.2019;Prataetal.2019a).Marineecosystemssuchasmangroves,seagrasses,coralsandsaltmarshesplayamajorroleincarbonsequestration(McLeodetal.2011;HerrandLandis2016;Bindoffetal.2019).Microplastics,throughtheirimpactsonmetabolicrates,reproductivesuccessandsurvivalofzooplankton,affectthecarboncycleintheoceanbyalteringthetransferofcarbonto30MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTthedeepsea(Coleetal.2016;Wieczoreketal.2019).Moreover,abiotic-bioticrelationshipscanbeaffectedbymicroplastics,forexamplethroughthemicroplasticscausingtemperaturefluctuationsonbeacheswhereorganismssuchasseaturtleeggsoccurandwheresexisinfluencedbytemperature(Carsonetal.2011;BeckwithandGuentes2018).Reef-buildingcoralsinaremotecoralreefatollintheMaldivianarchipelagowerecontaminatedwithphthalicacidesters,aclassofmicroplastics-associatedcontaminants,possiblythroughingestionofmicroplastics(Saliuetal.2019).Alaboratoryexperimentfoundthatpolyethylenemicroplastics(at200particlesperlitreforsixmonths)canleadtoareductioningrowthofsomespeciesofreefbuildingcorals(Reichertetal.2019).Contaminationofcoralreefscouldleadtodeteriorationofthesevitalbiogenichabitats,butfurtherresearchisneeded.Outdoormesocosmexperimentsusingnaturallyflowingseawaterandintactsedimentcores,simulatingsemi-fieldconditions,havealsobeenusedtoassesstheimpactsofmicroplasticsoninvertebrateassemblagesfromthreedifferentsedimentaryhabitats(Green2016;Greenetal.2017).Insandyhabitatsdominatedbyflatoysterstheadditionofeitherconventional(HDPE)orbiodegradable(PLA)microplasticsathighconcentrations(80µgperlitre)causedareductioninthenumberofspeciesandintheoverallabundanceoforganisms(Green2016)(Box4;Figure2).Similarly,inafollow-upexperiment,inmuddysedimentdominatedbyflatoysterstheadditionoftheFigure2:Bio-basedplasticsandtheirbiodegradationsametypesofmicroplastics(25μgperlitre)resultedinashiftincommunitycompositionwherebyopportunisticoligochaetesbecamedominantandpredatorypolychaetesdeclined(Greenetal.2017).Communityleveleffectshavealsobeenfoundinaninsituexperimentinfreshwatersediments,wherethediversityandabundanceofmacrofaunadecreasedinmesocosmswithnano-ormicroplastics(Redondo-Hasselerharmetal.2020).Inaddition,microplasticscanhaveeffectsonthedevelopmentoffungalcommunitieswithuniquecommunitycompositionandstructure(Kettneretal.2017).Microplasticscanactashabitatsandmayalterassemblagesbyfosteringuniquemicrobialcommunities.Factorsdrivingthecompositionoftheplastispherearecomplex,mainlyspatialandseasonal,butarealsoinfluencedbythepolymertype,surfacepropertiesandsize(Amaral-Zettleretal.2015;Jacquinetal.2019;Amaral-Zettleretal.2020).PlastispherecommunitiesstudiedindifferentpolymertypesfloatingintheNorthPacificandNorthAtlanticreflectedtheirbiogeographicoriginsand,toalesserextent,theplastictype(Amaral-Zettleretal.2015,2020).Similarconclusionswerefoundforbacterialcommunitiescolonizingplasticsalonganenvironmentalgradient.Thesecommunitiesareshapedfirstlybyfreshwaterandwastewatersystemsthroughtomarineenvironmentalconditions,andsecondarilybythetypeofplastic(PSandPE)(Oberbeckmannetal.2018).Inversely,anotherstudybasedonalargenumberofmicroplasticssampledinthewesternMediterraneanSeaRenewablerawmaterialsFossilfuel-basedrawmaterialsManagedfacilitiesNaturalenvironmentPLAPolylacticacidPHA-PHBPolyhydroxybutyrateBio-basedplasticsandtheirbiodegradationSoil25°CFreshwater21°CMarine30°CAnaerobicaquaticdigestion35°CHomecomposting3-6months28°CAnaerobicdigestionSingle-stage14daysTwo-stage15-40daysIndustrialcomposting6-12weeks50-70°CPBSPolybutylenesuccinateTPSThermoplasticstarchPBATPolybutyrateadipateterephthalatePCLPolycaprolactoneBiodegradationaccordingtoISOandASTMstandardsBiodegradesDoesnotbiodegradeUnknownSource:UNEP2021,adaptedfromNarancicetal.2018.IllustratedbyGRID-Arendal31MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTBiodegradableandbio-basedplasticshavebeenpresentedaspotentialalternativestofossilfuel-basedplastics,forexampleasfoodpackaging(Peelmanetal.2013).Althoughthesetwotypescurrentlyaccountforonlyasmallshareofthemarket,theirglobalproductionispredictedtogrowrapidlyasproductioncostsdecrease(EuropeanBioplastics2020)(seeFigure2).Thepersistenceofbio-basedandbiodegradableplasticsinaquatichabitatsisuncertain,butforsometimeexperimentshavefoundthatevenafterthreeyearsthemajorityofbiodegradableplasticsandblendsfailedtoshowanydegradationinthemarineenvironmentortomeetInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)andASTMbiodegradationstandards(O’BrineandThompson2010;Alvarez-Zeferinoetal.2015;Narancicetal.2018;UNEP2018a;NapperandThompson2019).Unlessspecificandproperconditionsforbiodegradationaremet(e.g.whenindustrialcompostingtakesplace),biodegradableplasticsriskfragmentingintomicroplasticparticlesinmuchthesamewayasconventionalplastics(Alvarez-Zeferinoetal.2015;NapperandThompson2019).Inthissensebiodegradableplasticsdonotadvancesustainabilityconsiderations.Instead,thedemandformoresustainablealternativesandnon-petroleum-basedmaterialsshouldbeencouraged(UNEP2021a).Themajorityofbio-basedandplant-basedplasticsalsocontaintoxicchemicalsandposeriskssimilartothoseofconventionalplastics,i.e.intermsofbeingcarriersforpollutantsandvectorsforpathogenicorganisms,withcelluloseandstarch-basedproductscontainingthegreatestnumberofchemicalfeaturesandinducingthestrongesttoxicity(Zimmermannetal.2020).Thereisevidencethat,aslitter,biodegradableplasticsposethesamerisksasconventionalplasticstoindividuals,biodiversityandecosystemfunctioning.Forexample,afieldexperimentcomparingtheimpactsofconventional(HDPE)andbiodegradableplasticbagsfoundthatthetwotypeshadexactlythesameeffect,reducingoxygenandlightanddecreasingtheoverallabundanceofinvertebratesandthebiomassofprimaryproducersbeneaththebagsaswellasdecreasingthefluxofinorganicnutrientsfromthesediment(Greenetal.2015).Inaddition,severalmarinemesocosmexperimentsfoundthatbiodegradablemicroplastics(PLA)inducedsimilarproteinchangesinmussels(Greenetal.2019),alteredthefeedingandmetabolicratesofbivalvesandlugworms(Green2016;Greenetal.2016;Greenetal.2017),alteredthediversityandabundanceofinfaunaandthebiomassofprimaryproducers(Green2016;Greenetal.2017),anddecreasedthereleaseofinorganicnutrientsfromthesediment(Greenetal.2017).Similarly,interrestrialexperimentsmicroplasticscomposedofHDPE,PLAorsyntheticclothingfibreshadaneffectonsoilstabilityanddecreasedthegerminationandgrowthofplants,ledtoalackofgrowthinannelids,andaffectedsoilstructurebyreducingtheformationofmacroaggregates(Bootsetal.2019).Infreshwaterexperiments,biodegradablepolyhydroxybutyrate(PHB)andnon-biodegradablepolymethylmethacrylatemicroplasticsbothledtoadecreaseinbiomassofthefreshwateramphipodGammarusfossarum(Straubetal.2017).Althoughverylittleisknownaboutthebehaviourandbreakdownofbiodegradablemicroplasticsinaquatichabitats,arecentstudyfoundthatsecondarynanoplasticsreleasedfrompolyhydroxybutyratemicroplasticspersistandhavenegativeeffectsonfreshwaterorganismsincludingwaterfleas,cyanobacteriaandmicroalgae(González-Pleiteretal.2019).Biodegradationtestsarepredominantlycarriedoutinartificialenvironmentsthatlacktransferabilitytorealconditions(Haideretal.2018)andareunabletopredictenvironmentalimpacts.Verylittleisknownabouttheeffectsofbiodegradableplasticbagleaching(i.e.thetransferofchemicalsfromplasticintonaturalenvironments)onvegetation.Someplantspeciesarehighlysensitivetoavarietyofchemicals,andseedlinggrowthisgenerallythemostaffectedlifehistorystage.Inrecentfieldstudies(Balestrietal.2017;Balestrietal.2019;Balestrietal.2020)theeffectsofconventional(HDPE)andcompostablebagsweretestedwhentheywereleftinnaturalenvironments.Thefindingsindicatethatplasticbagslabelledasmeetingbiodegradabilityandcompostabilitystandardsdonotmeetthosestandardsoncetheyarediscardedinnaturalenvironments.Forthesereasonsthegeneralpublicshouldbeadequatelyinformedaboutthepotentialenvironmentalimpactofincorrectbagdisposalthroughclearerlabellingandinformationabouttheconditionsunderwhichbiodegradabilitycanoccur(seeSection4).Simple,rapidstandardphytotoxicitytestsneedtobeappliedtobagleachates.Box4:Biologicalandecologicalimpactsofplasticslabelledasbiodegradableshowednoeffectofgeographicallocation(includingcoastalandopenoceansamples)orplastictype(mainlyPE,PPandPS)onthebacterialcommunitycomposition.Studiesontheplastispherearestartingtogiveabetterviewofthemicrobialbiofilmcommunityonplasticsintheoceans,butthecomplexnetworkofinfluencesisstillthesubjectofongoingdebate(Soginetal.2006;Pedrós-Alió2012;Zettleretal.2013;Sauretetal.2014;Amaral-Zettleretal.2015;Dussudetal.2018a;Dussudetal.2018b;Wangetal.2018).Forexample,someauthorshavereportedthatcertainbacterialcommunitieslivingonplastic,althoughtheyarerareinseawater,aremade32MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTupofopportunisticspeciesabletogrowandbecomethe“corespecies”livingonplastics(McCormicketal.2014;Dussudetal.2018a).However,inacriticalreviewof66studieswhichaccountedforstudyquality(i.e.whethercontrolswereincludedandinterpretedproperly)Wrightetal.(2020)concludedthat“researchsofarhasnotshownplastispherecommunitiestostarklydifferfrommicrobialcommunitiesonotherinertsurfaces”.Atsea,plasticsarealmostimmediatelycoatedbyaninorganicandorganicconditioningfilm.Thefilmisthenrapidlycolonizedbymicroorganismsformingabiofilmonthesurface,whichisembeddedwithinanexopolymericsubstancematrix.Thesenaturalmicroorganismalassemblagesactasaformofprotectionandoffermetaboliccooperativitythatcanincreasethepossibilityofgenetransferamongcells.Thecompositionofthebiofilmdependsonthepolymeranditssurfaceproperties;somematerialsareveryrecalcitrantandinhibittheformationofbiofilms,forexamplethestablealiphaticchainsofpolyethylene(PE),whichdominatesthecompositionofplasticwasteontheseasurface(Autaetal.2017;Morohoshietal.2018;Okshevskyetal.2020).Weatheredplasticsmayincreasebiofilmgrowthduetotheirincreasedsurfaceareacomparedtonon-weatheredplastics(Rummeletal.2017).Underdifferentconditionsvariousbacteriacandegradeoxo-biodegradableandhydro-biodegradableplastics(Vázquez-Morillasetal.2016;Dussudetal.2018b;Eyheraguibeletal.2018).PathogenicbacteriasuchasAeromonassalmonicidaandVibrioparahaemolyticushavebeenfoundtocolonizemicroplasticparticlescollectedfromthemarineenvironment(Kirsteinetal.2016;Viršeketal.2017).Inlaboratorystudiesplasmidtransferinbacterialassemblageshasbeenfoundtobehigherincommunitiesthatcolonizemicroplasticparticlescomparedtofree-livingcommunities(Arias-Andresetal.2018).Horizontaltransferofgenesencodingantimicrobialresistance(AMR)inmicrobesoccursfasterwithinbiofilmssuchasthosedevelopedonmicroplastics(StewartandCosterson2001;Goeletal.2021);microbesinbiofilmsarealsolesssusceptibletoantibioticsthanfree-livingcellsinplanktonicculture(Hall-Stoodleyetal.2004;Goeletal.2021).Experimentalworkfoundthatagreaterrateofgenetransferoccurredinbacteriaonmicroplasticsthaninfree-livingbacteria,bothinthewatercolumn(Arias-Andresetal.2018)andinsediment(Huangetal.2019).DatafromthefieldsupportthehypothesizedlinkbetweenmicroplasticsandAMR,withsamplingintheNorthPacificGyreindicatingthatplasticdebris(includingbothmacroplasticsandmicroplastics)isareservoirofantimicrobialresistantmicrobes(Yangetal.2019).©iStock/pcess60933MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1.2Potentialriskstohumanhealth1.2.1PhysicalharmThepresenceoflittercanhavedirectconsequencesforphysicalandmentalhealth.Visitorstobeacheswheretherearelargeamountsoflitter,aswellasmaritimeworkers,aresusceptibletoarangeofinjuriesincludingcuttingthemselvesonsharpdebris,becomingentangledinnets,andexposuretounsanitaryitems(Santosetal.2005;Campbelletal.2019).Litteredcoastalareashavealsobeenshowntobelessbeneficialtomoodandmentalwell-beingthanunlitteredones,especiallywhenthelitterispost-consumerwastesuchaspackaging(Wylesetal.2015;Wylesetal.2016).1.2.2ChemicalsinmarineplasticsthatposeriskstohumanhealthAlthoughthepolymericmaterialsthatcomprisethecorestructureofmarineplasticsarebiochemicallyinert,plasticscontainchemicaladditivesofsmallmolecularsizethatarenotboundtothepolymericmaterialsandthatmaybeharmfultohumanhealth(Landriganetal.2017;TakadaandKarapanagioti2019;Campanaleetal.2020;Landriganetal.2020;Prataetal.2020a;Rubioetal.2020;UNEP2020e;VethaakandLegler2021).Onceintheocean,theseadditivescanleachoutoftheplasticintothesurroundingenvironmentandenterthemarinefoodchain(Andrady2017;Peng,L.etal.2020).Someofthechemicalsassociatedwithplasticsarerecognizedasmutagensandcarcinogens(Landriganetal.2020;UNEP2020e).Phthalatesareproducedinhighvolumestobeusedasplasticizers,lubricantsandsolventsinawiderangeofapplications(e.g.inbuildingandconstructionmaterials,medicalandfragrancedconsumerproducts,andmotorvehicles).Over90percentofbisphenolA(BPA)isestimatedtohavebeenusedasamonomerintheproductionofdifferentpolymers.Recentestimatesshowthatin2018nearly64percentofglobalBPAdemandwasforpolycarbonates,nearly30percentwasforepoxyresins,andtherestwasforotherpolymerssuchasphenoplastresins,phenolicresins,unsaturatedpolyestersandformaldehyderesins(Fischeretal.2014;IHSMarkit2018).Thesepolymersarecommonlyusedinmanyeverydayproductsacrosstheglobe.Forexample,polycarbonatesareusedinplasticbottles,foodpackagingmaterials,buildingandconstructionmaterials,opticalmediaandelectronics,andepoxyresinsareusedinmarineandprotectivecoatings,powdercoatings,electronics,canandcoilcoatingsandautomotivematerials,andasrecyclatesinroadsandfloorings(EuropeanChemicalsAgency2017a,b).Thereisalsoagrowingdemandforblackplasticsinconsumerproducts,whichisbeingmetbysourcingmaterialsfromtheplastichousingsofend-of-lifewasteelectronicandelectricalequipment(UNEP2019e),thuspotentiallyintroducingrestrictedandhazardoussubstancesintotherecyclate(e.g.includingbrominatedflameretardants,antimony,andtheheavymetalscadmium,chromium,mercuryandlead)(EuropeanChemicalsAgency2018;Turner2018;EuropeanChemicalsAgency2019).OtherchemicalssuchasbisphenolAandphthalates,whicharewidelyusedinconsumerproductssuchasplasticbottles,areendocrinedisruptorsthatcanmimic,blockoraltertheactionsofnormalhormones,reducehumanfertilityanddamagethenervoussystem(UNEP2019e;Flawsetal.2020;UNEP2020e).Perfluorinatedadditives(PFAScompounds),widelyusedtocreatematerialsthatrepelwater,areconsideredtobeofconcern,asareresidualunreactedmonomersandchemicalcatalyststhatmaybetrappedinplasticresinduringpolymerization(UNEP2020e).Allthesechemicals,aswellasthosethatareadsorbedtoplasticwasteasitmovesthroughtheenvironment,canleachoutofplasticssothatpeoplewillpotentiallybeexposedtothem(Hahladakisetal.2018;UNEP2020e).Humanbiomonitoringstudiesandinitiativesshowthatchemicalsusedinthemanufactureofplastics,inwaterandwastewatertreatmentandinthefoodsector,orreleasedfromplasticsduringdegradation,arewidelypresentinhumanpopulations(WHO[WorldHealthOrganization]2015;Manietal.2019;Wangetal.2019b).Additionally,thereisgrowingevidencefromstudiesindevelopedcountriesthathumanexposuretochemicalsassociatedwiththeproduction,useanddisposalofplasticsishighlygendered(Lynnetal.2017),althoughdatafromdevelopingcountriesarelimited.Onaglobalscalethereisascarcityofgenderdisaggregatedliterature,forexampleonthenumberofworkersintheplasticindustry,theirexposuretohazardouschemicals,andresultinghealtheffectsduringspecificplasticproductionprocessesandplasticwastemanagement(i.e.recycling,incineration,openpitburningandcombustion)(Lynnetal.2017).Thepotentialhealthhazardsofthepolymersthatarethestructuralbackboneofmarineplasticshavebeenlesswellstudied.Ofparticularconcernarethemicroplasticandnanoplasticparticlesandmicrofibresformedwhenplasticwasteenterstheoceansandbreaksdownundertheinfluenceofweathering,mechanicalabrasionandphotodegradation.Manufacturedmicroplasticsarealsoofincreasingconcern.Forexample,syntheticmicrobeads(polystyrenespheresbetween0.5µmand500µmindiameter)areused,forexample,in3Dprinting,inhumanandveterinarymedicalproducts,andincosmeticsandpersonalcareproductssuchastoothpastes,abrasivescrubbersandsunscreens(Landriganetal.2020).Plasticmicroparticlesandmicrofibresinthemarineenvironmentcanbeabsorbedbysmallorganismsatthebaseofthefoodchain.Theycanthenbioconcentrateandreachveryhighconcentrationsintoppredatorspecies.Microplasticandnanoplasticparticlessuspendedinseawaterarealsoingestedbyfilteringorganismssuchasoystersandmusselsandcanreachhighconcentrationsinthetissuesofthesespecies,fromwhencetheycanpotentiallyexposehumanswhoeatseafood(Peng,L.etal.2019;Kögeletal.2020).Theseparticlescanaffectassimilationefficiency(BlarerandBurkhardt-Holm2016).Inaddition,marinemicroplasticsandmicroscopicfibrousparticlescanbecomeairbornethroughaerosolizationandinhaled(Drisetal.2016).34MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1.2.3PotentialhumanhealtheffectsWhenconsideringanypotentialharmtohumansfromexposuretomarinesourcesofmicroplasticsandplasticassociatedchemicals,itisveryimportanttorecognizethathumansareexposedtothesamecontaminantsintheireverydaylives(Figure3a,b,c).Theannualintakeofmicroplasticsbysomehumanshasbeenestimatedtorangefrom39,000to52,000particles,dependingonageandsex,risingto74,000to121,000particleswheninhalationisconsidered;individualswhomeettheirrecommendedwaterintakeonlythroughbottledsourcesmaybeingestinganadditional90,000microplasticsannually,comparedto4,000inthecaseofthosewhoconsumeonlytapwater(Coxetal.2019).Anyexposurefrommarinesourcesisthusmostlikelytobeviaingestionofseafoodratherthaninhalationofmicroplasticssuspendedintheairorpenetrationofplasticnanoparticlesthroughtheskin,althoughsuchexposuremayoccurinthecaseofpeoplehandlingbeachwaste(Dehautetal.2016;Adyel2020;Kögeletal.2020;Prataetal.2020a).However,theoverallexposurelevelsandhealthimpactsremainuncertain(WrightandKelly2017;Koelmansetal.2019;WHO2019,Landriganetal.2020).Humanexposuretomarinemicroplasticsisprimarilyviaingestionofcontaminatedfishandshellfishwhentheyareeatenwhole,especiallyincludingthegutandliver(Landriganetal.2020).Generallyonlythefleshoflargefishiseaten,butinsomeculturesthevisceralorgansofcertainfishspeciesareasought-afterdelicacy(e.g.rabbitfishintestines,knownasdayokinthePhilippines,Bucoletal.2020).Outsideareaswherefishandshellfisharethemainsourcesofprotein,exposureviathisroutemaybelimitedcomparedtotheinhalationandingestionofmicroplasticsviahouseholddust(Bouwmeesteretal.2015;Catarinoetal.2018).Evenremotecoastalcommunitiesandindigenouspeoplesthatrelyheavilyonmarinemammalsandfishspeciesforfoodarelikelytobeexposedtomicroplasticparticlesandanytoxicchemicalsleachingfromthemviaaphenomenonknownas“atmosphericdistillation”(seeGlossary)(AtlasandGiam1981;Houdeetal.2011;Tekmanetal.2020),creatingapotentialthreattotheirfoodsecurity(EuropeanEnvironmentAgency2013;Hantoroetal.2018;Danopoulosetal.2020;Peng,L.etal.2020;Rubioetal.2020).Exposuretomicroplasticsinfoodstuffsgoesbeyondseafood(Bouwmeesteretal.2015;Lusheretal.2017a;Coxetal.2019;InternationalPollutantsEliminationNetwork2019;Alexyetal.2020;Contietal.2020).Othertypesoffoodcontainingmicroplasticsincludehoney(40-660items/kghoney),sugar(32±7items/kgsugar)(LiebezeitandLiebezeit2013)andtablesalt(7-681items/kgsalt)(Yangetal.2015;Karamietal.2017;Leeetal.2019).Peoplecanalsobeexposedtomicroplasticparticlesindrinkingwater(118±88particles/litrewater)(Schymanskietal.2018;Koelmansetal.2019)andinfoodssuchasbread,processedmeat,dairyproducts(Kutralam-Muniasamyetal.2020)andvegetables.Individualswhodrinkwateronlyfrombottledsourcesingestmorethan90,000microplasticparticlesannually,comparedtoanannualintakeof4,000particlesingestedbythosewhodrinktapwater(Landriganetal.2020;VethaakandLegler2021).Muchofthemicroplasticsinfoodsmayoriginatefromplasticpackagingmaterials,includingplasticbottles.©iStock/dottedhippo35MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTMicroplastics,particularlymicrofibres,arepresentinair(Drisetal.2015a;Drisetal.2016),especiallyindoors(Alzonaetal.1979).Indoorenvironmentshavebeenfoundtohavemicrofibreconcentrationsrangingfrom3-15particlespercubicmetreofair(Gasperietal.2015)toashighas0.4-59.5particlespercubicmetre,whileconcentrationsof0.3-1.5particlespercubicmetrehavebeenrecordedinoutdoorenvironments(Drisetal.2017).Beyondthesefewstudies,thereislittleinformationonlevelsofairborneplasticmicroparticlesinhouseholds,workplacesorrecreationalparks.Preliminaryinvestigationshavefoundthatairborneplasticmicrofibresinurbanenvironmentsrangebetween200μmand600μmindiameter(Drisetal.2015a;Drisetal.2016).Theyarerespirableandsmallenoughtopenetratedeeplyintothehumanlung,whereplasticmicrofibresupto250μminlengthhavebeendetected(Paulyetal.1998;Landriganetal.2020;VethaakandLegler2021).AsLandriganetal.(2020)haveshown,particlesizeimpactsarecriticalinassessingpotentialhumanhealthimpacts.Thequalityofstudiesisalsovitalwhenconsideringreliability.Asystematicreviewofthequalityofdrinkingwaterstudies,andstudiesonsourcewatersandmicroplastics,commissionedbyWHO(Koelmansetal.2019)showsthatthevastmajorityofstudiesdonotreportonconcentrationsofsmallerparticles(includingnanoparticles),whicharemostlikelythesizesofconcernforhumanexposureandhealtheffects(Box2).Koelmansetal.(2020)recentlyprovidedanapproachforaligningdifferentstudies,anddisseminatingtheresultsincommonlanguage,inordertoassesstherisksofmicroplasticsasanenvironmentalmaterial(seeSection3.1.4).©iStock/eclipse_images36MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTBiologicalgenderdifferencessuchasbodysize,amountoffattissue,reproductiveorgans,hormones,andotherbiologicalandphysiologicaldifferencesalsohaveanimpactontheeffectsandeliminationoftoxicsubstancesinthebody(Landriganetal.2020).Microplasticshavenowbeendetectedintheplacenta(Ragusaetal.2021).Women’shigherproportionofbodyfatprovidesagreaterreservoirforbioaccumulatingandlipophilicchemicals;forexample,theUnitedStatesCentersforDiseaseControlandPreventionreportedthatwomen,incomparisontomen,hadsignificantlyhigherlevelsof10ofthe116toxicchemicalstested,threeofwhichwerephthalatescommonlyfoundinhealthandbeautyproducts(Lynnetal.2017).Gradually,asmoreisknownaboutmicroplasticparticlesandfibres(BarbozaandGimenez2015;WrightandKelly2017;EuropeanUnion2019a;Changetal.2020)itmaybehypothesizedthatingestedorinhaledmicroplasticscouldharmhumanhealththroughavarietyofmechanisms,someofwhichwillberelevantformarineplastics(Landriganetal.2020;VethaakandLegler2021).Thesemechanismsincludephysicalpresence(e.g.causingabrasion,blockagesorcellulardamage),chemicalcomposition(chemicaladditivesusedintheirproductionorambientchemicalsadsorbedfromthesurroundingenvironment),andactingasvectorsforpathogenicbacteriasuchasVibriospp.(Kirsteinetal.2016)andantimicrobialresistantbacteria(Eckertetal.2018).Molecularmechanismsthroughinteractionswithmicroplasticparticlescouldalsoinjurehealthasaresultofoxidativestress,inflammatoryreactionsandmetabolicdisorders(Landriganetal.2020).InformationaboutthetoxicityofmicroplasticparticlesIndividualinhalationhasbeenestimatedtobe26-130airbornemicroplasticsperdayPeoplewhobreathemorethroughtheirmoutharelikelytohavemoreparticlesreachthelungsInhaledparticlesmayactivateT-cells,bephagocytizedbymacrophages,andbetransportedtothelymphnodesLargeparticlesmaybedepositiesinthetracheobronchialregionand,ifsoluble,enterthebodySomecoarseparticlesmayreachthealveolarregionMicroplasticsfoundinthehumanplacentaMicroplasticsmayaccumulateintheliverandkidneyMicroplasticshavebeenfoundinhumanstools,suggestingparticlesmaybewidespreadinthehumanfoodchainUlraneparticles(UFPs),e.g.inairpollutionhotspotsduetoroadvehicles,maypenetratebiologicalmembranesandtransfertosystemiccirculationSkinNanoparticlesmaypenetratetheskin~163000particlesMicroplasticsinanadultperyear~121000particles~52000particlesIngestionperyearInhalationperyearLargeparticlesthatarenotcaughtinthenosemaybedepositedandlatereliminatedbycoughing,blowingthenose,orsneezingAIllustratedbyGRID-Arendal/StudioAtlantisHumanexposuretomicroplasticandnanoplasticparticlesSources:UNEP2021;Prata2018;Coxetal.2019;Landriganetal.2020.Figure3a:Humanexposuretomicroplasticandnanoplasticparticles37MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTandfibresisalsobeginningtoemergefromtwosources:toxicologicalstudiesoflaboratoryanimalsexposedtothesematerials,andoccupationalclinicalandepidemiologicalstudies.3Studiesofoccupationallyexposedpopulationscanbeextremelyinformativebecausethesegroupsareoftenexposedearlierthanthegeneralpopulationandsustainrelativelyhighlevelsofexposure.Sincetheyconsistofwell-definedgroups,occupationalpopulationscanalsobereadilyfollowedandstudiedandgenderaspectsassessed(Lynnetal.2017).Toxicologicalstudieshavereportedthatmicroplastics(5-20µmindiameter)fedtorodentsaccumulateintheliverandkidney,causinginflammationandchangesinmetabolicprofiles(Dengetal.2017).Inhaledmicro-andnanoplasticparticles(1-20nmindiameter)werereportedtoactivateT-cells,leadingtoparticlesbeingtransportedtolymphnodesandcreatingahigherriskofcancers(Blanketal.2013).Occupationalexposurestoairbornemicroplasticfibresamongworkersinthetextileandflockingindustrieshavebeenassociatedwithinterstitiallungdisease(Boagetal.1999;Kernetal.2000),cardiacandautoimmunedisease,andlungcancer(Kernetal.2011;Prata2018).Someexpertsareconcernedthatthehumanhealtheffectsofmicroplasticfibrescouldbesimilartothosecausedbyexposuretoasbestos(Kaneetal.2018).Otherhealthhazardsassociatedwithmarineplasticscanariseupstreamdependingonwastedisposalmethods,forexamplewherethereareinformalwastemanagementschemes(e.g.beachcollection)anduncontrolledorincompletecombustionofthecollectedwaste.MarinelittercollectedonbeachesFigure3b:Humanexposuretoplasticparticlesandassociatedchemicals38MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTReproductivehealth-adultsPolycysticovariansyndromeEndometriosisMalesub-fertilityReducedspermqualityDelayedtimetopregnancyAbnormalPAPsmearsPregnancy-inducedhypertensionand/orpre-eclampsiaCardiovasculardiseaseHormonalThyroiddiseaseThyroidcancerRespiratorydiseaseAsthmaNeurodevelopmentaldisordersAttentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder(ADHD)AutismNeurobehaviouralIQCognitionPregnancyoutcomes-offspringGestationallengthBirthweightDelayedpubertaltimingGenitalstructure(ano-genitaldistance)PubertalonsetMetabolicdiseaseMetabolicdiseaseDecreasedantibodyresponsetovaccinesType2diabetesChildhoodobesityIncreasedwaistcircumferenceSerumlipidlevels,e.g.totalcholesterolandLDLcholesterolHealthconditionslinkedtochemicalsassociatedwithplasticsPlasticizers(phthalates)andbisphenol(monomer)FlameretardantsHumanhealthimpactsofexposuretoplastic-associatedchemicalsIllustratedbyGRID-Arendal/StudioAtlantisCSources:UNEP2021;Landriganetal.2020.canendangerhumanhealth.Whenitisburnedinopenpits,peopleareexposedtothefumes,whichcancontainavarietyofhazardousandcarcinogenicmaterialsincludingpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs),hydrochloricacid(fromcombustionofPVCplastics),dioxinsandfurans(fromcombustionofPVCplastics),lead(usedasaplasticstabilizer),brominatedflameretardants,andshort-chainchlorinatedparaffins(Zhangetal.2017;Babayemietal.2019;UNEP2019e).ThesignificantincreaseinvolumesofplasticwastearisingfromthedisposalofpersonalprotectiveequipmentandotherplasticitemsusedduringtheCOVID-19pandemicarecreatinganadditionalhazardforlocalcommunities(Prataetal.2020b).However,theneedtosolvethisproblemcouldtriggerwidespreadshiftsinthetreatmentofmarinelitterandplasticpollution(Adyel2020;Canning-Clodeetal.2020).Overall,thereisstillapoorunderstandingofthebackgroundlevelsofmicroplasticandmicrofibrecontaminationinanaveragehouseholdandwhethertheseconcentrationshavethepotentialtocauseharmtohumanhealth.Thechronictoxiceffectconcentrationsandunderlyingtoxicologicalmechanismsbywhichmicroplasticseliciteffectsarestillnotwellenoughunderstood,althoughtheyhavebeenlookedatinsixassessmentswithdifferentscopesbynationalgovernmentsandintergovernmentalinstitutions(UNEP2020e).Aprecautionaryapproachinthemanagementofplasticsisthusstillwarranted(EuropeanEnvironmentAgency2013;EuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority(EFSA)SafetyAuthorityPanelonContaminantsintheFoodChain2016;WHO2019).Figure3c:Humanhealthimpactsofexposuretoplastic-associatedchemicals39MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1.3Impactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollutiononmaritimeindustries1.3.1ImpactsonfisheriesandaquacultureMarineplasticshavethepotentialtoreducetheefficiencyandproductivityofcommercialfisheriesandaquacultureoperationsthroughphysicalentanglementanddamage(Mouatetal.2010)andposingadirectrisktofishstocksandaquaculture(Lusheretal.2017a).Themostimportantimpactofmacroplasticdebrisonfisheriesoccursthroughghostfishingbyabandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggear(ALDFG)(Richardsonetal.2019).Themagnitudeoflossestofisheriesandothermaritimeindustriesremainsuncertain,butintheirinterimreportGESAMPWorkingGroup43(GESAMP2020b)findsthatthecontributionofsea-basedactivitiesandindustriestotheglobalburdenofmarinelitterwarrantsconcernlargelybecausesyntheticmaterialsmakeupsignificantportionsandcomponentsofthelitterenteringtheworld’soceansfromfishing,aquaculture,shipping,oceandumping,andothermaritimeactivitiesandsources.Furthermore,certaintypesofsea-basedmarinelitter,suchasALDFG,areknowntoimpactmarineresources,wildlifeandhabitats.ArecentstudysuggeststhatcommercialfishingoffNorwayalonecontributesnearly400metrictonsofplasticsfromlostfishinggearandpartsperyeartomarineplasticwaste(Deshpandeetal.2020).Ghostfishing,so-calledbecauseabandonednetsandtrapsmaycontinuetocatchfishandshellfish,cancausesignificantlevelsofmortalitytocommercialstockswhich,inmanycases,arealreadyunderpressure.Gillnetsandtrammelnetsareusedworldwide,mostlybycoastalandartisanalfisheries.Theyarethemostproblematictypeofequipmentintermsofquantitieslost,astheyarerelativelynon-selectivewithhigherlevelsofby-catchofnon-commercialspecies(e.g.Sullivanetal.2019).Potsandcertaintypesoflong-linefisheriesalsopresentathreattomarinebiodiversitywhengearislostorabandonedincoastalareas(Jeffreyetal.2016;Sullivanetal.2019).FewestimatesoftonnagelossesfromghostfishinghavebeenpublishedsincetheworkofWebberandParker(2012)andScheldetal.(2016),butactionstoremovethistypeofdebrisareimportant.Forexample,along-termstudybySullivanetal.(2019)demonstratesthatremovingdisusedfishinggearinalargecoastalestuaryintheUnitedStatesledtosignificantecologicalandeconomicbenefits,withfuturebenefitsanticipatedfromincreasedharvests.Actionstoremovethistypeofdebrisfromaquaculturearealsoimportant,butseemtobebroadlymissingintherecentglobalstock-takingexerciseconductedaspartoftheworkoftheAdhocopen-endedexpertgroup(AHEG)onmarinelitterandmicroplastics(UNEP/AHEG/4/INF/6).©iStock/Fahroni40MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTMarinelitteralsohasimpactsonfisheriesandaquaculturethroughtheintroductionofinvasivealienspecieswhichcanresultinseriouseconomiclosses(e.g.Barnes2002;Kiesslingetal.2015;Kirsteinetal.2016).Becketal.(2018)showedthatthelossofcoastalfloodprotectionservicesprovidedbyreefscouldleadtodamagesofuptoUS$272billionglobally.Regardingfishstocksandaquaculture,theconsumptionofplasticandassociatedcontaminantsputsfishandshellfishstocksatriskoflethalandsublethalharm(e.g.throughdiminishedreproductivesuccessandgrowth),withthecapacityforpopulation-levelimpactsandeconomiclosses(Sussarelluetal.2016;Gallowayetal.2017;Peng,L.etal.2020).Overall,thepublishedevidencesuggeststhattheproductivity,viability,profitabilityandsafetyofthefishingandaquacultureindustriesarehighlyvulnerabletotheimpactsofmarineplastics,particularlywhencoupledwithotherfactorsincludingclimatechangeandoverfishing.AcasestudyinCanadashowedthatfarmedmusselshadhigherconcentrationsofmicroplasticscomparedwithwildforms(MathalonandHill2014).Globallymarineaquacultureoffishandmolluscsrepresents17percentofthetotalvolumesproducedbyaquaculture(FAO2020);however,seafoodfrombothmaricultureandcapturefisheriesmakesup20percentoffoodintakebyweightfor1.4billionpeople(Goldenetal.2016).Suchahighdependencyonseafoodfornutritionmeansthewell-beingofasignificantproportionoftheworld’spopulationishighlyvulnerabletoanychangesinthequantity,qualityandsafetyofthisfoodsourcebecauseofplasticpollution.1.3.2ImpactsontourismandheritageMarinelitteronbeachespresentsseriousvisualandaestheticproblemsfortouristsandotherswhovisitbeaches,especiallyinpristineareas,althoughthisaspecthasnotbeendeeplyresearched.Litterhasasubstantialnegativeimpactonrecreationalexperiencesandoverallbeachenjoyment,causingdeclinesincoastaltourismandacorrespondinglossofrevenue(Munarietal.2015;Pasternaketal.2017;UNEP2017a;Petroliaetal.2019;WilliamsandRangel-Buitrago2019).Peoplehavereportedtheirconcernsaboutlitterwhenvisitingcoastalareas(Pennetal.2015;Krellingetal.2017;Hartleyetal.2018a).Visitorsspendlesstimeatoravoidcertainsitesiftheyanticipatethatthosesiteswillbelittered(e.g.Wylesetal.2015;Kaminskietal.2017;Krellingetal.2017;Pasternaketal.2017;Leggettetal.2018;Qiangetal.2020).Leggettetal.(2014)demonstratedthatinOrangeCounty,California(UnitedStates)marinedebrishadasignificantimpactonresidents’beachchoices;a75percentreductioninmarinedebrisatsixpopularbeachesledtoUS$53.4millioninbenefitstocountyresidentsduringathree-monthperiod.1.3.3ImpactsonmaritimeshippingandportoperationsDespitethepotentiallyhighriskstoshippingposedbymarinedebris(Macfadyenetal.2009),thereareveryfewestimatesofthetotalcostswithrespecttonavigationalsystemsandassociatedsafetyissues.Marinedebriscanpresentnavigationalhazardstoshipsatsea,forexampleduetoentangledpropellersandrudders,blockedwaterintakes,andcollisionswithfloatingobjects.Entanglementofpropellerscansignificantlyreducestabilityandmaneuverability,withthepotentialtoputcrewandpassengersindanger,particularlywhenweatherconditionsarebad.Injuriesordeathsassociatedwithmarinedebriscouldbeaccompaniedbyfinancialcosts(Cho2005;McIlgormetal.2011;Newmanetal.2015;UNEP2016a).Derelictfishinggear(DFG)canbeanavigationalhazardtocommercialorrecreationalvessels(Jeffreyetal.2016;Hongetal.2017b).Economiccostsresultfromnecessarychangesinnavigationtoavoidderelictgear,aswellasdamagetovesselsandequipment.Costsmaybesignificantinareaswithheavycommercialorrecreationaltraffic.Jeffreyetal.(2016)proposedusingrouteplanningmodelstoquantifythecostsofincreasedhazardsinregardtonavigationaldecision-makingand/orvesselandequipmentdamageassessments.Fuel,labourandmaterial/equipmentcostsrelatedtovesseltrafficpatternswithandwithouttheneedtotakeDFGintoaccountcouldthenbeevaluated.Hongetal.(2017b)studiedshipsbelongingtotheRepublicofKoreaNavyandfoundthatpropellersorshaftswereentangledbyDFG2,386timesinsixyears(2010–2015),witheachshipsufferingatleastoneentanglementperyearandrequiring135hoursofdivertime.Thecostsforallvesselsoperatingaroundthecountry’scoastswereUS$96.7millionperyear.Collisionswithshippingcontainersarearecognizedcauseofdamage,buttheyarenotconsistentlyreportedunlesstheyresultfromacatastrophiceventsuchaslossofavessel.TheWorldShippingCouncil(2020)estimatedthatintheperiod2008­–2019anaverageof1,382containerswerelostatseaeachyear,notcountingthoselostduringcatastrophicevents,whileanaverageof1,582containerswerelostiftheseeventswereincluded.Muchship-basedwasteishandledbyportreceptionfacilities(e.g.EuropeanCommission2018c).Thecostsrepresentavoidedcostsofclean-upandofdamagetoshipsbymarineplasticsincoastalareas.Mostwastemanagementplansdrawnupbyvesseloperatorsentaildischargingplasticwithotherwasteproductsatportreceptionfacilitiesforresponsibleland-baseddisposal.Ifplasticistoberecycled,itmustbesegregatedbeforeavessel’sarrivalandproperlyhandledoncelanded.Althoughthisisregularpracticeinmanycommercialoperations,othermaritimesectorsneedtoalignwithittoensurethatsegregationisanintegralpartoftheroutineworkflow.Forexample,atthePortofRotterdamintheNetherlandsplasticsarespecificallyaddressedinthewastemanagementplan.Theportcollectsplasticseparatelyfromotherwasteproducts,advocateswasteprevention,andencouragesvesselstolimittheamountofplasticstakenonboardwhenreplenishing(IMarEST[InstituteofMarineEngineering,ScienceandTechnology]2019).Overall,theoperationalcostsofportreceptionfacilitiesarebornebytheshipsusingaport.41MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1.4EconomiccostsofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionTheannualglobaleconomiccostsofmarineplasticpollutionwithrespecttotourism,fisheriesandaquaculture,togetherwithothercostsincludingclean-upactivities,areestimatedtobeatleastUS$6-19billionglobally(Deloitte2019).Thisestimaterepresentsonlyasmallpercentageofthevalueoftheglobalmarketforplasticproducts,estimatedataroundUS$580billionin2020,(comparedwithanestimatedUS$502billionin2016)(Statista2021a).However,theDeloitte(2019)estimatedoesnotdirectlyincludeimpactsonhumanhealthormarineecosystems.Thereisinsufficientavailableresearchontheseimpacts.Lackofcomprehensivefiguresforallcostsappearstobeacommonproblem(Newmanetal.2015;UNEP2017a;Gattringer2018).Fourtypesofeconomiccostsneedtobeaddressed:actualexpendituresrequiredtopreventorrecoverfromdamagecausedbymarinedebris(e.g.forbeachclean-ups,repairofvesselsandfishinggear,andmedicalcarefollowingmarinedebrisrelatedaccidents);lossesofoutputorrevenueowingtointeractionswithmarineplasticpollution;lossesofplasticmaterial(asvaluablematerialwithdrawnfromproduction);andwelfarecostsincludinghumanhealthimpactsandlossofecosystemservices,amongwhicharethoseecosystemservicesrelatedtoaestheticpleasureandrecreation.Themajorityofpublishedstudieshavefocusedoneconomicdamageordirectlossesatregional,nationalandlocallevels(e.g.Hall2000;MacFadyen2009;Mouatetal.2010;©iStock/IanDyball42MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTMcIlgormetal.2011;Jangetal.2014;Newmanetal.2015;Krellingetal.2017;Gattringer2018;Leggettetal.2018;DalbergAdvisors,WWFMediterraneanMarineInitiative2019;Qiangetal.2020;andsectionsbelow)andthepriceadjustmentsneededtointernalizethesocialcostsofplastics(e.g.Ferreiraetal.2007;Oosterhuisetal.2014).Somestudieshaveexaminedthenon-marketandintangiblesocialandecologicalcostsofmarinelitterandplasticpollution;forexample,inastudyofacoastalfishingcommunityonThailand’sAndamanSea“increasedgarbageintheocean”wasrankedasthehighestenvironmentalstressor(Lynnetal.2017).Howevertherearetoofewstudiestoprovidearobustestimateglobally.Ontheregionalscaletherearemorestudieslookingatthisissue.IntheMediterraneanSea,acknowledgedtobeoneoftheworld’smostaffectedseas(Eriksenetal.2014;Cózaretal.2015;UNEP/MAP2015;Suariaetal.2016;UNEP/MAP2017;Campanaleetal.2019;Constantinoetal.2019;DalbergAdvisors,WWFMediterraneanMarineInitiative2019;Fossietal.2020),therewereannuallossesofUS$696millioninthethreemajorsectors(fisheriesandaquaculture,shippingandtourism),includingUS$150millioninthefisheriessectoralone(DalbergAdvisors,WWFMediterraneanMarineInitiative2019).Thesefiguresdonotincludelossesduetoreducedincomeordamagetoecosystemservicescausedbyplastics.IntheAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)countriestheestimatedannualeconomiccostsofmarinelitterin2008wereUS$1.26billion(McIlgormetal.2008;McIlgormetal.2011),risingtoUS$10.8billionin2015(Asia-PacificEconomicCooperation2017;McIlgormetal.2020).ThesefiguresfortheAsia-Pacificregionreflectincreasingglobalplasticproduction.Statista(2021b)estimatesthatcumulativeglobalproductionwas8.3millionmetrictonsin2017andwillgrowto34millionmetrictonsin2030.Theworld’smaritimeindustriesarealsogrowing:asof2019thetotalvalueofannualseagoingshippingtradeisreportedtohavebeenmorethanUS$14trillion(InternationalChamberofShipping2019).Formanycountrieseconomicdataonthecostsofdamagecausedbymarineplasticsdonotexist(Janssenetal.2014;Jambecketal.2018).However,avoidedcostscreatedbytheinformalwastepickingsectoraresometimesausefulindicator;in2016wastepickerswereestimatedtoberesponsibleforcollecting55-64percentofplasticsforrecyclingglobally(Lauetal.2020).Thissectorgenerallycomprisessmallbusinessesandself-employedindividualswhooperatewithlowcapitalinvestmentandlittleornostateregulation.Informalwastepickersgeneratehugesavingsforcitiesbyreducingthevolumeoflow-valuewastethatneedstobecollectedandtakentolandfills(UNESCAP[UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific]2019).Forexample,inIndiainformalwastecollectionsavesthePunemunicipalityanestimatedUS$10millionperyearinlabourcosts,atstatutorywagerates,andaboutUS$2millioninreducedwastetransportationandprocessingcosts.InLima(Peru),Cairo(Egypt),andQuezonCity(thePhilippines)informalwastepickersareestimatedtocontributearoundUS$15.9million,US$13.7millionandUS$3.9million,respectively,toannualavoidedwastecollectionanddisposalcosts.Estimatingthecostsofdamagetoecosystemfunctioningisalsochallenging,withlimitationsintheaccuracyofpreviousanalyses(e.g.Costanzaetal.1997;Börgeretal.2014;Costanzaetal.2014)havingbeenpointedout(e.g.byPendletonetal.2016).Beaumontetal.(2019),whousedDeGrootetal.(2012)andCostanzaetal.(2014)tocombineeconomicvaluesfordifferentcomponentsofmarineecosystemswithestimatesoftheimpactsofmarineplasticonecosystemservicesbasedonthevolumeofplasticsinthemarineenvironmentin2011,estimatedtobebetween75and150millionmetrictons(Jangetal.2015;OceanConservancyandMcKinseyBusinessCentre2015).TheoutcomefromBeaumontetal.(2019)wasthateachtonofplasticintheoceansleadstoanannualcost,intermsofreducedmarinenaturalcapital,ofbetweenUS$3,300andUS$33,000oranoverallyearlylossofUS$500-2,500billion.Analysingthelossofbenefitsthatmarineecosystemservicesprovideisanappropriatemethodforestimatingthenon-market,intangiblecostsofmarineplastics,butbeforethesecostscanbeappliedgloballyitisclearthatamoreprofoundinterdisciplinaryapproachisneededwhichbetteraddressestheinterdependenciesbetweeneconomicandecologicalsystems(Gattringer2018).Comparedtothesizeoftheglobalplasticmarketin2020,estimatedataroundUS$580billion(Statista2021a),theWorldTradeOrganizationreportsthatthevalueofglobalmerchandiseexportsalonein2020wasaroundUS$17.65trillion(comparedtoUS$19.014trillionin2019and19.55trillionin2018,beforetheCOVID-19pandemicbegan)(WorldTradeOrganization[WTO]2021).ThevalueoftradeflowsofplasticsfromrawmaterialstofinishedgoodshaverecentlybeencalculatedtoamounttoaboutUS$1trillion(UNCTAD2020).However,thepriceofvirginplasticsdoesnotreflectthefullenvironmental,economicandsocialcostsofdisposingofthem.Instead,thesecostsarepassedon,forexampletocoastalcommunitiesandthemaritimesectors.ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ(2020),usingabusiness-as-usualscenariofor2040,projectedthat4billionpeoplearelikelytobewithoutorganizedwastecollectionservicesbythatyearandthatbusinessescouldfaceaUS$100billionannualfinancialriskifgovernmentsrequiredthemtocoverwastemanagementcostsatexpectedvolumesandrecyclability.Figuressuchastheseareindicativeofwidespreadmarketfailuresandunderlinetheneedforasystems-wide,solutions-basedapproachthatfocusesonthechallenges–technological(e.g.thescalabilityofdifferentrecyclingtechnologiesandsubstitutematerials),economic(e.g.therelativecostofdifferentsolutions),environmental(e.g.greenhousegas[GHG]emissionsassociatedwithdifferentsolutions)andsocial(e.g.equityandsocialjusticeforwastepickers)–thatneedtobemettopreventmismanagedplasticwasteandthesubsequentcostsofenvironmentalpollutionenteringthemarineenvironment(Lauetal.2020).43MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1.5SocialimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionThereisgrowingawarenessworldwidethatthemarineenvironmentisunderthreatfromplasticpollutionandoverfishing(Wylesetal.2016;Hartleyetal.2018b;Lotzeetal.2018).Awarenessofotherthreatssuchashabitatalteration,climatechangeandbiodiversityloss,althoughfelttobeimportant,isnotasgreat,perhapsduetotheirlowerdirectvisibility,greatercomplexityor,asinthecaseofclimatechange,becausetheyhavenotpreviouslybeenperceivedasadirectthreattotheoceans(Reidetal.2009;Lotzeetal.2018).Changesinperceptionandawarenessareimportant.Thereisextensiveevidencethatpeopleexperiencewell-beingbyknowingthatmarineanimalsexistandwillcontinuetodoso,eveniftheyneverexperiencethempersonally(Borgeretal.2014;Jobstvogtetal.2014;Aanesenetal.2015;Eagleetal.2016).Charismaticmarineanimals,includingturtles,whales,dolphinsandmanyseabirds,haveculturalandemotionalimportance.Imagesanddescriptionsofwhalesandseabirdswhosestomachsarefullofplasticfragments,whichareprevalentinmainstreammedia,4canhaveastrongdetrimentalimpactonpeople’semotionsandsenseofwell-being(Lotzeetal.2018).Litteriscitedasakeyreasonvisitorsspendlesstimeonbeachesoravoidsomesitesaltogetheriftheyanticipatetheywillfindlitterthere(Ballanceetal.2000;TudorandWilliams2003;Kiesslingetal.2017;Hartleyetal.2018a).Notvisitingbeachesandshorelinescanhavehealthimplicationsifitmeansthereisalackofopportunitytoenjoybenefitssuchasphysicalactivity,socialinteraction(e.g.strengtheningoffamilybonds),andgeneralimprovementofphysicalandmentalhealth(Ashbullbyetal.2013;Papathanasopoulouetal.2016;Kiesslingetal.2017;Whiteetal.2020).Ontheotherhand,thepresenceoflitterisknowntostimulatecitizenprogrammesandbeachclean-upactivities(Brouweretal.2017;Hartleyetal.2018b).Handlingmarinelitterandplasticscanhavedifferentimpactsonparticulargroups(e.g.women,children,coastalcommunities,wasteworkers);moreover,whenindividualscollectingwastefrombeachesandcoastalareasproblemsmayariseiftheyareperceivedtobecompetingwithestablishedmunicipalwastemanagementsystems(ILO[InternationalLabourOrganization]2017;UNEP2017a;ILO2019).Inhazardousworkingenvironments,wherealltypesofwasteworkersmaybeexposedtofumesfromwasteburningandadequateoccupationalsafetyandhealthmeasuresmaybelacking,theseworkersareexposedtonumeroushealthrisksincludingexposuretohazardouschemicalsassociatedwithplastics(ILO2017;ILO2019;UNESCAP2019;VelisandCook2021).IthasbeenproposedbyvandenBerghandBotzen(2015)andothersthatthesocialcostsofmarineplasticshouldbeincludedinsolutionstothewaysplasticsareproduced,used,reusedandreprocessed,employinganapproachsimilartothe“SocialCostofCarbon”.Marinelitterandplasticpollutioncaninfringeonanumberofhumanrights.Theyaffectpeopleinvulnerableconditionsdisproportionally,includingthoselivinginpoverty,indigenousandcoastalcommunities,andchildren,potentiallyaggravatingexistingenvironmentalinjustices(UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly2021).©iStock/apomares44MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1.6RiskframeworkformarinelitterandplasticpollutionBecauseofthemultipleandcascadingrisksthatmarinelitterandplasticpollutionposetotheoceansandsociety(Figure1),theycanactasthreatmultipliers(UNDRR[UnitedNationsOfficeforDisasterRiskReduction]2019).Plastics,inparticular,arestressorsthatmaycombinewithotherstressors(e.g.climatechange,overexploitationofmarineresources),resultinginfargreaterdamagethanwhentheyareconsideredinisolation(BackhausandWagner2019).Forexample,GHGemissionsfromtheproduction,recyclingandincinerationoffossilfuel-basedplasticsaccountfor19percentofthetotalemissionsbudgetallowablein2040iftheworldistoavoidsignificantclimatechange(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Habitatalterationsinkeycoastalecosystemscausedbythedirectimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionnotonlyaffectlocalfoodproductionandcoastalprotection,butmayleadtowide-reachingandunpredictablesecondarysocietalconsequencesthroughimpairmentofecosystemresilienceandthepotentialofcoastalcommunitiestowithstandextremeweathereventsandclimatechange(Gallowayetal.2017;Carvalho-Souzaetal.2018;Woodsetal.2019;GESAMP2020a).Suchconsiderationsunderscoretheurgentneedforacoherentapproachtomanagingtherisksofmarinelitterandplasticpollution(Colbornetal.2011;UNGeneralAssembly2016;HardestyandWilcox2017;Royeretal.2018;Adametal.2019;BackhausandWagner2019;UNDRR2019;GESAMP2020a;Peng,L.etal.2020;Shenetal.2020).TheJointGroupofExpertsontheScientificAspectsofMarineEnvironmentalProtection(GESAMP)(2020a)suggestedthatnosingleapproachtoriskwouldbesuitableforassessingthewiderangeofpotentialhazardsandexposureroutesassociatedwithmarinelitterandmicroplasticswhichwouldtakeintoaccountallthepossiblesocial,economicandenvironmentalconsequences.Instead,settingouta“riskassessmentlandscape”andadoptingatieredapproachforaddressingmarinelitterandplasticpollutionhasbeenproposed(Koelmansetal.2017a;GESAMP2020a).Thisapproachreflectsincreasingexperiencewiththedevelopmentoftoolstoassesshazardandriskinawiderangeofapplications,forwhichrelevantfactorstobeconsidered(includingexistingknowledgeandurgency)vary,takingsocialconsiderationsandpotentialpublicorenvironmentalhealthrisksintoconsideration.Theobjectiveofsuchariskframeworkwouldbetodeliver“fitforpurpose”riskframeworktoensurethatnon-prioritiesaresetasideandtoinformriskmanagement(Koelmansetal.2017a).Riskmatricescanalsoprovideawaytohighlightwhereknowledgegapsexistandcanaidproblemformulation.Thedevelopmentofariskappraisalprocedureandcommonriskframeworkisthusacriticalstepgoingforward.©iStock/MarinMtk45MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT©iStock/pidjoe46MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTSOURCESANDPATHWAYSOFMARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONSECTION2©iStock/pidjoe47MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT2.1Majorsourcesofmarinelitterandplasticpollution2.1.1Land-basedsourcesThemaindriversofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionarethegrowingvolumesofplasticsbeingsuppliedtotheglobaleconomy(IRP[InternationalResourcePanel]2019;Geyer2020)andthewasteandemissionsarisingfromtheiruseanddisposal(Veigaetal.2016;Lusheretal.2017a;Piehletal.2018;Rochmanetal.2019).Onthesupplyside,totalproductionofplasticsin2019was368millionmetrictons.DuetotheimpactsoftheCOVID-19pandemic,itisestimatedthatproductionin2020decreasedbyapproximately0.3percent(Maliketal.2020;ICIS[IndependentCommodityIntelligenceServices]2020;Statista2021b).Thechemicalindustryislikelytobecomemorecomplexinthefuture,withGHGemissions,climatechange,demographicsandtechnology,forexample,allhavingimpacts(McKinseyandCompany2020).However,itwasrecentlyestimatedthatglobalproductionofprimaryplasticwouldincreaseto1,100millionmetrictonsperyearby2050ifhistoricgrowthtrendscontinue(Geyer2020).Oftheglobalcumulativeproductionofprimaryplasticbetween1950and2017,estimatedat9,200millionmetrictons,roughly7,000millionmetrictonsbecameplasticwaste;ofthisamount,1,000millionmetrictonswereincinerated(14percent)and5,300millionmetrictons(76percent)werediscarded,endingupinlandfillsordumpsorasacomponentofuncontrolledwastestreams,and2,900millionmetrictonsarestillinuse,including700millionmetrictons(8percent)thatwererecycled(IRP2019;Geyer2020).Acrosstheplasticslifecyclethelargestlossestotheenvironmentoccurduringuseandend-of-life,whichaccountforapproximately36percentand55percent,respectively(IRP2019).Lossesduringplasticproductionaccountforonlyabout0.25percentofthetotal(Rybergetal.2019).Althoughsomemismanagedplasticwastemaybecollectedforreuse,orcollectedbystreetsweepers,citizens’groupsandothers,andreintroducedintolandfillsordumps(Schneideretal.2018)theamountofthiswasteislikelytobeverysmall.Marinelitterandplasticpollutioncomemainlyfromland-basedsources(UNEP2018e;IRP2019;vanTruongetal.2019)(Figure4).Thesesourcesincludeagriculture(e.g.irrigationpipes,protectivemeshes,greenhousecovers,containers,fencing,pelletsforthedeliveryofchemicalsandfertilizers,seedcoatingsandmulching);buildingandconstruction(e.g.pipes,paints,flooring,roofing,insulantsandsealants);transportation(e.g.abrasionoftyres,roadsurfacesandroadmarkings);andawidevarietyofpersonalcare,pharmaceuticalandhealthcareproducts,includingthepersonalprotectiveequipmentusedduringtheCOVID-19pandemic(Adyel2020).Approximately36percentofallplasticsproducedareusedinpackaging,includingsingle-useplasticproductsforfoodandbeveragecontainers,approximately85percentofwhichendsupinlandfillsorasunregulatedwasteandmuchofwhich48MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTRivers-directpathwayAgriculturesoil-sourceandsinkSediments-sourceandsinkLakes-closetoriversandoceanSewageandwastewater-sourceandpathwayReservoirs-sourceandsinkSnowandice-pathwayCities-sourceinfarmingpractises.Sewagesludgewithplasticresidueusedasfertilizer.Irrigationfertilizerandseedscoatedwithapolymer.Wastewatertreatmentplantsareamajorsourceofmicroplasticsandnanoplasticsinwaterbodies.Plasticsfromatmosphericfallout,streamsandrivers.Temporaryandlong-termstorageandpossibleMicroplasticsarefoundinsnow,iceandsea-ice,fromthepolestoremotemountaintops.Temporaryandlong-termstorage.patternsandhydrodynamicregimes.Transportofplasticdebristotheocean.Estimated4.8to12.7milliontonsperyearofmacroplastic.Plasticscomingfromboththelandandseacontributetoaccumulationinsediments.Particlesfromthewearontyres,roadsurfacesandpaint.Clothes,syntheticproductssuchascarpets,buildingmaterials,take-awayfoodcontainersetc.aresourcesofplasticExposedplasticscanbetransportedbythewindandplasticparticlesandchemicalsassociatedwithplasticscanleachintosurroundinggroundwater.Sources:UNEP2021;Borelleetal.2020;Lauetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020;Meijeretal.2021.MajorsourcesandpathwaysofhumangeneratedplasticwasteinthemarineenvironmentPathways,sources,sinksandtemporaryaccumulationIllustratedbyGRID-ArendalFigure4:Majorsourcesandpathwaysofhuman-generatedplasticlitterwilleventuallyenterthemarineenvironment(Andradesetal.2016).Despitechangesinsomecountries’policies,theexportofwaste,includingelectronicwaste,tocountrieswithpoorwastemanagementinfrastructureplaysamajorroleinthegenerationofmismanagedwasteandflowsoflitterandtoxicchemicalsintotheoceans(Brooksetal.2018;EuropeanEnvironmentAgency2019a;Awereetal.2020)(seeSection4).Thevolumeofplasticsintheoceans,whichhasbeencalculatedbyanumberofresearchersduringthepastfiveyearsorso,isestimatedtobebetween75and199millionmetrictons(Jangetal.2015;OceanConservancyandMcKinseyCentreforBusinessandEnvironment2015;Law2017;IRP2019;Lebretonetal.2019;Borrelleetal.2020;Lauetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Giventhepredictedincreasesintheproductionofplasticsandintheirfutureuse,plasticlitterandflowsofplasticstomarineenvironmentsfromland-basedsourcesareprojectedtocontinuetogrowunlessnewgovernanceandmanagementstructuresareputinplace.Thetypesofstructuresandframeworksneededcouldincludeeffectivelifecycleandend-of-lifemanagementstrategiesandcorporatesocialresponsibility(Borrelleetal.2017;Haward2018;Landon-Lane2018;Borrelleetal.2020;MaelandandStaupe-Delgado2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020)(Section4).Thereisasyetnoconsistentapproachforestimatingthevolumeofplasticwasteflowingintotheoceans.However,modellinganalysissuggeststhattherearefourmainroutesthroughwhichland-basedprimarymacroplasticwasteenterstheoceans:uncollectedwastedirectlydumpedintowater;uncollectedwastedumpedonlandthatmakesitswaytowater;collectedwastedepositedindumpsitesthatmovesvialandandairintowater;andcollectedwastedumpeddirectlyintowaterbycollectiontrucks(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Basedontheseassumptions,ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ(2020)estimatethat61percentofmacroplasticleakageoriginatesfromuncollectedwaste,asharewhichcouldgrowto70percentby2040underabusiness-as-usualscenarioascollectionservicesfailtokeeppacewithmacroplasticwastegeneration.Severalcalculationsofannualflowsofplasticsintodifferentaquaticecosystemshavebeenproduced(Table1).Evenwithimmediateandconcertedaction,Lauetal.(2020)estimatethat710millionmetrictonsofplasticwastewouldcumulativelyenteraquaticandterrestrialecosystemsbetween2016and2040.ThescenariosofLebretonandAndrady(2019)forthesecondhalfofthe21stcenturysuggestthatwithoutashiftinwastegenerationandmanagement,themismanagementofwastefromAfrican(UNEP2018c;UNEPBamako2020)andAsianwatershedswouldresultinthereleaseofmillionsoftonsoflitterandplasticwasteintoalltheworld’smajorterrestrialandaquaticecosystemsandeventuallyintotheoceans.Historicalestimatesofthevolumeandweightofplasticsenteringtheoceanfromland-basedsourceshavegenerallyreliedontwoindicators:wastegenerationpercapitaandtheproportionofwastethatisplastics.Basedonpercapitauseofplasticsandpopulationdensityatagivenlocation5anddataon49MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTAirbornepathwayDirectlitteringfromactivitiesintheoceansGyres-accumulationOceanplastic(1950-2017)Aquaculture-sourceFishingactivities-sourceRecreationalboats-sourceShipping-sourceFromanthropogenicactivitiessuchasparticlesfromvehicletyresandbrakesandroadpaint,citydust,synthetictextiles,driedsewagesludge.Currentstandingstockofplasticisestimatedtobebetween75and199milliontons.Fish,shellshandmacroalgaefarming.Galleywasteandlitterthrownoverboard,marinecoatings.Galleywastethrownoverboard,lossofshippinggoodsandplasticpellets,marinecoatings.Galleywastethrownoverboard,abandoned,lost,orotherwisediscardedshinggear,marinecoatings.Estimatesofthetimetakenforplasticstobetransportedfromcoastalareastomid-oceanislandsandgyresrangefrommonthstoyears.19975country-specificwastegenerationandmanagement(HoornwegandBhada-Tata2012),Jambecketal.(2015,2018)andLebretonandAndrady(2019)estimatedthatmismanagedplasticwastegeneratedgloballyin2010amountedto32millionmetrictonsandthatthefractionofthiswasteconsistingofplasticswhichreachedtheoceansfrompopulationslivingwithin50kmofthecoastlineamountedtobetween4.8millionand12.7millionmetrictons.Thus,evenincountrieswherethereislowpercapitauseofplastics,wastevolumeswillbuildupifinfrastructureisinadequate.FortheAfricancontinent,Jambecketal.(2018)usedthebestavailablecountry-leveldata6toestimatethatthetotalamountofmismanagedplasticwastewas4.4millionmetrictonsin2010.Theyprojectedthatthisamountwouldincreaseto10.5millionmetrictonsin2025.LebretonandAndrady(2019)updatedfiguresformismanagedanduncontrolledwasteusingcountry-leveldataonwastemanagement,highresolutiondistribution,andlong-termprojectionsofpopulationsandGDPgrowth.Theyestimatedthat47percentoftotalannualmunicipalplasticwastegeneratedglobally(i.e.60-90millionmetrictons)wasinadequatelydisposedofandlikelytoendupintheocean.Withrespecttomicroplastics(seeGlossary),primarymicroplasticscanbetheresultofleakagefromproductionfacilitiesandaccidentallossesofplasticpelletsduringtransport(Karlssonetal.2018)whilesecondarymicroplastics,producedwhenlargerpiecesofplasticbreakuporfragment,arefound,forexample,inleachatesfromlandfillsites,biosludgefromwastewatertreatmentplants,andagriculturalrun-off(Masonetal.2016;Mahonetal.2017;Lietal.2018;Cowgeretal.2019;Heetal.2019;Sunetal.2019)(Figure5).Agriculturalsoilsarenowknowntobesinksformicroplasticsasaresultofintentionalapplicationofmicroplastic-coatedseeds,chemicalsandfertilizers(usingnewdeliverytechnologies)intentionalapplicationofsewagesludgeandeffluents,plastic-coatedseeds,chemicalsandfertilizers(Nizzettoetal.2016a;Nizzettoetal.2016b;Piehletal.2018;Accinnellietal.2019;Corradinietal.2019;Wangetal.2019a;Wangetal.2019b).TheseauthorsestimatethatmicroplasticloadingstoagriculturalsoilsinEuropeandNorthAmericarepresentareservoirpotentiallylargerthanthemarineenvironment.Thereisalsoevidenceofmicroplasticsuptakebyedibleplants(Contietal.2020;Lietal.2020).©iStock/-----50MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT2.1.2Sea-basedsourcesMarinelitterfromsea-basedactivitiesarisesfrommultiplesources(GESAMP2015;GESAMP2020b)(Figure6).Forexample,allaffordable,lightweightanddurablemaritimeequipmentismadeofplastics.Majorsea-basedsourcesofplasticsandmicroplasticsincludefisheriesandaquaculture(e.g.sealants,storageboxes,packaging,buoys,ropesandlines,nets,varioustypesofstructures,andfishinggearsuchasfishaggregatingdevicesorFADs)(FAO2020);shippingandoffshoreoperations(e.g.packaging,cargo,paints,end-of-lifedismantling,ballastwater);andship-basedtourism(e.g.packaging,personalgoods).Ryanetal.(2019)observedthatdiscardedplasticdrinksbottlesshowthehighestgrowthrate,increasingat15percentperyearcomparedwith7percentforothertypesofdebris.Basedonananalysisofbottletypesanddateofmanufacture,theyconcludedthatshipsareresponsibleformostofthebottlesfloatinginthecentralSouthAtlanticOcean,incontraventionoftheInternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips.Thisisconsistentwiththeresultsofaninternalinvestigationcarriedoutbyafleetoperator,whichrevealedthatinoneyearcrewsonits75shipsthrewawaymorethan500,000plasticdrinksbottles(IMarEST2019).7Fisheries-relateddebrisisthelargestsinglecategorybyvolumefoundinbeachlitter.InEurope,basedonnumeroussurveys,fisheriesandaquacultureisestimatedtocontribute39percentand14percentofthisdebris,respectively;itconsistsof,forexample,buoys,pots,feedsacks,glovesandboxes(Veigaetal.2016;EuropeanCommission2018a).Theproportionofitemsonbeachesfromsea-basedactivitiesincreaseswithstrongerEstimatedemissionsofplasticwaste(millionmetrictonsperyear)Source-to-seaaspectProjectedemissionsofplasticwaste(millionmetrictonsperyear)undercertainconditionsApproachused19-23Enteredaquaticecosystemsin201653by2030Integratingexpectedpopulationgrowth,annualwastegenerationpercapita,theproportionofplasticinwaste;incorporatinganincreaseinplasticmaterialsassociatedwithpredictedproductionincreases,andtheproportionofinadequatelymanagedwastebycountry(Borelleetal.2020)9-14Enteredaquaticecosystemsin201623-37by2040(equivalentto50kgofplasticpermetreofcoastlineworldwide)Modelledstocksandflowsofmunicipalsolidwasteandfoursourcesofmicroplasticsthroughtheglobalplasticsystem,usingfivescenarios(2016–2040)andassumingnoeffectiveactionistaken(Lauetal.20200.8-2.7Enteredtheoceansfromglobalriverinesystemsin2015--Basedon>1,000rivers,calibratedusingfieldobservations(Meijeretal.2021)Table1:Estimatesofglobalannualemissionsofplasticwaste(millionmetrictonnes)fromland-basedsourcestides,suggestingthattheshareoflitterinthewatermaybeevenhigher(UngerandHarrison2016).Atsea10percentofallfloatingdebrisisabandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggear(ALDFG)(Stelfoxetal.2016);intheNorthPacificSubtropicalGyre46percentofthisdebrisconsistsoffishingnets(Lebreton2018).ThecontentsoffishingnetsinthewesternAtlanticandtheBalticSeaindicatethatthereareanequalnumberofitemsmadeofunnecessary,avoidableandproblematicplasticpolymersandALDFG,whereasthemajorityofplasticsfoundinArcticwaterscomeprimarilyfromfishing(Veigaetal.2016;©iStock/-----51MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTVlachogiannietal.2017;Fleetetal.2021).IntheareaaroundSvalbard,Norwaymostofthemarinelitteranalysedisassociatedwithfishing-relatedactivities(Nashoug2017).Thedominanceoffishing-relatedobjectsisrelativelyuniquetothenorthernpartsofNorway,theBarentsSearegionandtheArctic.Inmoresouthernareashousehold-relatedobjectsarethedominanttypeofplasticsinmarinelitter(Nashoug2017).Surveysinareasclosetoshorewithhighconcentrationsoffisheriesandaquacultureshowsignificantconcentrationsofplasticsintheformofcages,longlines,poles,andotherfloatingandfixedstructuresusedforthecultureofmarineanimalsandplants.Therearenoreliableestimatesofthecontributionofaquaculturetomarinelitter;however,aquacultureoperatorsarelikelytotakeconsiderablecaretoavoidlosses.Themateriallostdependsonculturesystems,constructionquality,vulnerabilitytodamage,andmanagementpractices.Itcouldincludenetsandcagestructures(formarinefishcages),linesandfloatingraftstructures(forseaweedsystems),andpoles,bags,linesandplasticsheeting(formolluscfarming).Degradationofpolymerropesalsoleadstoplasticsbeingreleasedinsublittoralenvironments(WeldenandCowie2017).OnbeachesalongthecoastlineoftheAdriaticandIonianSeasmusselnetsweretheseventhmostfrequentitemsfound(Vlachogiannietal.2017;Fleetetal.2021),whileinseafloorsurveyslitterfromaquacultureaccountedfor15percentoftheitemsrecorded(Spedicatoetal.2019).StatisticsfromthePRODCOMdatabase8indicatethatthecontributionoffishinggearandaquaculturetowasteandmarinelitter(nettingandnon-netting)inEuropeanwatersis11,000metrictonsperyear(UngerandHarrison2016;EuropeanCommission2018a;IngeborgandGabrielson2018)comparedto15,604metrictonsperyearfromsingle-useplastics.Othersea-basedsourcesofmarinelitterincludeabandonedandend-of-lifevesselsandrecreationalboats,especiallythosemadeoffibreglass(IMO2019).Amajorsourceofplasticcontaminationinsomecoastalareasisshipbreaking(ScienceforEnvironmentPlantgrowthisaectedbyresidualplasticinthesoil.YieldreductionUseofplasticinagricultureperyear8-10milliontonsPlasticlmandmulchtocoversoilandcropsDiscardedafteruseWindtunnels,green-housesandsilagelmMicroplasticsinsoilrun-oe.g.burnedorlefttobreakdownPlasticmulchEnd-of-useIntentionalandunintentionalapprox.4milliontonsINTENTIONALTheagriculturalsectorintentionallyreleasesmicroplasticsfromtheuseofcontrolledreleasefertilizer,fertilizeradditives,plastic-coveredseedsandencapsulatedpesticides.WastewaterBiosolidsUNINTENTIONALBiosolidscontainingmicroplasticsandbresareusedasfertilizersonagricultureelds.Mostmicroplas-ticsarelikelyexportedtotheaquaticenvironment,whilebresareretainedinthesoil.Wastewatertreatmentplantsareamajorsourceofmicroplastics,nanoplasticsandsyntheticmicrobres.Biosolidsfromwastewatertreatmentcontainlargeamountsofthese.AgriculturalpracticescontributingtomarinelitterandplasticpollutionSource:Cassou2018.IllustratedbyGRID-Arendal/StudioAtlantisFigure5:Agriculturalpracticescontributingtomarinelitterandplasticpollution©iStock/Tunatura52MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTFigure6a:FisheriesandaquaculturepracticescontributingtomarinelitterandplasticpollutionPolicy2016).InastudyoftheabundanceofsmallpiecesofplasticinashipyardinIndia,theauthorsfoundonaverage81mgofsmallplasticfragmentsperkgofsediment,whichtheyreportedwasthedirectresultofshipbreaking(Reddyetal.2006).Ayacht’saveragelifespanhasbeenestimatedtobe30years,althoughinsomeinstancesitmaystretchto40-45years.Thislifespanhasbeenincreasingovertimewiththeuseofstrongermaterialssuchasfibre-reinforcedpolymers.Itisthoughtthat1to2percentofthe6millionboatsmaintainedinEurope(i.e.atleast80,000)reachtheirend-of-lifeeachyear.However,onlyaround2,000aredismantled(EuropeanCommission2017).Asignificantshareoftheremainderareabandoned,potentiallyendingupintheoceansandbecomingmarinelitter.Primarymicroplasticsfromsea-basedsourcescanentertheoceansdirectlyfromaccidentallossofcargoatseaandfromillegaldumpingofwaste,aswellasviapaintsandothermaterialssuchassealantsusedinvariousindustries.Secondarymicroplasticsmayarisefromwearandtearonfishinggear,suchaspolypropyleneropes,andfromaquacultureoperations.Coastalandsea-basedtourismisanothersourceofplasticwastethroughintentionaloraccidentallitteringofshorelines(EuropeanCommissionARCADIS2014).Oncelargerpiecesofplasticarepresentinthemarineenvironment,theymaybebrokendownintosecondarymicroplasticsthroughmechanical,chemicalorbiologicalprocesses.Inadditiontomicroorganisms,biologicalbreakdownincludestheactivityofmarineorganismsfragmentingitemssuchasplasticbags(Hodgsonetal.2018),hardplastictrays,andpolystyrenefoampackaging(Jangetal.2016)intomicroplastics.Thereisemergingevidencethatsomemarineorganisms,suchaskrill,canalsoreducemicroplasticparticlestonanoplasticsthroughingestion(Dawsonetal.2018).Theinteractionsbetweenfaunaandmicroplasticproductionrequirefurtherinvestigation,astheyneedtobeconsideredwhenthemovementofmicroplasticsthroughecosystemsismodelled.53MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTFigure6b:FisheriesandaquaculturepracticescontributingtomarinelitterandplasticpollutionInaworldwidesurveyofseafloorlitter,Canalsetal.(2021)concludethatanimportantfactorinfluencingthecompositionofbenthiclitteristhetypeofactivitiescarriedoutinthevicinity.Forexample,analysesofsourcesinrelationtobenthiclitterinthesouthernNorthSeaindicatedtheimportanceofship-basedlittercomparedtoland-basedlitter,asisthecaseintheMediterranean(Galimanyetal.2019).Deep-sealitterintheIndianOceanisdominatedbyabandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggear(ALDFG),whereasthatintheAtlanticOceanhasbeenfoundtobeageneralmixofrefuse(Woodalletal.2015).ThelargestcomponentofmarinelitterassociatedwithfisheriesandaquacultureisALDFGandwearandtearonaquacultureinstallations.Examplesofthereasonsfordischarginglitteratseaincludeaccidentalandsometimesirretrievablelossofdiscardedfishinggear;thelimitedlifespanofsomeitemsusedatsea;wastemismanagement(e.g.dumpingatseabecauseofthehighcostofwastehandlinginports);inadequatefacilitiesforwastehandlingatsea;inadequatereceptionandstoragefacilitiesforwasteandconsignment;lackofoperatorstohandlewasteorgear;andlackofincentivestorecycleorreusegear.IntherevisionoftheEUDirectiveonportreceptionfacilities(Ecorys2017;EuropeanCommission2018c;EuropeanUnion2019c)itwasnotedthatupto30percentofwaste,includingthatfromfishingvesselsandrecreationalcraft,whichshouldbedeliveredtoportsisnotsodelivered;instead,itpotentiallyendsupbeingdischargedatsea.Thereisnoevidencethatdumpingoflitterfromshipsatseahasdecreased.54MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT2.2MajorpathwaysoflitterandplasticpollutionMarinelitterandplasticpollutionenterthemarineenvironmentalongmultiplepathways,includingrun-offoverland,riverineflows,wastewaterandgreywaterflows,airbornetransport,anddirectentryfromoceansourcessuchasfisheriesandmaritimeshipping(e.g.Alomaretal.2016;Nizzettoetal.2016a;Nizzettoetal.2016b;Autaetal.2017;Lebretonetal.2017;Alimietal.2018;HortonandDixon2018;Best2019;Akarsuetal.2020;Chenetal.2020;Birchetal.2020;Peng,L.etal.2020).Majoreventssuchasstormsandtsunamiscanalsodeliversignificantvolumesofplasticdebrisandmicroplasticsviaurbanstormwaters(Werbowskietal.2021)andfromdamagetocoastalinfrastructure(NOAA2015;Murrayetal.2018;GESAMP2019).Someplastics,suchassingle-useitems,whichhavebeenlitteredorwasheddowndrainscanalsobetransportedviamultiplepathwaysincludingwind,riversandseweragesystemsorentertheoceansdirectly.Thesepathwaysarecloselyconnected.Forexample,similaritieshavebeenobservedbetweenthecompositionofriverineandbeachlitter,whileananalysisoffloatingmacrolitterfrom52riversandonmarinebeachesfoundasignificantoverlapamong8,599items(Gonzalezetal.2016).Themovementofmicroplasticsalongdifferentfreshwaterpathwaysintothemarineenvironmentismoredifficulttomonitor(e.g.Lebretonetal.2017;Alimietal.2018;Redondo-Hasselerharmetal.2020).Althoughtheoverwhelmingmajorityofflowsofmicroplasticscomefromland-basedactivities,sea-basedactivitiessuchasfisheries,aquacultureandcruiseshipsalsogeneratemicroplasticsfromdiscardedwaste(BoucherandFriot2017;Lebretonetal.2017).Thelargestshareoftheseparticlesisestimatedtoderivefromthelaunderinganduseofsynthetictextilesandabrasionoftyreswhiledriving(BoucherandFriot2017).Usingtheseresults,recentmodellingoffourmajorsourcesofmicroplastics(tyres,plasticpellets,fibresandmicroplasticsinpersonalcareproducts)indicatesthattyredustfromroadwaysandrunwayscontributes78percentofleakagebymass,plasticpellets17percent,andtextilesandpersonalcareproducts4percentcombined(Lauetal.2020).Themicroplasticsourcesanalysedrepresentabout60percentoftotalleakagefromlandinhigh-incomecountries,wherethepercapitareleaserateisestimatedtobethreetimeshigherthaninmiddle-andlow-incomecountries(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Model-basedanalysisoftheglobalreleaseofmicroplasticsintothemarineenvironmentshowedthat44percentwerefromtheroadrun-offpathwayand37percentfromthewastewaterpathway,15percentweretransportedbywind,and4percentweredirectreleasesintotheoceans.©iStock/vovashevchuk55MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTAbsolutereleasesperregionrangedfrom134,000to281,000metrictonsperyear,translatingintoapercapitareleaseofmicroplasticsgloballyof110to750gramsperpersonperyear.Theratesatwhichlitterandplasticpollutionmovealongthevarioustransportpathways,orresideindifferentcompartmentsofthemarineenvironment,dependupontheirchemicalandphysicalpropertiessuchasbuoyancy,surfacepropertiesandsize(Box5),aswellasonoceanographicprocessesandmeteorologicalconditionsincludingstorms(seethesectionsbelow).Lebretonetal.(2019)concludedthatthereisasignificanttimeinterval,intheorderofseveralyearstodecades,betweenterrestrialemissionsandaccumulationinoffshorewaters,suggestingthatthecurrentgenerationofmicroplasticsintheoceanistheresultofaginganddegradationofobjectsproducedinthe1990sandearlier(Kedzierskietal.2018).2.2.1RiversandsedimentarypathwaysRiverinewatersandsedimentsareamajorpathwayformarinelitter(vanderWaletal.2013;Jambecketal.2015;Jambecketal.2018;Best2019;vanCalcarandvanEmmerik2019;vanEmmeriketal.2019;Borrelleetal.2020;González-Fernándezetal.2021;Meijeretal.2021).Earlierestimatesofriverineinputsfrommismanagedsolidwastesetthelevelat4.8and12.7millionmetrictonsperyear(Jambecketal.2015),whileSchmidtetal.(2017)estimatedthat95percentofmarineplasticcomesfromjust10riversoutof57riversystems.Lebretonetal.(2018)intheirmodelestimatedthat67percentofallmarineplasticcomesfrom20rivers,mostlyinAsia.Otherpublishedestimateshavebeenlinkedtopopulationcentres(Eerkes-Medranoetal.2015;Jambecketal.2015;PetersandBratton2016;Hortonetal.2017;Tibbettsetal.2018).AEuropeandatabaseofriverinefloatingmacrolitterindicatesthatbetween307and925millionlitteritemsarereleasedannuallyfromEuropeintotheocean,andthatamajorportionisroutedthroughsmall-sizeddrainagebasins(<100km2)(González-Fernándezetal.2021).Arecentestimate,basedonmodelsandfieldobservations,isthat80percentofplasticemissionstotheoceansfromriverinesystems(i.e.0.8-2.7millionmetrictons)comefromover1,000oftheworld’srivers(Meijeretal.2021).Riverineinputsarisefromplasticsmishandledduringmanufactureanduse,whicharefoundinwastewatertreatmentplanteffluents(Hortenetal.2017a;Hortenetal.2017b;Alimietal.2018;Gaviganetal.2020).Estimatesofconcentrationsofplasticsinfreshwaterandriversedimentsaresimilartothoseofconcentrationsonmarineshorelines,althoughvariationsoccurinrelationtoproximitytourbanorindustrialsitesorthepresenceofwastewatertreatmentplants(e.g.Browneetal.2011;Kleinetal.2015;Alimietal.2018).Predictingtotalemissionsoflitter,includingplasticwaste,fromriversischallenging,giventheunder-representationoflitterandplasticpollutionstudiesinfreshwaterenvironmentsandvariabilityinmonitoringtechniques(Eerkes-Medranoetal.2015;Blettleretal.2018;vanEmmeriketal.2018;Blettleretal.2019;Redondo-Hasselerharmetal.2020).Manyfactorsassociatedwithrivermorphology,suchasbottomtypeandcurvature,cancreateinternalriverturbulencesatdifferentscales,waveactionandmixinginthewatercolumn,whilethepresenceofdamswillalsodeterminethebehaviouroflitterandmicroplasticsintheriveranditscatchmentarea(Hoelleinetal.2014;Zhangetal.2015).Mostimportantistorecognizethatsedimentscanactassources,sinksandpathways(ManiandBurkhardt-Holm2019).Pulsedoraccidentalreleaseshavebeenidentifiedasaprimarysourceofpeakloadingevents(Lechneretal.2014).Periodsofhighflowcanre-suspendparticleswithinsedimentsanddepositthemdownstream.Stretcheswithsettledflowarelikelytoshowapronouncedstratificationofplasticparticlesthroughoutthewatercolumn,whereasatlowerflowratesmoreplasticislikelytobefoundeitherfloatingontheriversurfaceorclosetoariverbank.Floodingofcatchmentareascanalsodispersemicroplasticcontaminationofriverbeds.Hurleyetal.(2018)showedthatfloodingacrosscatchmentsintheUnitedKingdomdecreasedplasticconcentrationsalongriverbanksby70percent.Studiesontheflowsoflitterinsomelargerrivers,suchastheChicago,Rhine-Main,DanubeandThames,underscoretheextentandvolumesofplasticlitterthateventuallyaccumulatesinestuariesandalongshorelines(Lechneretal.2014;McCormicketal.2014;Morrittetal.2014;Kleinetal.2015;Alimietal.2018).However,riverineinputsofmicroplasticsaremoredifficulttoquantifyasthemajorityoffreshwatermicroplasticstudieshavebeenconductedonlyatasmallnumberofsitesandrarelyoverentirerivercatchments,anditisoftenthesmallerdrainsthatcouldbecontributingmoreoverall(Stantonetal.2019a).SeveralstudiesarecurrentlyunderwayfocusingonmonitoringplasticsinriversinSoutheastAsiaandIndiathroughtheCounterMEASUREProject.9UNEPhasdevelopedguidelinesfortheharmonizationofmethodologiesformonitoringplasticsinriversandlakes(UNEP2020b,c,d)tocomplementtheGESAMPGuidelinesfortheMonitoringandAssessmentofPlasticLitterintheOcean(GESAMP2019).Wastewatertreatmentplanteffluentsareanimportantsourceofmicroplasticsinriverineinputstotheocean(Murphyetal.2016;Mintenigetal.2017;Talvitieetal.2017;Ziajahromietal.2017;vanEmmeriketal.2019;Birchetal.2020).Themostabundantmicroplasticparticlesaresyntheticfibreswhichcomefromthewashingofsynthetictextilesandarethenconcentratedinsewagesludgeordischargedinwastewatertreatmenteffluents(Browneetal.2011;Gaviganetal.2020).McCormicketal.(2014)founda10-foldincreaseinplasticfibresdownstreamofawastewatertreatmentplantintheChicagoRiverdespitethefactthat95-99percentofplasticshadbeenseparatedoutintobiosolids(Murphyetal.2016;Talvitieetal.2017).Personalcareproductsarealsoasignificantsourceofmicroplastics.Globally,about1,500metrictonsofmicroplasticsperyearfrompersonalcareproductsareestimatedtoescapefromwastewatertreatmentplantsintoaquaticenvironments(Sunetal.2020).Overallefficiencyinremovingmicrofibresandmicroplasticsdependsontheindividualwastewatertreatmentplantandhenceverymuchonthelocalcontext.Forexample,inwastewatertreatmentplantswithtertiarytreatmentaslittle56MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTas0.1percentofincomingmicroplasticsandmicrofibrescanbereleasedintheeffluentwater(Carretal.2016).However,alargefractionofmicroplasticscanbetrappedinbiosolids.Itisestimatedthat520,000metrictonsperyearofplasticwasteisreleasedinwastewaterandgreywatereffluentsinEuropealone(Hortonetal.2017a;Hortenetal.2017b).Onekeyconcernispollutionofsoilsbymicroplastics,forexamplethroughtheapplicationofbiosolidsandsludgetoagriculturalland,asthiswillclearlybeasourceofmicroplasticsandassociatedchemicalsincropsandrun-offintorivers(Carretal.2016;Mahonetal.2017;HurleyandHo2018;Lietal.2018;Liuetal.2018;SAPEA2019).Soil-borneplasticlitter,includingagriculturalandpackagingfilmsandmicroplasticsinfertilizers,entersthemarineenvironmentthroughprecipitationrun-offandtidalwashing(Hortonetal.2017a;Hortonetal.2017b;Ngetal.2018).Dependingontheirpolymerstructure,thesefilmsstarttodegradeaftereightto12months(Niaounakisetal.2019).2.2.2Freshwaterlakes,reservoirs,groundwateranddrinkingwatersuppliesLargelakesandreservoirscanactastemporaryandlong-termsinksofmicroplasticsandashotspotsforplasticpollution(Eriksenetal.2013;Hoelleinetal.2014;Driedgeretal.2015;Zhangetal.2015;Zhangetal.2016),ascansmallerlakesandpondsandThedifferenttypesofpolymersusedinplasticshaveawiderangeofpropertieswhichaffecttheirbehaviourindifferentenvironments.Thesepropertiesincludedensityandbuoyancyhydrophobic/hydrophilicproperties,andpropensitytowardsbiofilmformationandbiodegradability.Inthemarineenvironmentoneofthemostimportantfactorsisthedensityoftheplasticrelativetothatofseawater.Thedensitiesofcommonplasticsrangefrom0.90to1.39kgm-3,comparedtofreshwater,whichhasadensityof1.0forpurewater,andseawater,whichhasadensityrangingfrom1.020to1.029kgm-3.Polyethylene,mainlyLDPE,canhaveadensitybelow1kgm-3,sothatitcanfloatinfreshandmarinewater.Thisisonereasonitisoneofthetypesofplasticmostcommonlyfoundwhensamplingsurfacewaters.Polyethyleneoxide(polyethyleneglycol)(PEO)andpolypropylene(PP)wouldbeexpectedtofloatinfreshwater,andexpandedpolystyrene(EPS)inseawater.Buoyancyisalsoaffectedbytrappedair,watercurrentsandturbulence,whichexplainswhydrinksbottlesmadeofpolyethyleneterephthalate(PET)(1.34-1.39kgm-3)arecommonlyfoundbothfloatingincoastalwatersanddepositedontheseabed.Thebuoyancyofplasticpolymerscanalsobeaffectedbythepresenceofbiofilmonthesurface(NapperandThompson2019).Alloftheseconsiderationsdeterminethedepthprofileofplasticsintheocean(Kooietal.2016).Plasticstendtodegradeandstarttolosetheiroriginalpropertiesataratedependingonthephysical,chemicalandbiologicalconditionstowhichtheyareexposed.Thedegradationofplasticscanbedividedintosixprocesses:thermaldegradation,hydrolysis,mechanical/physicaldegradation,thermo-oxidativedegradation,photodegradationandbiodegradation(Mattssonetal.2015).Themaindegradationprocessesatseaarehydrolysis,abond-breakingreactionbroughtaboutbytheadditionofwaterthathasbeenshowntocontributetothedegradationofplasticmarinedebris;mechanicalorphysicaldegradationcausedbywavesandfriction;thermo-oxidativedegradation,aslowoxidativebreakdownatmoderatetemperatures;photodegradation,broughtaboutbysunlightbutseverelyretardedinseawater;andbiodegradation,wherebylivingorganisms,usuallymicrobes(suchasbacteria),breakdownorganicsubstancesandalterthesurfacechemistry,whichcanthenchangeduetooxidationandphotodegradation.PlasticdegradationbyexposuretoUVlight(photodegradation)resultsfromtheweakeningandeventualbreakingofcovalentbondswithinthestructureoftheplasticpolymers,knownaschainscission(Gewertetal.2015).Thechainscissioncanoccuratanypointwithinapolymer’sstructure,withthepotentialtocleavemonomersfromtheinertpolymer;someofthesepolymersmaybehazardous,suchaspersistentorganicandbioaccumulativepollutantswhichcanthemselvescauseenvironmentalharm(Lithneretal.2011).Overall,degradationisgenerallyslowerinaquaticenvironmentscomparedtolandandmaynotevenoccurinenvironmentswithlimitedexposuresuchasinpelagic(surfacewatersandthewatercolumn)andbenthic(sedimentary)environments(Webbetal.2013).Biodegradableplasticsthatdonotdegradefragmentintomicroplasticparticlesinmuchthesamewayasconventionalplastics(NapperandThompson2019).Particlesizeisanotherimportantfactorinregardtotransportaswellasdetection(Barnesetal.2009).Particlesgenerallyhaveaslowrateofdegradationinseawater(Dussudetal.2018a;Dussudetal.2018b).Levelsofmicroplasticsinseawaterandinfreshwaterwerelikelyunderestimatedinthe2016UNEPreport,MarinePlasticDebrisandMicroplastics–GlobalLessonsandResearchtoInspireActionandGuidePolicyChange(UNEP2016).Significantuncertaintyremainsastotheconcentrationsofnanoplasticsinseawater.Box5:Propertiesandprocessesaffectingthetransportanddegradationofplasticsinthemarineenvironment57MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTurbanretentionareas(Faureetal.2015;Vaughanetal.2017;Gilbreathetal.2019).Makingpreciseestimatesofplasticloadinginlakesisdifficultbecausesamplingisgenerallyundertakenatthesurface,whilelargeconcentrationsofmicroplasticscanalsoexistbelowthesurfaceandinsediments(McCormicketal.2014;Zhaoetal.2014;Imhofetal.2018).Driedgeretal.(2015)observedthatsurfacewaterdensitiesofplasticsincertainareasoftheLaurentianGreatLakeswereashighasthosereportedforareasoflitteraccumulationwithinoceangyres.Transportinlakesisdrivennotonlybycurrents,similarlytoriversandstreams,butalsobywindpatternsthatcanproduceareasofseasonallyhighlocalizedconcentrations(Drisetal.2015b).HoffmanandHittinger(2017)estimatedthat10,000tonsofplasticsperyearwereintroducedintotheGreatLakes.Farlessisknownabouttheprocessesandlevelsoftheinfiltrationofmicroplasticsintogroundwater.Pannoetal.(2019)reportedonmicroplasticsinkarstgroundwatersystems(karstsystemsconstituteone-quarteroftheworld’sdrinkingwatersources),whichpresentedamedianof6.4microfibresperlitre.Studiesofdrinkingwaterfromanumberofgroundwatersources(Koelmansetal.2019;WHO2019)showthepresenceofmicroplasticparticles,rangingfrom0.0to6,292particlesperlitre(Oßmannetal.2018;Strandetal.2018).However,questionshavebeenraisedregardingthemethodsusedtoquantifymicroplasticparticlesinthesedrinkingwatersamplesastherearenostandardsamplingextractionoridentificationmethodsformicroplasticquantification(Koelmansetal.2019;Stantonetal.2019a;Stantonetal.2019b).Anumberofstudieshaveidentifiedmicroplasticparticlesinbottledwater(Masonetal.2018;Welle2018),showinglowconcentrations(e.g.14±14particlesperlitre,Schymanskietal.2018)andleadingWelle(2018)toconcludethatthereportedamountsdonotraisesafetyconcerns.However,therearetoofewstudiestoobtainacomprehensiveunderstandingofthefluxesofmicroplasticsintotheoceanfromlargereservoirsanddrinkingwatersupplies(Oßmannetal.2018;Schymanskietal.2018)ortoproperlyinformhumanhealthriskassessments(Koelmansetal.2019).2.2.3Atmospherictransport,includingsnowandiceLong-rangeatmospherictransportofheavymetalsandorganicpollutants,suchaspolychlorobiphenyls,DDT,dieldrinandphthalateesterplasticizers,eventomarineareasremotefromindustrialandhumanactivity,hasbeenrecordedforseveraldecades(e.g.AtlasandGiam1981).Atmospherictransportofmicroplasticsandairborneimpactsarealsocriticalforthemarineenvironment(Evangeliouetal.2020;Prataetal.2021).MicroplasticshaveevenbeenobservedinArcticsnowandseaice(Bergmannetal.2019).MicroplasticsinsnowfromicefloesintheArctic(Obbardetal.2014;Kanhaietal.2018;Peekenetal.2018;Bergmannetal.2019;Kanhaietal.2020),whilelowerinconcentrationthansnowsamplesfromtheEuropeanAlpsandurbanareas,isstillsufficientforatmospherictransportanddepositiontoberecognizedasnotablepathwaysformicroplastics.TogetherthestudiesofObbardetal.(2014),Peekenetal.(2018)andKanhaietal.(2020)indicatethatseaicefunctionsasatemporarysink,secondarysourceandtransportmediumformicroplasticsintheArcticOcean.ThepolymercompositioninArcticsnowwasdominatedbyvarnish,rubber,polyethyleneandpolyamide.Seaicecanalsoactasatemporarysinkforparticles(Peekenetal.2018),aswellasapotentialsourceofhistoricmicroplasticpollutionreleasedasseaicemelts(e.g.Obbardetal.2014;Suariaetal.2020).Microplasticshavebeenfoundinremotemountaincatchments(Allenetal.2019),insettledsnowfromdifferentlocations(Bergmannetal.2019),andasatmosphericdepositioninurbanareas(Drisetal.2016;WHO2016;Caietal.2017;Bergmannetal.2019;KleinandFischer2019;Stantonetal.2019b).Microplasticsarereleasedtotheairfromnumeroussources,includingwashingandwearingofsynthetictextiles,abrasionofmaterials(e.g.tyres,buildingmaterials)andresuspensionofmicroplasticsonsurfaces.Understandingtheentrainmentofmicroplasticsintoandtheirtransportthroughtheatmosphereischallenginggiventhevarietyofshapes,sizesanddensitiesofmicroplasticparticles.Differentestimationsaredependentonsamplingmethodologies,aswellasonspaceusefactors;particleproperties,suchassizeanddensity,willinfluencetheirdepositionontherespiratorysystem,withlessdenseandsmallerparticlesreachingdeeperinthelungs(Wrightetal.2019).Oneofthefirstdeterminationsofmicroplasticsintheairreferstooutdoorconcentrationsof0.3-1.5particlesm3andindoorconcentrationsof0.4-56.5particlesm3(33percentpolymers),includinginhalablesizes(Drisetal.2017).Individualinhalationhasbeenestimatedtobe26-130airbornemicroplasticsperday(Prata2018).Basedonairsamplingusingamannequin,itisexpectedthatamalepersonwithlightactivityinhales272microplasticsperday(Vianelloetal.2019).However,earlierfindingsshowedthatparticleswithaerodynamicdiameters<10µmdonotremainairborneforlong,whiletheairborneresidencetimesofparticleswithanaerodynamicdiameterof1-10µmcanbeaslowas10-100hours(EsmenandCorn1971;Whelpdale1974)andthoseofseasaltparticles>50µmcanbeevenshorter(Athanasopoulouetal.2008;Evangeliouetal.2020).Apartfromissuesrelatingtosamplelocationandcollectionmethods,thepresenceandresidencetimesofairbornemicroplasticsmeanthatatmospherictransportpathwaystothemarineenvironmentneedtobeconsidered(Prata2018;Prataetal.2020).2.2.4MarinepathwaysAllthemajorfactorsaffectingthetransportofmarinelitterandplasticpollution(Figure7)havebeenstudiedextensively(YeandAndrady1991;Kukulkaetal.2012;Chubarenkoetal.2016;FazeyandRyan2016;Pedrottietal.2016;Zhang2017;Alimietal.2018;Chubarenkoetal.2018;Lebretonetal.2018;Castro-Jiménezetal.2019;Lebretonetal.2019;Peng,G.etal.2020;vanSebilleetal.2020).Thetransportoflitterandplasticsinthemarineenvironmentiscontrolledbyoceancurrents,wavesandwinds.Intheopen58MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENToceanlarge-scalecurrentsworktogetherwitheddies,aswellasmulti-scaleconvergentfronts,tomovedebrisandlitteraround(Oninketal.2019).Incoastalareastidesareimportant;theyinteractwithshorelinecharacteristicssuchasshape,morphology,coastalvegetation,bioturbation,andsurfaceice,terrainandslopetomovedebrisandlitteronandoffbeaches.Movementinthewaterdependsonitschemicalcomposition,surfacecharge,hydrophobicity,density,sizeandshape,whichmaybemodifiedbybiologicalinteractions(e.g.biofoulingandingestionbymarineanimals).Thereis,however,adebateconcerningwhetherobservationsofmarineplasticsatsea,alongpathwaysandintosinks(Lebretonetal.2019;Ostleetal.2019;Marimenkoetal.2019)arekeepingpacewiththerateofglobalplasticproduction(Goldsteinetal.2012;Geyeretal.2017).Afarbetterunderstandingofhowthesefactorsinteractisneededinordertoquantifyandclosethegapintheglobalinventoryofmarineplastics(vanSebilleetal.2020),whichisoverwhelminglymodel-based(Galganietal.2021).Inareviewofplasticfluxes,pathwaysandfate,vanSebilleetal.(2020)concludethatdiscrepanciescanarisebecauseofthetimedelaybetweenfluxesintotheoceanandarrivalintheregionswheremostmeasurementsaretaken(Lebretonetal.2019).Thedifferencesinsinkingandfloatingprocessescauselow-densityparticlestostayonthewatersurfaceandtravellongdistances;forexample,foamedpolystyreneparticlescrosstheBalticSea(approximately250km)intwotothreedayswithquitemoderatewindsof10ms-1,whereasheavierparticlessettlethrough250metresofwatercolumninlessthan18hours(Chubarenkoetal.2016).However,therearemanyotherphysicalprocessesthatmayaccountforthedifferencebetweenestimatesofplasticinputsandthepooloffloatingplasticsatsea,includingbeaching,sedimentationandfragmentationtosizesthathavenotbeenmeasured(vanSebilleetal.2020).Thereisevidencethatthesizeandcompositionoflargedebrischangeswithdistancefrommajorland-basedsources(Ryan2015),possiblyasaresultofthesemechanisms.Biologicalprocesses(e.g.ingestionorsettlement)mayalsoaidthe(horizontalandvertical)transportofplasticswithintheoceans.Todate,marinelitterandplasticpollutionhavebeenstudiedandreportedinallthemajoroceans,includingthePacific(e.g.Goldsteinetal.2013;Desforgesetal.2015;Lebretonetal.2018;Choyetal.2019),theArcticandtheseasaroundAntarctica(Obbardetal.2014;Lusheretal.2015;Amélineauetal.2016;Isobeetal.2017;HallangerandGabrielsen2018;Kanhaietal.2018;Kühnetal.2018;Obbard2018;Peekenetal.2018;Kanhaietal.2019;Muetal.2019;Kanhaietal.2020;Tirellietal.2020),theAtlantic(e.g.Kanhaietal.2017;Fossattietal.2020;PabortsavaandLampitt2020)andtheIndianOcean(e.g.Imhofetal.2017;vanderMheenetal.2019).Despitethenumberofstudies,therearenostandardizedsamplingprotocols(e.g.unitsorabundanceincludenumbersperunitarea,perunitvolume,perunitmassorpersamplingsite)(e.g.Ostleetal.2019;Peng,G.etal.2020).Generally,datacoverageinmostopenoceanareasissparseandthegapsaretoolargetoallowdirectderivationofthespatialpatterns.Inarecentreviewofseabedlitter,Canalsetal.(2021)concludedFigure7:Naturalprocessesaffectingthedistributionandfateofmicroplastics59MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTthatalthoughplasticitemsontheseafloorcanbeassumedtobeincreasingcontinuously,theyaretheleastinvestigatedfractionofmarinelitter,whichisnotsurprisingsincemostofthemlieintheleastexploredecosystem.Consequently,therearesignificantknowledgegapsthatneedtobetackledanddataneedsformodelling,comparabilityandharmonization.Betterunderstandingofseafloormacrolittercaninforminternationalprotectionandconservationframeworksthatprioritizeeffortsandmeasurestocombatmarinelitteranditsdeleteriousimpacts(Canalsetal.2021).Stormsandotherextremeeventscanresultincoastalflooding,increasedrun-off,andthereleaseoflargevolumesofdebrisintotheocean.Theymayalsogeneratelargevolumesofmarinelitter.Forexample,thefloatingdebrisproducedbythe2011tsunamiinJapanwascomparabletotheannualamountintheentireNorthPacificand,ayearlater,showedupinthefluxofdebrisonshorelinesinthewesternUnitedStateswithanorderofmagnitudeincreaseinallcategories(Murrayetal.2018).Climatechangeaffectsthedistributionofmicroplasticsduetochangesinoceancirculationandsurfacewinds(WeldenandLusher2017).However,thereareveryfewmeasurementsoftheratesoftransferofplasticsbetweencompartmentsortheiraccumulationindifferentmedia,makingitextremelydifficulttoestimatetheabsoluteimpactofmarinedebrisandplastics.BeachesandcoastalecosystemsShoredepositionofplasticsispartofanimportanttransportpathwaythathasbeenstudiedsincethe1970s,whensurveysbegantoconfirmthatsignificantplasticloadswereaccumulatingontheshoresofeventheremotestbeaches(LaversandBond2017).Marinedebrisandmicroplasticsdriftonsurfacecurrentsandarerepeatedlypushedashorebytidesandwaves(Theocharisetal.1999;InternationalPacificResearchCenter2008).Thestabilityoftheshoreline,includingthepresenceofsanddunes(McCormickandHoellein2016;Leeetal.2017),therelativesizeofthesubstratecomparedtotheplasticdebris,andtheupwardvelocitiesofwater(Hinataetal.2017)affectthismovement.Asaresultofabrasionandfragmentationonbeaches,plasticscontinuetoreleasetoxicchemicalsandheavymetals(e.g.Nakashimaetal.2016).Lebretonetal.(2017)andLéonetal.(2018)havedescribedhowstranding,settlingandresurfacingofplasticitemsincoastalenvironmentsplayamajorroleinthetransportofbuoyantplasticsincoastalwatersandthetransferoforganicpollutantsfromlittoralplasticdebrisintothemarineenvironment.Usingasimpleboxmodel,theyestimatedthat46.7to126.4millionmetrictons(approximately66.8percentofthebuoyantfractionreleasedintosurfacewaterssincethe1950s)arestoredalongtheworld’sshorelines.Approximately32.3percentdegradesintomicroplastics,22.3to60.4millionmetrictonsofwhichremainontheshorelinewhile0.29to0.80millionmetrictonsaretransportedoutintotheocean.Plasticdebrisgenerallybecomestrappedonbeachesandincoastalecosystemssuchasmangroveforestsandmudflats(IvardoSuletal.2014;Garcés-Ordóñezetal.2019;Martinetal.2019;Riascosetal.2019).Sometypesofplastic,suchasacrylics,©iStock/Mlenny60MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTsinkwhereasothersthataremorebuoyantmayremaininthesurfacelayersforyears(Lebretonetal.2019).Microplasticconcentrationsinbeachsurface,body,andsandsonunderwaterslopeshavebeenobservedtobeofthesameorderofmagnitude,suggestingthatmicroplasticsarerepeatedlyredistributedbetweentheunderwaterandbeachparts(Chubarenkoetal.2018).Observationsthatpeakconcentrationsarerelatedtostormyeventsandtoplaceswithstrongerwaterdynamicsandcoarsersandsareconsistentwithfieldstudiesfromvariouslocations(e.g.Turraetal.2014).Stormeventscanalsoreleaseburiedmicroplastics,generatingalternatestatesofsourceandsinksalongthesamebeachacrossseasons(Rodríguezetal.2020).Theseobservationssuggestthatwave-drivenmarinewaterswhichfilteroutmicroplasticsandmicrofibresfromuprusharethemainsourceofmicroplasticsonbeaches,ratherthanbeachsandsoranthropogenicactivities.Thecoherencyoffragmentationacrossdifferentmarineenvironmentsalsoshiftsthefocusofthefragmentationprocesstowardsthematerialpropertiesofsyntheticparticlesthemselves(Gigaultetal.2016;Chubarenkoetal.2018).Whilebeachesarecharacterizedbyacontinuousturnoverofdepositionalmaterialandbeachlitter(Bowmanetal.1998;Browneetal.2011),somecoastalecosystems,suchasmangroveforestsandmudflats,canaccumulatelargequantitiesofplasticdebrisandmicroplastics,especiallyduringseasonalpeakflowsfromrivers(Thieletal.2013;Limaetal.2014;Lingetal.2017;Lourençoetal.2017;Najietal.2017;Garcés-Ordóñezetal.2019;Martinetal.2019;Riascosetal.2019).Mangroveforestscoverabout132,000km2alongsubtropicalandtropicalshores(HamiltonandCasey2016).Theyoccupytheintertidalfringeanddevelopapartiallyemergedrootsystem,aerialandproproots,forminganeffectivefilterthatdampensdownwaveenergyandturbulence(Horstmanetal.2014;Norrisetal.2017)butalsotrapsdebrisandplasticsfromlandandriverinesourcesaswellasfromcoastalwaters.Plasticstrappedbymangrovepneumatophoresandproprootsmayconstituteaphysicalimpediment,affectingboththetreeitselfandassociatedfauna,bypreventinggasexchangeandreleasingharmfulchemicalswiththepotentialtoalterimportantecosystemservicessuchascoastalprotection,habitatsandcarbonsequestration(McLeodetal.2011;Almahasheeretal.2017;Martinetal.2019).Residencetimeswithinmangroveforestsareunknown.Studiesshowthatretentioncapacitiesonbeachesandshorelinesdependuponthehydrodynamicsofmacroplasticobjectsandthedepthofsediments(IvardoSuletal.2014;Lourençoetal.2017;Najietal.2017;Martinetal.2019).Itemscommonlyfoundinbeachdebrisincludeabandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggear(ALDFG)andurbanandindustrialoutflows(Duhecetal.2015;Danieletal.2020).Plasticpelletsandothermicroplasticsareconsistentlyfoundonbeaches,indicatingtheirhighmobility(McCormickandHoellein2016;FaniniandBozzeda2018).In2017theInternationalCoastalCleanup(Bergevin2018)reportedthe10mostcommonitemsofplasticlitterfoundonbeachesaroundtheworld:cigarettebutts(22percent),foodwrappers(16percent),plasticbottles(14.5percent),plasticbottlecaps(10percent),plasticgrocerybags(7percent),otherplasticbags(6.9percent),plasticstrawsandstirrers(5.9percent),plastictake-outfoodcontainers(5.8percent),plasticbeveragelids(5.7percent)andfoamtakeoutfoodcontainers(5.3percent).SimilarpercentageshavebeenreportedinEurope,wherethemainitemswereplasticdrinksbottles,capsandlids(24percent)andcigarettebutts(21.8percent)withtheadditionofcottonbuds(13.5percent)andballoonsandballoonsticks(2.7percent)(EuropeanCommission2018a).Knowledgeofthemake-upofbeach-collectedmarinelitterisimportantinordertoidentifyappropriateactionsforclean-upandthereductionofsources(Schneideretal.2018).Oceansurfacelayer,gyresandremoteislandsSincethe1970smarineplasticshavebeenobservedandincreasinglymonitoredintheopenoceans(Lawetal.2010;Kukulkaetal.2012;Cózaretal.2014;Kukulkaetal.2015).Oftheabout400millionmetrictonsofplasticproducedannually,nearlytwo-thirdsofthesyntheticpolymerscreatedhaveadensitylowerthanthatofseawaterandshouldthusbefoundintheoceansurfacelayer.Multidecadalobservationsofplasticsinsurfacewatersindicatethepresenceofplasticsinalloceanbasinsandonmanyremoteislands(e.g.Cózaretal.2014;Lawetal.2014;Duhecetal.2015;Díaz-Torresetal.2017;Imhofetal.2017;LaversandBond2017;CollinsandHermes2019;vanderMheenetal.2019;Dunlopetal.2020),butalsothegrowthoflarge,concentratedaccumulationareaswithinlarge-scalesubtropicalconvergencezones,createdbythewind-drivencurrentsandcirculationpatterns(Maximenkoetal.2012;Ryan2014;Lebretonetal.2019;Wichmannetal.2019).10IntheIndianOceanthegarbagepatch,locatedtothewestofthebasin,isverysensitivetodifferenttransportmechanismsandhighlydispersive(vanderMheenetal.2019).McAdam(2017)andLebretonetal.(2019)estimatedthatthemassofplasticfloatingintheoceansurfacerangedbetween93,000and236,000metrictons,twoordersofmagnitudelowerthanestimatesofriverineinputs(e.g.Jambecketal.2015;vanSebilleetal.2015;Lebretonetal.2017).Thequestionofwherethemissingtonsarelocatedisaddressedinanumberofstudies(e.g.vanSebilleetal.2020;PabortsavaandLampitt2020).Nearlyhalfthetotalmassofplasticsinsub-tropicaloffshorewatersconsistsofmacroplastics.Theyareusuallythickpolyethyleneandpolypropyleneplasticfragmentsolderthan15years,meaningthatmostofthemicroplasticsinthemassoftheoceanscomefromobjectsproducedinthe1990sandearlier(Lebretonetal.2019).Onlycertaintypesofplasticsappeartohavethecapacitytoendurelongenoughtoeventuallyreachoceangyres(Lebretonetal.2019.)Estimatesofthetimeittakesforplasticstobetransportedfromcoastalareastomid-oceanislandsandgyresrangefrommonthstoyears.Usingrecognizablelitteritems,vanSebilleetal.(2019)estimatedthatittookjustafewmonthsforfloatingplasticstotravelfromthecoastsofPeru,EcuadorandColombiatotheGalápagosregion.AnalysisofbeachdebrisontheDucieandOenoAtollsand,25yearslater,onHendersonIsland(allremote,uninhabitedislandsintheSouthPacific)showeda200-to2,000-foldincreasein61MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTthedensityofdebris(LaversandBond2017)andthehighestdensityofplasticsonthesurfaceofabeachreportedanywhereintheworld.AsianandSouthAmericansourcesofplasticmayreflectfishingactivityinthesurroundingwaters.ThehighfrequencyofitemswhichcouldbeidentifiedashavingcomefromSouthAmericaisprobablytheresultofHendersonIsland’spositionintheSouthPacificGyre.ThiscurrentflowsinananticlockwisedirectionaftertravellingnorthalongthecoastofSouthAmerica,transportingcoastalwastetotheisland.AsimilarpatternisobservedonremoteislandsoffChileandtheiradjacentwaters(LaversandBond2017).OnEasterIsland,forexample,between60and80percentofrecognizablepiecesofplasticcomefromindustrialopenoceanfisheries(Kiesslingetal.2017;Luna-Jorqueraetal.2019).ThewatercolumnandoffshoremarinesedimentsRecentfieldsurveyresultsfromMontereyBay(California)showthatmicroplasticparticlesreadilyflowbetweentheepipelagicandmesopelagicwatercolumnandseafloorfoodwebs,suggestingthatthewatercolumnandseafloorsedimentsandfoodwebsmaybeamongthelargestreservoirsofmicroplastics(Choyetal.2019;PabortsavaandLampitt2020),forexampleintheBalticSea(Bagaevetal.2017),intheArcticOcean(Kanhaietal.2018)andoffthewestcoastofIreland(Courtene-Jonesetal.2018).SimulationsfromamassbalancemodelbyKoelmansetal.(2017)suggestthatoftheplasticswhichhaveenteredtheoceanssince1950,99.8percenthadsettledbelowtheoceansurfacelayerby2016withanadditional9.4millionmetrictonsperyearsettlingthereafter.However,Lebretonetal.(2019)arguethattherapiddegradationandsinkingofmorethan90percentoftheplasticsthatentertheoceanseachyeardoesnotreflecttheagedistributionofplasticsatsea.Theysuggestthatstranding,settlingandresurfacingincoastalenvironmentsplayamajorroleintheremovalofbuoyantplasticsfromtheoceansurfaceincoastalwaters.Thisconclusioncoincideswithagedistributionsfromfieldsurveys,whichshowthatmostofthemacroplasticmassfloatingincoastalwatersoriginatesfromobjectslessthanfiveyearsoldwhileolderobjects,suchasthickpolyethylene(PE)andpolypropylene(PP)plasticfragments,arethemostcommontypeofplasticlitterfoundinsub-tropicaloffshorewaters(Lebretonetal.2018).Lebretonetal.(2019),whomodelledtheageofmacroplasticsinoceangyresusingwholeoceandegradationrates,estimatedthatnearlyhalfthetotalmass(47percent)wasmadeupofmacroplasticsolderthan15years,suggestingthatmostofthemicroplasticsinthemassoftheoceanscomefromobjectsproducedinthe1990sandearlierandthatonlycertaintypesofplasticshavethecapacitytoendurelongenoughtoreachoceangyresandaccumulationzones(Lebretonetal.2018).Plasticconcentrationsintheopenoceandropexponentiallywithdepth(Reisseretal.2015).Buoyantmicroplasticsintheoceanseventuallybecomesubmergedintodeeperlayersthroughlossofbuoyancyorwind-inducedturbulentmixingattheoceansurface.Wichmannetal.(2019)modelledtheeffectsofdifferentsurfaceandnear-surfacecurrentsontheglobaldispersaloffloatingplasticsandshowedthatthegyreaccumulationsbecomemore“leaky”indeeperlayers,suchthat©iStock/Placebo36562MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTplasticsdisappearedinsamplestakenatabouta60metredepth.Atthesametime,sub-surfacecurrentstransportedsignificantamountsofmicroplasticsfromsubtropicalandsubpolarregionstopolarregions,providingapossiblemechanismtoexplainwhyplasticsarefoundintheseremoteareas(Cózaretal.2017;Obbard2018;Maximenkoetal.2019;Statista2019).Theseresultssupportobservationsofthefragmentationandtypologyofplasticsindicatingthatageddebrisistransferredfromdistantsources,forexampleviathepolewardbranchofthethermohalinecirculationintheNorthAtlantictotheendoftheconveyorbeltintheArcticOcean,whichthenactsasasinkforplasticdebris.Microplasticsfragmentintoundetectablesizes,sinkduetobuoyancyloss,andaccumulateindifferentreservoirs(YeandAndrady1991).Benthichabitatscancontain103to104microplasticspercubicmetreversus0.1to1microplasticspercubicmetreinwatercolumns(Erni-Cassolaetal.2019).Arecentreviewofthefateofmicroplasticsindifferentsediments(Harris2020)concludedthatthemedianconcentrationofmicroplasticparticleswashighestinfjordsat7,000particlesperkilogramofdrysediment,followedby300inestuarineenvironments,200inbeaches,200inshallowcoastalenvironments,50oncontinentalshelves,and80particlesperkilogramindrysedimentfromdeepseaenvironments.Microplasticspossiblyaccumulatemoreindeepsedimentaryhabitats(Zhangetal.2020)andwithinsubsurfacesedimentlayers(Näkkietal.2017;Wangetal.2019a).Oncedepositedonshorelines(McDermidandMcMullen2004)andontheseafloor(e.g.Zhu,L.etal.2019andpapersincluded),theycanbeingestedandreducedfurtherinsize(e.g.duetodigestivegrinding),and/orbetransportedtotheseaflooruponegestion.Thereisalsoevidenceoforganismsformingmicroplasticsthroughbioerosion(e.g.polychaetesinpolystyrenedebris[Jangetal.2018]andseaurchins[Porteretal.2019]).Microplasticparticlesaccumulateinbeachsandsandsedimentsinallpartsoftheworld’soceans,includinginAntarctica(e.g.Munarietal.2017;Kanhaietal.2019;Wangetal.2019).Positivecorrelationshavebeenestablishedbetweenmicroplasticsinthewatercolumnandthesedimentsbelow,usuallywithahigherabundance(e.g.Zhengetal.2019).Microplasticsarenowknowntobepresentinthedeepestpartsofmanyoceanbasins,includingtheHadaltrenches;thissuggeststhatdeep-seasedimentsshouldberegardedasapotentialsinkformicroplasticsintheoceans(e.g.vanCauwenbergetal.2013;Woodalletal.2014;Fisheretal.2015;Bergmannetal.2017;Kanhaietal.2019;Muetal.2019;Peng,G.etal.2020).Aseriesof5,010deep-seasurveysbyremotelyoperatedvehiclesandsubmersiblesoftheJapanAgencyforMarine-EarthScienceandTechnology(JAMSTEC)inthesixoceanicregionsin1982–2015located3,425man-madedebrisitems.Morethanone-thirdofthedebrisconsistedofmacroplastics,ofwhichnearly90percentwassingle-useproducts(Chibaetal.2018).Inareasdeeperthan6,000metrestheseratiosincreasedtojustoverhalfand92percent,respectively;thedeepestitemrecordedwasaplasticbagat10,898metresintheMarianaTrench.Deep-seaorganismswereobservedin17percentofplasticdebrisimages,andentanglementofplasticbagsonchemosyntheticcoldseepcommunitieswasshown(Chibaetal.2018).©iStock/Tunatura63MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT2.2.5RegionalvariationsandhotspotsMarinedebrisandplasticsareaccumulatinginlargevolumesinmanypartsoftheworld.Threeregionalhotspotsareofparticularconcern:theMediterraneanSeabecauseofitsenclosednatureandproximitytomillionsofpeople;theArcticOceanbecauseofitspristinenatureandimpactsonindigenouspeoples;andtheEastAsiaandASEANregionbecauseofitsextensivecoastlineinproximitytoverylargepopulationswithahighdependencyonthemarineenvironmentforsurvivaland,often,insufficientwastemanagementsystems.TheMediterraneanSeaTheMediterraneanregionistheworld’sfourthlargestproducerofplasticgoods.Residentsandvisitorsgenerate24millionmetrictonsofplasticwasteperyear.Tourismincreasestheamountofwastebyuptoone-thirdduringthesummerinsomecountries,andlocalwastemanagementfacilitiesareoftenoverwhelmed.ThroughthetransportpathwaysintheMediterraneanSea,marinelitterandplasticpollutionaffecttheentireblueeconomy,withregionaleconomiclosses(especiallythoselinkedtotourism)estimatedatUS$700millionperyear.Everyyear0.57millionmetrictonsofplasticsenterMediterraneanwaters,equivalenttodumping33,800plasticbottlesintotheseaeveryminute(DalbergAdvisors,WWFMediterraneanMarineInitiative2019;BoucherandBilard2020).Marinelitter,particularlyfloatingplastics,hasbeenfoundintheMediterraneaninquantitiescomparabletothoseinthefiveoceangyres(theNorthAtlantic,SouthAtlantic,NorthPacific,SouthPacificandIndianOceanGyres).StudiesbasedonglobalmodelshaveproposedthattheMediterraneanistheworld’ssixthgreatestaccumulationzoneformarinelitter(Pantietal.2015;vanSebilleetal.2015;Sauriaetal.2016;Guerrantietal.2017;Bainietal.2018;Consolietal.2018;Fossietal.2018).Marinelitterandplasticpollutionareagrowingprobleminthesub-basinsoftheAdriaticandIonianSeas(Anastasopoulouetal.2013;Munarietal.2015;Arcangelietal.2017;Pellinietal.2018;Zerietal.2018;Vlachogiannietal.2018;Fortibuonietal.2019).ThestructureofthecirculationoftheMediterraneanSeameanstheheavyanthropogenicwasteloadsenteringfromitscoastlinearenaturallyretainedinsideitsbasinandeventuallyinthedeepsea(Danovaroetal.2020).ItscirculationischaracterizedbyaninwardsurfaceflowofwatersfromtheAtlanticOcean,butwithnosignificantoutwardflowanywherealongitscoastline.ThereturnflowintotheAtlantic,whichoccursinthesubsurfacelayer,hamperssurface-floatingitemsandpreventsthembeingexpelled,causingthemtoaccumulatewithinit(Zambianchietal.2017).Attheglobaloceanlevel,theMediterranean’spossiblesinkroleforfloatingparticlesofglobaloriginwasoriginallyshownbyLebretonetal.(2012).Todate,thereisnoevidenceofpermanentlitteraccumulationareasbeingformed(Cózaretal.2015;vanSebilleetal.2015;vanSebilleetal.2020),themainreasonbeingthepredominantlycycloniccirculationandhightemporalvariabilityofcurrents.Usingarangeofmodelsandhistoricaldata,Zambianchietal.(2017)observedthatlitterincludingplasticwasteaccumulatedinthesoutheasternportionoftheLevantinebasinandonthesouthernMediterraneancoasts.ThisisconsistentwithobservationsbyCózaretal.(2015),whoshowedthataclearzonationofdebrisintheMediterraneanisvisiblewithamaximainthesouthernportionofthebasin,bothinthewesternandeasternMediterranean,andbyMansuietal.(2015),whoidentifiedthesoutherncoastalstripoftheeasternMediterraneanasanaccumulationareaorpreferentialbeachingdestination.FloatingdebrisalsoappearsintheAlgeroProvencalbasin,theSardiniaChannelandsouthoftheBalearicIslands,withfurtherhighconcentrationareasinthenorthassociatedwiththeNorthernCurrentorwiththenorthwardpropagationofAlgerianeddies(Cózaretal.2015).ObservationsintheTyrrhenianSeasuggestgreaterabundanceinthesouthernportionofthebasin,characterizedbyveryslow,basicallystagnatingdynamics(Guerramtietal.2017),andintheCorsicaChannel,thechokepointforwaterspassingfromtheTyrrheniantotheLigurianSea.ObservationsofthebottomdistributionofdebrisindicatethatitislargelyinfluencedbytheverticaldetailoftheMediterraneancirculation,withalong-termpresenceoflitterinthesouthernAlgerianbasinandsoutheastoffCrete,andincanyonsandotherareasinfluencedbystrongsinkingpatternssuchastheGulfofLyons.ALangrangianmodellinganalysisofthefluxesofplasticontosixselectedcoastlinesofMediterraneanMarineProtectedAreasshowedthattheywererelativelylow(0.4-3.6kg[kmday]incomparisonwithanaveragefluxof6.2±0.8kg[kmday])andcalculatedovertheMediterraneanintheperiod2013–2017(Liubartsevaetal.2019).TheArcticOceanThestateofknowledgeonmarinelitter,includingmicroplastics,intheArcticmarineregionprimarilyreflectsthefactthatinformationismoreprevalentforareaswherehumanactivitiesareconcentrated,includingtheBarents,NorwegianandBeringSeas,orforspecificresearchtopics(e.g.seabirds).FewdataareavailablefortheCentralArcticOceanandthecoastalareasarounditinSiberia,ArcticAlaska,mainlandCanadaandtheCanadianArcticArchipelago(PAME[ProtectionoftheArcticMarineEnvironmentWorkingGroupoftheArcticCouncil]2019).Fromthelimitedanalysisofmacrolitter(e.g.nets,floatsandotherdebris)washedashoreonArcticbeachesoraccumulatingontheseafloor,most(50-100percent)canbeattributedtofishingactivities.Microplasticshavebeenincreasinglyreportedthroughoutthepristinewaters,beachesandsedimentsoftheArcticOcean(Sundetetal.2016;HallangerandGabrielsen2018;Kanhaietal.2018;Kanhaietal.2019).EvenafewyearsagotheabundanceofmicroplasticsinsurfacewaterswasofthesameorderofmagnitudeasthatfoundintheNorthPacificandNorthAtlantic(e.g.Lusheretal.2014;WeldenandLusher2017);vanSebilleetal.(2012)identifiedapotentialaccumulationareaintheBarentsSeabymodellingglobaldrifterdataandconcludedthatthisonewaslinkedtotheNorthAtlanticGyreviaadvection.Amedianof64MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT6,300itemsperkm2(plasticparticles>0.5mm,excludingfibres)wasmeasuredintheGreenlandandBarentsSeas.Inaddition,plasticparticleswerefoundinmost(73percent)ofthesurfaceice-freewaterssampledinthecircumpolararea(Cózaretal.2017).Microplasticsinsurfaceandsubsurfacewaterswerenearlyallmicrofibres,thebreakdownproductsoflargerplasticitemssuchasfibresfromshippingfishinggear,recreationalandoffshoreindustries,andwashingoftextiles(Sundetetal.2016;Kanhaietal.2018).Thequantitiesofmicroplasticsinthewatercolumn,althoughslightlylowerthaninsurfacewatersinsouthwesternSvalbard(Obbardetal.2014;Amelineauetal.2016),doubledbetween2005and2014,possiblyasaresultofchangesinseaicecover.ThedistributionandaccumulationofmarinedebrisontheseaflooroftheBarentsSea,theNorwegianSea,andtheSvalbard,Norwayareaareveryunevenandaredeterminedbyhydrography,geomorphology,prevailingwindsandhumanactivity(Buhl-MortensenandBuhl-Mortensen2017).Whilenomicroplasticswerefoundinsedimentsamplesatadepthof40-60metres(Sundetetal.2017),litterintrenchesandcanyonswasmorethan10timesasabundantasinsedimentsontheshelf(Buhl-MortensenandBuhl-Mortensen2017).WestofSvalbardtheHausgartendeep-seaobservatorystationhasoperatedregularvideotransectssince2002.Theseshowthatdensitiesofdebrisalmostdoubledbetween2002and2014(Bergmannetal.2015;Tekmanetal.2020)andare20to40timesgreaterthanoffshoreshelfsealevelsintheBarentsSea(Buhl-MortensenandBuhl-Mortensen2017).Substantialquantitiesofmicroplasticparticlessmallerthan25μm,asizemostotherstudiesdonotsample,havealsobeenfoundinthedeepsea,withdensitiesexceedingthoseobservedatthesurfaceandsubsurface(Ballentetal.2013;Bergmannetal.2015;Kanhaietal.2019).HighermicroplasticdensitiesthaninanyotherbenthicregionsinvestigatedwerealsofoundattheHausgartendeep-seastation(2,340-5,570metresdeep);theseamountswerepositivelyassociatedwithchlorophyllα,suggestingthatalgaemightplayaroleindownwardtransporttothedeepseainthisareaeitherasbiofoulingorasmicroplasticsadsorbedtoaggregatingalgae(Bergmannetal.2015;Tekmanetal.2020).Althoughtherearenopublisheddataonentanglement,severalsealspecies,suchasharbourseals(Phocavitulina)andbeardedseals(Erignathusbarbatus),havebeenobservedwithplasticswrappedaroundthemand,inSvalbard,oldfishingnetsandabandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggear(ALDFG)havebeenfoundentanglingseabirdsandSvalbardreindeers(Rangifertarandusplatyrhynchus)bothdeadandalive.In2016,ingatheredlitteranalysedfortypeandorigin,plasticswerefoundtobethemostabundantmaterialfromfisheries-relatedandhouseholditems(Nashoug2017).IngestionofplasticshasbeenstudiedinseveralArcticbirdspeciesthatforageatsea,suchasfulmars(Trevailetal.2014),andinmarinemammals(e.g.Donohueetal.2019).Thehighestfrequencywasdetectedinlittleauks(Allealle);microplasticsweredetectedinallgularpouches(Amelineauetal.2016),amatterofconcernasthisimpliesthechicksoflittleauksareexposedtomicroplastics.PlasticshavealsobeenfoundinstomachanalysesoftheGreenlandshark(Somniosusmicrocephalus)fromsouthGreenland(Nielsenetal.2014;Morganaetal.2018)andfromSvalbard(Leclercetal.2012).However,noplasticswereobservedinAtlanticcod(Gadusmorhua)fromnorthernNorway,VarangerandtheLofotenarea(Brateetal.2016).Plastics,butnomicroplastics,havebeenreportedinnearlyallbluemussels(Mytilusedulis)andtheIcelandcockle(Clinocardiumciliatum)(Sundetetal.2016).Inadditiontohavingsomeoftheworld’shighestmicroplasticburdens,theArctic,withitsharshlivingconditions,limitedfoodwebandmonumentalclimatechangenowunderway,isespeciallyvulnerabletotheeffectsofmarinelitterandplastics.EastAsiaandAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationsseasAcrosstheEastAsiaandASEANregions,includingtheEastChinaSea,theSeaofJapanandtheSouthChinaSearegion,concernsaboutmarineplasticpollutionaregrowing(Isobeetal.2015;Lyonsetal.2019;WWF2020).Ina2010estimate,sixASEANmemberstateswerelistedamongthetop20countriesthatmismanagedtheirwaste,resultinginplasticleakageintotheoceans(Jambecketal.2015).MorerecentfiguresindicatethatIndonesia,thePhilippines,ThailandandVietNam,togetherwithChina,areresponsibleformorethanhalftheplasticsenteringtheoceans(OceanConservancy2015;Lebretonetal.2017;UNEP2017b).Knowledgeoftheabundance,sourceandfateofmarinedebrisintheregionisincreasing(SouthChina,Cheungetal.2016,LinandNakamura2018;RepublicofKorea,Leeetal.2017,Lyonsetal.2019).Mostofthe145researchpaperspublishedintheASEANregiononmarineplasticpollutionappearedfrom2017onwards(Lyonsetal.2019).Thesepapersidentifydeficienciesinwastemanagementinfrastructureasamajorconcernintheregionandrecordthewidespreadpresenceofmacro-andmicroplasticdebrisinhighconcentrationsinallthewaterbasins,aswellasinmarinelifesampledortrappedinmangroverootsystemsandoncoralreefs(Caietal.2017;Purbaetal.2019;OndaandSharief2021).Peng,G.etal.(2019)usedautonomoussubmarinestocollectphotofootageofdebrisinthetributarycanyonsoftheXishaTroughinthenorthernSouthChinaSea.Theyfoundthattheaccumulationofdebrisat1,800metreswasgreaterthaninanyothersubmarinecanyonintheworld.Mostofthedebriscamefromfisheriesandnavigationalactivities.Itwasbroughtbyseasonalsurfaceoceancurrents,influencedbythegeomorphologyofsubmarinecanyons.ThewatersofthenorthernSouthChinaSeaarehometoadiversearrayofbenthicfauna,fishandcoralswhicharelikelytobeharmedbyplasticpollution.65MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTMONITORINGMETHODS,INDICATORS,STANDARDSANDPROGRAMMESSECTION3©iStock/Placebo36566MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT3.1Developmentsinmonitoringmethods3.1.1RiverinesamplingoflitterandmacroplasticsGiventhatriversareamajorpathwayforlitterincludingplasticwasteenteringthemarineenvironment,therehasbeenagrowingemphasisonthemonitoringofupstreamanddownstreamsourcesandflows(UNEP2020b,c,d;Borrelleetal.2021;Meijeretal.2021).Fieldandlaboratorytechniquesforsamplingmicroplasticsinfreshwaterenvironmentscloselyfollowprotocolsformarinesystems,althoughcertainplasticpolymerssinkinfreshwaterbecauseofitslowerdensitycomparedtosaltwater(Gonzalezetal.2016;González-FernándezandHanke2017;GESAMP2019;Karlssonetal.2019;Forrestetal.2020).Inrecentyearsstudieshavebeencarriedouttoimprovethereliabilityofdataontheflowsofmacrolitterandplasticsinriversandalongriverbanks.Thesestudiescovertheuseofvisualobservationsandthecollectionofitems,automatedacquisitionsystems,inflowstructuressuchasdamsandweirs,inflowwater,riverbedsandbottomnets,booms,floats,mantatrawls,andnetsandpumps(PicóandBarceló2019).Systematicsurveysbasedonverysimplevisualprotocols,suchasobservingriversfrombridges(González-FernándezandHanke2017)anddebrissampling,havebeenshowntoprovidereliableestimatesofthemagnitudeandseasonaldynamicsofplasticstransport(massandnumberofitemsbysize),spatialdistributionacrossriverwidth,andtheplasticpolymercompositionofthemostcommonitemsinrivers(vanCalcarandvanEmmerik2019).Datafromvisualcountingsurveyscanbeusedtocomparethecompositionofplasticsrecoveredfromthesamplingofrivers,sedimentlayersandoceansurfacelayersandtotesthypothesesaboutthetypesofplasticsthatcanbehorizontallytransportedfromriverstooceansthroughcurrents,aswellastheroleofriversindeliveringbuoyantplasticsintotheoceans.ScalingupvisualobservationscanalsobedoneusingEarthobservations(satellitesandcameras)andunmannedaerialvehicles(Martinetal.2018;Geraedsetal.2019)andcameras(Kylilietal.2019).However,becauseriverflowscanfluctuatesignificantlyonanhourly,weekly,seasonalormulti-yearbasis,insitumonitoringindifferentpartsofariverisrequired.Automatedmonitoringcansupportamulti-temporalsamplingandmonitoringapproach.Riparianareasandriverbanksareoftentransientsourcesofplasticsduetowaterlevelvariationsandtides,whichcanleadtoregulardepositionsaswellastodepositionsduringextremeevents.Samplingalongdynamicbanksdoesnotyieldconsistenttimeseriesdata.However,earlierstudieshaveshownthatitispossibletoquantifytimesignalsinplasticsfoundinestuarieseventhoughitremainsdifficulttomodeltheeffectsofallthedifferentprocessesandestimatethevolumestransportedintotheocean(SadriandThomson2014;Drisetal.2020).3.1.2ShorelinesamplingoflitterandmacroplasticsFieldmethodsforassessingthevolumesofmacrolitteralongshorelinesandbeachesvaryaccordingtotheindicatoritemsbeingtargeted.Indicatoritemsdonotprovideinformationontherelativeimportanceofdifferentsourcesoflitterforagivenregion,butcangiveanindicationofthesourcesandamethodologytocalculatetrendsintheinputs(Schulzetal.2017;Schulzetal.2019).OthercategorizationsincludethoseoftheRegionalSeasConventionsandActionPlansandnationalprogrammessuchastheNationalOceanographicandAtmosphericAdministrationMarineDebrisMonitoringandAssessmentProject(NOAA-MDMAP)intheUnitedStates(GESAMP2019).Atsomelocationswherevisualsurveysareusedtocountitems,Angelinietal.(2019)foundthatcolourisanimportantdeterminant,withhigheraccuracyinblueplasticcountsandundercountingofwhiteandclearplastic.Comparingdifferentcategorizationsisthusessentialtoreduceuncertaintiesamongdifferentestimates(vanCalcarandvanEmmerik2019).3.1.3MethodsofmeasuringinteractionsbetweenlitterandmarineanimalsMonitoringentanglementneedstobeundertakenseparatelyfordifferentgroups(marinemammals,birds,reptiles,fishandinvertebrates).Observationscanberecordedandanalysedbyecosystemcompartments(e.g.viastrandingnetworksoncoastlines,atthesurfaceduringoceanographiccampaignsorthroughobserverprogrammes,andontheseabedthroughscubadivingforshallowareasoruseofsubmersibles,remotelyoperatedvehiclesandautomatedunderwatervehiclesfordeeperwaters(Galganietal.2018).Claroetal.(2019)reviewedtherangeofcurrententanglementmethodologiesandproposedseveralcandidatesasstandardprotocols.Theyidentifylong-termstrandingandphoto-identificationnetworks(e.g.theUnitedStatesNationalMarineMammalDatabase)asthemostappropriatemonitoringtools.Generally,recordingtheimpactsofentanglementandingestionofmarinelitterisinhibitedduetoinconsistentrecord-keepingbydifferentnetworks.Therearealsodifficultiesindeterminingwhatisabandoned,lostorotherwisediscardedfishinggear(truedebris)andwhatisactivefishinggear.Animalscanbecaughtincidentallybypiecesofequipmentthatarenotconsidereddebris.Anumberofadhocmethodsareusedtoassesssessileorganismsandmarineecosystemssuchas“animalforests”(Galganietal.2018).Thesemethodsincludemonitoringofbiodiversityincoralreefassemblagesandkelpforestsbydiversusingtransectsurveys,useofsubmersiblesandremotelyoperatedvehiclesindeeperareas,invitationstothepublictosubmitimagesofentanglement(Ryan2018),andtheadditionofmarinelitterto67MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTroutinesurveysinlong-termreefmonitoringprogrammes(e.g.ReefCheck)(Carvalho-Souzaetal.2018).Inthecaseofthedeepsea,organizingdatabasesthatcompilephotographicrecordsoflitterontheseafloor(Chibaetal.2018)wouldalsobeveryuseful.3.1.4SamplinganddetectionofmicroplasticsThereareintrinsicdifficultiesindeterminingandidentifyingmicroplasticsandplasticmicrofibresinenvironmentalsamplesduetotheirsizeandvariedshape,colouranddegreeofdegradation.Effortstodetectthepresenceoftheseparticleshaveresultedindifferentmethodologies(Löder2015;CostaandDuarte2017;Lusheretal.2017b;Ryanetal.2020)andhaveledtocommentariesthattherehavebeentoomanypaperswithtoomanyvariations(BorjaandElliott2019).Variousunitsofmeasurementandquantificationhavebeenusedbyresearchers;forexample,dataaresometimesgivenperweightofsample,pervolumeofmatrixorpersamplingarea,withoutinformationthatwouldenablecomparisonstobemade(Besleyetal.2017;daCosta2018).Inthemeantime,Koelmansetal.(2020)haveprovidedanapproachusingrescalingmethodsandprobabilitydensityfunctionstoimprovethealignmentofdifferentmicroplasticstudiesbycorrectingfordifferencesinsizerangesusedtoreportmicroplasticconcentrations.Theyhavealsoaddressedtheincompatibilityofdatausedincurrentspeciessensitivitydistributions(SSDs)causedbydifferencesinthemicroplastictypesineffectstudiesandnature.Acombinationofmethodsenabledthemtocorrectforthediversityofmicroplastics,addressresultsinacommonlanguage,andassesstherisksofmicroplasticsasanenvironmentalmaterial.AquaticsamplingprotocolsMicroplasticpollutioninfreshwaterecosystemsisbeingstudiedmorewidely(Blettleretal.2018;vanEmmerikandSchwartz2019)andharmonizedproceduresarenowbeingagreed(GESAMP2019;UNEP2020b,c,d).SeveralriversystemsinEurope,NorthAmericaandChinahavebeensampledextensivelyformicroplasticsatthesurfaceandinthewatercolumn(Lechneretal.2014;Manietal.2015;Zhangetal.2015;Liedermannetal.2018),insediments(Suetal.2016;Zhangetal.2016;Wangetal.2017;Manietal.2019)andalongriverbanks(Imhofetal.2013;Kleinetal.2015).However,thecomplexityofmicroplasticsandthelackofharmonizationinsamplingmethodologymakesitdifficulttocompareresultsfromearlierstudies(Drisetal.2015a;Drisetal.2016;Drisetal.2017;Drisetal.2018;Koelmansetal.2019;KooiandKoelmans2019).AtmosphericsamplingTherearecurrentlynostandardoperatingprotocolsfortheanalysisofairbornemicroplastics(Enyohetal.2019).Intheatmospheretheremaybethousandsofmicroplasticsthatcouldbeinhaledbyhumansandanimals.Thesemicroplasticscan©iStock/Adri68MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTcomefromthedecompositionofsyntheticmaterialssuchasthoseinelectronicdevices,packagingmaterials,tyres,clothingandfurnitureandaredistributedbothindoorsandoutdoors.Anumberofmethodologieshavebeendevelopedtocollectairborneanddepositedmicroplasticparticles(Drisetal.2016;Caietal.2017;Drisetal.2017;Allenetal.2019;Barbosaetal.2019;KleinandFischer2019;Stantonetal.2019a).Thecollectionofairborneparticulatematterismainlycarriedoutusinginstrumentsthatcaptureambientaerosols(bulksamplers:glassorstainless-steelbottlescontainingfunnels,depositiongauges,andotherdevicesforsourcecharacterization,andotherdevicesforsourcecharacterization,e.g.thepassivesamplerdevice)(KleinandFischer2019).Ingeneral,thesesamplecollectionsystemsareleftwheresamplecollectionwillnotbeaffectedbyradiationorrainfall,andwhereheightaboveground,geographiccoordinatesandthesampledairvolumearetakenintoconsideration.Althoughaircollectionproceduresarerelativelysimple,theyaresusceptibletocontaminationandtheentrainmentofotherparticles(Stantonetal.2019b).Evaluationofthepresenceofmicroplasticsinairisstilllimited.ThefindingsofsomestudiesperformedinEurope(Drisetal.2016;Drisetal.2017;Allenetal.2019;Enyohetal.2019;KleinandFischer2019)andChina(Caietal.2017)reportedvariationsinthevaluesofmicroplasticairdepositionrates.TheanalysisofmicroplasticsinairbyDrisetal.(2017)showedthatinthecityofParis,Francetherateofdepositionofmicroplasticsandnanoplasticswasmuchhigherindoorsthanoutdoors.FurtherworkinmountainousandsparselypopulatedregionsinFranceshowedthatthedepositionrateoutdoorswasverysimilartothatinthecity(Allenetal.2019).BioticmaterialsamplingDifferentmethodsareusedtolookatplasticingestion:thenakedeye,microscopicanalysis,enzymaticmethodsandchemicaldigestion(e.g.OSPAR2015).Markicetal.(2020)reviewedtheliteratureforfishandfoundthatchemicaldigestionisthemostrobustandhasthehighestdetectionrate,butcanalsocausedamagetosomepolymers,andthatenzymaticmethodsareknowntobegentleralthoughtheyareoftenlaborious,expensiveandtime-consuming.VonFriesenetal.(2019)havedevelopedanoveltissuedigestionmethodforbivalves,usingpancreaticenzymesandapHbuffer(Tris,ortris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane)ratherthanpotassiumhydroxide.Itisacandidateforastandardizeddigestionprotocol,asitcanprovidehighthroughputwithminimalhandling,islow-cost,anddoesnotimpaircorrectidentificationofplasticpolymersandtextilefibrepolymers.Nelmsetal.(2019b)havedevelopedanovelandeffectivemethodologypipelinetoinvestigatedietaryexposureofwildtoppredators(e.g.greyseals,Halichoerusgrypus)tomicroplasticsbycombiningscat‐basedmoleculartechniqueswithamicroplasticisolationmethod.TheyuseDNAmeta-barcoding(arapidmethodofgeneticbiodiversityassessment)togatherdetailedinformationonpreycompositionfromscatsandinvestigatethepotentialrelationshipbetweendietandmicroplasticsburden.Theresultsshowthatsuchanon‐invasive,data‐richapproachcanhelpreducethecostsandsamplevolumesrequiredforanalysisandcouldbeusedtounderpinstudiesoftherelationshipbetweendietarycompositionandratesofmicroplasticsingestioninhightrophiclevelspecies.Maesetal.(2020)havealsodevelopedamethodforquantifyingmicroplasticsinmarinemammalsbylookingatthespiralvalvesofporbeaglesharks(Lamnanasus).Inthecaseofbirds,Provencheretal.(2017,2018,2019)observedthatwhiletheyarethemoststudiedmegafaunagroupwithregardtoplasticingestion,alackofconsistencyinsamplecollectionandprocessingimpedesmetaanalysisaswellaslarge-scalecomparisonsofvolumesofplasticsconsumedandimpactsonotherspecies.Theyhaveprovidedasetofrecommendationsonbestpracticesinsamplecollection,processingandreporting,togetherwithguidanceonhowcarcasses,regurgitationsandpelletsshouldbehandledandtreatedtopreventcross-contaminationandmethodstoassessdifferentsizeclassesofmicroplastics.Theyproposethatstandardizedtechniquesforremovingsedimentandbiologicalmaterialscanbeusedforotheranimalgroups.Inareviewofthequalitycriteriaforsamplingandanalysisofmicroplasticsinbiotasamples,Hermsenetal.(2018)setout10stagesofthesamplingandanalysisprocessandprotocols.Theyevaluatedthereliabilityofeachstagein35studies,assigningascoretoeachstagewhere:2=reliablewithoutrestrictions;1=somewhatreliable,butwithrestrictions;and0=unreliable.Allthestudiesreviewedhadatleastoneprocessingstagewithascoreof0.Theaverageoverallscorewas8.0outof20.Thisevaluationdoesnotinvalidatethedifferentstudies,butitsuggeststheneedforsignificantimprovementinhowsamplingandanalysisisundertaken,withmuchgreateremphasisplacedonminimizingandaccountingforsamplecontamination.SedimentsamplingprotocolsRecentreviewsofmethodsforsamplingsedimentsconcludethatthedistributionofmicroplasticsinsedimentsishighlyvaried(Hanveyetal.2017;Prataetal.2019b)andinfluencedbytheirproperties,aswellasbywindsandcurrents.Theresultswilldependuponthesamplingarea(e.g.hightideline,intertidalareas,transects)anddepth.Collectionofsedimentsonthetideline(thehighaccumulationareaformicroplastics)mayresultinoverestimation.Thecollectionofmicroplasticsonbeachesincludesdirectsamplingwithforceps,sieving,andcollectionofsedimentsamples.Collectingsamplesfromtheseabedrequiresavesselanduseofspecializedequipmentloweredtotheseabedtocollectthesamples(e.g.grabsampler,boxcorer).Microplasticsneedtobeseparatedfromsedimentsamplesintwoseparationsteps:areductionstepusingnets,followedbysieving;andaseparationstep,usuallythroughfiltrationand/ordensityseparationusingsodiumchloride.TheprotocolsproposedbyHanveyetal.(2017)andPrataetal.(2019b)donotrecommendusingflowcytometryorelectrostaticseparation.69MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTEsiukovaetal.(2019)usedmodifiedUnitedStatesNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)methodsandμ-RamanspectroscopytoobtaindatasuitableforacomparativeanalysisofsedimentsacrosstheBalticSea.QualityassuranceandqualitycontrolprotocolsBraunetal.(2018)haveproposedaseriesofguidelinestoensureconsistencyandavoidaliasingresultsduetobackgroundlevelsofmicroplastics.Theseinclude:“plastic-free”orlow-plasticworkingconditionsduringallanalyticalsteps(sampling,preparation,detection);avoidanceofstandardplasticproductsinfavourofalternativesmadeofmetal,glassorsilicone;frequentwipingdownoflaboratoryworkspaces;handlingofsamplesinlaminarflowboxes,especiallyduringthepreparationprocessforwetsamplesandduringthedeterminationofparticlenumbers;allglasswaretobewashedthoroughly,oven-driedandcoveredwhennotinuse;microscopictracesofplastictobereducedbyheatingtheglasswareinaburnoutfurnace(<600°C);filtersandsievestobeinspectedunderamicroscopepriortouse;andpersonneltowearnatural(i.e.cotton)clothingandlaboratorycoats,aswellaspowder-freeexaminationglovesthroughouttheexperimentalprocedure.Itisalsorecommendedtoundertakesterilization(viasteam,radiationorchemicals)ofdrysamplesfromwastewater,greywater,sewagesludgeandorganicwastes.Documentationandmeasurementofzerosamplesorblankvaluedeterminationfortheapplieddetectionmethodsisessential,ascontaminationcanoccurduringsampling,preparationanddetection(contaminationbyairborneparticles).Basedoncurrentknowledge,triplerepetitionishighlyrecommendedforblankvaluedeterminationintheparticlecountingprocess(includingsamplepreparation)ofeachcampaign.Definedreferencematerialsandcontrolsarealsorequiredforthecomparisonofallanalyticalprocedures.Toimprovethereliabilityandrepeatabilityofresults,publishedstudiesofvariouspolymersunderdifferentconditionsshoulddocumentthesamplingprocess,samplepreparationanddetectionmethods.Dependingonthetypeofpolymer,particlesizeandstateofaging,theremaybedegradationandorfragmentationoflargerparticles.Thestudiesrecommendthatinthepresentationofresultsthefollowinginformationisneeded:numberofmicroplasticspervolumeforsampledwaterbodies,orpertotaldrymatter(kg)forsampledsolids;microplasticmasspervolumeforsampledwaterbodies(µgperlitre)orpertotaldrymatterforsampledsolids(mgperkg);plusaprecisedescriptionandcomprehensibledocumentationoftheamountofthesampledenvironmentalaliquot,thepreparedlaboratorysampleandtheanalysedsample.Microplasticsanalysisshouldbepresentedinsizeclasses;smallparticlesthatoccurinhigherquantitiesaregroupedintonarrowerclassificationclustersthanthelargerparticles,whicharemorerelevantintermsofmassandclassifiedintowiderclusters.Thiscanhelpensurehighermethodologicalfeasibility(includingfiltrationanddetectionlimits)andbetterintegrationofparticlequantities/massesineffectsandimpactanalyses(i.e.forenvironmentalassessments).IdentificationofphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofmicroplasticsTherearefourbasicdetectionapproaches:microscopic,spectroscopic,thermalandchemical(Masuraetal.2015;Braunetal.2018;GESAMP2019).Microscopicmethodsarewidelyusedinthecaseofmicroplasticsthatfallintothemicronrange(i.e.neustonnetsamples)tocapturesurfacetextureandstructuralinformation;however,theresultsareprimarilyavisualcharacterizationonly(Shimetal.2017).Ramanspectroscopyusesalaserbeam,resultingindifferentfrequenciesofback-scatteredlightdependingonthemolecularstructureandatomspresent.Thisproducesauniquespectrumforeachpolymer.Thereisahighriskofmisinterpretationwhenrealsamplesaremeasuredusingonlyimagingmethods(e.g.lightandelectronmicroscope)andparticlecountingmethods(e.g.lightscattering,laserscattering).Therefore,measurementsmustbecarriedoutwithcomparativeandblanksamplesandonlyincombinationwithotherchemicalorchemical-physicalanalysistechniques.Inthecaseofthermoanalyticalmethods,thesampleispyrolyzedunderinertconditionsandspecificdecompositionproductsoftheindividualpolymersaredetected.Chemicalmethodsareusedtodecomposethesamplesanddetectspecificfragmentsofpolymersorelementssuchasmolecularweightdetermination,chemicaldegradationandsubsequentLC,stainingwithNileRedandsubsequentfluorescencedetection,theapplicationofTGA-FTIR/MSorTGA-GC-MS,andhyperspectralimagingmethods(Braunetal.2018).StainingwithNileRedresultsindiscriminationofplasticsfromotherparticles,usingfluorescenceexcitationandemissioninthevisiblerange,andcanbeimplementedinsitu(Maesetal.2017b).Forthepurificationofmicroplasticsfromorganicmatterfourmajormethodshavenowbecomeroutine,eachofwhichhasbothprosandcons.Oxidativedigestionisinexpensive,butthetemperatureneedstobecontrolledandseveralapplicationsmaybeneeded(Masuraetal.2015).Aciddigestionisrapid,althoughitcanattacksomeofthepolymers(Claessensetal.2013).Alkalinedigestioniseffectiveandcausesminimaldamagetomostpolymers,butitcanattackcelluloseacetate(Dehautetal.2016).Enzymaticdigestioniseffectiveandcausesminimaldamagetomostpolymers,althoughitisverytime-consuming(Löderetal.2017).Toimprovetheaccuracyoftheprotocol,Prataetal.(2019b)recommendremovingorganicmatter,usingsimplemethodswithoutaffectingthestructuralorchemicalintegrityofpolymers.Theynotethatmanystudiesdonotincludethisstep,thusincreasingthelikelihoodofoverestimatingthedensityofmicroplasticsinsamples.Inconvertingtheresultsofmicroplasticparticleanalysesintomasscontent,considerableerrorsarepossibleastheparticlesareoftennotuniformlysphericalandthematerialdensitycannotbespecifiedaccuratelyenoughduetoundefinedstructures.Inaddition,thesphericaldiametercannotbedetermined70MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTexactly,butentersthevolumeformulaofaspherewiththethirdpower(highfaultlevelspossible).Inthepresentationanddocumentationofresultsitisthereforevitalthatthequantityofenvironmentalaliquotsanalysed,andtheprocessdurationandhoursofworkpersample,arespecified.AutomationManylaboratorytechniquesarebeingsemi-automatedandcanbeappliedinsituafterthenecessaryengineeringinstrumentationisdeveloped.Forexample,stainingwithNileReddyemakesitpossibletodiscriminateplasticsfromotherparticlesusingfluorescenceexcitationandemissioninthevisiblerange,whichcanbeimplementedinsitu(Maesetal.2017b).Whilechitinandsomeotherorganicmatterarealsostained,theseparticlesmaybediscriminatedusingothermeans,e.g.bydensityordigestion.Thistechniquehasbeensemi-automatedusingimageanalysissoftware(Erni-Cassolaetal.2017).Fullautomationwillrequireinsitufiltrationandimagecapture,andlikelyseparationordigestionsteps,which,althoughonerous,arenotbeyondthecapabilitiesofinsituinstrumentation(e.g.Scholinetal.2017).Ramanspectroscopy,previouslyappliedinsituforotherapplications(Guoetal.2017;Lietal.2018)andformicroplastics,canbeoperatedinaspectralrangewithlowabsorptioninwater(e.g.785nmlaser,Frèreetal.2016).Imagingandflowcytometry(e.g.Sgieretal.2016)canalsobeused,aswellasinsituflowandimagingcytometers(Lambertetal.2017;Olsonetal.2017).However,afocusedandsignificanteffortisstillrequiredtoturntheseintomaturesensortechnologiesthatcanbecomepartofoperationalmetrologyofmarinedebrisacrossawidesizerangeinthemarineenvironment(Maximenkoetal.2019).3.1.5Toxicologicalassessmentofmicro-andnanoplasticsAreviewofcurrentpracticesintoxicologicalstudiesofmicroplastics(Barbosaetal.2019)underlinestheenormouseffortsmadeduringthepastfiveyearstodetect,characterizeandquantifythefateandeffectofmicroplasticsandnanoplastics.Studiesreviewedincludedcellviability,oxidativestress,cytotoxicity,uptake,changesinproteinconfiguration,DNAdamage,genotoxiceffects,phagocytosisandgenefolding.Despitethelackofaqualityanalysis,theresultsunderlineanumberofproblemswithtoxicologicalexperimentalmethods,suchasuseoffluorescentmicrospheresinlaboratorytoxicityexperimentscomparedtothemanydifferentformsintheenvironment.Overall,moreresearchisneededontheuptakekinetics,accumulationandbiodistributionofmicroplasticsinbiologicalsystems(e.g.Saleyetal.2019;Wangetal.2019a;Wangetal.2019b).3.1.6Observingplatforms,dataandmodellingtechnologiesSatellites,aircraftanddronesThelatestgenerationofoperationalspacemissionsisfillinggapsinobservationsandproxydatastreamsfortheregularmonitoringofmarinedebrisandmacroplasticsonriverbanks,insurfacewatersandalongshorelines,althoughsignificanttechnologicalchallengesremain(e.g.Garabaetal.2018;Martínez-Vicenteetal.2019;Maximenkoetal.2019;vanSebilleetal.2020).Whileremotesensingisbeginningtoprovideinformationaboutsurfacedistributionsofmarinelitterintheoceans,noneofthecurrentlyorbitinginstrumentshasbeen©iStock/xavierarnau71MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTspecificallydesignedtodetectplasticmarinelitter.Atthesametime,thescopeandcapabilitiesofsomeexistingandfuturemissionsoverlapwiththepropertiesanddynamicsofmarinedebris.Someofthesamesensorscanbeusedtomonitormarinedebris.TheEuropeanUnionCopernicusSentinel-2providesfreedatawithsufficientspatialandspectralresolutiontodetectthemarinelitterwindrows(elongatedaccumulationscommonlyfoundontheseasurface,varyinginlengthfromtensofmetrestooverakilometre),aswellasindividualobjectsassmallas5m2onland.TheSentineldatacanbeintegratedwiththoseoftheUnitedStatesLandsat-8satellite,whichofferssimilarimagery,toprovideanaveragerevisittimeofthreedays.Asecond,operationalsystem,CopernicusSentinel-3,includesinstrumentationforocean-colourtrackingandcanbeusedtomeasuresubtlespectralchangesfromoceansurfaceimaging.AspartoftheEuropeanSpaceAgencyOpticalMethodforMarineLitterDetection(OptiMAL)programme,satellitedataarecombinedwithglobalobservationsandaerialoceansurveysusinghighspatialresolutioncamerasonaircraft,plussatellitebathymetriclidar,hyperspectralshortwaveinfraredimaging.TheOptiMALconfigurationiscapableofdetectingarangeoflitterfromlargerpiecestomicroplasticswithdiametersoflessthan5mmsuspendedintheupperlayersoftheocean,aswellasplasticdebrisfoundonshorelines.Similarly,othermissionswillprovidedataonsub-mesoscalecurrentsthatwilladvancemodelssimulatingmarinedebrisdrift.Forexample,thePRISMAsatellite,carryingahyperspectralinstrumentoperatinginthe400-2,500nmrange,withspectralandspatialresolutionof12nmand30metres,respectively,waslaunchedinMarch2019bytheItalianSpaceAgency.ThePlankton,Aerosol,Cloud,oceanEcosystemmission(PACE,UnitedStatesNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAgency[NASA])isexpectedtobelaunchedinlate2022.ItwillincludeahyperspectralOceanColorInstrument(OCI),andtheEnvironmentalMappingandAnalysisProgram(EnMAP,GermanyDLR)willcarryahyperspectral“pushbroom”imagerwithhighspectral(6.5-10nm)andspatial(30metre)resolutions.Anotherimportantareainwhichremotesensingislikelytomakeasignificantcontributionisthemeasurementofriverinedischargeusingnewremotesensingtechniques(GleasonandDurand2020).TheSurface-WaterOceanTopography(SWOT)mission(Biancamariaetal.2016),tobelaunchedinSeptember2021,willrevolutionizequantificationofwaterlevelsinglobalriversover100metresinwidthandenablemonitoringofwaterdischargesglobally,offeringnewpossibilitiestoquantifythefluxofsuspendedsedimentandnutrientfluxesinlargeriverswheregroundcalibrationexistsandprovidebathymetricmeasurements.Futureplannedandpotentialmissionsexpectedtogiveinsightsintosub-mesoscaledynamicsincludeSKIM(SeaSurfaceKInematicsMultiscalemonitoringsatellitemission,althoughnotapprovedasanESAmission;Ardhuinetal.2019),SEASTAR,andWACM(WindAndCurrentsMission).11SyntheticApertureRadar(SAR)observations,embeddedinthesemissionsorusedascomplementingprojects,willsignificantlyenrichourknowledgeofmarinedebrissources,sinks,patternsandpathways.Passivemicrowaveradiometersmayalsobehelpfulintrackingmarinelitter;however,theircapabilityisyettobedemonstrated.Remotesensingwillalwaysrequireadequatecalibrationandvalidation,basedonacombinationofobservationsfrominsituinstrumentsandsampling.Ground-truthingofearthobservationisbestservedwhenthepresenceofsignificantdebrissignalsisdetectedfromsensordata,ground-truthed,andtheresultsfedbackintothesignaldatafordataextractionandcalibration-validation(GarabaandDierssen2018).Thecalibrationandvalidationofopenoceansurfacemeasurementsalsorequirestheinfluenceofsubsurfaceoceanprocessessuchastheverticalshearofcurrentsondebrisdrifttobeincluded,usingdata,forexample,fromthevariousdrifterandprofilerarrayswithintheGlobalOceanObservingSystem(GOOS)12(Moltmannetal.2019).Satellitesareimportantinordertocoverthelargestscales,butremotesensingtechnologiescanalsobeusedfromsuborbitalplatforms,aircraft,dronesandshipsandasportabledevicestoprovidedataonmarinedebrisattheappropriatescales;inthissensetheyareanimportantelementforthedevelopmentofGOOSRegionalAlliances(Moltmannetal.2019).Theuseoflow-flyingdronesandsmallaircraftisalsoanimportantcomponentofobservingsystemsandcanenhancemonitoringwithhighspatialandtemporalresolutiondata.Acombinationofdronesandsatelliteimagerywasrecentlyexperimentedwithtodetecttypicalhouseholditemsasfloatingplastictargets.Topouzelisetal.(2019)confirmedthatfloatingplasticsareseenfromspaceasbrightobjectsanddemonstratedthebenefitsofusingveryhigh(around0.02metre)geo-spatialresolutionimageryfromdronestoimprovegeo-referencingofSentinel-2data,resampledto10mresolution.IntheMALINOR(MappingmarinelitterintheNorwegianandRussianArcticSeas)project13differentmethodsforvisualmappingofplasticlitterinbeachareas(i.e.satelliteimages,multicopter,andwing-drones)arebeingcomparedandautomaticimagemanagementandmachinelearningusedtoquantifyamountsofmarinelitter.TheOPTIMALprojectprovidedanevaluationofexistingandplannedsensorcapabilitiesfordetecting/quantifyingmarinelitterandisfeedingintotheScientificCommitteeonOceanResearch(SCOR)WorkingGroup153:FloatingLitteranditsOceanicTranSportAnalysisandModelling(FLOTSAM).14ShipsShipshaveplayedanimportantroleinthenetworkofplatformsusedtocollectdataonmarinedebris.However,observationsfromshipsarerelativelysparse,vulnerabletoweatherconditions,andoftensensitivetothetypeofshipandtheexpertiseoftheoperator.Studiesusingtheship’slogtocalculateparticleabundancereportvaluesperkm2whilestudiesusingflowmeterreadingsusuallyreportconcentrationvaluesperm3,makingcomparisonsgenerallyimpossible(Riversetal.2019).72MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTForexample,Maesetal.(2017a)havesuggestedthatthebowwaveeffectmaycauselesswatertobefilteredthroughthenetthanwouldbecalculatedusingtheship’slog,leadingtoanunderestimationofplasticabundance.Othershaveshownthatplasticabundanceswerelowerwhenusingflowmeters,mostprobablybecauseoftheshorterdistancescomparedtoon-boardinstruments(Riversetal.2019).Thegeneralconclusionisthatwhenflowmetersareusedtheresultsofplasticabundanceshouldbereportedperkm2andperm3(Riversetal.2019).Shipsalsoprovideaplatformfromwhichabroadvarietyofsensorsandsamplerscanbeusedforcomprehensivestudyoftheentirewatercolumnfromtheseabedtothesurface.Inviewofthesmallnumberofresearchvessels,shipsofopportunity15havegreatpotentialtoconsiderablyimprovecoveragebyincreasingthenumberofvisualobservationsandusingship-borneautonomoussystems(e.g.Ferrybox16).AutonomousplatformsFloats,gliders(bothseaglidersandwavegliders),andautonomoussurfaceandunderwatervehicles,equippedwithsensorsandcameras,arebeingdeployedtosurveymarinelitterandplasticsthroughoutthewatercolumn,alongtheseabedandinremoteareas,suchasthehadaldepthsandunderseaice.Forexample,photographicsurveysfrom2013to2018wereusedinanovelexperimenttobackdateseafloormacrolitterintheMediterraneanbyusingproductcodesandbrandingtoidentifyitemssuchasaluminiumcansthatdateasfarbackasthe1980s(Cau2019).Ithasbeenproposedthatthistechniquecouldbeusedonfishingvesselstomonitorseabedlittermoreconsistently.Therearenowmultipleprogrammes,usingavarietyofLagrangianplatforms,17whichformthebackboneoftheGlobalOceanObservingSystem(Moltmannetal.2019)andplayanimportantroleintrackingmarinedebrisandunderstandingitspathways.Thereiscurrentlyanarchiveofmorethan30,000drifteryearsofhistoricaltrajectoriesobtainedfromthesenetworksofthousandsofactivesatellite-trackeddriftingbuoysreportinghourly(Maximenkoetal.2019).Satellitetrackers,attachedtolargedebrissuchasfishingnetsorcontainers,facilitateretrievalofthisdebrisfromtheocean.TherearealsospecializedLagrangiantoolsdevelopedtostudythedriftofdebrisandotherpollutioninfocusedregionalprojects.Forexample,Meyerjürgensetal.(2019)builtcompactsurfacedriftersandusedthemonthesouthernNorthSeashelftostudytransportpatternsinthenearshorezonesandthebeaching-refloatingdynamicsofmarinedebris.TheexpandingAnimalTelemetryNetworkisalsousefulformarinedebrisdatacollection,aswellasformonitoringtheinteractionofdebriswithmarinelife.©iStock/NeagoneFo73MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTFixedpointobservatoriesFixedpointobservatoriesareimportantandefficientplatformstomonitortemporalvariabilityand,inparticular,long-termtrendsinenvironmentalconditionssuchasdepositionofmarinedebrisandplasticsandclimatevariability(Centurionietal.2019).Mooredplatformshavethegreatadvantageofbeingabletocarrysensorsandsamplers.Atpresentthereareabout120openoceanobservatories(OceanSITES18)andevengreaternumbersofcoastalandshelfobservatoriesthatcanbeusedformarinedebrisobservations.Someoftheobservatoriesarecabledandcanproducelargevolumesofreal-timedata.Theirlocationsrequireclosecoordinationwithsatelliteobservationsandnumericalmodels.BenthiclandersandcrawlersArangeofdeviceshavebeendevelopedwhichremainontheseabedforprotractedperiodsoftime.Someofthemphotographtheseabedrepeatedlyorcantaketimeseriessedimentsampleswhilecrawlingovertheseabed.Theyareusuallyleftontheseabedforlongperiodsbeforetheyarerecovered(e.g.Wally19).Thecrawlerscanprovideuniqueinformationaboutthearrivalofdebrisontheseabed.SensorsTodaythedeploymentofadvancedsensorssuchasthosedescribedmakesthedivisionbetweendirectandremoteobservationslessdistinct.Aerialsurveysandremotetechnologiesproviderichinformationondebrisonoceanorshorelinesurfaces.However,asthelargestfractionofmarinedebrisendsupintheoceanwatercolumnorburiedinmarinesediments(e.g.vanSebilleetal.2015;Koelmansetal.2017b;Chubarenkoetal.2018;vanSebilleetal.2020)directvisualmeasurementsremaincriticalforcomprehensivemonitoringandneedtobeintegratedintofutureoperationalremotesensingoperations(GarabaandDierssen2018;Goddijn-Murphyetal.2018).Sensorscurrentlybeingusedfordetectionandpolymeridentificationofplasticdebrisaredeployedonthreetypesofplatform.Thesearesatellites:Sentinel-2/MSIHRMultispectral450to1,400nmwave,TanDEM-XHRSARinstrument,andWorldView3VHRMultispectral400to2,365nm,andPlanetScopeVHRMultispectral455to860nm(Cubesat);airborne:SASIVHRHyper950to2,450nm,APEXVHRHyper372to2,540nm,AVIRIS-NGVHRHyper380to2,510nm;andhandheld:ASDFieldSpecProVHRHyper350to2,500nm,SpectravistacorporationVHRHyper350to2,500nmhandheld,SpectralevolutionVHRHyper350to2,500nm.Underwaterdeepcablesystemsareabletocarrysensorswhichcanbecombinedwithsamplingandpost-retrievalanalysis(WangandWang2018).Otherimagingsystemsdevelopedformacrofaunaormicroorganismstudiescanalsobeusedtostudyplasticdebris.Forexample,atowedcameraandhuman-assistedsemi-automatedimageanalysis(BIIGLE–Bio-ImageIndexingandGraphicalLabellingEnvironment-database)wereusedtotrackincreasesindebrisbetween2004and2014intheeasternFramStraitbetweenGreenlandandSvalbard,Norway(Tekmanetal.2017).ModellingSimulationmodelsofsurfacecurrents,focusedonLagrangianmethodsandusingsatellitedata,arebeingdeployedroutinelytoidentifyareaswherefloatingplasticsarelikelytoconcentrateintheopenocean(Zambianchietal.2017;Palatinusetal.2019;Wichmannetal.201920).Advancesincoupledglobaldispersalmodelswithfieldobservationsofsurfaceconcentrationsofplasticpollutionandinputsfromriverinesourceshaveenabledresearcherstogofromestimatesoftherelativesizeofdifferentaccumulationzones(e.g.Lebretonetal.2012)toestimatesofglobalmassbudgetforpositivelybuoyantmacroplasticdebrisandtodevelopfutureprojections(e.g.Koelmansetal.2019;Lebretonetal.2019;Lebretonetal.2020;vanSebilleetal.2020).However,predictivemodellingofmarinelitterdistributionismorechallengingatthenearshoresincelocalgeomorphologicalandhydrologicalfeaturescanaffectspatialdistribution(Galganietal.2015).Attemptstomodellitterdepositionandaccumulationonsubstrateshavebeenlimitedtocoastalareasandbeaches(e.g.CritchellandLambrechts2016)andtheresultsfrompredictivemodelsformarinelitterdensityontheseabedareoftennotinagreementwithobserveddata.Inresponse,machinelearningmodelsarenowsuccessfullybeingusedtopredictdistributionandquantitiesofmarinelitterontheseafloor.Franceschinietal.(2019)trainedasetofArtificialNeuralNetworkmodelstodeterminewhichenvironmentalvariablesaffectlitterdistributionandtopredictquantitiesontheseafloorinthecentralMediterranean.Theresultscoincidedwithearlierfieldstudiesthatshowedseafloordebrisoccurringinlargequantitiesincoastalcanyons(Buhl-MortensenandBuhl-Mortensen2017)andpointtothesetechniques,potentialtoidentifypotentialhotspots.ImaginganddataanalysisHighresolutioncamerasfixedonallthedifferenttypesofplatformshavebeenusedtomonitormarinedebrisnearshore.Analysisofhigh-resolutionimagesrequiresadvancedinterpretationtechniquestoeliminateenvironmentalperturbationsfromoceanbrighttargets(breakingwaves,whitecaps,seafoam,surface-reflectedglint),cloudsandcloudshadow(e.g.GarabaandDierssen2018).Inmonitoringmarinedebris,TrueColorRGBimagesprovidecrucialcomplementaryinformationabouttheapparentcolourandshapeoflitterbutdonotprovideinformationonthelitter’sphysicalandchemicalcomposition.Machinelearning,combinedwithhyperspectralinformationasdemonstratedbyAcuña-Ruzetal.(2018),willhelpincreasethevalueofhigh-resolutionvisibleimagingasanessentialcomponentofanyfutureintegratedmarinelitterobservingprogrammetoidentifyhotspots.74MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT3.2Monitoringprogrammes,indicators,datanetworksandplatforms3.2.1MonitoringprogrammesOneoftheclearconclusionsfromthereviewofallthedifferenttypesofmeasurementandmonitoring,goingontodayandhistorically,isthattheyremainfragmentedandhardtocompareandnoteasilysubsumedwithinindicatorprocesses.Itisclearthatthereisanurgentneedforfurtherimprovementsinstandardization,harmonization,andtheinteroperabilityofdatasetsandplatformsifeffectiveglobalmonitoringprogrammesaretobeimplemented.Variouseffortsarenowbeingdesignedtoaddressthisissue.Forexample,inanevaluationof174studiesSerraGonçalvesetal.(2019)foundthat27percentreportedmarinedebrisdensitiesinmetricsthatwerenotcomparable;nearly10percentfailedtoreportbasicparameters,suchasthedateofthesampling;andnearly20percentfailedtoreportthesizeofthecollecteddebris.Maximenkoetal.(2019)haveproposedadesignforanIntegratedMarineDebrisObservingSystem(IMDOS)tomonitorandassesstheriskposedbymarinedebris.ThegoalofIMDOSistolookatexposureandconcentrations,andvulnerabilityorharmtothesystem,withtheaimofaccuratelyestimatingtheamountofdebrisinaregion,andthefluxesinandout,andcomputingtherisksofenvironmentalimpacts.Theresultscanbecombinedwithdatafromotherobservationsystemstoenablediagnosesandresponsestobedeveloped.Largegapsinknowledgestillexistinregardtobothfreshwatersourcesandmarineenvironments(Schmidtetal.2017;Best2019).Ideally,monitoringapproachesshouldbeharmonized,coverthewholesizespectrumofplastics,andDataacqusitionAnalysisCollection/compilationCoordinationBeachShorelineWatercolumnSeaoorBiological-ingestedplasticInlandwaterbodiesMARINELITTERACTIONCOORDINATIONDATACOLLECTIONFRAMEWORKSLARGESCALEDATAREPOSITORY/PORTALINITIATIVESGEOGRAPHICALRANGEACTIVITIESINCLUDESCITIZENSCIENCEACTIVITIESAPPLICATIONAREAAPPLICATIONAREAIncludingbutnotlimitedtoBalticSea,Skagerrak,Kattegat,NorthSea,EnglishChannel,CelticSea,IrishSea,BayofBiscayandtheeasternAtlanticfromtheShetlandstoGibraltarJapanAgencyforMarine-EarthScienceandTechnologyODISIOCOceandataandinformationsystemODP---MDMAPMSFDCOASSTAMDIGGGI-yesyesyes-yes-yesyesyesOceanDataPlatformLivingAtlasoftheWorldResourceWatchLITTERBASENOAAMarineDebrisMonitoringandAssessmentProjectMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective-EMODnetGlobalGhostGearinitiative-databaseandappGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitterPacic&IndianOceansUSEuropeanwatersEuropeanwatersPacic,OceaniaEuropeanwatersEuropeanwatersEuropeanwatersTrashInformationandDataforEducationandSolutionGlobalEarthObservationSystemofSystems’PlatformDOMEDOME(MarineEnvironment)dataportal-anICESdataportalDATRASTheDatabaseofTrawlSurveys-anICESdataportal-MarineLitterWatchTIDEGPML-GEOSSWorldwideInternationalbottomtrawlsurveyintheMediterraneanMEDITSMediterraneanWorldwideWorldwideWorldwideEuropeanMarineObservationandDataNetworkEMODnet--yesyesyesyes---WorldwideWorldwideWorldwideWorldwideEuropeanwatersWorldwideUSwestcoast,WorldwideDeep-seaDebrisDatabase-JAMSTECCoastalObservationandSeabirdSurveyTeam-MarineDebrisAustralianMarineDebrisinitiativedatabaseSeaDataNet-Pan-Europeaninfrastructureforocean&marinedatamanagementAselectionofdatacoordination,collection,repositoryandportalinitiatesTheirgeographicalrange,activitiesandapplicationareasSource:UNEP2021.IllustratedbyGRID-ArendalFigure8:Aselectionofdatacoordination,collection,repositoryandportalinitiatives75MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTbedesignedtocapturethespatialandtemporaldynamicsofthedifferentfractions(Schmidtetal.2017;GESAMP2019;Maximenkoetal.2019).Formarinesystemstherearecurrently15majoroperationalmonitoringprogrammes(Maesetal.2019).Theycoverbothmacroplasticsandmicroplasticsacrossallthemarinecompartments.Forfreshwatersystems,newguidelineshavebeendeveloped(UNEP2020b,c,d)whichbuildonthemarineprogrammes(GESAMP2019)andcoverreservoirsandwastewatertreatmentplants.Therearealsoagrowingnumberofglobalplatformsanddatabasessupportedthroughlargenon-governmentalorganizations(e.g.theInternationalCoastalCleanup,ledbytheOceanConservancy;ProjectAWARE,originatinginthedivingcommunity;andthe5GyresInstituteonMicroplastics).21Effortsarealsounderwaytostandardizeandharmonizesamplecollection,analysisandreportingmethodsacrossbothfreshwaterandmarinesystems(Isobeetal.2019;Maximenkoetal.2019;Michidaetal.2019).Thefollowingsectionsreviewthedifferentcomponentsofmonitoringandobservingsystemsandnetworks,includingbaselinedata,indicatorsandinformationflowscomingfromdirectobservationsusingplatforms,sensorsandsamplers,andremotesensingofmarinedebrisusinghighspatialresolutionimaging,opticalspectro-radiometertechniques,andradarsensors(Figure8).3.2.2BaselinedataandindicatorsOneofthemajorneedsformonitoringprogrammes,beyondthetechnicalandoperationalrequirementsofgovernmentagencies,concernsthedevelopmentofindicatorsfordifferentpolicymeasures.Inanumberofinstancesindicatorshavebeendevelopedwithaviewtofuturemonitoringcapabilities.Forexample,themeasurementoffloatingplasticsintheopenoceanforSustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG)14.1.1b22forfloatingplasticdebrisisbeingapproachedattwolevels:-Level1:Globallyavailabledatafromearthobservationsandmodelling;-Level2:Nationaldatawhichwillbecollectedfromcountries(throughtherelevantRegionalSeasProgramme,whereapplicable(i.e.forcountriesthatareamemberofaRegionalSeasProgramme).ThemetadataforthesetwosourcesarebeingdevelopedthroughtheGuidelinesfortheMonitoringandAssessmentofPlasticLitterintheOcean(GESAMP2019)withtheaimofbeginningdatacollectionin2021.Indicators(i.e.specific,observableandmeasurablecharacteristicsthatcanbeusedtoshowthechangesorprogressaprogrammeismakinginregardtoachievingaspecificoutcome)andbaselinedata(i.e.informationusedtocomparesubsequentdatacollected)arealsoavailableforimplementingavarietyofregionalandnationalpolicies(e.g.theRegionalSeasConventionsandActionPlans,EuropeanEnvironmentAgency2019b).Themainaimistoprovidereliableinformationinordertosettargetsandbaselinesforpolicydecisions,suchasbaselineconcentrationsofbeachlitter(Hankeetal.2019).Streamliningallthevariousindicatorsetsisalsoimportant,especiallyinthecaseoftransboundaryorcross-borderissuessuchasmarinelitter,asitestablishesacommonunderstandingofprioritiesandmonitoring.Todate,themajorityofindicatorsarefocusedondownstreamprocessesandimpacts,ratherthanonpreventionmeasuresortheireffectiveness.Theestablishmentofbaselinesfordifferentindicatorsandmeasuresreliesuponagreementondefinitionsandmethodsandtheintercalibration,wherenecessary,ofdifferentmethods(e.g.Maesetal.2017a;Maesetal.2018;GESAMP2019).AnexampleisBASEMAN23(Gerdts2017),aninterdisciplinaryandinternationalcollaborativeprojectthatisbringingtogetherexperiencedscientistsfromdifferentdisciplinesandcountriestoundertakedetailedcomparisonsandevaluationsofalltheanalyticalmethodsusedforsampling,identificationandquantificationofmicroplasticsinordertoenablebaselinemeasurementsoftheabundanceanddistributionofmicroplasticsintheenvironment.SDGindicator14.1.1isanindexofcoastaleutrophicationandfloatingplasticdebrisintensity.Itsgoalistopreventandsignificantlyreducemarinepollutionofallkindsby2025,particularlyfromland-basedactivities,includingplasticdebrisandnutrientpollution.Examplesoftheimportantroleofregionalactivitiesindevelopingcommonagreementondefinitionsinclude:•TheOSPARCommissionhasthreeindicators(beachlitter,plasticparticlesinfulmars’stomachs,andseabedlitter),withindicatorsforotherbiotaandmicroplasticsunderdevelopment(OSPAR2020);•HELCOM,theBalticMarineEnvironmentProtectionCommissionorHelsinkiCommission,isworkingonthedevelopmentofthreeindicatorsformarinelitter:beachlitter,litterontheseafloor,andmicrolitterinthewatercolumn(HELCOM2017,2018);•TheMediterraneanActionPlan(BarcelonaConventionfortheMediterranean)hasindicatorsformarinelitter,trendsintheamountoflitterwashedashoreand/ordepositedoncoastlines,trendsintheamountoflitterinthewatercolumn(includingmicroplasticsontheseafloor),andtrendsintheamountoflitteringestedbyorentanglingmarineorganisms,focusingonselectedmammals,marinebirdsandmarineturtles(UNEP/MAP2015);•TheNorthwestPacificActionPlanhasanecologicalqualityobjectivethatmarinelitterdoesnotadverselyaffectcoastalandmarineenvironments,aswellasanindicatorformarineplasticlitter(NorthwestPacificActionPlan2017).Candidateparametersforspecializedglobalmonitoringprogrammesarealsobeingproposed.Forexample,BrownandTakada(2017)havesuggestedanumberofbiomarkersincludingstableisotopesassociatedwithbirdpopulationsaswaystomonitormarinedebrisandpollutionintheNorthPacific.Tavaresetal.(2016)haveproposedmonitoringdebrisinthenestsofthe76MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTbrownbooby(Sulaleucogaster)asapotentialindicatoroftheabundanceofspecificitemsinsurroundingmarinewaters.Thenorthernfulmar(Fulmarusglacialis)hasbeenusedtomonitorplasticpollutionintheNorthAtlanticseas(OSPAR)forseveraldecades(Avery-Gommetal.2018).Therearecallsforseabirdspeciesinotheroceanbasinstobeaddedasindicatorspecies,suchasthewedgetailedshearwater(Ardennapacifica)inthepantropicalregions.3.2.3DatanetworksandplatformsEffortstocreateaglobalplatformformarinedebrisdataacquisition,streaming,qualitycontrol,anddistributiontousersarecurrentlyunderway.TheGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter(UNEP2020a)(Box6)issupportingthedevelopmentofadigitalplatform24astheprincipalmechanismforlinkingexistingmarinelitterinformationsystems.Someofthechallengesarethatthesystemsvaryaccordingtotheirmaturity,policypriorities,andtheextenttowhichthereisharmonizationofformatsandprotocolsfordifferentcompartments(beachandseafloor),particlesize(macro-andmicrolitter)andgeographicscales(e.g.regional,national).Anumberofmarinelitterdataplatformsassemblelocalobservationsforuseinlarge-scalemonitoring.Theseplatformsaregenerallyoperatedbynationalagencies(e.g.governmentalagenciessuchasNOAA,CSIROandSOA),regionalbodies(e.g.OSPARintheNortheastAtlantic),UNEP(e.g.UNEP/MAPintheMediterraneanandUNEP/NOWPAPintheNorthwestPacific),coordinatedthroughjointefforts(suchastheEUMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective,MSFD)ormanagedbynon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)whichrelyoncoordinatedcrowdsourcing(e.g.theTrawlshareProgramandtheInternationalCoastalCleanup25)(GESAMP2019).Someobservationsarecollectedonaregularbasis,whileothersareopportunisticoracquiredinthecourseofshort-timeprojects,experimentsorinitiatives.AnexampleofanestablishedEuropeanUnionleveldatapartnershipandplatformistheEuropeanMarineObservationandDataNetwork(EMODnet).EMODnetcontributestothelarge-scalecollectionandharmonizationofenvironmentaldatainEuropeanseas,includingtheNorthAtlanticOcean(OSPAR)andtheBaltic(HELCOM),26theMediterranean(UNEP/MAP)andtheBlackSea(theBlackSeaCommission),whichareatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.27Currentlytheplatformcontainsinformationfrom518beachesand4,772surveysin29countries(Maximenkoetal.2019).Theaimistoprovidereliableinformationinordertosettargetsandbaselinesforpolicydecisions.EMODnetChemistry,oneofseventhematicdataportals,coversdataoncontaminants(hydrocarbons,metals,pesticides,radionuclides)andhasrecentlybeenextendedtocovermarinedebriswithafocusonbeachlitter,seafloorlitter(collectedbyfishtrawlsurveys)andmicrolitter(microplastics).ReportingofbeachlitterdatainEMODnetusesOSPAR,MSFD,UNEP/MAPorUNEP-Marlinprotocols.FordataonbottomtrawllittertheICESDATRASdatabaseiscombinedwithreportsfromsomeoftheinternationalbottomtrawlsurveysintheMediterranean(MEDITS)(Cauetal.2019).TheGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter(GPML)(UNEP2020a)waslaunchedattheUnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopment(Rio+20)inJune2012.Themulti-stakeholderpartnershipprovidesaplatformforcooperationandcoordination;sharingideas,knowledgeandexperiences;identifyinggapsandemergingissues;andharnessingtheexpertise,resourcesandenthusiasmofallstakeholders(includingtheprivatesector,civilsociety,NGOsandregionalbodies)workingtoreduceandpreventmarinelitterandplasticpollutionfromland-andsea-basedsources.Specificobjectivesincludereducingtheleakageofplasticsintotheocean,throughimproveddesign,theapplicationofthe3Rsprinciple(reduce,reuse,recycle),encouragingclosed-loopsystemsandmorecircularproductioncycles,maximizationofresourceefficiency,andminimizationofwastegeneration.OneofthePartnership’sflagshipprojectsisaMassiveOpenOnlineCourse(MOOC)onMarineLitter,whichisnowavailablein10languages.KeytotheGPML’sevolutionisthedevelopmentofitsDigitalPlatform.Thisone-stop-shop,mostlyopen-sourceplatformcompilesdifferentresourcesincludingfrominnovativesourcesandintegratesdatafromsource-to-seaandthroughouttheplasticlifecyclerelevantto,forexample,SDGs6(CleanWaterandSanitation),11(SustainableCitiesandCommunities),12(ResponsibleConsumptionandProduction)and14(LifeBelowWater).Theplatformfeaturesaccuratedataandinformationonmarinelitter,plasticpollutionandrelatedtopics,stakeholders,actionplans,initiatives,technologies,eventsandtraining,policies,andtechnicalandfinancingresources.Inaddition,theplatformconnectsstakeholdersthrougha“match-making”componentinordertoguideandcoordinateaction.Contact:unep-gpmarinelitter@un.orgBox6:TheGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter77MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTForfloatingmarinemicroplasticstheSeaDataNetmetadataanddataformatshavebeenadaptedtodealwiththediversityofinformationfromotherEuropeansources.Dataonbeachlitter,floatingmicrolitterandseafloorlitterwillbeaccessiblethroughthededicateddiscoveryandaccessserviceintheEMODnetChemistryportal.DOMEisanotherdataportalusedbyexpertgroupstomanagechemicalandbiologicaldataforregionalmarineevaluations.Itincludesqualityassurancemethodssuchasreportingofuncertaintyinevaluatingdata.Aboveall,itwillincludedataonmicroplastics.EMODnetalsoallowstheinclusionofdatafromautonomousinstrumentsandsensors.Inaddition,theobservingnetworksystemwillbenefitfromtheuseofplatformsofopportunitysuchasships,airplanesandcoastalstructures.Withinthethematicportalsthereareplanstoadoptconsolidateddataformatstoaddressthisheterogeneity(GESAMP2019).Tomakegreateruseofthegrowingnumbersofinitiativesanddatasets,andtofacilitatejointanalyses,unifieddefinitions,standardsandformatsandwell-developedinfrastructuresfordataflowandstoragearenowneeded.Forexample,theuseofcategoriessuchasmega-,meso-,macro-,micro-andnanoplasticsneedstobebasedonclearsizeranges(e.g.FriasandNash2019;GESAMP2019)andacceptedbyallcontributorsandusersofthecombinedmonitoringandobservingsystem.Examplesofopendata-sharingsystemsandplatformswhicharealreadyavailableandcouldbelinkedtotheproposedGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter(GPML)(UNEP2020a)platformincludetheEuropeanMarineObservationandDataNetwork(EMODnet),theCopernicusDataServicefortheSentinelmissions,DigitalEarthAfrica,andtheHELCOMMapandDataService.28TheGlobalPartnershipforSustainableDevelopmentData,establishedin2015tofacilitatedeliveryoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,isalsosupportedbyaplatformfortheglobalnetworkofdataprovidersandusers,whichbringstogetherdataandinformationusingthelatestopportunitiesandtechnologiesaffordedbythedatarevolution.©iStock/redtea78MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT3.3Networks,citizenscienceandcommunityinitiativesArecentanalysisofglobal,regionalandnationalmarinedebrisnetworks29underlinedtheirimportanceoftacklingtheissueofmarinedebrisandplasticsfromdifferentperspectives.Adoptionofagenderedapproachinnetworks,citizenscienceprojectsandparticipatoryprocessesiscritical.Itcanencouragewomen’sempowermentandparticipationandhelpensuregreatersustainability.AnexampleofthepositiveimpactthisapproachcanhaveistheactionintheSouthPacificinvolvingtheSamoanMinistryofNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentandthatcountry’sMinistryofHealthanditsTourismAuthority,inpartnershipwiththeSecretariatoftheSouthPacificRegionalEnvironmentProgramme(SPREP)(2017)andUNEPthroughtheGPML.InSamoaarangeofcommunity-ledactivitiesincludedparticipationbywomen’sorganizationsinworkshopsonwaste-craft,i.e.turningwasteintosaleableconsumeritems30Asarietal.(2019)emphasizetheplasticwastemanagementchallengesinPacificIslandcountries,wherelifestylesarechangingandpeopleareincreasinglyconcentratedinurbanareas.Althoughmarineplasticisacriticalissueinthisregion,theauthorspointoutthatfewdataareavailableonitsvolumesandimpacts.TogatherinformationonplasticuseanddisposaltheycarriedoutasurveyofSamoanhouseholds.Thegrowthofmarinelitternetworkshashelpedtocatalysebeach-cleaningactivitiesworldwide.Despitetheirsometimespatchygeographicaldistributionandsparsetimetables,beachclean-upshaveshowngreatpotentialforthecrowdsourcingofqualitativeandquantitativemarinedebrisdatathroughcoordinatedsurveysusingapprovedprotocols.ExamplesofcoordinatedsurveysincludetheNOAAMarineDebrisTracker;theEuropeanEnvironmentAgencyMarineLitterWatch;theOceanConservancyTIDES;theJRCFloatingLitterapp;andtheMarineConservationSocietysurveysintheUnitedKingdom31(González-FernándezandHanke2017;Turrell2019).Theseprojectsareimportantbecause,comparedwithmoreopportunisticplatforms,theycollectdatathatcaneasilybetranslatedintonumberofpiecesofplasticpersquarekilometre,whichisrequiredforreportingonindicator14..1.bforSustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG)14(Conserveandsustainablyusetheoceans,seasandmarineresourcesforsustainabledevelopment).32Duringthepastdecadetherehasalsobeenanupsurgeinmarinelitter-relatedcitizenscienceinitiatives(e.g.Nelmsetal.2017).TheUNEPstock-takingresponses(UNEP/AHEG/4/INF/6)suggestthatcitizenscienceprogrammeseffectivelyconnectinterestedparties,aswellasenableveryspecificdatacollection.Socialandbehaviouralscientistsnotethatbehaviouralchangecampaigns,whichmayincludecitizenscienceprojects,changepublicmotivationandawarenessfasterandmorecost-effectivelythan,forexample,policytools(SAPEA2019).Therehavebeensuccessfulcitizenscienceinitiativesonarangeofaspectsofmarinelitter,includingmonitoringlitteronbeachesandinrivers;trackingandanalysingmicrobeadsandplasticpelletsintheenvironment;measuringthetransportanddepositionofmarinelitter;determiningitscompositionand,specifically,thepresenceofdifferentformsofmicroplastics;examiningsocialaspectssuchaspeople’sbehaviourinreducinglitteringoncoasts;analysinginteractionswithbiota;andobservingtoxiceffects(Hidalgo-RuizandThiel2015;Wylesetal.2016;Zettleretal.2017).Forexample,InternationalPelletWatchinvolvedcitizensfrom17countriesincollectingplasticpelletsfrombeaches,whichweresenttoTokyo,Japanforlaboratoryanalysesasinputstomathematicalmodelsofdispersion(Heskettetal.2012).Thecharacteristicsofpellets(smallsize,easytorecognize),aswellastheirworldwidedistribution,makethemappropriateforbothcitizenscienceandawareness-raisingactions33(Yeoetal.2015).Permanentobservatoriesareactiveinternationally,andtherearecampaignssuchastheGreatNurdleHunt.34Aswellasrecordingtheoccurrenceandamountsofstrandedpellets,citizensmonitorastandardsetofenvironmentalvariablesincludingthoserelevanttotheweatheringofpelletssuchastheircolour,whichisindicativeof“new”and“old”pellets.Uptonow,datahavebeencompiledonthecomposition,originandloadsofpollutantsadsorbedbypellets.Citizenscienceactionshavebeenfoundtobeofgreathelpintacklingthetemporaldimensionandprovidingkeyinformationrelatedtoprocessesanddynamics,forexampleonthebeachesoftheGreatLakesregion(Vincentetal.2017).Barrowsetal.(2018b)haveshownthatcitizenscience-basedresearchonmicroplasticconcentrationscanbevaluableinquantifyingmicroplasticandmicrofibreabundanceinalarge,mixedland-usewatershed.Manycitizenscienceinitiativesandprojectsusemobilephoneapplicationstogather,storeandsharedata.Examplesinclude35the2minutebeachcleancampaign,inwhichcitizensmonitorbeachlitter,cleanitupandrecordthestatusonamobileapp;BeattheMicrobead,inwhichtheparticipantsuseamobileapplicationtoscanbarcodesofcosmeticproductsandcheckforthepresenceofmicrobeads;CoastWatchMicrolitter,inwhichvolunteersmonitorvisiblemicrolitterandfilloutaformviaamobileapporanonlineformtoproduceamicrolittermap;CommunityBeachClean(UnitedKingdom),inwhichparticipantsmonitorbeachmacrolitterandcommunitiesarebroughttogethertocleanupbeaches;theInternationalCoastalCleanup,inwhichparticipantsprovidelong-termglobaldataonplasticthroughCleanSwell,amobileapp;RIMMEL(Europe),inwhichvolunteersmonitorvisiblemacrolitterfloatingonriverswhilestandingonabridge,orwhereriversentertheocean,andrecordthemacrolitterseenduringaspecifiedamountoftimeusingamobileapptoprovideinputsforstatisticalmodelsofriverineflowsintomarineenvironments;andThePlasticTide,inwhichvolunteersmonitorplasticlitterindronephotosbyspottingandtaggingthelitterinonlinephotographs79MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTandhelptotrainalgorithmstorecognizeplasticsautomatically.Otherparticipatoryprocesseshavealsobeenusedtogeneratedataonmarinelitter.ColebyandGrist(2019)describeaprocessofprioritizedareamappingformultiplestakeholdersusinggeospatialmodellingtoaddressmarineplasticpollutioninHongKong.Theybuiltmaplayersofthestatusofplasticwaste,portsandshippingintensity,andecologicalinsecuritywithstakeholders.TheywerethenabletoidentifytheregionsofmostconcernandgenerateaPrioritizedAreaMaptocharacterizemarineplasticwastelinkagestoland-andsea-basedsources.Publicparticipationinbuildingdatasetsconcerningthesourcesandimpactsofmarinedebrishasalsobeenshowntobeeffectiveinquantifyingthesocialfactorsthatcreateandinhibitmitigationandtheresolutionofconflicts.IntheBayofFundyinNewBrunswick,Canadamarinedebrisoriginatesfromtheinteractionofmultipleindustrieswithinasmallarea,includingaquacultureandinshorefisheries.Conflictbetweenthesetwostakeholderscontributestobothdebrisproductionandfailuretomitigate.Gearentanglementcreatesdebristhatthreatenstransportationsafety,wildlifeandthelocaleconomy.Rehnetal.(2018)showedhowPublicParticipationGeographicInformationSystemsmappingwasusedtoassemblediversedatasetscollectedbydifferentstakeholdersandtostabilizeacommonviewofwhatconstituteddebris,debrislocationsandthreatsduringathree-yearperiod.Aconcernofpolicymakersinusingdatacollectedthroughcitizenscienceinitiativeshasbeentheconsistencyandveracityoftheinformation.However,ithasbeenshownthataslongasadequatebackgroundinformationisprovided,mostissuesrelatedtothereliabilityofdatafromcitizenscienceactivitiescanbesolved(Garcia-Sotoetal.2017).Insomeinstancesprotocolshavebeenestablishedthatenablecitizenstocontributedirectlytomonitoringsystems.Forexample,theEuropeanEnvironmentAgency’sMarineLitterWatchinitiativeengageswithcitizenscientistsviaamobilephoneapptobuildcommunitiesthatgatherandanalyselitterfrombeachesinlinewiththeMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective’sTechnicalGrouponMarineLitter.36Anothersuccessfulinitiative,throughapartnershipbetweenUNEP,theWilsonCenter‘sEarthChallenge2020andothers,bringsexistingcitizensciencedatatogethertobetterunderstandmarinelitterwiththegoalofsupportingSDGreporting.37Itisimportanttonotethatinadditiontogatheringdata,coastalclean-upscanremovesignificantquantitiesofwasteandlitterfromlocalareas.In2017theInternationalCoastalCleanup,involvingmorethan0.5millionpeopleworldwide,removedmorethan8,000metrictonsofartificialdebris.AsSchneideretal.(2018)report,however,thiscanposeaseriousthreatiftherearenofacilitiestotreatthewastepost-collectionandthewastecollectedisburnedinopenpitsonthebeach.However,asBorelleatal.(2020)pointout,evenifallcountriesmettheircurrentcommitmentstoreduceplasticwasteby2030,itisestimatedthatitwouldstillrequireover1billionpeopletocleanupjust40percentofannualplasticemissions.©iStock/JohnGollop80MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT3.4Technicalstandardsandtraceabilityofplasticpollution3.4.1EcolabellingschemesforbeachesSeveraleco-labellingschemessetstandardsforwaterquality,environmentalmanagement,healthandsafety,andpublicaccesstoinformation(UNEP2017a).ThebestknownaretheBlueFlagProgramme,avoluntaryschemewhichhasmotivatedclean-upeffortsincountriesacrosstheworld;theQualityCoastAwardsandSeasideAwards,whicharerelevantforsmallercoastalresorts;andtheGreenCoastAward,whichisgiventobeacheswhichhaveabeachmanagementplanandcommunityengagementtomeetstandardsintheEUBathingWaterDirectivealthoughtheydonothavethebuiltinfrastructuretoachieveBlueFlagstatus.InCostaRica,theBanderaAzulEcológicaawardisgiventocommunitiesengagedinprotection,clean-upandmaintenanceefforts.3.4.2TechnicalstandardsandlabellingofplasticproductsThereareonlyafewinternationallyestablishedandacknowledgedstandardsandcertificationandverificationschemesforthemanufacturingandprocessingofplastics.Theycoveraspectsofbiodegradability,recyclinganddegradationduringtheindustrialcompostingprocessandinthemarineenvironment(Harrisonetal.2018;UNEP2018a;UNEPandConsumersInternational2020).ExamplesareISO15279Recoveryandrecyclingofplasticswaste;ISO22526Carbonandenvironmentalfootprint;ISO/CD22722Disintegrationofplasticsmaterialsinmarinehabitats;andISO18830Biodegradationtest.Harrisonetal.(2018)concludedinareviewofthebiodegradabilityofplasticbagsthatcurrentinternationalstandardsandregionaltestmethodswereinsufficienttorealisticallypredictthebiodegradabilityofcarrierbagsinwastewater,inlandwaters(rivers,streamsandlakes)andmarineenvironmentsduetoshortcomingsinexistingtestprocedures,theabsenceofrelevantstandardsforthemajorityofunmanagedaquatichabitats,andapaucityofwiderresearchonthebiodegradationofplasticmaterialsunderreal-worldconditions.Lackofinformationandevidenceaboutthecontentandbreakdownofdifferentpolymers,includingbiodegradableplastics,isofseriousconcerntomanyplastics,compostingandwastemanagementexperts,astheseproductsdonotmeetexpectationsandcanleadtolesseffectivewastedisposalsincetheycannotbeproperlymanagedorcontained(PlasticIndustryAssociation2018).Industrialguidanceisprovidedtosupportrecycling.Forexample,theAssociationofPlasticRecyclers(2019)hasissuedacomprehensivelaboratory-scaleevaluationthatcanbeusedtoassessthecompatibilityofpolyethyleneterephthalate(PET)packagingdesignfeaturessuchaslabels,closures,dispensersandattachmentswithcommoncommercial-scalerecyclingprocesses.Productdevelopers,aswellasthosewhospecifyproducts,canusethisprotocoltomaintainandimprovethequalityandproductivityofPETrecycling.However,itisonlyapplicableto“seethroughorclear”PETarticles.Inthecaseofbiodegradability,thepublishedstandardshavebeencertifiedbyorganizationssuchasDINCERTCOinGermany,theJapaneseBioPlasticsAssociation,VinçotteinBelgium,theBureaudenormalisationduQuébec(BNQ)inCanada,theAustralasianBioplasticsAssociationinAustralia/NewZealand,andtheBiodegradableProductsInstitute(BPI)intheUnitedStates.Theseorganizationsusetestspecificationstoestablishthird-party,peer-reviewedprogrammestoconfirmtheend-of-lifeperformanceofbioplasticmaterialsfollowingtherequirementsofthestandardspecifications.Inthedevelopmentofnewmaterials,newstandardsandcertificationsforend-of-lifescenariosneedtobeestablished.Oneproblemisthatlittleofthetestinginformationismadepublic.Unfortunately,unsubstantiatedclaimsthatgobeyondstandardspecificationsandcertificationbythirdpartiesconcerningtherate,timeandamountofbiodegradationremainlargelyunchallenged.Labellingofplasticproductsgenerallyincludesarecyclinglogowithanumberinsideit.ThislabelwasintroducedbytheSocietyofthePlasticsIndustrytoprovideauniformsystemforidentifyingdifferentpolymertypes(seeGlossary:Labelling).However,publicperceptionofthislabellingsystemisthatitisjustaboutrecycling;inlightofthelowlevelsofrecyclingandrecoveryofplasticfoodanddrinkpackaging,theUnitedKingdomSelectCommittee(2019)recommendedachangeinlabellingtoabinarysystemofrecyclableornotrecyclable.38Anotheraspectoflabellingistheclaimonsomelabelsthatplasticsarerecycledfromtheocean.39Thepopulardesignation“madefromoceanplastic”ispopularwithsomeconsumersbecauseofitsemotionalappeal,butitisnottheidealsolutionsincetheaimistopreventplasticfromenteringtheoceaninthefirstcase.Anestablishedsetofconsistenttermstodescriberecycledplasticsfromocean-relatedsourcesdoesnotexist,whichmaybecontributingtotheconfusion.Forexample,plasticrecoveredfromthemarineenvironmentisoftenreferredtoas“oceanplastic”or“marineplastic”,whileplasticrecoveredfromwaterwaysorlandwithinacertaindistanceoftheocean(manyuse50km,or31miles)iscalled“ocean-boundplastic”(Jambeck2015).Theterm“beachplastic”isusedtodesignateplasticspecificallyrecoveredfrombeaches.Misconceptionsaboutplastics’biodegradabilityarealsocommon(UNEP2015;Dilkes-Hoffmanetal.2019a).Labelling81MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTas“biodegradable”isunderstoodbythepublictomeantheproductwilldegradenomatterwhattheenvironmentalconditions.MisleadinglabelssuchasthesecauseconsumerstounderestimatetheimpactsofplasticproductionintermsofGHGemissionsandtheimpactsofdisposal(Hartleyetal.2018a),aswellasunderminingsolutionsbyencouragingreboundeffects,theover-consumptionofcertaingoods(knownastheJevonsParadox),andincreasedlitteringof“biodegradable”products(GiampetroandMayumi2018;Haideretal.2018;Heidbrederetal.2019).ThesekeymessagesresonatewitharecentreportbyUNEPandConsumersInternational(2020),whichsetsoutfiverecommendationsforhowtoimprovelabellingofplasticpackagingandprovidesamappingandassessmentofexistinglabels,standardsandclaimsforplasticpackaging.Akeyconclusionisthatthedevelopmentofclearlabellingstandardsisvitaltohelpreducetherisksofplasticpollutionandassociatedhazardsinthemarineenvironment.3.4.3TraceabilityandpublicaccesstoinformationThetraceabilityofplasticproductsacrosstheirlifecycleisessentialtoidentifyareaswhereinterventionsmaybeneededandbringabouttheadoptionofcircularapproaches.Inrecentyearscitizenscienceandcommunity-ledactivitiesandorganizationshavecometogethertoaddresstheseproblems;examplesincludethebrandauditofBreakFreefromPlastic,whichlooksattacklingplasticpollutionacrossthewholevaluechainfromextractiontodisposal,40andthePlasticPollutersBrandAuditsofshorelinestoidentifymajorcorporationswhoseproductscontributetoaccumulationsofplasticwastethatarepollutinginlandwatersandoceans.AnexampleofinformationthatcanbederivedfromsuchsurveysistheauditundertakenonSableIsland,Canada,inapartnershipbetweentheSableIslandInstituteandParksCanada.41Beachlittersurveyshavebeencarriedoutontheislandsince1984.Thedatacollectedareusedtoidentifytrendsinsourcesofmarinelitterandtoassistthegovernment,corporationsandcitizensinfindingsolutionsTraceabilityisalsoimportantforkeepingtrackofthetoxicchemicalsaddedtoplasticsduringproductioninordertohelpreducethelossofmaterialsandvalueandpotentiallyachievebetterenvironmentalmanagementofpost-consumptionwaste.Deliveringtraceabilityhasalonghistoryinthefoodsupplychainandthefinancialsector.Ithasbecomesynonymouswiththeuseofblockchaintechnologies.Theplasticindustryhasrecentlybeguntoexploretheuseofthesetechnologiestoestablishsystemsthatwillenabledataexchangesamongsuppliersandproducersandprovidetraceabilityandtransparencyacrosswhatistodayafragmentedsupplychain.42Theuseofblockchaintechnologieswillalsohelpmakeiteasierforsuppliers,processors,manufacturers,mouldersandbrandownerstochoosetraceable,sustainableandcircularmaterials.Inaddition,itcanincentivizesuppliersandmanufacturerstoproducetraceable,sustainableandcircularmaterialsandproductsandprovidecriticallifecycleinformationforreverselogistics,includingtake-backofproducts,materialsandcomponents(Roosetal.2019).SuchapproachesareinlinewiththeNewPlasticsEconomy(EllenMacArthurFoundation2016),whosegoalisasysteminwhichplasticpackagingneverbecomeswastebutcanre-entertheeconomyasavaluablebiologicalortechnicalmaterial.Therearealreadyexamplesinothersupplychains,suchasthosefortextiles,whereblockchainanduniquetraceabilitytagsareprovidinginformationtotheconsumeronthebiobaseofafeedstockanditsecologicalperformance.43Theconstituentsofplasticproducts,suchasadditives,arenotgenerallydisclosed,whichmakesitdifficultforconsumerstodeterminethesustainabilityofproducts.UNEPandtheInternationalTradeCentre(ITC)haveproducedguidelinesbasedontenprinciplestoprovideproductsustainabilityinformationmoreclearlyandreliablytotheconsumer(UNEPandITC2017).Itiswidelyrecognizedthattraceabilityandpublicinformationsystemsareneeded,supported,forexample,byQRcodesthatallowconsumerstofindoutaboutthepropertiesofatracedobjectincludinganypositiveornegativeeffectswithwhichitisassociatedandanycertificationstandards.Consumersofplasticproductsalsoneedtobeawareoftheinstitutionalrelationsthatactivateandconstrainsuchtraceabilitysystems,whichcouldhelpthemunderstandwhethertheycantrusttheinformationtheyreceive.Certificationandlabellingschemesshouldprovideclearguidanceonwhichaspectsofaproducttheyareresponsibleforverifyingorassuring.Todate,themainsuchschemesforplasticshavefocusedonrecyclability.Asmoreknowledgeandresearchrevealpost-consumptionimpacts,plastictraceabilityschemeswillneedtomakeconsumersmoreawareofthefullhazardsandrisksofproducts.©iStock/MagnusLarsson82MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT83MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTCHALLENGES,RESPONSES,INNOVATIONS,SOLUTIONSANDOPPORTUNITIESSECTION4©iStock/Sablin84MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT4.1Thecurrentindustrial,socialandgovernancelandscaperelatingtomarinelitterandplasticpollutionOverthepastfourdecadestherehasbeenaquadruplingofglobalplasticsproduction(Geyer2020).Demandcontinuestogrow,withthesizeoftheglobalplasticmarketin2020estimatedtobearoundUS$580billioncomparedtoanestimatedUS$502billionin2016(Statista2021a).Atthesametime,itisestimatedthatlessthan10percentoftheplasticseverproducedhavebeenrecycled(Dauvergne2018;ZhengandSuh2019;Geyer2020).Oneofthemainreasonsforcurrentlowrecyclingratesislackofinformationabouttheconstituentsofplasticproducts,whichcanleadtolossofqualitythroughthemixingofwastestreams(Leslieetal.2016).Ultimately,thiscausesmillionsoftonsofplasticwastetobelosttotheenvironmentorshippedthousandsofkilometrestodestinationswhereitisgenerallyburnedordumpedinwaterways(UNEP2019b).Brooksetal.(2018)usedcommoditytradedataformassandvaluebyregionandincomeleveltodemonstratetheextenttowhichhigher-incomecountrieshaveexportedplasticwastetolower-incomecountriesinEastAsiaandthePacificfordecades.OtherchallengesincludethelevelofGHGemissionsassociatedwiththegloballifecycleofconventionalfossilfuel-basedplasticsandthegrowingcostsofmanagingplasticwaste.ThelevelofGHGemissionsassociatedwiththeproduction,useanddisposalofconventionalfossilfuel-basedplasticshavebeenforecasttogrowtoapproximately2.1gigatonsofcarbondioxideequivalent(GtCO2e)by2040,or19percentoftheglobalcarbonbudget(thetotalannualemissionsbudgetallowableifglobalwarmingistobelimitedto1.5oCelcius)comparedwithsome3percenttoday.(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMICS2020).Usinganotherapproach,GHGemissionsfromplasticsin2015havebeenestimatedtobe1.7GtCO2eandprojectedtoincreasetoapproximately6.5GtCO2eby2050,or15percentoftheglobalcarbonbudget(ZhengandSuh2019).TheestimatedglobalcostofmunicipalsolidwastemanagementisalsosettogrowfromUS$38billionin2019toUS$61billionin2040underabusiness-as-usualscenario(Kazaetal.2018).Evenwithincreasedtaxesandgovernmentregulations,constraintsonresourcesandreduceddemandduetostockpiling(BusinessResearchCompany2020),annualoceanplasticpollutionisprojectedtotripleby2040(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIC2020).Asresearchonandknowledgeaboutthediverseimpactsofplasticsincrease(Lyonsetal.2019;Maesetal.2019;Dauvergne2020),concernonthepartofthegeneralpublicandgovernmentsisescalating(Avioetal.2017;Borrelleetal.2017;MaelandandStaupe-Delgado2020).Manyglobal,regionalandnationalactivitiesarehelpingmobilizetheglobalcommunitytobringanendtomarineplasticpollution(UNEP2018d).Forexample,municipalitiesandlargefirmshavebeenreducingwasteflowstolandfill(Dauvergne2018);regulatoryprocessesareexpanding,drivenbygrowingevidenceofthe©iStock/andresr85MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTrisksposedbyplasticsaswellasbypublicpressure(Koelmansetal.2017a;GESAMP2020a);andtherehasbeenanupsurgeinlocalactivism,localgovernmentactionstoincreasecurbsidecollectionsandrecycling,communityclean-ups,andpublicawarenesscampaigns(Schneideretal.2018).Successesatthelocalandnationallevelsarebeingsupportedbypoliciesandlegaldevelopmentsattheregionalandinternationallevels,forexamplethroughmarinelitteractionplansdevelopedwithintheframeworkoftheUNEPRegionalSeasProgramme.Thirteenofthe18entitiesintheRegionalSeasProgrammehaveadoptedmarinelitteractionplans,withanotherthreeregionscurrentlydraftingsuchplans(Section4.2.3).Anumberofregionalandnationallegislativeeffortsalsoaimtoreducemarinelitterdirectly(Blacketal.2019).44Inaddition,thereareinternationalcommitmentsbyUnitedNationsMemberStatestoreducemarinepollutionandlitter,especiallyfromland-basedsources,aspartofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopmentGoal(SDG)14(LifeBelowWater)(UNGeneralAssembly2015;UNEA2018).NumerousorganizationswithinandoutsidetheUnitedNationssupporttheseglobaleffortsandareworkingonthedevelopmentoflegalmechanismstothisend.TheinternationalinstrumentsandbodiesinvolvedincludetheBaselConventionontheControlofTransboundaryMovementsofHazardousWastesandtheirDisposal,theRotterdamConventiononthePriorInformedConsentProcedureforCertainHazardousChemicalsandPesticidesinInternationalTrade,andtheStockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutants(POPs)(Chen2015;UNEP/StockholmConvention2017;RaubenheimerandMcIlgorm2018),theInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO),theCommitteeonFisheriesoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),andtheConferenceofthePartiesoftheLondonConventiononthePreventionofMarinePollutionbyDumpingofWastesandOtherMatteranditsProtocol(Lyons2019).TradearrangementssuchasthosecoveredbytheBaselConventionandtheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)alsoplayacentralroleintheglobalplasticseconomy,whichiswhymanygovernmentsarealreadytakingtrade-relatedmeasurestotackleplasticpollution(Birkbeck2020;Borrelleetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Themostimportantsteprequiredistoreducetheoverallamountofplasticwasteproducedanditsimpacts(EuropeanUnion2019b).Thismeansphasingoutspecificplasticproducts,introducingextendedproducerresponsibility,andreshapingtheestablishedlineartake-make-disposeeconomytooneinwhichmaterialflowsarepartofclosed-loopandresource-efficientcircularity(LiederandRashid2015;OECD2016;Forrestetal.2019;UNEP2019b;Karasiketal.2020;RaubenheimerandUhro2020).Manycountries,includingtheEuropeanUnionMemberStatesandJapan,havesetinmotionactionplansforcircularityand,insomecases,zeropollutionbyimplementingawastehierarchyinwhichprevention,reuseandrecyclingarefavouredoverlandfill(EuropeanCommission2018b).TheEllenMacArthurFoundationhaspartneredwithUNEPtolaunchtheNewPlasticsEconomyGlobalCommitmenttoinspireactionbyhundredsofkeyactorsacrosstheplasticsvaluechainaimedatkeepingplasticsintheeconomyandoutoftheenvironment.Concertedeffortsatmanylevelswillbeneededtomovetowardscircularity,linkingbusinessprocessesandsocialawarenesswithpoliciesandconsumeractionstosignificantlyreducethevolumeoffossilfuel-basedplasticsbeingproduced,improvingthedesignofproductstoreducelevelsofwasteandenhancedecentralizedrecyclingofmaterials(Joshietal.2019),eliminatingunregulatedplasticwastestreams,andimprovingstandardsfortheregulationofmaterialssuchasbiodegradableplastics45(Dauvergne2018;CarneyAlmrothandEggert2019;Forrestetal.2019;ZhengandSuh2019;Borrelleetal.2020;Lauetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020;UNEPandConsumersInternational2020;WWF,theEllenMacArthurFoundationandBCG2020).TheEllenMacArthurFoundation(2020)advocatesthatrecyclingneedstobeproventowork“inpracticeandatscale”,whichisgenerallynotthecaseduetolackofinfrastructureandlocalfacilitiesaswellasthechemicalcomplexityoftheplasticsusedinmanyconsumerproducts.Therearealsosomewhoarguethatanintegratedeconomicandtechnicalsolution,catalysedthroughavoluntaryindustry-ledcontribution,iscentraltoarrestplasticwasteflowsbymakingusedplasticsavaluablecommodity,incentivizingtheirrecovery,andacceleratingtheindustrializationofpolymer-to-polymertechnologies(Forrestetal.2019).However,asBorrelleetal.(2020)conclude,withoutsignificantreductionsinplasticwastegenerationthereislittleprospectthatthevolumesofmarineplasticswilldecline.Somebottom-upactionsarebeginningtodemonstratethattheycanhelpreduceparticularformsofmarineplasticpollution©iStock/Dony86MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT(e.g.plasticgrocerybags,productscontainingmicrobeads,plasticbottles)(XanthosandWalker2017;Dauvergne2018;Schuyleretal.2018).However,nosingle-solutionstrategycanreduceannualleakageofplasticstotheocean,evenbelow2016levels,by2040(Borrelleetal.2020;Lauetal.2020).Forexample,anambitiousrecyclingstrategywithasignificantscale-upofcollection,sortingandrecyclinginfrastructureanddesignforrecyclingcouldreduceleakagein2040,butonlyby38percentrelativetobusiness-as-usual(i.e.65percentabove2016levels).Throughtheimplementationofmultiplesynergisticsysteminterventionsbothupstreamanddownstream,plasticpollutionflowstotheoceancouldbereducedtoanestimated5millionmetrictonsperyearby2040,areductionof80percentrelativetobusiness-as-usual(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).However,thelargevolumesofwastefromdenselypopulatedcoastalareas,agriculturalrun-off,transport,wastewatertreatment,greywater,wasteexportandfisheriesaredeflectingthefullenvironmentalandsocialcostsintotheglobalcommonsandcontributingtostrikinglyhighlevelsofmarinepollution,especiallyinAsiaandinmanydevelopingcountries.TheimpactsofthelargevolumesofpersonalprotectiveequipmentandotherplasticitemsgeneratedduringtheCOVID19pandemicarestilltobedetermined(Adyel2020),butevenbeforethepandemicthevolumeofplasticsflowingintotheoceanswasestimatedtobeontracktodoublebetween2010and2025(Dauvergne2018).Manyindustryandcivilsocietyinitiativesareaimingto“turnoffthetap”ofplasticproduction(Birkbeck2020;Borrelleetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Reducingplasticproductionthroughelimination,expansionofconsumerreuseoptionsornewdeliverymodels,implementedinconjunctionwithotherstrategiessuchassubstitution,increasedcollectionandrecycling,andsecuredisposalofresidualwasteforamaximumreductionofplasticpollutionflowsoffersthelargestreductionofplasticpollutionandcanoftenrepresentanetsavingsincoststoconsumersandproducerswhileprovidingthebestopportunitytoreduceGHGemissions(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Thecurrentsituation,ratherthanbeingspecificallydesignedtomeetthechallengesofmarineplasticpollution,isamixtureofwidelyvaryingbusinesspractices,increasinglevelsofplasticproduction,andverydifferentnationalregulatoryandvoluntaryarrangements.Thereislittlepolicycoordinationamongstates,andnationalandsubnationalpoliciesareuneven,withloopholes,erraticimplementationandinconsistentstandards(Dauvergne2018;Forrestetal.2019;Birkbeck2020).Asthepressuresandcomplexitiesoftacklingtheplasticscrisismountup,includingtheneedtoaddressmarinelitterandplasticpollutioninareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction(ABNJ),discussionsonglobalgovernanceprocesseshaveintensified(Borrelleetal.2017;Dauvergne2018;Schneideretal.2018;UNEA2018;Forrestetal.2019;UNEP2019d;MaelandandStaupe-Delgado2020).Analyseshaveshownthatnoneoftheinternationalpoliciesagreedsince2000includesaglobal,binding,specific,measurabletargetlimitingtheextentofplasticpollution,leadinggovernments,businesses,46andmanyincivilsocietytonowcallforabindingglobaltreatyonplasticpollution(MuirheadandPorter2019;Karasiketal.2020;WWF,theEllenMacArthurFoundationandBCG2020).Suchaglobalagreementwouldneedtobeconsistentwithongoinglegislativeprocessescoveringregulation,incentivesandfiscalinstruments,inordertoreducemarinelitterandplasticpollutionandimprovesocial,economicandenvironmentalimpactsalongtheplasticvaluechain;improvereportinganddatasharingbyindustriesandproducers;enhanceandharmonizestandardsandlabelling;andensuregreatertransparencyintradeandsubsidies(RaubenheimerandUrho2020).©iStock/LamiadLamai87MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTFigure9:Timelineforglobalmarinelitterandplasticinitiatives,lawandpolicies4.2Governance,legislation,coordinationandcooperationAnumberofinternationalbindingagreements/conventions,protocols,initiativesandcooperationprocesses,suchastheGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter(GPML)(Box6),47provideafoundationforafutureglobalgovernancearrangement(UNEP2016a;RaubenheimerandMcIlgorm2018;UNEP2018e;UNEP2020a).Thetimelineformarinelitterandglobalinitiatives,lawsandpoliciessince1960isshowninFigure9.4.2.1InternationalagreementsandinitiativesonmarinepollutionTheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(UNCLOS)isthemostfullyencompassinginternationalinstrumentonpollutionfrommarineplastics.Itisthelegalframeworkgoverningallmarineactivities,andactivitiesthatmaycausemarinepollution,andestablishesgeneralprinciplesandrulesforglobalseagovernance(e.g.seeFarrellyetal.2020).ThisConventionistheonlybindingframeworkthatrequirescountriestoadoptregulationstoprevent,reduceandcontrolpollutionfrombothmarine-andland-basedsourceswhichmayenterthemarineenvironment(UNEP2018e).ItencompassesStates’requirementstoprevent,reduceandcontrolmarinelitterfromshippingandfishingactivities,amongothers.TheInternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips(MARPOL)isthemajorInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)conventionregulatingaccidentaldischargesofpollutantsfromships(IMO2016,2019).Itprohibitsthedisposalofanyformofplasticfromshipsandrequiresallvessels,includingfishingboats,todotheirutmosttopreventthelossofplasticitemsoverboardduringoperations.48Largervesselsarealsorequiredtodevelopgarbagemanagementplansand/orgarbagerecordplanstoensurethatship-basedpollutionisminimized.Inaddition,thereisanIMOActionPlantoaddressmarineplastic88MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTlitterfromships.49TheLondonConventiononthePreventionofMarinePollutionbyDumpingofWastesandOtherMatter(LC)anditsLondonProtocol(LP)preventPartiesfromdumpingwastestreamsthatcontainplasticorsimilarsyntheticmaterialsintothemarineenvironment(UNEP2018e).WorkinggroupsestablishedundertheauspicesoftheIMOandthegoverningbodiesoftheLondonConventionanditsProtocol,forwhichIMOdischargessecretariatfunctions,areexploringwaystotightenmechanismsandfurtherlimitthedischargeofmacro-andmicroplasticsfromvesselsandfromwastestreamsauthorizedundertheLC/LP.TheBaselConventionontheControlofTransboundaryMovementsofHazardousWastesandtheirDisposal50istheagreementwiththegreatestrelevancetocontroloftransboundarymovements,environmentallysoundmanagement,andpreventionandminimizationofthegenerationofplasticwaste(OECD[OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment]2009;SecretariatoftheBaselConvention2015;RaubenheimerandMcIlgorm2018)(Box7).Asstatedinitspreamble,thePartiestotheBaselConventionare“mindfulthatthemosteffectivewayofprotectinghumanhealthandtheenvironmentfromthedangersposedby[hazardousandother]wastesisthereductionoftheirgenerationtoaminimumintermsofquantityand/orhazardpotential.”(SecretariatoftheBaselConvention2015).51In2019,inDecisionBC-14/12,theConferenceofthePartiestotheBaselConventionunanimouslyadoptedthePlasticWasteAmendments,introducingnewcategoriesforplasticwasteinAnnexesII,VIIIandIXtochangethescopeofplasticwastecoveredbytheConvention.Since1January2021,186Statesandoneregionaleconomicintegrationorganizationareboundbytheamendments.ThismakestheBaselConventiontheonlygloballegallybindinginstrumentthatcurrentlyandspecificallyaddressesplasticwaste.PartiesarenowrequiredtocontroltransboundarymovementsoftheplasticwastecoveredundertheproceduresestablishedbytheConvention.AllplasticwasteandmixturesofplasticwastegeneratedbyPartiestotheConventionwhicharetobemovedtoanotherPartyaresubjecttothepriorinformedconsent(PIC)procedure,unlesstheyarenon-hazardousanddestinedforrecyclinginanenvironmentallysoundmannerandalmostfreefromcontaminationandothertypesofwaste.TheConvention’sprovisionspertainingtoenvironmentallysoundmanagement,aswellaswastepreventionandminimization,alsoapplytothelistedtypesofplasticwaste.Non-hazardousplasticwasteslistedinAnnexIXcanbemovedacrossPartieswithoutanyspecificcontrolundertheConvention.Theamendmentsassuchdonotimplyabanontheimport,transitorexportofplasticwaste,butratheraclarificationofwhenandhowtheConventionappliestosuchwaste.In2002,inrelationtoplastics,theConferenceoftheParties(COP-6)adoptedtechnicalguidelinesfortheidentificationandenvironmentallysoundmanagementofplasticwastesandfortheirdisposal.Atits14thmeeting,inDecisionBC-14/13,theCOPdecidedtoupdatethetechnicalguidelinesonplasticwastes.Asmallintersessionalworkinggrouphasbeenestablishedforthispurposeandworkiscurrentlyongoing.Thedraftupdatedtechnicalguidelinesontheidentificationandenvironmentallysoundmanagementofplasticwastesandfortheirdisposalwerepresentedatthe12thmeetingoftheOpen-endedWorkingGroupoftheBaselConvention.TheStockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutants(POPs),whichisbindingon184PartiesasofMay2021,haslongcontrolledvariousPOPsusedasplasticadditiveswithaviewtotheireliminationorreduction.TheStockholmConventionrequiresPartiestoprohibit,eliminateorrestricttheproduction,use,importandexportoflistedintentionallyproducedPOPs.ItalsorequiresPartiestoreduceoreliminatereleasesofunintentionallyproducedPOPsandhasprovisionsonthemanagementofstockpilesandwastesconsistingof,containingorcontaminatedwithPOPs.ThisrequirementisparticularlyrelevantinthecaseofopenburningofplasticswhichresultsinunintentionallyproducedPOPs.PartiesmustensurethatstockpilesconsistingoforcontainingchemicalslistedineitherAnnexAorAnnexBandwastes,includingproductsandarticlesuponbecomingwastes,consistingof,containingorcontaminatedwithachemicallistedinAnnexA,BorC,aremanagedinawaythatisprotectiveofhumanhealthandtheenvironment.52TheStockholmConventioncontrolsvariousPOPsusedasadditives,flameretardants,waterandoilrepellentsandInSectionVIofDecisionBC-14/13,theBaselConvention’sConferenceofthePartieswelcomedtheproposaltoestablishaBaselConventionPartnershiponPlasticWasteanddecidedtoestablishaworkinggroupofthePartnership.50ThegoalofthePartnershipistoimproveandpromotetheenvironmentallysoundmanagementofplasticwastesattheglobal,regionalandnationallevelsandpreventandminimizetheirgenerationsoastoreducesignificantlyand,inthelongterm,eliminatethedischargeofplasticwasteandmicroplasticsintotheenvironment,inparticularthemarineenvironment.Fourprojectgroupswereestablishedtosupporttheimplementationofitsworkplan:plasticwastepreventionandminimization;plasticwastecollection,recyclingandotherrecovery,includingfinancingandrelatedmarkets;transboundarymovementsofplasticwaste;andoutreach,educationandawareness-raising.PilotprojectsaretobeimplementedundertheBaselConventionPartnershiponPlasticWastetoimproveandpromotetheenvironmentallysoundmanagementofplasticwasteandtopreventandminimizeitsgeneration.Box7:TheBaselConventionPartnershiponPlasticWaste89MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTplasticizersinplasticsorinthemanufactureoffluoropolymers.ThisrequiresPartiestoeliminatetheirproductionanduse,aswellastheirimportandexport(SecretariatoftheStockholmConvention2020).InternationaltradeofAnnexAPOPsisonlypermittedforthepurposeof“environmentallysound”disposal;however,thisdoesnotincluderecovery,recycling,reclamation,directreuseoralternativeusesofPOPs.WastesinthiscategorymaynotbetransportedacrossinternationalborderswithouttakingintoaccounttheBaselConvention.Thesemeasurescanbeappliedtolitteredplasticwastethatsorbstoxinsalreadypresentinthesurroundingenvironment,inordertopreventthere-entryofbannedPOPsintothemarket(RaubenheimerandMcIlgorm2018).Inearly2021thePOPsReviewCommittee(POPRC),asubsidiarybodyresponsibleforreviewingPOPsforlistingintheStockholmConvention,foundthatUV-328,anadditiveinplasticproducts,satisfiesthescreeningcriteriasetoutinAnnexD,namelypersistence,bioaccumulation,potentialforlong-rangeenvironmentaltransport,andadverseeffectstohumanhealthand/ortheenvironment.AdecisionbyafuturemeetingoftheCOPcouldtriggeritslistingintheAnnextotheConventionrequiringPartiestotakeactiontowardsitsreductionorelimination.Anumberofotherinternationalagreementsareapplicabletomarinelitter,includingplastics.In2016theConventiononBiologicalDiversityadoptedadecision53onthepreventionofmarinelitter(SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity2016a),drawingonanearlierreport(SecretariatoftheConventionBiologicalDiversity2016b)ontheimpactsofmarinelitteronmarineandcoastalbiodiversity.ThisdecisionalsoprovidesalinktotheworkoftheRamsarConventiononWetlandstoprotectmigratorybirdsthatdependonthesecriticalhabitats.54OtherbodiesorlegalagreementsrelatingtothemanagementandreductionofmarinedebrisincludetheConferenceofthePartiestotheConventiononMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals,whichadoptedaresolutiononthemanagementofmarinedebrisin2014,andtheFAOCodeofConductforResponsibleFisheries,whichsetsoutstandardsforfishingvesselstoensurethatgarbageisstoredon-boardanddischargedeffectivelyatport,andthatthelossoffishinggearisminimized.TheprovisionsoftheCodeofConductcandefactobecomebindingthroughtheapplicationofotherinstrumentssuchasUNCLOSortheUnitedNationsFishStocksAgreement(UNFSA),animplementingagreementwhichbuildsonUNCLOS.Inaddition,thedisposaloffishinggearatseaistreatedasdisposalofgarbageunderMARPOLAnnexVandisthereforeforbidden.AswellastheamendmentstotheBaselConvention,tradepoliciesareimportantinhelpingtoreduceplasticpollution,forexamplebyhaltingtheexportofplasticwastetocountrieswithoutadequatewasteinfrastructureorputtinginplaceimportrestrictionsandbansonplasticwaste(Birkbeck2020).Atthesametime,however,governmentssupporttheirplasticindustriesthroughimporttariffsandsubsidies(Birkbeck2020).55TheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)hasauniqueroletoplayinregardtotrade-relatedaspects.Thereareanumberofconcreteoptions,onwhichWTOmemberscantakeaction,whichwouldsupportinternationaleffortstoreduceandphaseoutplasticpollutionandaligntradepolicieswiththeseobjectives.Theyincludeincreasingthetransparency,dataonandmonitoringofplastictradeflows,supplychainsandtrade-relatedmeasuresrelevanttoreducingplasticpollutionandtransformingtheplasticseconomy;developingasharedunderstandingoftheroleoftradeandtradepolicyintheglobalplasticseconomy,bothupstreamanddownstream,andthedevelopmentdimensions;promotinginformation-sharinganddialogueontrade-relatedpolicies,measures,innovationsandbestpracticesrelevanttoreducingplasticpollutionandtransformingtheplasticseconomy;encouragingcoherencebetweendomesticandtradepolicies;reducingtradebarriersandpromotingtechnologytransferforgoodsandservicesthatreduceplasticpollution,andpromotingtransformationoftheplasticseconomy;encouragingvoluntarytrade-relatedtargetsandpledgestoreducetheproduction,tradeanduseofunnecessaryproblematicplastics,includingthroughthereductionofenvironmentallyharmfulsubsidies;andusingcapacitybuildingtosupporttrade-relatedeffortsbydevelopingcountriesthathelpreduceplasticpollution,includingthroughproduction/exportofnon-plasticsubstitutes/alternatives.TheWTOandothersettings,suchastheBaselConvention,couldalsoadvancedialogueandactionontheseoptionsatministerialconferencesandcooperatewithotherinternationalorganizations,intergovernmentalprocessesandmulti-stakeholderpartnershipstostrengthentheabilityofthemultilateraltradingsystemtodeliveronitscoreobjectiveofsustainabledevelopment(Birkbeck2020).4.2.2SoftlawinstrumentsVariousglobalstrategiesandsoftlawinstrumentssupportthereductionofmarinelitterandplasticpollution:the2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,theFAOCodeofConductforResponsibleFisheries,theGlobalProgrammeofActionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentfromLand-basedActivities(GPA)(UNEP/GPA2020),theStrategicApproachtoInternationalChemicalsManagement(SAICM)(whichhasadoptedaGlobalPlanofAction),andtheHonoluluStrategy(whichprovidesaglobalframeworkforthepreventionandmanagementofmarinedebris)(UNEP2018e).Thesenon-bindingagreementsenableandencouragetheputtinginplaceofstandardsandactivitiesacrossthelifecycleofplasticsandinsomecases(e.g.the2030AgendaandtheHonoluluStrategy)includetargetsandtimelines.TheStrategicApproachtoInternationalChemicalManagement(SAICM)andtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsalsoprovidethebasisforintegratedandsustainablemanagementofchemicalsinrelationtotheoceans.AdoptedbytheFirstInternationalConferenceonChemicalsManagement(ICCM1)on6February2006inDubai,SAICMisapolicyframeworkforthepromotionofchemicalsafetyaroundtheworld.SoundmanagementofchemicalsandwasteisaspecifictargetunderSustainable90MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTDevelopmentGoal(SDG)12onSustainableConsumptionandProductionand,withrespecttooceans,chemicalsandwasteisalsoreferredtounderSDG3onGoodHealthandWell-being,SDG6onCleanWaterandSanitation,andSDG14onLifeBelowWater,whichhasaspecifictargettopreventandsignificantlyreducemarinepollutionofallkinds,particularlyfromland-basedactivities,includingmarinedebrisandnutrientpollution,by2025.TheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsReport2019(UnitedNations2019)reiteratedthatcoastalareasworldwideremainaffectedbyland-basedpollutants,includingsewageandnutrientrun-off,leadingtocoastaleutrophication,degradedwaterquality,andimpairmentofcoastalmarineecosystems.Analysisofthecleanwaterindicator,ameasurementofthedegreeofoceanpollution,showsthatwaterqualitychallengesarewidespreadbutaremostacuteinsomeequatorialzones,especiallypartsofAsia,AfricaandCentralAmerica.ThereportconcludesthatwhiletheSDG14targetsaremostlyaspirationalratherthanfullyquantifiable(CormierandElliott2017),analysesoftrendsfrom2012to2019showpositivechangesinnearlyhalftheworld’scoastalregions.Furthergainsareconsideredpossible,buttheywillrequirepolicycommitmentsatthecountryleveltoexpandaccesstowastewatertreatment,andreducechemicalandnutrientrun-offfromagriculturalsources,aswellasglobalcommitmentstoreduceplasticdebris.TheG20adoptedtwodeclarationsatits2017summitinGermany,oneofwhichwastheG20MarineLitterActionPlan.AG20OperationalFrameworkwasputforwardwhichpromotesseveralactionstoreducemarinelitter,includingsustainablewastemanagement,wastewatertreatment,awareness-raisingandincreasedstakeholderengagement.TheMarineLitterActionPlanalsoestablishesavoluntaryGlobalNetworkoftheCommitted(GNC)toshareknowledgeandexperienceregardingtheactionplan.ThesemeasureswerereaffirmedattheG20summitinJapanin2019(G202019),includingappropriatenationalactionsforthepreventionandsignificantreductionofdischargesofplasticlitterandmicroplasticstotheoceans.Therewasalsoacallforothermembersoftheinternationalcommunitytoshare,asacommonglobalvision,theOsakaBlueOceanVision,whichaimstoreduceadditionalpollutionfrommarineplasticlittertozeroby2050throughacomprehensivelifecycleapproachthatincludesreducingthedischargeofmismanagedplasticlitterthroughimprovedwastemanagementandinnovativesolutionswhilerecognizingtheimportantroleofplasticsforsociety(IRP2021).Inaddition,thismeetingendorsedtheG20ImplementationFrameworkforActionsonMarinePlasticLitter.OtherglobalinitiativesincludetheCommunityofOceanActiononMarinePollution(UNDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs),whichsupportsmembers’implementationofmarinepollution-relatedvoluntarycommitmentsthroughexchangeofknowledgeandbestpractice,andtheOECD’sRE_CIRCLEproject,whichprovidespolicyguidelinesonresourceefficiencyandthetransitiontocircularity.564.2.3RegionalinstrumentsandkeyactionstoimprovewastemanagementWhilebindinginternationalinstrumentssuchasagreements,conventions,protocolsandotherinitiativesprovideabasisforaction(Rochmanetal.2016b),theyareconstrainedbytheirmandates.Fargreatercoordinationandinvestmentsareneededtotackletheincreasingvolumesofplasticbeingproducedwhichendupintheoceans.LaversandBond(2017),Löhretal.(2017)andRaubenheimerandMcIlgorm(2018)suggestthatexistingguidelines,suchastheBaselConventionguidelinesfor“upstreamalterationsinproductdesign”,canbeusedtohelpreducethequantityandthehazardsofplasticwaste.ThisisinlinewiththeOECD(2016)guidelinesonextendedproducerresponsibilityandsupportsthedevelopmentofglobalindustryguidelinesthataimspecificallytoreducebothhazardandquantityofplasticwaste.Regionalgovernancearrangementscanpotentiallyacceleratetheuptakeoflegislativeandindustryinitiatives.SomeofthemostimportantregionalinstrumentsaretheRegionalSeasConventionsandActionPlans57(refertoAnnexI),anumberofwhichincludevariousmeasurestoreducemarinelitter,aswellasmonitoringandpublicawarenesscampaigns58(UNEP2018d).Althoughoceandumpingisprohibited,notallcountriesaresignatoriestotheinternationalagreements,sothattheyarelesseffectivethantheycouldbeincontrollingmarinelitterandplastics.However,mostRegionalSeasinstrumentsaddressindustrypollutionandemissionsintowaterbodiesthroughthedutytopreventpollutionfrompointsources,andthreeRegionalSeasConventionshaveadoptedprotocolsspecifictothedumpingofplasticsfromvessels.InAfricasomestateshaveagreedundertheBamakoConvention,59theregionalinstrumentrelatedtotheBasel,RotterdamandStockholmConventions,tostrengthenthemanagementofhazardouswaste,includingplasticsandelectronicwaste(e-waste).TheyhavealsoagreedtoreinforcecollaborationandcreatemoresynergiesbetweentheBamakoConventionandtheglobalchemicalsconventions(UNEP2020b).TheEastAfricanCommunity(EAC)DevelopmentStrategyoutlinesbroadstrategicgoalsforthatregion.Itrecognizesalackofeffectivelegislation,inadequatefundsandservicesformunicipalwastemanagement,andthelowprioritygiventosolidwastemanagementasmajorchallengesfacingmembercountries.Althoughthisstrategydoesnothavearecommendedstrategicinterventiononwastemanagementingeneral,itdoesincludeharmonizationofpolicyinterventionsonthemanagementofplasticsandplasticwasteandtheestablishmentofanelectronicwastemanagementframework.SpecificwastetargetsoutlinedundertheEACDevelopmentStrategyincludearegionalpolicyonthemanagementofplasticandplasticwasteinplaceandanEACe-wastemanagementframework.Whilethisregionalpolicyhasyettobefullydeveloped,manycountrieshaveintroducedtotalandpartialbansonplasticproductssuchasbags(UNEP2018c).91MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTIntheSouthPacificregiontheWaiganiConvention,adoptedin2001,istheregionalimplementationoftheinternationalhazardouswastecontrolregimeandannexesofwastecategories(theBasel,RotterdamandStockholmConventions).Theobjectiveofthisconventionistoreduceandeliminatetransboundarymovementsofhazardousandradioactivewastes,minimizetheproductionofhazardousandtoxicwastesinthePacificregion,andensurethatdisposalofwastesintheConventionareaiscompletedinanenvironmentallysoundmanner.TheWaiganiConventionincludeseachParty’sExclusiveEconomicZone(200nauticalmiles)ratherthanextendingonlytotheouterboundaryofeachParty’sterritorialsea(12nauticalmiles)asundertheBaselConvention.Itisalsostronglyrelatedtothe1972ConventiononthePreventionofMarinePollutionbyDumpingofWastesandOtherMatter(theLondonConvention).TherehasbeeninvestmentinimprovingwastemanagementundertheWaiganiConventionthroughGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF)fundedworkonreducingtheunintentionalreleaseofpersistentorganicpollutants(UPOPs)andtheEuropeanUnionfundedPacWasteprojects(SecretariatoftheSouthPacificRegionalEnvironmentProgramme2017).WithintheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)thereisapatchworkofgovernancearrangements,includinggenerallegislativeframeworksformunicipalsolidwaste(MSW);marinelitterandanti-litterlegislation;sourcereductionthroughmaterialrestriction;landfillregulations;wastetoenergylaws;someextendedproducerresponsibilitylegislation;tradepolicies;greenprocurement;andrecycledcontentpolicies.TheAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)VirtualWorkingGrouponmarinedebris,partoftheAPECChemicalDialogueandOceansandFisheriesWorkingGroup,ispromotinginnovativesolutionstomarinedebris,especiallythroughsustainablewastemanagement.However,thereisnointegratinggovernanceprocesstobringallthesetogether.GovernmentsinEastAsia,recognizingthattheseasaroundtheircoastlinesareamongtheworld’smostpolluted,haveputinplacevariousmitigationinitiativestodecreaseplasticpollution,includinggovernmentpoliciesandwastemanagement;education,media,monitoringandoutreachcampaignsbyNGOs;andthedevelopmentofalternativeproductsandmethodsofproductionandrecyclingbyinventorsandbusinesses(Waltheretal.2020).Japanhasestablishedalegalsystemtopromotethereductionandrecyclingofpackagingandpackagingwaste,andhasestablishednationaltargetsandahierarchyofexistingandpotentialinterventions(JapanMinistryofEnvironment2014).Similarly,withintheEuropeanUnionthereisawastegovernancelandscapecomprisingpolicystructures,regulationsandstandardsatmultipleadministrativelevelsaimedatreducingandrecoveringmaterialsovertheresourcelifecycle.TheoverallapproachoftheEuropeanUnionisdemonstratedinitsplasticsstrategy,circulareconomyactionplan,andtheSingle-UsePlasticsDirective(EuropeanUnion2019b;EuropeanCommission2020).EuropeanUnionMemberStateshavealsoestablishedtargetstoachievea90percentcollectiontargetforplasticbottlesby2029;plasticbottlesmusthaveatleast25percentrecycledcontentby2025and30percentby2030.60Applicationofthe“polluterpaysprinciple”hasalsobeenstrengthenedbyintroducingextendedproducerresponsibility(Arroyoetal.2017).TheoutcomesoftheXXIIMeetingoftheForumofMinistersofEnvironmentforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeaninFebruary2021includedapollutionandwasteagenda.MinistershighlightedtheneedtourgentlyaddresstheissueofmarinelitterandmicroplasticsandadoptedanewActionPlanonregionalcooperationforthemanagementofchemicalsandwaste2021–2024.614.2.4NationalstrategiesandlegislationNational-levelarrangementsaddressingwasteareveryuneven(e.g.vanTruongandPing2019;Ca2020)andhaveledtosituationsinwhichwasteisbeingdistanced(bothphysicallyandpsychologically)frommillionsofconsumersbybeingsenttolocationswithpoorlydevelopedwasteinfrastructure(WasteAtlas2014)orallowedtoflowintotheglobalcommons(Dauvergne2018;Birkbeck2020).Analysisofaglobalpolicyinventoryfoundthatofthetop20coastalcountriesproducingmismanagedplasticwastefromcoastalland-basedsources(basedonestimatesfrom2010inJambecketal.2015),anumberdidnothaveanationalpolicydocumentnorwasthereareferencetooneintheliteraturereviewed(Karasiketal.2020).However,increasingconcernsaboutimportshaveledsomereceivingcountriestoputinplacemorerigorousinspectionprocesses(O’Neill2018),whicharecausingwastetobedivertedtocountrieswithlessrigorouswastemanagementstandards(Dauvergne2018).Thereareagrowingnumberoflegalinitiatives,includingbansoncertainsingle-useplasticproducts,plasticbagsandmicrobeadproducts(XanthosandWalker2017;Dauvergne2018;Karasiketal.2020).Analysisoftheglobalpolicyinventory(Jambecketal.2015)indicatesthattheupwardtrendintheoverallnumberofpoliciesadoptedatthenationalleveltoaddressplasticpollutioninthelast20yearsislargelyduetonewpoliciesdirectedtowardsaddressingpollutionfromplasticbags(Karasiketal.2020).Morethan60countriesnowsupportbansondifferenttypesofplasticitems(UNEP2018d),andcountriesincludingCanada,theNetherlands,theUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStateshaveputinplacelegislationtobantheuseofmicrobeadsincosmeticsandpersonalcareproducts(XanthosandWalker2017).In2019EUministersagreedtobanby2021alonglistofsingle-useplasticproductsbasedonsurveysandmonitoringofbeachesandwaterways(EuropeanUnion2019b).62Bansonspecificitemscanbeasteptowardsmorecomprehensivepoliciestoreduceplasticproductionandreplaceplasticproductswithmoresustainablealternatives.CostaRica,forexample,intendstobecomethefirstcountryintheworldtobanallsingle-useplasticproductsby2021.InAntiguaandBarbudatheintroductionofabanonplasticbagshasledtofurthermeasuresforbiddingtheimportoffoodplastic92MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTcontainersandutensils.IntheUnitedStatesabanonStyrofoam(expandedpolystyrene)containersinNewYorkCity,whichhadbeenchallenged,wasreinstatedin2017andsubsequentlyimplementedinothercitiesandstates,63basedonevidencethatitwasnoteconomicallyviableorenvironmentallyeffectivetorecyclethesecontainers.Atthenationallevel,levieshaveprogressivelybeenplacedonplasticbagconsumption.InIrelandplasticbagshavebeenbanned;inGermany,India,Thailand(2020)and34countriesinAfricabansarealsoinplace,althoughinsomecasesregulationshaveyettobeimplemented(Babayemietal.2019).64In2013MauritaniabecamethefirstcountryinAfricatoadoptaplasticbagban,followingthelossofupto70percentoflivestockduetoplasticingestion.65Muchofwhathasbeenreportedaboutthebans,andotherleviesandtaxesaimedatreducingplasticcarrierbagpollution,hasfocusedonshort-termeffects;however,significantreductionsintheconsumptionofplasticbagshaveconsistentlybeenmeasuredwithin24monthsoftheintroductionofsuchinstrumentsandtypicallywithin12months(Karasiketal.2020).Unfortunately,for50percentofregulationsatnationalandlocallevelstherearenomonitoringsystemsordatatoassesstheireffectivenessorimpact;nearlyone-thirdoftheremainderregistereddramaticdropsinplasticbagconsumptionandpollutionandone-fifthreportedlittletonoimpact,mostprobablyduetolackofenforcementoraffordablealternatives.Therearealsovariousloopholesandexceptionsinmanyofthesebans(e.g.concerningthickness),whichreducestheireffectiveness(UNEP2018d).Agrowingandimportantcomponentofmanynationalwastemanagementpoliciesisbeachandcoastalclean-up.Inananalysisofthepotentialmitigationgainsofremovingplasticsfromthemarineenvironment,DeFrondetal.(2019)concludedthatremovingplasticsnotonlyreducedtheiroverallvolume,butalsocutdownontheamountofplasticsenteringimportantroutesofexposuretotheadditivesandotherhazardouschemicalsassociatedwiththemviawildlifeingestion.Theyalsoshowedthatinmostjurisdictionsplasticpollutionpreventionandclean-upareconsideredtobechemicalpollutionpreventionandclean-up,andthatshorelineclean-upscanremovelegacypollutantssuchaspolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)fromtheenvironment.ThesefindingsareconsistentwithShermanandvanSebille(2016),whoconsideredcoastalareastobeoptimallocationsformicroplasticsremoval.Inareaswheregreateramountsofplasticdebrisconcentrate,DeFrondetal.(2019)calculatedthatplasticcollectiontechnologiescouldremove31percentoftotalmodelledmicroplasticsmassby2025comparedto17percentintheNorthPacificGyre,wheretheplasticsarealsomucholder(Lebretonetal.2019).Coastalareascontainrelatively“young”particleswithhigherleachablecontent;thus,byremovingplasticdebrisfrombeachesnewplasticitemsarepreventedfromenteringtheoceansandexposingmarinelifetotheirleachablechemicalcontent.ForPCBs,DeFrondetal.(2019)concludedthattheclean-upofplasticsandtheirassociatedchemicalsismoreefficientintermsofremovinghazardouschemicalsandpollutantsonshorelinescomparedtooceangyresbecauseofthehigherdensityofmaterialsalongbeaches.Forexample,theyestimatedthatbeachcollectionsremovedapproximately85,000timesmorePCBsthanthesegyres.However,Schneideretal.(2018)reportedthatoutof103scientificstudiesonclean-upefforts,nonementionedtheuseofpost-collectionwastetreatmentpathwaysoroptions,ortheimpactsofthesebeachlittercollectionactivities.Aparticularchallengeforbeachclean-©iStock/PornchaiSoda93MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTupsismarinewastecontainingblackplastic.Analysesshowthatblackplasticispotentiallynon-compliantwithregardtolimitsdefinedbytheEU’sRestrictionofHazardousSubstancesDirective(ShawandTurner2019).Thisalsoraisestheissuethatrecyclingelectronicwasteformaritimeindustrialuses,suchasintransport,fisheriesandaquaculture,ispotentiallyanimportantpathwayfortheintroductionofhazardouschemicalsintothemarineenvironment.RecentdataonglobalflowsofelectronicwastechallengeconventionalunderstandingofthetradeintheassociatedplasticwasteasaNorthtoSouthflow(Lepawskyetal.2017);databasesofe-wasteflowscompiledbytheauthorsrevealedacomplexweboftrans-frontiermovements,66withsmallgroupsofimmigrantscollectingorbuyingdiscardedelectronicsandshippingthemtotheircountriesoforigin.Thisanalysisshowsthat,undercertaincircumstances,whendiscardedelectronicsarerefurbishedandsoldoninformalworkersmayearnalivingwageevenwhereinformale-wasterecyclingoperationsarelegallyprohibited(O’Neill2018).Giventhemultiplelivesofelectronicitemswhichcanberepurposed,andtheplasticsassociatedwiththem,Lepawskyetal.(2017)proposedanethicalframeworkand“workerscripts”,basedonvariousUNinitiatives,thatincludeworkersafety,sufficientwages,andshareddecision-makingandprofits(ILO2017).Inadditiontoregulatoryandlegislativeprocesses,anumberofvoluntaryactionshavebeenundertakenaspartofnationalstrategies(UNEP2018d).Manyhavefocusedonsingle-useplasticproducts.Theyincludepublic-privatepartnershipsandvoluntaryagreementsinsteadofbans(e.g.Austria),andvoluntaryreductionstrategieswhichallowthepopulationtochangetheirconsumptionpatternsandmakeitpossibleforaffordable,eco-friendlyalternativestobecomeavailableonthemarket.ExamplesincludeFishingforLitter(KIMO,theinternationalenvironmentalorganizationforlocalauthorities),whichinvolvesthefishingindustryincollectingthewastecaughtintheirnets;ZeroWasteCities,67whichpromotesacontinuousefforttophaseoutwaste(ratherthanburningorlandfillingit)andtocreatesystemsthatdonotgeneratewasteinthefirstplace;andWRAP(2018),whichworkswithgovernment,localauthoritiesandindustryintheUnitedKingdomtosupportbetterrecyclingandinnovation.684.2.5OthertypesoffinancialandregulatoryinstrumentsIntheabsenceofanypricingpoliciesforwaste,industriesandconsumersbehaveasifthedisposalofwasteisfree(Matheson2019)althoughthecollectionanddisposalofdiscardedgoodsconsumesvaluableresourcessuchaslabour,fuelandland.Someofthesecostsmaybepriced,butenvironmentalcostssuchasthoserelatedtocarbonandmethaneemissionsareusuallynotpricedatallwhilechargesforimproperdisposalareoftennotenforced.Cheapandobscurepricesforwastedisposalhaveencouragedwaste-intensiveproductionandconsumptionpatternsratherthanrecycling(IRP2019).Therearearangeoffiscalinstruments,requiringlegislation,toenhancewastemanagementandsupportcircularity(OECD2019).Theyincludetaxes,feesandcharges,deposit-refundschemes,tradablepermitschemesandsubsidies.Taxesincreasethecostofpollutingproductsoractivities,therebydiscouragingtheirconsumptionorproduction.Inwastepolicytheyareusedtointernalizetheenvironmentalcostsofwastemanagementanddisposal,makingmoreenvironmentally©iStock/sutiporn94MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTharmfultreatmentmethodscostlierandcreatingincentivestousealternativeapproachessuchasrecovery,reuseandrecyclingandotheractionshigherupthewastehierarchy.Landfillandincinerationtaxesaregoodexamples,butinsomecasestheyhaveledtoanincreaseinillegaldumpingandopenburning.Inpoliciesthatsupportcircularity,taxesmaybeusedtodiscourageconsumptionofnaturalresourcesincludingbiologicalresources,mineralsandrawmaterials.Somecountrieshaveintroducedageneralretailtaxforwastemanagementpurposes(e.g.theJamaicaEnvironmentalProtectionLevy).Specificexcisefeescanalsobeappliedwhichinternalizeenvironmentalandsocialcosts.Sometimesreferredtoasadvancedisposal,recyclingfeescanbeleviedattheretailorproductionlevel;examplesincludefeesontyresandplasticbags(XanthosandWalker2017).Retail-ledfees,althoughexpensivetoadminister,arehighlyvisibletoconsumersandcanthushaveanimpactonbehaviour(InternationalMonetaryFund2019).Taxesinindividualjurisdictionscanleadtoregulatoryarbitrage(acorporatepracticeofutilizingmorefavorableregulationsinonejurisdictiontocircumventlessfavorableoneselsewhere)andtheneedforbordertaxesonplasticsimports(Forrestetal.2019).Nevertheless,thereisseriousinterestinplasticproductiontaxesaroundtheworld,especiallywhenthefundscanbehypothecatedtoimprovewasteinfrastructure(Parts2019;Walkeretal.2020).Fees,leviesandchargescanbeusedtorecoverthecostsofprovidinggoodsorservices.Unliketaxes,useoffeesandchargesmeansthepersonpayinggetssomethinginreturninproportiontothepayment.Inwastemanagementthismayincludeitemssuchasmunicipalwasteservicechargesorlandfillgatefees.Wastemanagementchargesaregenerallyappliedlocallytocoverthecostsofwastecollection,andinsomeinstances(e.g.landfillcharges)thefeesarehypotheticallyforimprovementstowastemanagementorthemitigationofimpactssuchasGHGemissions.Leviesonwastedisposalhavethepotentialtocomplementproductstewardshipschemes.Leviesincreasethecostofwastedisposalandmakealternativesmoreattractive.Insomecountriesfundsfromlevieshavebeenusedtosupportproductstewardshipschemes(e.g.assistingwithstart-upcosts).Fundingsupportfromwasteleviescancreatedisincentivesforproductstewardshipbydiscouragingindustryself-fundinginitiatives,aswellasbydiscouragingindustryownershipoftheproblem.Carefuldesignofwasteleviesandtheallocationoftheirrevenueiscriticaltoensuringtheysupportratherthanworkagainstproductstewardshipschemes(e.g.NewZealandMinistryofEnvironment2019).Forexample,thereareconcernsthathighwasteleviesincentivizeillegalorimproperwastedisposal,includingacrossborders(Interpol2020).Depositrefund/returnsystemsplaceasurchargeonthepriceofaproductlikelytopollutetheenvironment.Inwastemanagementthismayincludemeasuresusedtointernalizetheenvironmentalcostsofend-of-lifeproductssuchasproductlevies,advancedrecyclingfeesandextendedproducerresponsibilitymeasures.Thesesystemsaresuccessfullyusedinmanycountries,e.g.intheBalticcountries,Denmark,GermanyandKenya(Balcersetal.2019).Systemsmandatedbylaw,withclearstakeholdersandroledescriptionsthatguaranteeequaltreatmentforallsystemparticipants(includingproducers,importersandretailers),arelikelytobethemosteffective.Itisalsorecommendedthatthedeposit-returnsystemcoverawiderangeofone-wayandrefillablebeveragecontainers:returntotheretailerhastheclearadvantageofbeingmoreconvenientforconsumers.Subsidiescanbeusedtoencouragebetterwastemanagement,wastereduction,andinvestmentsinimprovedwastemanagement.Theymaytaketheformofdirectsubsidiesortaxexemptions.However,amajorbarriertorealizingcircularityistheextremelylowdirectcostoffossilfuel-basedplasticscausedbywidespreadsubsidies(UNEP2019d)andsignificantinvestmentinfossilfuel-basedchemicalproduction(AmericanChemistryCouncil2020;EuropeanChemicalIndustryCouncil2020).Thelowcostoffossilfuel-basedplasticsgivesrisetoperversemarketpricesignalswhichputmanytechnologies,suchasthoseforrecyclingpost-consumerplasticsandresins(e.g.Ragaertetal.2017;RahimiandGarcia2017),atadisadvantage(Forrestetal.2019)andwillconsiderablyaltertradeflowsincomingyears.However,subsidiescanbeusedinenvironmentalpolicytodirectlyorindirectlyreducetheuseofsomethingthathasaprovennegativeeffectontheenvironment,asinthecaseofGHGemissionsarisingfromplasticproduction(Posenetal.2017).Takingalifecycleapproachtofeedstockandenergysubstitutionintheplasticindustryopensupavenuestoincludeclimatemitigation(ZhengandSuh2019),aswellassubstitutability,inthewaysubsidiesareapplied(UNEP2019d).Linkedtothisaretradablepermitschemes,whichcanbeusedtoallocateemissionorresourceexploitationrights;suchmeasuresareusedinwastepolicy,forexample,intheUnitedKingdom’sLandfillAllowanceTradingScheme.4.2.6ExtendedproducerresponsibilityExtendedproducerresponsibility(EPR)isconsideredacornerstoneofwastepolicy,particularlyintheOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)countries(Filhoetal.2019).AccordingtotheOECD’sdescription,EPRaimstomakeproducersresponsiblefortheenvironmentalimpactsoftheirproductsallalongtheproductchainfromdesigntothepost-consumerphase(OECD2016;OECD2019).Ifproperlydesigned,EPRalsoalleviatestheburdenonpublicadministrationsofmanagingend-of-lifeproducts;inaddition,itisimportantbecauseithasbeenestimatedthatifnoactionistakentoreduceplasticproductionandconsumption,businessescouldfaceaUS$100billionannualfinancialriskby2040ifgovernmentsrequirethemtocoverwastemanagementcostsatexpectedvolumesandrecyclability(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).EPRcanincentivizewasteprevention,reuseandrecycling,forexamplebyintroducingclearlabellingtohelpinformalsortingprocesses(UNEPandConsumersInternational2020;Walkeretal.2020).Itcantakemanydifferentformsandneedstobeadjustedtolocalcontextstoavoidinadequatetransferoftechnology(e.g.throughtakingintoaccountinformalworkforce-basedinfrastructureandidentifyingsustainableandinclusivepathwaystofuture-proofthelivelihoodsofwastepickers).95MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTEPRhasbeenamainpolicyinstrumentintheEU,contributingfinanciallytotheongoingcollectionandrecyclingofwastestreamsthatcontainplasticaswellasencouragingtheadoptionofpracticesbycompanies,theeducationofconsumers,andmovingtowardsthemoreambitioustargetsundertheEUGreenDeal(EuropeanCommission2018b,2019).69TheEUhasalsoadoptedEPRforcertainsingle-useitemsaswellasfishinggearthroughdirectivesthatwillbeimplementedincomingyears(EuropeanUnion2019,2020).ImplementingEPRasameasuretowardsdownstreamwastemanagementisbeingexaminedbytheEuropeanCommissionasameansofreducingmarinelitterthroughactiononsingle-useplasticproductsandplasticfishinggear(EuropeanCommission2018).ThisapproachisalsobeingdevelopedinSoutheastAsiaandEastAsia(ASEANFrameworkofAction2019andCOBSEARAPMALI2019).70UndertheGermanEPRschemeforpackaging,companiespayafeeofaroundEuro450perton;theEPRfeespredominantlyaimtocoverthesystem’sannualoperatingcosts.FrancehasalsomadeeffortstouseEPRforend-of-lifeboatsundertheLondonConvention.Byapplyingthisapproachtotheestimated27.12millionmetrictonsofplasticpackaginginChina,Indonesia,Malaysia,thePhilippines,ThailandandVietNam,useofEPRcouldraiseatotalofEuro12.2billion(WWF2020).Althoughthisisaveryroughestimate,itgivesanindicationoftherevenue-raisingpotentialofEPRsystemsandtheirpotentialtohelpsetupeffectivewastemanagementinfrastructureinSoutheastAsia.AmajorchallengeinusingEPRformarinelitteristhatithasbecomeclearafteranumberofyearsthatproducerresponsibilityorganizationsmanagingtheprocessdonotassumetheentirecostofmanagingthecorrespondingwasteflows(Forrestetal.2019),andthereforepublicadministrationscontinuetosustainpartofthecoststhatshouldbebornebyproducersandpotentiallyincludedinthepricespaidbyconsumers.Secondly,producerresponsibilityorganizationsdonotsufficientlyincentivizerecyclabilityandecodesignbyindividualproducers;andthirdly,insufficienttransparencymakesitdifficultforpublicadministrationstoassesscompliance,amongothers(OECD2016).TodayEPRislimitedtoasmallnumberofproducts(e.g.electricandelectronicequipment,batteriesandend-of-lifevehicles).ForalegislativeEPRframeworktoworkeffectively,itneedstoensureharmonizationandtransparencyofimplementation;comparabilityofproceduresandfeelevels;widerproductcoverage;improvementstoseparatecollectionandtreatmentofwastes;extensionofdeposit-refundschemes;andproperproductdesign,especiallycirculardesign(e.g.designforreuseandrecyclability)toimprovethereuseandrecyclinglevelsofend-of-lifeproductsandtheoverallreductionofplasticwastetoensurethetransitiontosustainablecircularity(Filhoetal.2019).FinancialresourcescollectedthroughEPRschemescanalsodomuchtoamplifytheseefforts.Itisclearthatthefocusonlow-costcollectionsolutions,forexamplecollectionofmixedpackagingorcollectionofonlythelowest-costwastestreams,isnotsufficienttoincreaserecyclingofplastics.Instead,EPRshouldbeseenaspartofawiderpolicymixofregulatoryandeconomicinstrumentssuchasrecyclingtargets,bans,product,materialandwastetaxes,pay-as-you-throwschemes,labelling,voluntaryagreements,procurementpolicies,andinformationandawarenesscampaigns,bearinginmindthatproducersshouldnotbedoubletaxedthroughanycombinationoftaxesandEPR.Overall,EPRschemesworkwellifthereisecomodulation71ratherthanflatfeesandwheregovernmentssetnationaltargetsforwastecollection,segregationandrecycling,investinnational/©iStock/ItsananSampuntarat96MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTregionalwastemanagementinfrastructure,andcreateacoherentandtransparentEPRframeworkwithinnationallegislation.Thisframeworkneedstotakeaccountoflocalcharacteristicssuchastheroleoftheinformalsector,monitorcompanies’plasticsuseandenforceEPRlegislation.Companiescouldreducetheunnecessaryuseofplasticsandtransparentlydisclosetheamountofplasticpackagingtheyareputtingonthemarket;takeresponsibilityforproducts’end-of-lifeimpacts,fromthedesignandchoiceofmaterialstocollection,sorting,recyclinganddisposal;andsupportthecreationofEPRschemesandworkwithgovernmentsandotherpartnerstoimprovewastemanagementsystemsandraiseconsumerawareness.ThekeytothesuccessofanEPRapproachisinvestmentandtheincentivizationofindustry(Forrestetal.2019).4.2.7CoastalzonemanagementpoliciesCoastalzonemanagementpoliciesareimportantinstrumentsfordeliveringwasteabatementpoliciesoncelitterhasenteredtheenvironment,especiallyiftheyareimplementedonacatchment-to-coastbasis(Windsoretal.2019).Litteringonlandandatseaisillegalbehaviourwhichdamagesbothterrestrialandmarinelifeandhasanenormouscostforsocietyandtheenvironment.Manygovernmentsinvestsignificantresourcesinwasteabatementinfrastructure,policies,strategiesandoutreachprogrammestointerveneatdifferentstagesalongtheplasticwastepathway;however,theseprogrammesaregenerallylesstargetedtowardsplasticsoncetheyhaveenteredtheenvironment.Anti-littercampaignseducatethepublicandencouragepeopletoimprovetheirwastedisposalbehaviour,whilecommunityprogrammessuchastheInternationalCoastalCleanupandothercitizenscienceandcommunityprojectsencouragemembersoflocalcommunitiestobecustodiansoftheenvironmentbyinvolvingtheminbeachclean-upactivities(Schneideretal.2018;Willisetal.2018).IntheiranalysisofwasteinfrastructurebylocalcouncilsinAustralia,wherelitterclean-upcostswereinexcessofUS$1billionannually,Willisetal.(2018)showedthatifthewastemanagementproportionofthetotalcouncilbudgetwaslessthan8percent,debrisalongacouncil’scoastcontinuedtoincrease.Themosteffectivewasteabatementpolicieswerethosethatintegratedrecycling,litterpreventionandprogrammescombattingillegaldumping.Developingcoastalzonemanagementpoliciesandstrategiesthataddressmarinelitterisavitalpartofthelegislativelandscape,whichisneededtohelpmitigatetheproblemsofplasticpollutionandtheleachingofchemicals(ShermanandvanSebille2016).Resourcemanagerscanoptimizetheireffortsbyfocusingonwasteabatementandundertakingwasterecoveryonbeachesandclosetoshore,wheregreaterquantitiesofchemicalsandmicroplasticscanberemovedcomparedtothesamesizedareaofopenocean.Coastallitterremovalisalsomorecost-effective,aslesstimeandresourcesarerequiredtocleanupbeachesandshorelinesthantocleanupsurfacewatersthousandsofkilometresfromland(DeFrondetal.2018).©iStock/Itsananhelovi97MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTMarineProtectedAreas(MPAs)areanotherimportantpolicyinstrumenttohelpreducemarinelitterandplasticsandtheirimpactsonmarinesystems,andinrecentyearsmanylargeMPAshavebeenestablishedaroundtheworld(Luna-Jorqueraetal.2019).TheactivitiesexcludedorrestrictedinMPAsaremostlytourismandfisheries,butalsominingandconstructionofharboursoroffshorewindfarmsanddumpingofsolidmaterials(Lewisetal.2017).However,thereisgrowingevidencethatfloatingmarinedebrisfromelsewhereisencroachingonMPAs,evenintheopenoceans,sometimesgivingrisetohighconcentrationsofmicroplasticsbeingrecorded(Barnesetal.2018;Luna-Jorqueraetal.2019).IntheMediterraneanananalysisofMPAsshowedthattheywereshelteredfromplasticpollution,butthatthissituationcouldchangedramaticallyduetomismanagementofplasticlitterwithintheMPAsthemselves(Liubartsevaetal.2019).4.2.8EducationandbroadersocialpoliciesandactionsChangingbehaviour,perceptionsandattitudesandraisingawarenessofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionwillrequiregreaterlevelsofoceanliteracy,educationandactioninordertobetterunderstandthevalueofcoastalenvironmentsandthedamagecausedbylittering(Hartleyetal.2018a).AstudybyHartleyetal.(2018b)usingaschoolpackdesignedforEuropeaneducatorsandstudentsaged10-15years72concludedthatforeducators,smarttoolsareneededtosupportwhatisalreadybeingtaughtwithinthenationalcurriculaandenablethemtoworktogetherandsharebestpracticesandexperience.Basedonquestionnairesandobservationsfromover6,000pupilsaged11-13yearsduring2012–2018,Kideysetal.(2018)reportedthatthemarineenvironmentalawarenesstrainingprovidedbythe“IKnowandProtectMySeas”(DTK)programmetoTurkishschoolchildrenprovedtobeveryeffectiveinchanginglitteringbehaviouraswellascreatingawarenessandappreciationofbiodiversity.Thieletal.(2018)usedacitizenscienceprojecttointereststudentsinChile,agedeightto16,inthetopicofmicroplasticsinthemarineenvironment.Thestudentssampled,sortedandcountedsmallplasticpiecesonlocalbeachesandenteredthedataonaninteractivewebsite.Afterwards,theyreportedthattheyhadfoundtheprojectinterestingandfunandwouldbelikelytoparticipateinotherenvironmentalactivitiesinthefuture.Hartleyetal.(2015)implementedanenvironmentaleducationactivitywithschoolchildrenintheUnitedKingdombetweensevenand18,andassessedtheirlevelofconcern,understandingandself-reportedbehaviourregardingmarinelitterbeforeandafterengaginginthisactivity.Afterit,theyweresignificantlymoreconcernedaboutmarinelitter,hadabetterunderstandingofcausesandnegativeimpacts,andreportedimprovedbehaviour.Thesestudiessupportotherresearchshowingthatknowledgeacquisitionisnotsufficienttoelicitbehaviouralchange(Damerelletal.2013;Geigeretal.2019).Moreworkisneededonengagingteachers,andonteachingmethodsthatallowchildrenopportunitiestoexploremarinelitterandplasticpollutionthroughfieldwork,useofeffectivebooks(e.g.Stachowitsch2020),andcreatingtheirownmaterialsandresponsesratherthanfollowingapredeterminedprogrammeofeducation,inlinewithtransformativepedagogy.4.2.9SocialpoliciesandcommunicationsactionsNudges,norms,longevityofbehaviouralchangesandbehaviouraleconomicsareallimportantininfluencingpro-environmental,behaviouralchangeinpopulations(McGuire2015;Krijnenetal.2017;Geigeretal.2019).Toincreasesocialawarenessofmarinelitterandplasticpollution,andshiftbehaviourfromuseandthrowawaytoreduce,reuse,repurposeandrecycle,thereneedstobegreaterunderstandingbyandengagementofthepublicaswellasclearcommunicationsstrategiestoensurethesuccessofgovernmentandindustryinitiatives(Dilkes-Hoffmanetal.2019b).Todatetherehasbeenlittlefocusondocumentingthegeneralpublic’sattitudestomarinelitterandplasticpollution.Dilkes-Hoffmanetal.(2019b)examinedpublicbeliefsandattitudestowardsplasticsinAustralia,whichprovidesinsightsonaglobalscale.Theirsurveyresultsindicatethatthepublicviewplasticsasaseriousenvironmentalissue.Plasticsintheoceanshadthehighestmeanratingforseriousnessoutofnineenvironmentalissues,followedbytwootherissuesrelatingtoplasticwasteproductionanddisposal.Therewasanassociationofplasticswithfoodpackagingandconvenience,buttherewasamorenegativeassociationwiththeuseofplasticsoverall;80percentofrespondentsindicatedadesiretoreduceplasticsuse,andthemajorityofrespondentsbelievedthatpaperandglassaremoreenvironmentallyfriendlypackagingmaterialsthanplasticseventhoughthisisnotalwaysthecase(Stantonetal.2020;UNEP2021b).Theseandotherstudiessuggestthatthepublicisoverlysensitivetoplasticsandpotentiallyseesthemasabiggerenvironmentalissuethanotherssuchasclimatechange(Khanetal.2019).However,analysesofoutcomesshowthatmanyrespondentsdidnottranslatetheiraspirationstoreduceplasticuseintoactionforavarietyofreasons,forexampleduetohabits,normsandsituationalconstraintssuchaspersonalfinance(wherebyindividualscanonlyaffordtopurchaseitemsinsmallquantitiesinplasticintensivepackagedamounts)orbecauseresponsibilityforreducingtheuseofdisposableplasticitemswasplacedonindustryandgovernment.Socialscienceresearchonriskawareness,consumerpreferences,predictorsofusagebehaviour,andpoliticalandpsychologicalinterventionstrategies(e.g.Heidbrederetal.2019)showsthatpeopleappreciateandroutinelyuseplasticdespiteaclearawarenessoftheassociatedproblems.Unfortunately,whatismissingfromthisresearchisagenderedperspectiveonnormsandbehavioursthatwouldleadtoagreaterunderstandingofsocialactionsthatcouldbetakentoreduceplasticpollution.98MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTWithrespecttobio-basedplastics,researchindicatesthatthereisanoverallpositiveperceptionamongthepublic(Dilkes-Hoffmanetal.2019a).Biodegradableplasticsaregenerallyseenasbetterfortheenvironmentthan“normalplastics’’andeven“easilyrecyclable”plastics.However,themajorityofrespondentssaidtheywereunsurewhetherbiodegradableplasticshadnegativeenvironmentalimpacts,wouldlikemoreplasticitemstobebiodegradable,andwoulddisposeofbioplasticitemsinrecyclingbins.However,ashighlightedbyUNEPandConsumersInternational(2020),consumersoftendonotknowhowtodisposeofbiodegradableplasticscorrectlyorfacilitiesforhandlingbiodegradableplasticsdonotyetexist.Thatreportunderlinesthecriticalrolegovernmentsandlocalcouncilsplayindrivingthedevelopmentofstandards,labellingandwastemanagementoptionsforbioplasticsandalternativematerials.Forexample,Francehaspassedanewlawunderwhichplasticsarenotallowedtobereferredtoasbiodegradableunlesstheyarehomecompostable;theEuropeanUnionhasindicatedthatitisalsointerestedintakingactioninthisregard.Buildingonpeople’sperceptionsof“bio-based”products(i.e.positiveandnegativeassociations,mixedfeelings),Sijtsemaetal.(2016)showedthatthistermismostoftenassociatedwithpositiveenvironmentalqualitiessuchas“naturalness”and“environmentallyfriendly”buttherearealsonegativeenvironmentalassociations,linkedespeciallytotechnologicalandhealthissues.Thiscancauseuncertaintyandmixedfeelingsandhighlightsboththecomplexityof,andalackoffamiliaritywith,theconceptofbio-basedplastics.Consumershaveaholisticperceptionofbio-basedproducts.Theycombinetheirperceptionsofdifferentaspectsoftheproductinanevaluationofthewholeproductconcept,includingtheproduct’sorigin,itsusability,theproductionmethod,theproportionofbio-basedmaterialsused,price,packagingmaterialsandappearance.Theresultsillustratethegreatvarietyofconsumerperceptions,bothcognitiveandaffective,ofbio-basedproductsandthecarewithwhichtermsthatarepoorlyunderstoodbythegeneralpublicshouldbeintroducedintopolicies.Forexample,somebio-basedplasticsmayalsocontainproblematicadditivesandsubstancesthatarenotbio-based,whichcanmaketheseproductsasproblematicasproductsthatarenotbio-basedforrecycling/composting.Thishighlightstheproblemsthatcanarisewhenpoorlyunderstoodtermsareincreasinglybeingcommunicatedtoconsumersonpackagingandunderlinestheneedforbettereducationandmoreaccessibleinformationtotacklethatproblem.©iStock/Halfpoint99MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT4.3Businesssolutionsandenvironmentallysoundtechnologiesandinnovations4.3.1IdentifyingmarketfailuresandsolutionsintheglobalizedplasticsindustryThegrowingquantitiesofdiscardedplasticwastearetheoutcomeofmultiplemarketfailureslinkedtothelowpriceofvirginfeedstocks,thepresenceofsubsidies,poorwastemanagement,widespreaduseofplasticitems,andthrow-awaybehaviour(Borrelleetal.2017;Law2017;Dauvergne2018;Borrelleetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Forexample,losseswhichoccurduringsortingandreprocessingmeanonly5percentofthevalueofmaterialsisretainedforsubsequentuse;thisrepresentsalossofvaluewithrespecttopackagingwasteofbetweenUS$80-120billionperyear(EllenMacArthurFoundation2016).DuringthepasttwodecadesplasticproductionhasbeenshiftingfromNorthAmericaandEuropetowardsAsiaand,morerecently,Africa;China,forexample,accountsfornearly30percentofglobalproductionofpolyurethanesandthermoplastics(Geyer2020).Plasticshavesubstantiallyoutpacedanyothermanufacturedmaterialintermsofproductionbecauseoftheirlowcost,durability,versatility,andresistancetodegradation(Dauvergne2018).Consumptionofplasticsisincreasing,especiallyinemergingeconomies,whereathree-foldincreasehasbeenforecastforthemiddleofthecentury73(LebretonandAndrady2019;AmericanChemistryCouncil2020;Bond2020;Borrelleetal.2020;EuropeanChemicalIndustryCouncil2020;Geyer2020;Lauetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Globally,individualsdiscardonaveragemorethan50kgofplasticayear,althoughthisamountissignificantlylowerinsomedevelopingcountriessuchasIndia(Dauvergne2018;Statista2019).WhiletheplasticsupplysidewasnegativelyaffectedbyCOVID-19,withproductionin2020decreasingbyapproximately0.3percent(Maliketal.2020;Statista2021a),largevolumesofpersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE)andotherplasticitemswereconsumeddaily,addingsignificantlytothevolumesofplasticwasteonbeachesandelsewhere(Adyel2020).TheWorldHealthOrganizationrequesteda40percentincreaseindisposablePPEproductioninviewofmonthlyglobalconsumptionandwasteof129billionfacemasksand65billiongloves;inthecaseofPPEuseintheUnitedStatesthiswouldmeanthatanentireyear’sworthofmedicalwastewouldbegeneratedinjusttwomonths(Adyel2020).Single-useplasticproductsaccountforoverone-thirdoftheplasticsproducedeveryyear,with98percentmanufacturedfromfossilfuels(Charlesetal.2021).Regionaldifferencesinproductionvolumes(PlasticsEurope2019;Statista2021b)reflectbothuserdemandandthepriceoffossilfuelfeedstocks(Geyer2020).Forexample,intheUnitedStatessince2010therehavebeensignificantinvestmentsofmorethanUS$200billioninnewplasticandchemicalplants,stimulatedbythelowcostofrawmaterials,especiallynaturalgasderivedfromfracking(AmericanChemistryCouncil2020).Arecentforecastofglobalplasticproductionis1,100millionmetrictonsin2050,notincludingfibres,asignificantincreasefromcurrentlevels(Geyer2020;Statista2021b).Yetonly20polymerproducersproducemorethanhalfofallsingle-usewastegenerated(Charlesetal.2021),while20institutionalassetmanagersholdoverUS$300billionworthofsharesintheparentcompaniesofthesepolymerproducersand20oftheworld’slargestbanksareestimatedtohavelentalmostUS$30billionfortheproductionofthesepolymerssince2011.74Thelargestvolumesofplasticwastearegeneratedbythepackaging,consumerandinstitutionalproducts,andtextilesectors.In2017thepackagingsectoraccountedfor36percentofglobalplasticproductionandwasresponsiblefor46percentoftotalplasticwastegenerated(Geyer2020).Thebuildingandconstructionsector,whichin2017accountedfor19.7percentofallglobalplasticproduction(resin,fibresandadditives),generatedonly4percent(14millionmetrictons)ofglobalplasticwaste.Geyer(2020)calculatedthat438millionmetrictonswereaddedtothein-usestockofplasticsin2017while328millionmetrictonsleftitaswaste;inotherwords,110millionmetrictonsofplasticswereaddedtothein-usestock.However,verifyingthesevolumesisstillverydifficultduetolackoftransparencyandaccesstoindustryinformation(ZinkandGeyer2018;Zinketal.2018).Geyeretal.(2017)estimatedthat168millionmetrictonsofrecyclableplasticwastewereproducedbetween1988and2016andthatby2050,ifproductioncontinuesalongthesamecurve,9,000millionmetrictonsofplasticwastewillhavebeenrecycled,12,000millionmetrictonsincinerated,and12,000millionmetrictonsdiscardedtolandfillsorthenaturalenvironment,comparedto5,000millionmetrictonstoday(Figurei).Thisrepresentsanenormousreservoirofplasticwaste(Geyer2020).Changingattitudesabouttheproblemscreatedbyplasticwastearecausingpoliticiansandindustriestoexploitanti-plasticsentimentsthroughenvironmentalconsumerism(UNEPandConsumersInternational2020)andtoconsiderwaysofkeepingthevalueofplasticsinthemarketthroughfeedstocksubstitution,expansionofconsumerreuseoptions,andnewdeliverymodelstohelpavoidwaste(EllenMacarthurFoundation2016;UNEPandInternationalTradeCenter2017;tenBrinketal.2018;Borrelleetal.2020;Lauetal.2020;ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIC2020;EllenMacArthurFoundation2021).Manyglobalbrandcompanieshavealreadyputinplaceplanstochangetheirapproachestopackaginguseconsistentwithnational-levelrecyclingschemes,collectionandrecycling,andtomakeallpackagingreusable,renewableorrecyclable.75Therearenowmanyinitiativesinvolvingtheplasticindustry,businesses,governments,internationalorganizationsandcivilsociety(UNEP2018d).ExamplesincludetheNewPlastics100MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTEconomyGlobalCommitmentledbytheEllenMacArthurFoundation(2018)incollaborationwithUNEP,whichunitesmorethan500businesses,governmentsandotherorganizationsthroughacommonvisionofcircularityinregardtoplastics;MarineLitterSolutions,theframeworkoftheGlobalPlasticsAlliance(anallianceof74plasticassociationsaroundtheworld),whichsupportsover355projectsaimingtopreventleakageofplasticsintotheenvironment;theAlliancetoEndPlastics,throughwhichmorethan80membercompaniesandpartnersaimtoendplasticwasteintheenvironmentandaddresstheplasticwastedatagapthroughPRISM(PlasticRecoveryInsightandSteeringModel);theInternationalSolidWasteAssociationMarineTaskForce,whichishelpingtoquantifyleakagerateswiththePlasticPocketCalculator;OperationCleanSweep,avoluntaryprogrammethatpromotesproperpelletcontainmentalongtheentireplasticsvaluechain;PlasticBank,whichprovideslarge-scalesustainablepremiumsineveryrecyclingcommunityaroundtheworldusingblockchaintechnologytoauthenticaterewards;Plasticforchange,whichmakesitprofitableforcompaniestotransitionawayfromvirginplasticsandstartsourcingrecycledmaterials;NextWave,whosememberscommittodecreasingthevolumeofplasticandnylonwastebeforeitenterstheoceansanddemonstratingthecommercialviabilityandadvantagesofintegratingocean-boundplasticsintotheirsupplychains;theOceanRecoveryAlliance,whichbringstogethernewwaysofthinking,technologies,creativityandcollaborations(includingthePlasticsDisclosureProjectandtheGlobalAlertPlatform)toimprovetheoceanenvironment;andCirculateCapitalOcean,aninvestmentmanagementfundwhichprovidesfinancingforsmallandmedium-sizedenterprisesindevelopingcountriesincludingIndia,IndonesiaandThailandtosetuprecyclingfacilitiesforawiderangeofplastics.76Actionstocurbthegrowthinplasticproductionwillbecrucialtoachievingreductionsinplasticpollutionflows;underanambitiousscenariopeakvirginplasticcouldbereachedby2027andlevelsofvirginplasticproductionreducedby11percent(±1percent)by2040relativeto2016levels(Borrelleetal.2020;Lauetal.2020).Someinitiativesarenowfocusedonshiftingproductionawayfromfossilfuel-basedplastics.SeatotheFuture,anindustryproducerresponsibilityorganization-ledcontribution,existsattheresinproductionlevel.Itaimstogeneratefundsthroughinvestmentintransformativetechnologiesandtosupportenvironmentalremediation,thusaddressingtheperversemarketpricesignalthathaspreventedemergingtechnologieswhichcanrecycleusedplasticsintohigh-puritypolymersfromachievingglobalcommercialization(Forrestetal.2019).ThinkBeyondPlasticsdevelopsandcommercializesbio-basedmaterialsthatcanreplacefossilfuel-basedplasticsandassistsinthedevelopmentofmanufacturingandthedesignofpackingusingthesematerials.774.3.2ReuseandrecyclingCurrentlevelsofplasticrecycling,whichhavebeenestimatedtobelessthan10percent,fallwellbelowglobalrecyclingratesforothercommoditiesandresourcessuchaspaper(58percent),iron(70percent)andsteel(98percent)(Dauvergne2018;Geyer2020).In2017industryfiguresforpackagingindicatedthat93percentofglobalplasticusedwasvirgin,7percentrecycled(ofwhich98percentwasdowncycled),andonly2percentendedupinaclosedloop(EuropeanUnionNetworkfortheImplementationandEnforcementofEnvironmentalLaw2019).Problemswithrecyclingplasticsarisewhenwastestreamsaremixedorwhenthereuseofplasticsisrestricted,forexampleinthecaseoffoodpackagingintheEUunderRegulationECNo282/2008.Inthiscasetherecyclingprocessmustbeauthorizedandmanagedbyanappropriatequalityassurancesystem,guaranteeingthequalityoftherecycledmaterials(Schweitzeretal.2018).However,plasticrecyclingandreuseisgainingtractionwiththehelpofnewtechnologiesandlegislativerequirements.Mostcurrentcommitmentsbygovernmentsandbusinessesaretargetedtowardsspecificplasticitemsorfocuseddownstreamtowardsincreasingrecyclinganddisposal.Forexample,theEUhasputinplacearequirementthatmanufacturersincludeaminimumof30percentrecycledplasticinPETbottlesby2030,andtheIndonesiangovernmenthassetatargettoreducemarineplasticdebrisby70percentby2025.Jointindustryinitiativestocollectmarinelitteronshoreandoffshorealsocontributetomeetingtheneedtodisposeofwastethroughrecyclingandreuse.Examplesofprivate-publicpartnershipsaroundtheworldincludetheFlipFlopicompany,whichconstructedadhowoutofflipflopsfoundontheKenyancoast;WasteFreeOceans,inpartnershipwithFapil,whichusesplasticscollectedatseatomanufacturearangeofhouseholdandcleaningproductsincludingbrushes,mops,broomsandbucketsforbothdomesticandprofessionalpurposes;Bureo,whichmanufacturesskateboards,clothingandsunglassesfromfishnetssourcedfromover50fisheriesinSouthAmericaandpartnerswithnumerouscompanies,suchasPatagonia,toincorporatematerialmadefromrecycledfishnetsintotheirproducts;NortonPoint,whichmakessustainablesunglassesoutofoceanplasticsfromthecanalsandcoastlinesofHaiti;AdidasandParley,whichteameduptomakehigh-performancesportswearthatturns“thethreatintoathread”usingwastecollectedoncoastlines,remoteislandsandcoastalcommunities;Swaggr,whichmakescomfortablehigh-performancesocksfromrecycledplasticbottlescollectedalongcoastlines;AmericanExpress,whosecreditcardsaremanufacturedprimarilyfromoceanplastic;Tesco,asupermarketchainintheUnitedKingdomwhichhasputreversevendingmachinesinitsstorestocollectplasticbottlesandgivecustomersmoneyinexchange;FairHarbor,whichmakesmen’sandwomen’sswimwearfrompost-consumerrecycledplasticbottles;andBedfordTechnology,whichtakesbothpost-consumerandpost-industrialHDPErecyclablesandengineersthemintostructuralanddurablebuildingmaterialsthatareaheavy-dutywoodalternative.Plasticrecyclingiscurrentlyundertakenusingmechanicalandchemicalprocesses.Mechanicalrecyclingisusedfornon-fibreplastic,andincreasinglyforrecycledpolyesteryarns.This101MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTprocessinvolvesgrindingupbottlesintoflakes,washingthem,andthenmeltingthembackintonewpolyesterchips.Chemicalrecycling,whichcombinesvariousplastic-to-fuelandplastic-to-plastictechnologies,turnsplasticintoliquidsorgases,whichcanbeusedtomakenewplastic.Mostrecyclednyloncomesfrommanufacturingwaste(i.e.pre-consumer)andpost-consumerwastesuchasfishingnetsandcarpets.However,inpracticelargevolumesofthesewastesareburned.Evenifplastic-to-plasticchemicalconversionisrapidlyscaledup,itwouldaddressonly6percentofplasticwastein2040andcurrentlyhashighenergyrequirements,withGHGemissions110percenthigherthanmechanicalrecyclingand9percenthigherthanlandfilling(ThePewCharitableTrustsandSYSTEMIQ2020).Moreover,thereareconcernsaboutplastic-to-fuelprocessesbecausetheyperpetuatetheburningoffossilfuels.Ontheotherhand,plastic-to-plasticor“repolymerization”istechnicallychallengingtoscaleupsufficientlytomakeitfinanciallyviable,althoughindustrialexamplesareemerging.78Theproductionofhundredsofdifferentplasticpolymersandproductsalsocomplicatestherecyclingpotentialofplastics(Geyeretal.2016;Zinketal.2018).Forexample,thermoplasticscanbemeltedwhenheated,hardenedwhencooled,andreheated,reshapedandfrozenrepeatedly;thermosetssuchaspolyurethane,vinylesterandarangeofresinsundergoachemicalchangewhenheated,meaningtheycannotbere-meltedandreformed.ThemanyhundredsofadditivescanalsoaltertherecyclingpotentialofplasticsandmayrestricttheirreuseundertheStockholmConventionduetothelikelyreleaseofhazardouschemicalsintotheenvironment(Hansenetal.2013;Hahladakisetal.2018;SecretariatoftheStockholmConvention2020).Productiondataforadditivesaretypicallyomittedfromplasticproductionstatistics,butthereissomeevidencetosuggestthatnon-fibreplasticscontain,onaverage,around7percentadditivesbymass.Inthecaseofadditivessuchasphthalates,usedassofteningandanti-crackingagents,orflameretardants,thereisadangerthatrecyclingwillreleasethesehazardouschemicals(Hahladakisetal.2018).Therearealsoissuesconcerningnon-intentionallyaddedsubstances(NIAS),forexampleinrecycledplastics,andwhereguidancefortheriskassessmentofthesesubstancesinfoodcontactmaterialsandarticlesistobedeveloped(Horodytskaetal.2020).Plasticscaneventuallybedestroyedthermallywithorwithoutenergyrecovery.Arangeofenvironmentalandsocialconcernsareassociatedwiththeconditionsunderwhichincinerationisundertaken,especiallywhenitispoorlymanaged.TheseconcernsincludeGHGemissions,particulatematter,emissionsofpollutantscontainingPOPs,contaminationbyheavymetals(Lietal.2017),socialissuesassociatedwiththelocationofplants,aswellastheneedtocontinuetogeneratewastetokeepincineratorsworking.Theenvironmentalandhealthimpactsofwasteincineratorsstronglydependonthedesign,managementanduseofBestAvailableTechniquesandBestEnvironmentalPractices,alongwithcountries’capacitiestocarryouteffectivesupervisionandmonitoring.Therearesituationsinwhichby-productsaremanaged,butthisrequiresintensivemaintenanceandmanagementofinfrastructure(Quinaetal.2018).Forexample,Steheletal.(2019)analysedtheuseofseparatedwastestreams,undertheEUWasteFrameworkDirective,toreplacefossilfuelsinwaste-to-energyoperationsforurbanheatingsystems;theconclusionwasthatwasteincinerationneedstobedoneinacontrolledmanner,sothatemissionsandimpactscanbecontrolled.4.3.3DevelopmentofalternativematerialsGreenandsustainablechemistryinnovationcanplayanimportantroleinadvancingcircularity,andprovidesignificant©iStock/CarryOnDroning102MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTimprovementstoplasticsderivedfromfossil-fuelfeedstocks,bydesigningmolecules,materialsandproductsthatcanbemoreeasilyrecycledandup-cycledthanthosecurrentlyonthemarket(UNEP2021a).Thiscanbeachieved,forexamplebyeliminatingchemicalsofconcerninproductsthatcurrentlypreventsoundrecoveryandrecycling(UNEP2019b).Forproductsthatareintentionallyreleasedtotheenvironmentandhaveopen-environmentalapplications(e.g.pesticides,cosmetics,biocides,orpharmaceuticals)greenandsustainablechemistryinnovationcouldhelpdesignmoleculesandmaterialsthatrapidlymineralizeintheenvironmentwhileretainingdesiredfunctions.Thecontributionofgreenchemistrytomanyendmarketswhereplasticsarecurrentlyusedissignificant,andinnovationsintransportationindustry,theconstructionindustry,foodandpackaging,andwastemanagementneedtotakethisintoaccount.EvenamidtheCovid-19crisis,theglobalgreenchemicalmarkethasbeenestimatedatUS$93.7billionin2020andisprojectedtoreacharevisedsizeofUS$167.1billionby2027,growingatacompoundannualgrowthratecloseto10percenttoreachUS$77.4billionby2027.79,80Asyetonlyverysmallvolumesofbiosourcedandbio-basedplasticsarebeingproduced81(EuropeanBioplastics2020).In2018,2.11millionmetrictonswereproduced,lessthan1percentofthetotalvolumeofplasticsproduced.Ofthisamount,43percentwasbiodegradableand30percentwasbothbiosourcedandbiodegradable(EuropeanBioplastics2020).82However,themarketsizeforrenewableenergyfrombio-basedfeedstocksismuchlargerthanthatforbio-basedplastics(Posenetal.2017).Thus,foradvancedbio-basedplasticpathwaystotakeoff,theymustnotonlyprovethemselvestechnicallyandeconomicallyfeasible.Anumberoffactorsneedtobeconsideredinshiftingtowardsmorebio-basedfeedstocks(Posenetal.2017).Forexample,thereisheavyrelianceonagriculture,withbio-basedcropstendingtoscorepoorlyonotherenvironmentalmetricssuchasozonedepletion,acidification,eutrophication,wateruseandfoodsecurity(Spierlingetal.2018).Intermsofenergysubstitution,thereisnochangeinthefinalresinproducedandbio-basedpolymerscansubstituteacrossthemarketwithoutanychangestodownstreamproductionmethodsorproductfunctionality.Thisisalsothecaseforbioethylene-basedplastics,butforrenewableproductssuchaspolylacticacid(PLA)thepotentialforsubstitutionismorelimited.Whilebiodegradabilitymaybeanadvantageforpolylacticacidandsomeotherbio-basedplasticsintermsofreducingthevolumesofwastegoingtolandfills,fewcitiesandcommunitieshavetheinfrastructurerequiredforcompostingunderthecorrectconditionssomanyorganizationsusingcompostablebiopolymersarelikelytocontinuetosendtheirwastetolandfills(UNEP2021b).Thismaypresentamajorproblemforbio-basedaswellasbiodegradableplasticsmoregenerally(NapperandThompson2019)(Box4).Thereisalsosignificantconfusionamongconsumersaboutrecyclabilityandbiodegradability,especiallyasdescriptionssuchas“degradable”,“oxo-degradable”,“oxo-biodegradable”and“landfilldegradable”havebeenusedtopromoteproductsmadewithtraditionalfossil-fuelbasedplastics,supplementedwithspecificadditivespromotingdegradability(UNEPandConsumersInternational2020).Overall,replacingonedisposableproduct(e.g.madeofplastic)withanotherdisposableproductmadeofadifferentmaterial(e.g.paper,biodegradableplastic)isonlylikelytotransfertheenvironmentalburdenandcreateotherproblems.Further,toavoidburdenshiftingbetweentheenvironmentalandthesocialdimension,itisimportanttoshiftthefocusofmanufacturerstowardstheproductionofmorecircularandsustainablecommodities(UNEP2021b).©iStock/aydinmutlu103MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT4.3.4BuildingcircularityforplasticsBuildingcircularityinsupportofsustainableconsumptionandproductionobjectivesacrossthelifecycleofplasticsmeansgoingbeyondthe3Rs(Reduce,ReuseandRecycle),to5RswithRecoverandRedesign(Thompsonetal.2009),andfurtherto7RswithRefuseandRethink(IvardoSulandCosta2014;Ivlevaetal.2018).OtherpatternsofRshavealsobeendesignedforcircularity,suchasReceive,Recycle,Repair,Refill,RentandResell.83Thesearenowbeingusedtodelivernewkindsofservices,forexampleshort-termloansofbrandedproductscanthatbereusedbydifferentconsumersincludeluxuryfashiontofurniture(e.g.fromIKEA)andtoys(e.g.LegohasaservicecalledNetbricksforrentalofitslittleplasticbuildingblocks).Insomepartsoftheworldmovementtowardscircularityisalreadyunderway;forexample,theEuropeanUnion’sStrategyforPlasticsintheCircularEconomy(EuropeanCommission2018b)hassetinmotionacomprehensivesetofinitiatives,withbusinessandgovernmentsrespondingtoachallengeofseriouspublicconcern.Theseinitiativesincludeincreasingtheuptakeofrecycledplasticsandcontributingtomoresustainableuseofplasticsbyimplementingmandatoryrequirementsforrecycledcontentandwastereductionmeasures.Anewframeworkforusinggreenchemistrytosupportthedevelopmentofalternativesaimedatachievinggreatercircularityhasbeendeveloped(UNEP2021b),whichfostersavisionofgreenandsustainablechemistryandemphasizesthepotentialfortheglobalchemicalindustrytobecomefullyalignedwiththeenvironmental,socialandeconomicdimensionsofsustainabledevelopmentbycreatinggreenerandmoresustainablechemistryinnovations,whilealsoaddressingtoxicandpersistentlegaciesassociatedwithpastchemistriesinordertominimizeadverseimpactsacrosstheentirelifecycleofchemicalsandproducts.Akeypartoftheframeworkistokeepprocessesassimpleaspossible,withaminimalnumberofsteps,auxiliaries,energy,andunitoperations,toimprovetheenvironmentalperformanceofmanufacturingmaterials.Finally,animportantpartofbuildingcircularityforplasticsisimprovingthetraceabilityofproductsandtheirconstituentparts.Greenchemistrycanprovideinnovativemoleculesthatensuretraceabilityandcanbeusedtocreateproductdigitalpassports(e.g.compositionofproducts,components,andprocesses).These,coupledwithblockchaintechnologies,canenableend-to-endtraceabilityofsupplychains(Cuietal.2019).Whenaproductfailureoccurs,orwhentheproductistoberecycled,themoleculesanddigitalpassportcanprovidetheinformationneededtoidentifythesuppliersandortheconstituentchemicals(UNEP2021b).Blockchaintechnologiesarerevolutionizingsupplychainoperationsandthetracingofplastics,84whichwillhelpimprovesupplychainqualitycontrolandprotecttheenvironmentandhumanhealthaswellasbuildingconsumerconfidence.4.3.5BusinessengagementFindingsolutionstothemarinelitterandplasticlittercrisiswillrequiregreaterengagementofgovernments,andcivilsocietywithbusinessandindustrytobringaboutthenecessarychangesinpoliciesandbusinesspractices(UyarraandBorja2016;Hartleyetal.2018b;Ashleyetal.2019).Multipletypesofindustrieswillneedtochangetheirbusinesspractices,includingoilandgasextractors,producersofplasticresins,extrudersandproductmanufacturers,automotivemanufacturers,textilemanufacturers,consumerproductcompanies,consumerpackagedgoodscompanies,retailers,wastehauliers,landfillers,materialsrecoveryoperators,wastebrokersandrecyclers.Eachoftheseindustrieshasdifferentandsometimescompetinginterestsinthemarket,andeachfacesuniquechallengeswithregardtoaddressingthiscrisis.Thesizeofabusiness(small,national,regional,international)isalsoasignificantfactorinbothidentifyingchallengesanddesigningsolutions.Somekeychallengestoimprovingbusinessengagementincludedatasharingandtransparency,financing,theregulatoryenvironment,andaccesstoresearchanddevelopment(OceanConservancyandMcKinseyCenterforBusinessandEnvironment2015).TheseissueswerediscussedbythemembersoftheScientificAdvisoryCommitteeonMarineLitterandMicroplastics(SAC),andnominatedstakeholdersrepresentingbusinessandcivilsociety,duringthepreparationofthisassessment.Theirconclusionsaredescribedinthesetofrecommendationsbelow:1)DatasharingandaccesstosolutionsProducersandconvertersneedtodisclosemoreinformationabouttheirproducts:forexample,theamountofplasticsproducedannually,bytype/resincode;resintypeandadditivesusedinplasticproductsorpackaging;percentageofvirginfeedstockinproducts;percentageofrecycledplasticsinproducts;specificsrelatedtobio-basedplastics,includingsource(e.g.ifethicallysourced);andsustainabilityoffeedstock,degradabilityandcompostability.Preferablythereshouldbebuy-intoecolabelling/certificationschemes;internationalstandardsforallchemicals;fulldisclosurebytheplasticindustry,includinganyvoluntary/mandatoryEPSschemestheyrespondto;andreductiontargets.Thepackagingindustryandretailersneedtobetterinformthepublicabouttheuseofplasticsintheirproducts.85Forexample,thevolumesofplasticsused,howmuchgoesintodifferentusesandthegeographicdistribution;whetherproductsandpolymersaregoingintomarketsthatcannotmanagetheirdisposal;theamountsofsingle-useplastic(productsandpackaging)distributedintoeachlocalmarket(globally),bytypeandresincode;alladditivesusedinanyplasticproductsorpackagingproducedandused;resintypeandadditivesusedinplasticproductsorpackaging;thepercentageofvirginfeedstockandrecycledplasticsinproducts;thespecificsofanybio-basedplasticsused,includingsource(ethicallysourced)and104MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTsustainabilityoffeedstock,degradabilityandcompostability;useofeco-labelling/certificationschemes;participationinvoluntary/mandatoryextendedproducerresponsibilityschemes;plasticproductandpackagingreductiontargets;refillandreuserates,durabilityandlifespanandtherighttorepair.Retailersandthepackagingindustrydriveproductionofplastics,astheysetthecriteriaforthetypeofpolymerstheyuseintermsofmarketingandbranding.Onesolutionistodevelopindustryguidelinesonthedifferentfatesofplasticsandalternatives.Governmentandthewastebrokers,recyclingandlandfillindustriesneedtoinformthepublicaboutthequantitiesofpost-consumerplasticmaterialspurchasedannuallybytypesandresincode,theamountofmaterialssoldontorecyclersbytypeandresincode,thebreakdownofquantitiessoldtorecyclersoffshore,includingdetailsrelatedtomarketdestination,andthequantitiesdisposedofduetocontaminationofwastestreams,poorqualityandmarketconditions.86Importantinformationonrecyclability,reusability,anddisposalinstructionswhereaproductisbeingusedneedstobedisplayedonproducts,aswellastheresponsibilitiesofproducersandconsumers.Thisrequiresaconsistentapproachtolabelling,especiallyaboutdisposal,similartotheinternationalstandardsforchemicals.Furtherinformationontheconditionsunderwhichaproductisexpectedto(bio)degradealsoneedtobeprovidedthroughaconsistentlabellingscheme.2)FinancingFinancing(e.g.thoughtheUNEPFinanceInitiative,BlueBonds,plasticfootprintandplasticoffsetting,impactinvestmentandplastic-specificEPRschemes),87couldhelptheprocessofchangebysharinginformationabouttheirusewithindifferentindustries,includinginsurancecompaniesandretailers.Financialincentivesfromgovernmenttoestablishneweconomicentitiesandemploymentopportunities,basedoninnovativedesignofnon-toxicmaterialsusinggreenchemistrysolutionstoreplacetheuseofadditives,suchasinfinishingtextiles,wereseenasvital(Holmquistetal.2016;Gulzaretal.2019)Therealsoneedstobemoreinformationaboutthefullriskstodifferentsectorsoftheuseofplasticstobetteralignwiththedifferentriskprofilesoflenders,investorsandinsurancebrokers,forexamplebycommunicatingaboutthescienceofthecarbonfootprintofplastics.88Trainingcoursesforsmallandmedium-sizedenterprisesonwastehandlingarealsoimportanttoensurethatknowledgeisspreadthroughoutthesupplychainuponwhichtenderingandprocurementdecisionscanbebased.89Someofthekeychallengesvoicedbybusinessrepresentativesincludedmakingclearthefinancialrisksofinvestingintheplastics/petrochemicalindustries;potentialcostsofinaction(i.e.notrespondingappropriatelytopublicdemandforenvironmentallyfriendlyproductsandalternativestoplastics);beingabletoarticulatethefinancialopportunitiesforinvestinginrefillandreusesystemstoreplacesingle-use,alternativenon-toxicmaterialsfordurablereuseapplications;thewaysofcommunicatingthehazardsthatplasticspresenttotheirownconsumersandworkers;andtheanimalhealthandenvironmentalhazardsandpotentialdamagetoreputationandmarketshare.Therewerealsoconcernsabouthowtoachievefulltransparencyanddisclosuretoend-users(consumersandgovernments)regardingthequantitiesofdifferentmaterialsbeingused,whichadditivesareintroducedintoproducts.andhowtheyarefinallydisposedof.3)ChallengesandenablingconditionsAkeychallengefromabusinessperspectiveischangeinregulationsandpoliciestoprohibittheuseofplasticmaterialsthatcancauseharmtoecosystemsandhumanhealth,andtheneedforthechangetobemandatory(forexample,allbusinesseswouldbeobligatedtomeetsingle-useplasticproductreductiontargets).Thereismountingevidencefromvariouscountriesthatvoluntary-onlyapproachesareneitherenvironmentallyeffectivenoreconomicallyefficient90andmayleadtolegislationthatisincoherentandineffectiveatenforcingreductions(Maetal.2020).Animportantenablingfactorwouldbetohaveindustry,localgovernment,centralgovernmentandcivilsocietyworkingtogetheronthesameevidencesoastoavoidmistakenassumptions,andtoenablethebestpossiblesolutionstobedevelopedwithaholisticunderstandingofthechallenges,risks,opportunities,drivers,andvaluesofallstakeholders.AclearexampleoftheeffectivenessofthisapproachonaglobalscalehasbeenthedevelopmentoftheCOVID-19vaccines.Anotherexample,atanationallevel,isthemulti-stakeholderworkinggroupwhichisco-designingtheNewZealandNationalContainerDepositScheme.91Collaborativeeffortsareconsideredanimportantstepinrecognizingongoingeffortsandencouragingexchangeofbestpractice,andsharingofsolutions,includinglegislativeinstruments.Forexample,mandatoryproductstewardshiphasproventobemoreeffectivethanvoluntaryapproachesasitprevents“freeriders”.However,somestandardscouldbeginasvoluntaryeffortsandgraduallyinformaglobalstandard;businessesthatadoptedvoluntarystandardsearlyonwouldbecomefrontrunnersUNEP2019b).©iStock/OlgaMiltsova105MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT4.4Researchanddevelopment4.4.1ProgressonkeytopicsandinitiativesandprioritiesInthe2016UNEPreportMarinePlasticDebrisandMicroplastics–GlobalLessonsandResearchtoInspireActionandGuidePolicyChange(UNEP2016)arangeofkeyresearchneedswereidentified,covering:thepropertiesofplastics;sourcesandpathwaysofmarinelitter;distributionandfate,specificallythefactorscontrollingdegradation,includingdefinitionsandspecificationsofbiodegradableproducts;monitoring,specificallythedevelopmentanduseofharmonizedmonitoringtechniques,thedevelopmentofautomatedtechnologies,andmodellingtolookatpatternsofmovementanddeposition;quantificationoftheimpactsofmacroplasticsonbiotaandpotentialrisksofmicroplasticsforfoodwebsandhumanconsumption;socialimpactsanddrivers,includingconsumerperceptionsandbehaviouraldrivers;economicimpactsandnewformsofgovernanceanddecision-making;quantificationofreleasesofdebrisandlitterfromfisheriesandaquaculture;improvedriskassessment;andimprovedassessmentsofthevalueofplastic,ofreducingtheuse,andofrecycling,elasticityofdemandanddifferentincentives.Asthepresentassessmentshows,therehasbeenasignificantamountofresearchduringthepastyearsinmanyofthepriorityareasidentifiedinUNEP(2016).Theseareasincludeimpactsandriskstomarinelife,ecosystemsandhumanhealth;themajorland-basedandsea-basedsourcesofmarinelitterandplasticpollution;pathwaysintothemarineenvironmentandsinks;theenormouspotentialthatmanynewtechnologiesareprovidingforenhancedglobalmonitoringofmarinelitterandplasticpollution;andthebroadrangeoflegislative,businessandcommunityinitiativesthatarenowusingresearchfindingsandnewinnovationstodrivechangeandreducetheimpactsofmarinelitterandplasticpollution.4.4.2OverviewofresearchactivitiesandgapsInareviewofassessmentresearchspanning13yearsandundertakenin52projectsacrossEurope,Maesetal.(2019)concludedthatmarinelitterresearchwas“initsadolescence”.Theyfoundthatthemostrepresentedtopicswerepolicy,governanceandmanagement,andmonitoring,andthatriskassessment,theissueofplasticfragmentationandassessmenttoolswereunder-represented.Othertopicsincludedmodelling,impactandeffect,reductionandremovaltechnologiesandapproaches,socioeconomics,bioaccumulation,educationandoutreach.Theyreportedageographicconcentrationofscientificcapacityandthematichotspots,withWesternEuropeancountrieshavingcontributedmosttomarinelitterresearch.Overall,theauthorsstressedtheimportanceofEuropeanUnionfinancialinstruments(e.g.INTERREG,LIFE,Horizon2020)insupportinglarge-scaleenvironmentalandnatureconservationprojects,astheyhelpedtoimprovecooperationandharmonizationoverwideregionsandtoexpandcapacitybuilding.ThenewHorizonEuroperesearchprogrammeaimstodeliversolutionsinfiveareasofresearchandinnovation,includingcancer,healthyoceans,climate-neutralcities,climatechange,andhealthysoilandfood.Thesealltouchupontheissueofplasticsandcircularity.Marineplasticresearchisalsogrowingwithinthe10countriesintheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN).Mostoftheresearchisfocusedonmonitoringandsurveyingofplasticinthemarineenvironmentandtheimpactofplasticonmarineecosystems(Lyonsetal.2019).However,theimpactofmarineplasticonhumanhealthandlifehasnotattractedmuchattention.Countrieshaveorganizedaseriesofregionalforumsandworkshopstoincreaseunderstandingofmarineplasticpollutionandtoshareandfindsolutions;however,mostofthecurrentactivitiesremainfocusedonincreasingunderstandingofwhereplasticsoccurandtheirdirectimpacts.Severalotherintergovernmentalorganizationsarealsopromotingactions,plansandresearchprojectsintheSoutheastAsiaregion.Amongthem,theRegionalSeasProgramme,COBSEA,isplayingaleadingrole.Overall,countriesintheregionhaverecognizedtheimportanceofmarineplasticpollutionandthatfurtherresearchisneeded.Fromtheliteratureusedinthepreparationofthisassessmentanumberofspecificresearchtopicsandgapshavebeenidentified(Table2).CarneyAlmrothandEggert(2019),deSá©iStock/CasarsaGuru106MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTetal.(2018)andMaesetal.(2019)concludedthatthecurrentstateofknowledgecanprovideareasonablebasisuponwhichtoidentifyresearchprioritiesingeneral,andalsotoidentifyareaswheretherehasbeenlimitedresearchanddevelopmentfundingdespitepolicyandsocietalneeds.Lookingmorebroadly,theyidentifiedseveralareaswhichcontinuetorequirefurtherresearchandinvestment:toenhancethesolutionspacetoaddresstheissueofmarinelitter,including:thedevelopmentofpolymers,includingbio-based,thataresaferandmoreeasilydisposedoforrecycled.Researchshouldfocusonpolymerchemistryandrecyclingtechniques,aswellasonpoliciesthatrestricttheuseofcompoundsknowntobetoxic;researchonandevaluationofenvironmentalandhealthimpactsofmarinemicroplasticsandnanoplastics,includingthepotentialimplicationsofnewmaterialsandnewapplications,becausenewusesintroducenewrisks,aswellasgenderedimpactsofplasticsandassociatedchemicalsinfoodproduction,aquaculture,agricultureandfoodsafety;policyresearchoneffectivemeasurestoreducemicroplastics,establishextendedproducerresponsibilityschemesandimplementreinforcingfiscalinstruments,andencourageecodesignthatstimulatestheuseofnewmaterialsandbothrecyclingandreuse;andbehaviouraleconomicsandeducationresearchongender,nudges,normsandeducationalprocessesbeyondknowledgeacquisitiontoinfluencebehaviouralchanges.4.4.3FutureresearchprioritiesAddressingtheissuesofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionrequiresmultidisciplinary,integratedresearchcoupledwithwidecooperationamongacademicresearchersandprofessionalsfromdifferentspecialistareasandindustry.Thisisparticularlyimportantinareaswhereuncertaintiesexist,suchasthepotentialrisksfromplasticassociatedchemicalsandmicroplastics(BurnsandBoxall2018),wherethereisaneedforintercalibrationofresultsusingdifferentmethodologiesandtechnicalstandards,andwheremoreintegrativeapproaches,suchasnature-basedsolutions,lifecycleapproachesandcircularityarerequired(Temmermanetal.20013).Overall,thereisaneedforresearchtoprovideanswersandinputstopolicyanalysesandriskassessmentsthatarefit-for-purpose(HurleyandNizzetto2018;Bessellingetal.2019;KarnandJenkinson2019;MaelandandStaupe-Delgado2020).BasedoninputsfromtheSACmembersandthefindingsinthisassessment,anumberofsystemicareashavebeenidentifiedthatwouldgreatlybenefitfromdeeperinvestigationoverthenexttwotofiveyears.Theseincludecross-cuttingissuessuchasgenderandintersectionality(age,marginalizedandvulnerablegroups),especiallyinrelationtoexposure,healtheffects,attitudestonewinnovativetechnologiesandoceanliteracy,wheretherehasbeenvirtuallynoresearchpublishedinthepeerreviewedliterature,92plusthefollowing:•Evaluationofthefulllifecycleforkeyplasticproducts,93includingenvironmentalandhealthimpactsofmarineplastics,microplasticsandnanoplastics,socialandeconomiccosts,lossofecosystemservices,thepotentialimplicationsofnewmaterials,genderedimpactsofplasticsandalternatives,andtherisksandimpactsofchemicalsassociatedwithplasticsonfoodproduction,aquaculture,agricultureandfoodsafety;•Developmentofariskframework,basedonafulllifecycleformarinelitterandplasticpollutionfromsourcetosea,coveringecological,social,economicandhealtheffects;•Definitionofhealthandtoxicologicalcriteriaandtestingneededtoestablishexposureofhumansandwildlifetomicroplasticsinaquaticenvironments;•Implementationofopenaccessplatformstoenableglobalmassbalancemodellingofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionandthefluxesandflowsofplasticsenteringthemarineenvironmentfromrivers,wastewatertreatmentplants,wastemanagement,stormsewersthroughcatastrophicevents,andmaritimesectors;•Establishmentofinformaticsandharmonizedmonitoringframeworks,includingstandardmethodologiesforsampling,laboratorytestinganddatacollectiontoquantifythefluxesandflowsofplasticsintothemarineenvironment,thedistributionofplasticsandmicroplasticsandthetoxicologyofmicroplasticsandadditivesintheenvironmentemanatingfromplasticwaste,tobeabletomeasuretheeffectivenessandimpactsofdifferentinterventionsandmitigationefforts;•Definitionofcoresetsofindicators,fromsourcetosea,acrosstheDriversPressuresStateImpactsResponseframeworktomonitorprogressonthereductionofmarinelitterandmicroplastics;•Greenchemistryinnovationtominimizetheuseofadditivesanddevelopalternativepolymersandmaterials,includingbio-based,basedonafull-life-cycleapproachandthataresaferandmoreeasilydisposedoforrecycledanddeveloppathwaystoswitchtoalternatives;•Developmentofecodesignprinciplesacrossallmajorusesectorswhereplasticsareusedextensivelyanddevelopcostroadmaps;•Developmentofwasteandrecyclingtechnologiesthatenablemechanicalandchemicalrecyclingtobeplacedclosetothesourcesofplasticsproductionandconsumptionandtechnologiesandwhichcanhelptoavoidorreducemicro(nano)plasticsleakageintotheenvironmentacrossthelifecycleofplastic;•Developmentofstandardsforplasticcertification,traceabilityandlabellingschemesforallplasticslinkedtoconsumeruse,includingbiodegradability;•Policyresearchoneffectivemeasurestoreduceplasticsincludingmicroplasticx,suchasExtendedProducerResponsibilityschemes,reinforcingfiscalinstruments,standardsforplasticcertification,traceabilityandlabellingschemesforallplasticslinkedtoconsumeruse,encouragingecodesignandgreenchemistrytodevelopnewmaterials;•Assessmentofsocialissuesrelatedtomarinelitterandplastics,includinggender,consumerperceptionsandsocialdrivers,integratingahumanrights-basedapproachthatincludesmeaningfulpublicparticipationandaccesstoremedies;•Developmentofliteracyandeducationalprogrammestoraiseawarenessoftheissueofmarinelitterandplasticpollution107MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT4.5ConclusionThefindingspresentedinthisassessmentunderlinethestepchangethathastakenplacesincethepublicationofthepreviousUNEPreportassessment(UNEP2016)ontheissueofmarinelitterandplasticpollutions,MarinePlasticDebrisandMicroplastics–GlobalLessonsandResearchtoInspireActionandGuidePolicyChange(UNEP2016).Virtuallyeverymajorinternationalorganizationandnationalgovernmenthaspublishedatleastonereportorbriefingpaperonthesubjectofplasticsandtheirimpactsontheenvironment,particularythemarineenvironment,andonsociety.AstheUnitedNationsSecretary-Generalhassaid,94“Wemustremember:...Everythingisinterlinked–theglobalcommonsandglobalwell-being.Thatmeanswemustactmorebroadly,moreholistically,acrossmanyfronts,tosecurethehealthofourplanetonwhichalllifedepends.…weneedmuchmoreambitionandgreatercommitmenttodeliveronmeasurabletargetsandmeansofimplementation,particularlyfinanceandmonitoringmechanisms.In2022,countrieswillholdtheOceanConferencetoprotectandadvancethehealthoftheworld’smarineenvironments…chemicalandsolidwastepollution–plasticsinparticular–mustbereduceddrastically;marinereservesmustincreasesignificantly;andcoastalareasneedgreaterprotection…Theblueeconomyoffersremarkablepotential.Already,goodsandservicesfromtheoceangenerate$2.5trillioneachyearandcontributeover31milliondirectfull-timejobs–atleastuntilthepandemicstruck.Weneedurgentactiononaglobalscaletoreapthesebenefitsbutprotecttheworld’sseasandoceansfromthemanypressurestheyface.Thisisamomentoftruthforpeopleandplanetalike.COVIDandclimatehavebroughtustoathreshold.Thedoorisopen;thesolutionsarethere.Nowisthetimetotransformhumankind’srelationshipwiththenaturalworld–andwitheachother.Andwemustdosotogether.”andtohelpchangehumanbehaviourstowardsthosethatreducemismanagementofplasticwaste;and•Behaviouraleconomicsandeducationresearchonnudges,normsandeducationalprocessesbeyondknowledgeacquisitiontoinfluencebehaviouralchanges.108MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTTable2:ResearchneedsandgapsidentifiedinthisassessmentResearchareaExamplesMonitoringandmeasurementsVolumesandcharacteristicsoflitterandmicroplasticsinfreshwaterenvironments,includingrivers,lakesandreservoirsAtmosphericconcentrationsofmicroplasticsModellingandinformaticsGlobalmassbalancemodelestimatesandscenariosLifecycleanalysisofplasticsproduction,reuse,recyclinganddisposalBlockchaintechnologiesapplicationsMethodsandindicatorsLaboratoryandfieldassaysofmicro(nano)plasticsinallmediaMethodologiesforsampling,laboratorytestinganddatacollectiontomeasurefluxesandflowsoflitterandplasticsintothemarineenvironmentSpecificapplicationsofearthobservationsandremotesensingincludingsatellites,drones,autonomousmeasurementsDefinitionofcoresetofindicatorsfrom-source-to-seaacrosstheDPSIR(Drivers,Pressures,State,ImpactandResponse)frameworktomonitorprogressonthereductionofmarinelitterandmicroplasticsIndicatorsandtargetsonretentionanddischargesfromwatertreatmentplantsIndicatorsofimpactsoflitterandplasticsonwildlife,includingtoxicologyofmicroplasticsandadditivesIndicatorsofsocialandeconomicimpactsofexposuretomarinelitterandplasticsIntercalibrationofindicatorsacrossland-marinedomainsandintegrationofdataflowsInformaticsandmonitoringframeworkoffluxesandflowsoflitterandplasticsenteringthemarineenvironmentDistributionandabundanceInsitusamplingandestimationofdepositionratesSourceandtypesIntegratedframeworkfrom-source-to-seaofcategoriesofplasticsandlittertoenablelifecycleanalysisandassessmentPathwaysMeasurementsoftimetrajectoriesanddegradationratesfordifferenttypesoflitterandplasticalongdifferentpathways,especiallyinsedimentsandcoastalecosystemsSpatialandtemporaltrendsMovement,concentrationandsequestrationestimatesindifferentenvironmentsHotspotsandaccumulationsIdentificationofhotspots,determinationofphysicalandchemicalleachingprocessesandaccumulationratesEcological,environmentalandsocioeconomicimpactsandeffectsDefinitionofgoodstatus/healthrelatingtolitterandplasticsinfreshwaterandmarineenvironmentsEcosystemeffectsofmarinelitterandplasticsImpactsofingestionofplasticsandlitteronmarineorganismsImpactsofchemicaladditivesandmicroplasticsonphysiologyandepidemiologyinmarineorganismsandinhumans,throughthefoodchainChemicaladditivesandleachatesChemicaltoxicityduringmanufacture;leachingratesfromplastics,e.g.POPsindifferentenvironments;toxicologicaleffectsonmarineorganismsSorptionratesofchemicalsbyplasticsinthefieldBioaccumulationandtransferEvidenceofbioaccumulationofmicro(nano)plasticsinmarineorganismsandmechanismsoftransferFragmentationratesandmechanismsEnvironmentalconditionsandmechanismsaffectingfragmentationRiskandimpactassessmentsIntegratedriskframeworkandimpactcriteriaHumanhealthandfoodrelatedissuesExposureanduptakepathways;impactsfrommicro(nano)plasticsincludingcriticalthresholdsMeasuresandsolutionsCriteriaandanalysisofeffectivenessofregulatory,fiscalandvoluntarymeasuresandinstruments109MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTTable2:Researchneedsandgapsidentifiedinthisassessment(continued)ResearchareaExamplesMaterialscience,ecodesign,recyclingandlifecyclesTechnologiestoavoidorreducemicroplasticsenteringthemarineenvironmentNewchemistriesandmaterialsthatprovide“plastic”characteristics,e.g.flexibility,butwithreducedpost-consumerhazardsandgreaterrecyclabilityAlternativestothemostprevalentsingle-useplasticitemsandfishinggearfoundinlitter,andcostedroadmapsfortheswitchEcodesignprinciplesforplasticsubstitutesandcostedroadmapsacrosssectors,withaparticularfocusonmaritimeindustriessuchasfisheries,aquaculture,offshoreoperations,shippingandtourismOpenaccesscertificationandtraceabilityschemesforallplasticsImprovedlabellingofpolymersandresinsforrecyclabilityanddegradationTechnologiesandcostedroadmapsforsustainablebio-basedplasticWastemanagementtechnologyandpracticesImprovementtorecyclingincludingsortingandcollection,e.g.artificialintelligence(AI),roboticsandadvancedsensorsTechnologiestodetect,measureandremovesubstancesofconcernfromplasticsTechnologiesforrecyclingcomplexplasticwaste,e.g.chemicalrecyclingSocialandbehaviouralchangeDesignofmarketmechanismstoencouragefossilfuelfreeplasticsEducationalschemestoencourageturningknowledgeintoactionCommunicationprocessesformovingtozeroplasticsemissionsComprehensivebehaviouralandcommunitychangeprogrammesOutreachandawarenessEffectivecommunicationwiththegeneralpublictobringaboutbehaviouralchange110MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT29SYNTHESISANNEXII:REGIONALACTIONPLANSONMARINELITTER5NameOrganization/entityYearLinkRegionalActionPlanonMarineLitterintheArcticRegionalActionPlanforMarineLitterintheBalticSeaBlackSeaMarineLitterRegionalActionPlanRegionalActionPlanonMarineLitterRegionalPlanonMarineLitterManagementintheMediterraneanRegionalActionPlanforPreventionandManagementofMarineLitterintheNorth-EastAtlanticNOWPAPRegionalActionPlanonMarineLitterPacificRegionalActionPlan–MarineLitter(2018-2025)RegionalActionPlanfortheSustainableManagementofMarineLitterintheRedSeaandGulfofAdenRegionalMarineLitterActionPlanforSouthAsiaSeasRegionBasuraMarinaenlaRegiondelPacificoSudesteWesternIndianOceanRegionalActionPlanonMarineLitterRegionalActionPlanonMarineLitterManagementfortheWiderCaribbeanRegionASEANRegionalActionPlanforCombatingMarineDebrisintheASEANMemberStatesG7ActionPlantoCombatMarineLitterG20ActionPlanonMarineLitterActionPlantoAddressMarinePlasticLitterfromShipsAPECRoadmaponMarineDebris2021201520182019201320142008(updateexpected2021)20182018201920072018201420212015201720182019ProtectionoftheArcticMarineEnvironment(PAME)HelsinkiConvention/BalticMarineEnvironmentProtectionCommission(HELCOM)BucharestConvention/CommissiontheProtectionoftheBlackSeaAgainstPollutionCoordinatingBodyfortheSeasofEastAsia(COBSEA)ConventionfortheProtectionoftheMediterraneanSeaAgainstPollution(BarcelonaConvention)/MediterraneanActionPlanOSPARCommission/ConventionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlanticNorthwestPacificActionPlan(NOWPAP)NoumeaConvention/SecretariatofthePacificRegionalEnvironmentProgramme(SPREP)RegionalOrganizationfortheConservationoftheEnvironmentoftheRedSeaandGulfofAden(PERSGA)SouthAsiaCo-operativeEnvironmentProgramme(SACEP)PermanentCommissionfortheSouthPacific(CPPS)NairobiConventionCartagenaConvention–UNEPCaribbeanEnvironmentProgramme(CEP)AssociationofSoutheastAsiaNations(ASEAN)Groupof7Groupof20InternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)Asia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/10017https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/197https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/194https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/196https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/198https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/201https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/200https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/205https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/203https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/204https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/238https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/199https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/195https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/10008https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/190https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/191https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/action_plan/237https://digital.gpmarinelitter.org/project/1775.ThereisongoingdevelopmentofDraftRegionalActionPlansonMarineLitterisunderwayintheCaspian,NortheastPacific,andWestern,CentralandSouthAfricaregions.5AnnexI:ThedevelopmentofDraftRegionalActionPlansonMarineLitterisunderwayintheCaspian,NortheastPacific,andWestern,CentralandSouthernAfricaregions.ANNEXI:REGIONALACTIONPLANSONMARINELITTER5111MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTENDNOTESREFERENCES©iStock/Sablin112MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENT1https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/77202The2016UNEPreportisavailableathttps://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7720.Usingwebofknowledge.comtosearchthescientificliteratureonmarinelitter,debrisandplasticspublishedinalllanguagesshowsthattherehasbeenadoublingintheannualpublicationrateduringthepastthreeyears.Basedonapproximately90,000peerreviewedjournalpapers,ithasbeenpossibletoidentifyareaswherethereishighresearchintensity,aswellaswhereimportantknowledgegapsremain.3InternationalAgencyforResearchonCancer(IARC)monographsontheevaluationofcancerrisksofchemicals:http://monographs.iarc.fr/;UnitedStatesCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC)NationalBiomonitoringProgram:https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/index.html4https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-whale-idUSKBN15I2EI5WorldBankdataoncountry-specificwastegenerationandmanagementfromWhataWaste:AGlobalReviewofSolidWasteManagement(HoornwegandBhada-Tata2012).6Theaveragecompositionofmunicipalsolidwaste(MSW)inSub-SaharanAfricaisabout57percentorganic,9percentpaper/cardboard,13percentplastic,4percentglass,4percentmetaland13percentothermaterials(UNEP2018c)7Thesustainabilityoftheuseofplasticsinagriculture,andoptionstoimprovetheircircularity,areaddressedindepthinaforthcomingglobalassessmentbytheFAO.8EurostatPRODuctionCOMmunautaireprovidesstatisticsonproduction,exportsandimportsofmanufacturedgoodsintheEU:https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Industrial_production_statistics_introduced_-_PRODCOM9https://countermeasure.asia/10ThereisavisualizationofthesurfacecurrentdistributionofplasticonthePlasticAdriftopenplatform:vanSebille(2019):http://www.plasticadrift.org/11https://www.esr.org/research/oscar/oscar-surface-currents/;http://marine.copernicus.eu/services-portfolio/access-to-products/;https://www.umr-lops.fr/en/Projects/Active-projects/SKIM;https://swot.jpl.nasa.gov/;https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2019.00457/full;https://mdc.coaps.fsu.edu/scatterometry/meeting/docs/2016/Tue_PM/B_winds_update.pdf12GOOSisthemajorinternationalprogrammeexecutedbytheIntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission(IOC)oftheUNEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),whichcombinesthecoordinatedcontributionsoforganizationsandresearchersworldwide.GOOSobservationsarecoordinatedbytheJointIOC-WorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO)TechnicalCommissionforOceanographyandMarineMeteorology.ThiscommissionwasestablishedbytheIOCandtheWMOtocoordinateworldwidemarinemeteorologicalandoceanographicservicesandtheirsupportingobservationalanddatamanagementservicesandcapacitybuildingprogrammes.See:https://www.goosocean.org13https://www.akvaplan.niva.no/mynewsdesk-articles/multicopter-drones-map-marine-litter-in-the-arctic/14https://www.pml.ac.uk/Research/Projects/OPTIMAL;http://scor-flotsam.it/index.html15https://imos.org.au/facilities/shipsofopportunity16https://www.ferrybox.comEndnotes17ExamplesincludeinternationalandglobalprogrammessuchastheArgoProgramme:http://www.argo.net;theNOAA/AOMLXBTNetwork:https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/goos/xbt_network/;theGlobalDrifterProgram:NOAAhurricaneglidershttps://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/goos/gliders/index.php;PIRATA;SouthAtlanticMeridionalCirculation(SAMOC)18http://www.oceansites.org19https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DVKV5DagZic20www.plasticadrift.org21https://oceanconservancy.org/about/partnership/international-coastal-cleanup/;https://www.projectaware.org/;https://www.5gyres.org/22SDGtarget14.1containsacommitmentbycountriesto“preventandsignificantlyreducemarinepollutionofallkindsinparticularfromland-basedactivities,includingmarinedebris(…)by2025”(UNGeneralAssembly2015;UNEA2018).TheproposedmetadataisgiveninUnderstandingtheStateoftheOcean:AGlobalManualonMeasuringSDG14.1.1,SDG14.2.1,SDG14.5.1(UNEP2021c).23http://jpi-oceans.eu/baseman/workpackages24TheGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter(GPML)waslaunchedinJune2012atRio+20inBrazil,undertheGlobalProgrammeofActionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentfromLand-basedActivities(GPA)(UNEP2013),toprotecthumanhealthandtheglobalenvironmentbythereductionandmanagementofmarinelitterthroughawiderangeofactivities.Thepartnershipcomprisesinternationalagencies,governments,NGOs,academia,theprivatesectorandcivilsociety,whichcontributeintheformoffinancialsupport,in-kindcontributionsand/ortechnicalexpertise.TheGPMLissupportingthedevelopmentofadigitalmulti-stakeholderplatformthataimstointegratedataandinformationsources;connectstakeholders;enhancecooperationandcoordination;helptopromoteawarenessofsourcesandpathwaysofmarinelitterandtheirfateandimpacts;andsupportknowledgemanagement,informationsharing,policydevelopmentandmonitoringofprogressonimplementationofSDGrelatedindicators,actionplansandvoluntarycommitments.25https://ospar.org/;http://web.unep.org/unepmap;https://www.5gyres.org/trawlshare-application26https://helcom.fi/baltic-sea-trends/data-maps/databases/27https://mcc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/main/dev.py?N=41andO=434andtitre_chap=TG%2520Marine%2520Litter;http://www.helcom.fi/;http://www.blacksea-commission.org/;http://www.emodnet-chemistry.eu/welcome;https://www.ices.dk/data/data-portals/Pages/DATRAS.aspx;https://www.ices.dk/data/data-portals/Pages/DOME.aspx28www.opendatacube.org/copy-of-aodn;www.data4sdgs.org/ARDC;http://maps.helcom.fi/website/mapservice/29Thestudylookedatsixnetworksindetail:theAustralianMarineDebrisInitiativehttps://www.tangaroablue.org;theGermanRoundTableMarineLitterwww.muell-im-meer.de;theIndonesianWastePlatformhttp://www.indonesianwaste.org/en/home;thePortugueseMarineLitterAssociationhttps://www.aplixomarinho.org;theAfricanMarineWasteNetworkhttps://africanwastenetwork.org.za;andtheGlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter:https://www.gpmarinelitter.org/30https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=747131https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/partnerships/marine-debris-tracker;https://oceanconservancy.org/trash-free-seas/113MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTinternational-coastal-cleanup/;https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/europes-seas-and-coasts/assessments/marine-litterwatch/briefing;https://www.mcsuk.org/beachwatch/;https://mcc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/main/dev.py?N=simpleandO=380andtitre_chap=%25C2%25A0andtitre_page=RIMMEL.32Indicator14.1.1isIndexofcoastaleutrophicationandfloatingplasticdebrisdensity.33http://pelletwatch.org/34https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/35http://www.beatthemicrobead.org/;http://coastwatch.org/europe/microlitter/;https://www.sas.org.uk/our-work/beach-cleans/;https://www.ospar.org/work-areas/eiha/marine-litter;https://mcc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/main/dev.py?N=simple&O=394&titre_page=RIMMEL%2520observation%2520Network;https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/theplastictide/the-plastic-tide/classify36https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/europes-seas-and-coasts/assessments/marine-litterwatch37https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/citizen-science-and-data-integration-for-understanding-marine-litter38https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvfru/2080/208009.htm39https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/unep_ci_2020_can_i_recycle_this.pdf40GreenpeacePhilippines:https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/;https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dyAJfVEF0iNl5N0vlvkiF0Nj7FpQpuZf/view41https://sableislandinstitute.org/marine-litter-brand-audit-sable-island-september-2018/42https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-03-18/even-garbage-is-using-blockchain-now43https://www.goodearthcotton.com/44https://maritim.go.id/portfolio/indonesias-plan-action-marine-plastic-debris-2017-2025/;http://asemconnectvietnam.gov.vn/default.aspx?ZID1=3&ID1=2&ID8=9313845Todaynearly98percentofplasticsaremadealmostentirelyfromfossilfuels.Alternativebio-basedplasticsaremadefromorganicwastematerialandcropssuchasmaize(corn)andvegetableoilcrops,potentiallydivertinglandthatcouldbeusedforfoodproductionandhabitatprotection.Biomass-basedpolymersalsotendtobemoreexpensivethanthosebasedonfossilfuels,reflectingwidespreadsubsidiestotheoilandgasindustry(UNEP2014).46https://www.plasticpollutiontreaty.org/47www.gpmarinelitter.org48MARPOLAnnexV:seehttps://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Garbage-Default.aspx49https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Documents/IMO%20marine%20litter%20action%20plan%20MEPC%2073-19-Add-1.pdf50http://www.basel.int/tabid/6069/Default.aspx51http://www.basel.int/?tabid=834752http://www.basel.int/?tabid=834753https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-13/cop-13-dec-10-en.pdf54https://www.ramsar.org/about-the-convention-on-wetlands-055https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/wto-address-plastic-pollution/56http://mddb.apec.org/Documents/2015/OFWG/OFWG2/15_ofwg2_025.pdf;http://www.oecd.org/environment/waste/recircle.htm57SomeoftheRegionalSeasConventionsandActionPlanshavespecificplansonmarinelitter.Moredetailscanbefoundat:AbidjanConventionhttp://abidjanconvention.org/;CommissionfortheConservationofAntarcticMarineLivingResources(CCAMLR),AntarcticTreatyhttps://www.ccamlr.org/en/data/data;ArcticCouncil,OttawaDeclarationhttps://arctic-council.org/en/resources/;HelsinkiCommission(HELCOM),HelsinkiConventionhttps://helcom.fi/action-areas/;BlackSeaCommission,BucharestConventionhttp://www.blacksea-commission.org/Inf.%20and%20Resources/Data%20Links/;CaspianEnvironmentProgramme,TehranConventionhttps://www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/working-regional-seas/regional-seas-programmes/caspian-sea;Oslo-ParisConvention(OSPAR)fortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-EastAtlantichttps://www.ospar.org/;AntiguaConventionhttps://www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/working-regional-seas/regional-seas-programmes/north-east-0?_ga=2.256901323.1346881430.1623578768-437061112.1613130463;CoordinatingBodyontheSeasofEastAsia(COBSEA)https://www.unep.org/cobsea/what-we-do,UNEnvironmentMediterraneanActionPlan(UNEP-MAP),BarcelonaConventionhttps://www.unep.org/unepmap/;NorthwestPacificActionPlan(NOWPAP)https://www.unep.org/nowpap/;PacificRegionalEnvironmentProgramme,SecretariatofthePacificRegionalEnvironmentProgramme(SPREP),NoumeaConventionhttps://www.sprep.org/;RegionalOrganizationfortheConservationoftheEnvironmentoftheRedSeaandGulfofAden(PERSGA),JeddahConventionhttp://www.persga.org/index.php;RegionalorganizationfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironment(ROMPE),KuwaitConventionhttp://ropme.org/home.clx;HamiltonDeclarationhttp://www.sargassoseacommission.org/meet-the-commission/hamilton-declaration;SouthAsiaCooperativeEnvironmentProgramme,SouthAsianSeasActionPlanhttp://www.sacep.org/;PermanentCommissionfortheSouthPacific(CPPS),LimaConventionhttp://cpps-int.org/58AnexampleofamarinelitterplanisthatoftheProtectionoftheArcticMarineEnvironmentWorkingGroupoftheArcticCouncil:https://www.pame.is/document-library/pame-reports-new/pame-ministerial-deliverables/2021-12th-arctic-council-ministerial-meeting-reykjavik-iceland/801-regional-action-plan-on-marine-litter-in-the-arctic/file59Establishedin1991,theBamakoConventionontheBanoftheImportintoAfricaandtheControlofTransboundaryMovementandManagementofHazardousWasteswithinAfricacameintoforcein1998,inrelationtoArticle11oftheBaselConvention.Twenty-nineof54AfricancountrieshaveratifiedtheConvention.60https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20190321IPR32111/parliament-seals-ban-on-throwaway-plastics-by-202161https://www.unenvironment.org/events/unep-event/xxii-forum-ministers-environment-latin-america-and-caribbean;https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/34801/APWMEN.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y62Productsincludedplatesandcutlery(forks,knives,spoonsandchopsticks),plasticstraws,cottonbudsmadeofplastic,plasticballoonsticks,oxo-degradableplasticsandfoodcontainers,andexpandedpolystyrenecups.63”MaineFirstU.S.StatetoBanStyrofoamContainers”(2019):https://www.ecowatch.com/maine-bans-styrofoam-2636014775.html64BasedoninputsfromUNEP(2018d),DeutscheWelleandthe114MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTorg;http://www.oceanrecov.org;http://www.circulatecapital.com77https://www.thinkbeyondplastic.com/innovationcenter78Forexample,theSekisuiChemicalandSumitomoChemicalcompaniesplantodeployanewtechnologyin2022tomanufacturepolyolefinsusingwasteasarawmaterialtosupporttheircirculareconomyinitiatives(Bailey2020).Thetechnologyenablesgasificationofcombustiblewasteaccumulatedatwastedisposalfacilitiesintocarbonmonoxideandhydrogen,withouttheneedforwasteseparation,andconvertsthesegasesintoethanolusingamicrobialcatalyst,whichobviatestheneedforheatorpressure.79https://member.reportlinker.com/#/search?query=green%20chemicals&type=report80https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20200319005600/en/Green-Chemicals-Market-Demand-from-Emerging-Economies-to-Boost-Market-Growth-Technavio81Biosourcedmaterialsincludeagro-polymerssuchaspolysaccharides(starches,ligno-cellulose,pectins,gumsandchitosans)andanimalandplantproteinsandlipids(casein,whey,collagen,gelatin;soya,gluten);microorganisms;andbiotechnologysynthesisofpolylactides.Biomass-basedplasticscomefromsugarcane,starch,vegetableoil,etc.andmineralssuchassalt.82Thebio-basedplasticsmarketisstilldrivenbydemandforbio-basedpolyethyleneterephthalate(PET)(non-biodegradable)andbiodegradablestarch-basedblends,followedbybiosourcedpolyamide(PA)(non-biodegradable),polylacticacid(PLA)(compostable)andbiosourcedPE(non-biodegradable),withpackagingaccountingfor65percentofdemandaheadoftextiles,consumergoods,automobilesandtransportation,orconstruction.83Fawkes,P.(2019).”Comingfullcircle:Sustainableretailinapost-recyclingage”:https://www.psfk.com/2019/12/sustainable-retail-circular-economy.html84www.circularise.com;www.eiravato.com85Exampleonplasticwrapping–Tesco:https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jan/24/tesco-to-stop-sale-of-plastic-wrapped-multipacks-in-stores86WRAP(2018)estimatesthatonlyoneiteminevery10intheUKcanberecycled.87TheUNEPFIPrinciplesforResponsibleBankingprovidetheframeworkforasustainablebankingsystemandtohelpindustryshowhowtomakeapositivecontributiontosociety:https://www.unepfi.org/banking/bankingprinciples/;https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/10/29/seychelles-launches-worlds-first-sovereign-blue-bond88Unwrappingtherisksofplasticpollutiontotheinsuranceindustry:https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/30915Thisstudyidentifieshowrisksrelatedtoplasticpollutionplayoutacrossinsurancelinesandassetclassesinwhichinsurersinvest.Itarguesthatinsurersshouldtakeanactiveroleinaddressingtherisksrelatedtoplasticpollutionandincontributingtoglobaleffortstoreduceit.Theplasticslandscapeseries:Aseriesaimedatequippinginvestorswiththeinformationtheyneedtounderstandplasticasasystemicissue,providingatechnicaloverviewofplasticandtheplasticmarket,andexploringcommonconcepts.Italsohelpsinvestorstoidentifywhereandhowtheirportfoliosmightbeexposedtoplastic,enablingthemtoanalyserelevantsectorsandengageatthecorporateandpolicylevelsaccordingly.https://www.unpri.org/esg-issues/environmental-issues/plastics89AnexampleistheABSAapproachtoencouraginglearninginpartnershipwithStrathmoreUniversityBusinessSchoolinKenya:EarthPolicyInstitute:https://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/blogs/11156/34-plastic-bans-in-africa/65https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-2089153966www.reassemblingrubbish.xyz67https://zerowasteworld.org/68http://www.kimointernational.org/fishing-for-litter;https://zerowasteeurope.eu;http://www.wrap.org.uk.69IrelandhasestablishedEPRschemesforelectronicwaste,end-of-lifevehicles,batteries,packaging,agriculturalplasticsandtyresandhasplanstoimplementsuchaschemefortextilewaste.FrancehasEPRschemesfortextilewaste,establishingobligationsforproducerstotakeback50percentofthevolumesputonthemarket.SwedenconsideredamandatoryEPRsystemfortextileproducts,butthefinaldecisionhasbeenlefttoproducerorganizations.SeveralEUMemberStateshaveadoptedEPRschemesforagriculturalplasticwaste,includingplasticmulchfilms,rowcoverings,highandlowtunnelsandgreenhouses.EPRisalsobeingimplementedforspecifictypesofwastescontainingplasticssuchasdisposableplastickitchenware(Belgium);pesticides,fertilizers,seedandplantpackaging,furniture,officeequipmentandinkcartridges(France);medicalandpharmaceuticalpackaging(Portugal);plasticfoilsandbulkyplastics(Austria)(EuropeanCommission2018b);packaging,electronics,PVCandmicrobeads(Australia);packagingandelectronics(Brazil);packaging,electronicsandvehicles(China);multilayerplasticsandfilms(India);packagingandelectronics(Japan);andplasticbags,crockery,bottles,homeware,stationary,carpets,textileelectronics(RussianFederation)(UNEP2018d).70https://www.gpmarinelitter.org/what-we-do/action-plans71Ecomodulationmeansprovidingclearerincentivesfortheadequatedesignofproductsratherthanflatfeesperton,whichresultinlight-weightingonly,oftenleadingtonon-recyclableproductssuchasmostflexibleplasticpackaging.AnexamplecanbeseeninFrance:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095965262035760772DevelopedwithintheMARLISCOprojectbytheMediterraneanInformationOfficeforEnvironment,CultureandSustainableDevelopment(MIO-ECSDE),theresourcepack“Know,Feel,Act!toStopMarineLitter:Lessonplansandactivitiesformiddlelevelstudents”isdesignedforeducatorsworkingwithyoungpeopleaged10-15informalornon-formaleducationalsettings.Itcontains17learningactivitiesthatexaminecharacteristics,sources,effects,andpossiblewaystotacklemarinelitter,addressingitfromanenvironmental,societal,culturalandeconomicpointofview.Theonlinecoursetrainededucatorstousetheresourcepackintheirteachingandaimedatincreasingtheirskillsandconfidenceindoingso,withastrongfocusonpedagogyratherthanonmarinelitterfacts.Thepackisavailablein15languages(http://www.marlisco.eu/education.en.html)73https://phys.org/news/2020-09-oil-industry-risky-plastics.html74Kimman,C.D.andSaran,N.ThePlasticWasteMakersIndex,MinderooFoundation:https://www.npr.org/2021/05/18/997937090/half-of-the-worlds-single-use-plastic-waste-is-from-just-20-companies-says-a-stu75West-Rosenthal,L.B.(2019).”22bigcompaniesthataregettingridofplasticforgood”:https://www.rd.com/culture/companies-getting-rid-plastic/76http://www.marinelittersolutions.com;http://www.endplasticwaste.org;https://plasticpollution.leeds.ac.uk/;http://www.opcleansweep.eu;http://www.plasticbank.org;http://www.plasticsforchange.org;http://www.nextwaveplastics.115MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENThttps://www.absa.africa/absaafrica/our-stories/our-voices/2020/three-ways-to-develop-your-supply-chain/90“The[NewZealand]government’sapparentpreference,reinforcedbyvocalsectorsofsociety,forusingvoluntarymeasurestomanagecontentiousresourcemanagementandenvironmentalissues.Yetweuseamorediversepolicymix,includingeconomicinstrumentsandregulation,tomodifybehaviourrangingfromdrinkingandsmokingtodrivinganddogcontrol.Theweightofevidencesuggeststhat,whereasignificantshiftinpublicbehaviourisneeded,voluntarymeasuresarenotenough”(NewZealandParliamentaryCommissionerfortheEnvironment,2006p.6).Additionalmountingevidencethatvoluntary-onlyapproachesareinsufficientcanbefound(AucklandCouncilandWasteMINZ,2017;CCME,2014;EPRCanada,2014;ZeroWasteEuropeandFPRCR,2015):https://www.nzpsc.nz/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/NZPSC-open-submission-to-PCE-v-final-sept-2018.pdf91https://www.marlborough.govt.nz/services/recycling-and-resource-recovery/rubbish-and-recycling-projects/container-return-scheme/design-progress-to-date92http://www.oecd.org/dac/gender-development/1849277.pdf93TheLifeCycleInitiative(hostedbyUNEP)hasdevelopedaseriesofstudiesonthistopic:https://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/activities/key-programme-areas/technical-policy-advice/single-use-plastic-products-studies/94https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/speeches/2020-12-02/address-columbia-university-the-state-of-the-planet116MARINELITTERANDPLASTICPOLLUTIONGLOBALASSESSMENTReferencesAanesen,M.,Armstrong,C.,Czajkowski,M.,Falk-Petersen,J.,Hanley,N.andNavrud,S.(2015).Willingnesstopayforunfamiliarpublicgoods:Preservingcold-watercoralinNorway.EcologicalEconomics112,53-67.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.02.007.Accessed11January2021.Abbasi,S.,Soltani,N.,Keshavarzi,B.,Moore,F.,Turner,A.andHassanaghae,M.(2018).MicroplasticsindifferenttissuesoffishandprawnfromtheMusaEstuary,PersianGulf.Chemosphere20580-87.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.04.076.Accessed11January2021.Accinnelli,C.Abbas,H.W.,Shier,W.T.,Vicari,A.,Little,N.S.etal.(2019).Degradationofmicroplasticseedfilm-coatingfragmentsinsoil.Chemospehere226645-650.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.03.161.Accessed11January2021.Acuña-Ruz,T.,Uribe,D.,Taylor,R.,Amézquita,L.,Guzmán,M.C.,Merrill,J.etal.(2018).Anthropogenicmarinedebrisoverbeaches:Spectralcharacterizationforremotesensingapplications.RemoteSensingofEnvironment217,309-322.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.08.008.Accessed11January2021.Adam,V.,Yang,T.andNowack,B.(2019).Towardanecotoxicologicalriskassessmentofmicroplastics:Comparisonofavailablehazardandexposuredatainfreshwaters.EnvironmentalToxicologyandChemistry38(2),436-447.https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4323.Accessed11January2021.Adimey,N.,Hudak,C.,Powell,J.R.,Bassos-Hull,K.,Foley,A.,Farmer,N.A.etal.(2014).Fisherygearinteractionsfromstrandedbottlenosedolphins,FloridamanateesandseaturtlesinFlorida,U.S.A.MarinePollutionBulletin81(1),103-115.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.02.008.Accessed11January2021.Adyel,T.M.(2020).AccumulationofplasticwasteduringCOVID-19.Science369(6509),1314-1315.http://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd9925.Accessed11January2021.Agamuthu,P.,Mehran,S.B.,Norkhairah,A.andNorkhairiyah,A.(2019).Marinedebris:Areviewofimpactsandglobalinitiatives.WasteManagementandResearch37,987-1002.https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X19845041.Accessed11January2021.Akarsu,C.,Kumbura,H.,Gökdağb,K.,Kıdeyş,A.E.andSanchez-Vidal,A.(2020).MicroplasticscompositionandloadfromthreewastewatertreatmentplantsdischargingintoMersinBay,northeasternMediterraneanSea.MarinePollutionBulletin150,110776.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110776.Accessed11January2021.Akhbarizadeh,R.,Moore,F.andKeshavarzi,B.(2019).InvestigatingmicroplasticsbioaccumulationandbiomagnificationinseafoodfromthePersianGulf:Athreattohumanhealth?FoodAdditivesandContaminants:PartA36(11),1696-1708.http://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2019.1649473.AccessedJanuary2021.Alexy,P.,Anklam,E.,Emans,T.,Furfari,A.,Galgani,F.,Hanke,G.etal.(2020).Managingtheanalyticalchallengesrelatedtomicro-andnanoplasticsintheenvironmentandfood:Fillingtheknowledgegaps.FoodAdditivesandContaminants:PartA37(1),1-10.http://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2019.1673905.Accessed11January2021.Aliani,S.,andMolcard,A.(2003).Hitch-hikingonfloatingmarinedebris:MacrobenthicspeciesinthewesternMediterraneanSea.Hydrobiologia503,59-67.https://doi.org/10.1023/B:HYDR.0000008480.95045.26.Accessed11January2021.Alimba,C.G.andFaggio.C.(2019).Microplasticsinthemarineenvironment:Currenttrendsinenvironmentalpollutionandmechanismsoftoxicologicalprofile.EnvironmentalToxicologyandPharmacology68,61-74.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2019.03.001.Accessed11January2021.Alimi,O.S.,Budarz,J.F.,Hernandez,M.L.andTufenkji,N.(2018).Microplasticsandnanoplasticsinaquaticenvironments:Aggregation,deposition,andenhancedcontaminanttransport.EnvironmentalScienceandTechnology52,1704-1724.https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.7b05559.Accessed11January2021.Allen,S.,Allen,D.,Phoenix,V.R.,LeRoux,G.,Jiménez,P.D.,Simonneau,A.etal.(2019).Atmospherictransportanddepositionofmicroplasticsinaremotemountaincatchment.NatureGeoscience12(5),339-344.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0335-5.Accessed11January2021.Almahasheer,H.,Serrano,O.,Duarte,C.M.,Arias-Ortiz,A.,Masque,P.andIrigoien,X.(2017).LowCarbonsinkcapacityofRedSeamangroves.ScientificReports7,9700.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10424-9.Accessed11January2021.Alomar,C.andDeudero.S.(2017).EvidenceofmicroplasticingestioninthesharkGaleusmelastomusRafinesque,1810inthecontinentalshelfoffthewesternMediterraneanSea.EnvironmentalPollution223,223-229.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.015.Accessed11January2021.Alomar,C.,Estarellas,F.andDeudero,S.(2016).MicroplasticsintheMediterraneanSea:Depositionincoastalshallowsediments,spatialvariationandpreferentialgrainsize.MarineEnvironmentalResearch115,1-10.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291185927_Microplastics_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_Deposition_in_coas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