ChargingForwardCreatingaworld-classUKchargingnetworkMay2021Astudyby2Transport&EnvironmentPublished:May2021Author:GregArcherModelling:MorganJonesExpertreview:LucienMathieuEditeurresponsable:WilliamTodts,ExecutiveDirector©2021EuropeanFederationforTransportandEnvironmentAISBLTocitethisreportTransport&Environment(2021).Chargingforward:CreatingaworldclassUKchargingnetwork.FurtherinformationGregArcherDirector,UKTransport&Environmentgreg.archer@transportenvironment.orgMobile:+44(0)7970371224www.transportenvironment.org@transenvfb:Transport&EnvironmentAcknowledgementsThefindingsandviewsputforwardinthispublicationarethesoleresponsibilityoftheauthorsbutareparticularlybaseduponevidenceprovidedbyCenexnotablyJacobRobertsandRobertEvans.Astudyby3ExecutiveSummaryTheshifttoelectriccarsintheUKisacceleratingwithmorethan1in10salesin2020[1].OnlynewcarswithasignificantelectricrangecanbesoldintheUKfrom2030andonlyzeroemissionvehiclesfrom2035.TheshifttoanentirefleetofBEVswillnotbecompleteuntilaround2050,butcreatingaUK-wide,convenient,affordablechargingnetworkisakeypartofthedeliveryplanandthisbriefingandsupportingstudydetailaroadmaptocreateaworld-classchargingnetwork.MuchofthecriticismofthelackofpubliccharginginfrastructureintheUKisillinformed.Thereisonechargepointforevery9batteryelectriccarsontheroadtoday,sufficientforthenumberofchargeablecarsontheroad.Just1%ofEVdriverswanttogobacktoacombustionenginecar[2].ButtacklingthepoorperceptionoftheUKchargingnetworkrequires:tacklingthepostcodelotteryintheavailabilityofcharging;addressingthepoorreliabilityofsomenetworks;andmakingiteasiertoaccesschargingpoints.After2025therewillneedtobearapidandsustainedincreaseinchargingpointsanditisessentialtocreatetheconditionstoensurethenetworkcangrowwiththenumberofBEVsexpectedontheroad.FigureAillustratesthenumberofchargingdevicestochargecarsintheUKdependinguponthemixofSlow(3-5kW),Fast(7-22kW)andRapid(>50kW)chargersinstalled.ThenumbersofchargepointsneededarelowerthanrecentestimatesbytheClimateChangeCommitteeandmostotherstudies.ThisisbecausetheapproachassesseshowmanypublicchargingdeviceswillbeneededtosupporttheEVfleetanddoesnottakeintoaccountthatamoreextensivenetworkmaybeneededtopersuadesomenon-EVdriverstomaketheswitchtoelectric.Aboutabouttwo-thirdsofUKhomeshaveoffstreetparking[3]andEVschargedathomewilltypicallyonlyusethepublicchargingnetworkonlongjourneys.Halfofalldriversusetheircarsolittletheytypicallyonlyneedtofullychargetheircartwiceamonth[4]andshouldbeabletomakeuseofchargerslocatedattheirdestinationincarparksandRapidChargersonlongertrips.Lessthan1in20carsneed,onaverage,tobefullychargedtwiceaweekormoreandwouldbenefitfromakerbsidechargerneartheirhome.ThenumberofchargersneededinthefutureispartiallydependentuponthefutureshareofPHEVsthatrequireamuchmoreextensivechargingnetworktobeusedwidelyontheirbatteriesduetotheshortelectricrangeandslowchargingspeedofthesevehicles.Astudyby4FigureA:RequirednumberofchargingdevicesforHighSlow,BalancedandHighRapidchargingnetworkscenarios.Tocreateaworldclasschargingnetworktheroleofgovernmentmustnowchangefromoneofstimulatinginnovationandprovidinginvestmenttoanenablerofanextensive,highqualitynetwork.Theneedforagreenrecoveryfromthepandemicandhugebenefitsoftransportelectrificationjustifycontinuingpublicinvestment.However,itisunrealisticandunnecessaryforthegovernmenttobankrollthetransition.ThenextsteptodeveloptheUKnetworkmustbetoleveluptheavailabilityofcharginginlocalauthoritiesthroughouttheUK.Between18and29,000additionalchargepointsneedtobeinstalledby2025toensureadequatecoverageofchargingthroughtheUKandtheseneedtobefocusedonthoseauthoritieswithlimitedcurrentprovision.AsupportingonlinemapillustratestheprogressofindividuallocalauthoritiesintheUKinstallingchargingcomparedtothenumberofEVregistrationsandthenumberofchargersthatarelikelytobeneededby2025.Aregionalanalysis(FigureB)showsLondonisclosesttohavingachargepointnetworkadequateforitsneedsin2025(althoughtherearesomepartsofLondonwithasurplusofchargingdevicesandotherswithashortage).TheSouthEast,SouthWest,EastandNorthWestaretheregionswherethemostchargersneedtobeinstalledby2025tolevelupprovisionthroughouttheUK.Astudyby5FigureB:Requirednumberofchargingdevicesin2025comparedtocurrentinstallationsAtcurrentratesofinstallingchargepointstheUKwillhaveinstalledsufficientdevicesby2025butalllocalauthoritiesneedtomakeprogressasatpresent,mosthavenotallocatedtheresourcesneededtoensureanadequatesupplyofchargepointsintheirarea.Localauthoritiesshouldthereforebegiventheresponsibilitytoensurethereisadequatechargingprovisionanda“righttocharge”forallBEVdrivers.CentralGovernmentfundsshouldbeallocatedfor“ChargingOfficers”tohelpdelivertherollout.OZEVshoulddevelopguidanceandtoolsforlocalauthoritiestoensureaconsistentapproachtochargingwhilstrecognisinglocalcircumstanceswillleadtovariationsofapproachandchargerdensity.Thegovernmentshouldalsorequirechargepointoperatorstoensure:everyEVchargingpointisaccessibletoallvehicles;streamlinetheprocessbywhichEVdriversaccessthechargingnetwork;Astudyby6requireallpubliclyavailablechargepointstoberegisteredonadynamic,publiclyavailablenationalchargepointregistry;mandateminimumlevelsofmaintenanceandrepairandcustomersupport;andthatthereistransparentpricing.ItshouldalsoallowrenewableelectricitysuppliedtoEVstocounttowardstheRenewableTransportFuelsObligation(RTFO)therebyprovidinganadditionalrevenuestreamforchargepointoperators.Thegovernmentmustalsodevelopastrategicsolutiontothehighcostofgridconnectionsforchargepointoperatorsandotherprivatebusinesses.IntheshorttermtheRapidChargingFundshouldbedirectedexclusivelyatoffsettinghighgridconnectioncostsbutthisonlyprovidesatemporary,stickingplastersolution.Along-termsolutionisneededtomeetthecostsofgridupgradeswiththecostssharedbetweencharginginstallers,electricitybillpayersandtheTreasury.Thiswillbeparticularlyimportantonceelectrictrucksareinmorewidespreaduse.After2025therateofinstallationofchargepointswillneedtoapproximatelydoubletomatchtheincreasingnumberofEVs.Regulations,reformofthebuildingsregulationsandupdatedplanningguidanceshouldbeintroducedtoincreasethesupplyofchargepoints.Thereshouldbealegalrequirementforanincreasingshareofchangingplacestobeinstalledincarparkingspacesincludingcommunalcarparksinresidentialproperties,atworkplaces,atretailandleisurefacilities,stationsandothercarparkinglocations.Existinggovernmentchargingsupportschemesincludingthe:ElectricVehicleHomechargeScheme;andWorkplaceChargingSchemeandUltraLowEmissionTaxiInfrastructureSchemeshouldbephasedoutonceregulationshavebeenstrengthenedwiththecostsofchargingpartiallyoffsetbysupportivetaxbreaks.Tobefairtolessaffluentdriverswithoutoffstreetparking,thecostpremiumforchargingatpublicsitesshouldbereducedbylevyinga5%VATratetocostsofusingapublicchargepointtomatchthatfordomesticcustomers.Creatingaworldclasschargingnetworkwillensurethisdoesnotpresentabarriertothephaseoutofsalesofnewcarsandvanswithengines.Thevastmajorityoftheinvestmentwillcomefromtheprivatesectorbutnationalandlocalgovernmentshaveakeyroleinsteeringthedevelopmentofthenetworktoproduceoutcomesthatmeetdriversneeds,ensuregoodcoveragenationwidedoesnotplaceexcessivedemandsonelectricitysupplyinfrastructureandsupportthetransitiontorenewableenergy.Astudyby7Tableofcontents1.ChargingintheUKtoday92.FutureChargingNeeds112.1Approach112.2.NumbersofCharges122.3.NumbersofChargers142.4.Comparisonwithotherstudies182.5.ImpactofPHEVs202.6.LevellingupchargingprovisionacrosstheUK213.Creatingaworldclasschargingnetwork253.1.Strengtheninglocalgovernmentresponsibilitiesandcapabilities253.2.Tacklingthehighcostofgridconnectionsforfastcharging263.3.Improvingtheuserexperience273.3.1.Roaming273.3.2.Opendataaccess283.3.3.Improvingchargingatmotorwayserviceareas283.3.4.Pricing283.4.Homechargingforall293.4.1.Requiringcharginginrentedandleaseholdproperties293.4.2.Strengtheningplanningrequirements293.5.IncludingelectricityintheRenewableTransportFuelsObligation(RTFO)304.Conclusions32AppendixA:ModellingAssumptions35Endnotes43Astudyby81.ChargingintheUKtodayThetransitionfrominternalcombustionenginecarstobatteryelectricvehicles(BEVs)isacceleratingintheUK.In2020,salesofelectriccars(BEVsandplug-inhybrids-PHEVs)leapttomorethan1in10salesfrom1in33salesin2019[1].DrivenbynewUKregulations[5],salesareexpectedtogrowfurtherin2021.TheGovernmenthasannouncedonlynewcarswithasignificantelectricrangecanbesoldfrom2030andonlyzeroemissionvehiclesfrom2035[6].TheshifttoanentirefleetofBEVscarsandvans,willnotbecompleteuntilaround2050,butthespeedoftransition,andresultingCO2savings,willbelargelydependentuponhowquicklytheshareofnewsalesgrowsincomingyears.EarlyadoptersofBEVshavepredominantlyhadoffstreetparkingenablingeasyhomechargingandhavebeenwillingtotoleratetheadequatebutincomplete,unreliableanduserunfriendlychargingsystemthatcurrentlyoperatesintheUK.ButastheshareofnewEVssoldgrowsandnewcarstrickledownintothesecondhandmarketmoredriverswithoutaccesstooffstreetparkingwillbeginconsideringEVsandmostwillonlychoosetoswitchifchargingisatleastasconvenientandeasyandfillingupistoday.ArapidshifttoBEVsthereforerequiresacomprehensiveandeasytousechargingnetwork.MuchofthecriticismofthelackofpubliccharginginfrastructureintheUKiseitherillinformedormalicious.Zap-Mapstatisticsshowtherearecurrently40thousandconnectorson23thousanddevicesin15thousandlocationsacrosstheUKandthenetworkisgrowingbyaround850connectorsamonth[7].Withapproximately450thousandEVs(BEVsplusPHEVs)ontheUK’sroads[8]thisequatestoanadequate1deviceforevery20EVs(9BEVs).Arecentsurveyfoundjust1%ofEVdriverswantedtogobacktoacombustionenginecarwith90%sayingtheywouldnot[2].ThissuggeststheperceptionoftheUKchargingnetworkamongstnonusersisworsethantheexperienceofEVdrivers.PerceptionamongstprospectiveEVownersishowevercrucialinpurchasedecisions.ManychargershavelowutilisationbutthedensityofpublicchargingisalsohighlyvariablethroughouttheUK.DatafromtheDepartmentforTransport[9]showsonaveragethereare29chargingdevicesforevery100,000populationwiththelowestdensityinFenland(2)andhighestintheCityofLondon(370).EvenwithinLondonthedensityofchargersvarieswidelywiththelowestHavering(5)beingamongstthelowestintheUK.WhilstsomevariationistobeexpectedthedisparitieshighlightcoverageisfarfromcompleteevenfortherelativelysmallnumberofcarscurrentlyintheUK’sfleet.Figure1illustratesthewidevariabilityinchargingdensityper1000cars.Astudyby9Figure1:VariabilityofchargingdensityacrosstheUK,asof4/1/2021[9].ArecentZap-Mapsurvey[2]ofEVdriversatisfactionwithUKchargingnetworkssimilarlyshowswidedisparities.Teslatoppedtheranking(withascoreof4.8);InstaVoltsecond(4.4)andOspreythird(4.1).ButtheElectricHighwaynetworkofEcotricityscoredonly2.0.ChargeyourCarscoredonly2.6withnetworkreliabilityaparticularconcern.SourceLondonalsoscoredpoorly(2.7)withpricingandavailabilityoflocalfacilitiesnotedasareasofconcern.ThisreportexamineswhatisneededfortheadequatechargingavailableinmostoftheUKtobothexpandandbecomeexemplary.Section2ofthisreportconsiderstherateatwhichthepubliccharginginfrastructureneedstoexpandincludingtheimpactofPHEVsonthechargingnetworkandhowdifferentchargingstrategiesaffectthesizeofthenetworkrequired.Section3considersthekeybarrierstotheexpansionandimprovementofchargingintheUKandsolutionstothesebaseduponconsultancyundertakenbyCenexforT&EUK.Section4drawsconclusionsandmakesrecommendationsdirectedmainlyattheOfficeforZeroEmissionVehicles(OZEV).Astudyby102.FutureChargingNeeds2.1ApproachArangeofstudieshaveestimatedtheUK’sfuturechargingneedswithwidelydifferingestimates[10].Forthispaperfuturechargingneedshavebeenmodelledbyestimatingfuturechargingdemandonthepublicchargingnetworkandthenexaminingthechargingcapacityofdifferentchargertypestocalculatethenumberofchargingpointsofdifferenttypesrequired.TheapproachisdescribedinAppendixAandillustratedinFigure2,below.Theapproachestimatesthenumberofchargingdevicesneededassumingareasonableutilisationrate.ItdoesnottakeintoaccountthatsomeprospectiveEVdriversmayperceivetheyneedamuchmoredensenetworkofchargersbeforetheyarewillingtomaketheshifttoanEV.Figure2:Schematicrepresentationofmethodologyforestimatingminimumadequatecharginginfrastructure.UsingtypicalaveragemileageofcarsintheUKandaveragerangesforBEVsandPHEVsthenumberoffullchargesperyearusingthepublicchargingnetworkwascalculated.ItwasassumedthatBEVandPHEVownerswithoffstreetparkingwilloverwhelminglychargeathome,supplementedbyoccasionalchargingatfastchargersonthemotorwaynetworkduringlongertrips.Thepublicchargingnetworkisthereforeonlyusedfrequentlybythehalforlessofdriverswhoparkontheroad[3]anddonothaveaccesstoahomecharger.ThecalculationassumesasteadyincreaseinsalesofAstudyby11BEVsandPHEVsuntil2035,afterwhichonlyBEVsaresold.Oncehomecharginghasbeenaccountedfor,theremainingchargingdemandwasallocatedtothepublicnetworkinagivenyear.AsimilarprocesswasappliedtothechargingdemandfromPHEVS.Inpracticedriverswillveryrarelyentirelydepletethebatterybeforerechargingandmostchargingeventsarelikelytobeapartialcharge.However,thisdoesnotsignificantlyimpactonthetotalnumberofchargersrequiredasthisanalysisdoesnotincludefullutilisationofchargersandapartialchargewillbequicker,vacatingthechargerforanothervehicletouse.Threetypesofchargerswereassumedtodelivertherequiredcharging:●Slowchargers(3-5kW),locatedkerbsideclosetopeople'shomes,atworkplaces,stationsandsomeotherlocationswherecarsareparkedforasignificantduration.TheseplacetheleastdemandsontheelectricitygridandinthecaseofkerbsidechargersprovideanimportantoffpeakovernightdemandfortheincreasingshareofrenewablegenerationsupplyingtheUKgrid.●Fastchargers(7-22kW),chargetheEVincarparkssuchasatretailcentres,leisurefacilitiesetc.wherethecarmaybeparkedforanhourormore.Itisassumedtheoutputofthechargerissuitableforafullchargetobedeliveredduringthedurationthecarisparkedatthedestination.●RapidChargers(>50kW),deliveraquickchargein30to45minutes.Thesearelocatedatservicestationsonthetrunkroadnetworkandinurbanareastosupplementslowandfastcharging.TheutilisationratesandchargetimesusedforthesechargertypesusedinthecalculationsofrequiredchargesandchargersaredetailedinAppendixA.2.2.NumbersofChargesFigure3showsthegrowthinthenumberoffullchargesatpublicsitesthatareexpectedto2050includingupperandlowerbandestimates.Uncertaintyarisesinparticularfrom:theestimatedfuturerangeofelectriccars,utilityfactorofPHEVsandtheproportionofhomecharging,asdetailedinAppendixA.Theshareofpublicchargingisestimatedtobebetween33%and49%ofallcharging-illustratingthemajorityofEVswillinfrequentlyusethepublicnetwork.About50%ofprivatelyownedhomeshaveoffstreetparking,asdoafurther17%ofthosethatarerented[3].Installinghomecharginginrentedpropertyandflatsisnotassimpleasinprivatelyownedhousesbutusuallysimpler,moreconvenientandcheaperthanpublicchargingandmaximisingthedeploymentofchargersinrentedpropertiesandcommunalresidentialcarparksisthereforehighlydesirable.Astudyby12Figure3:Requirednumberoffullchargesto2050(assumptionsaredetailedinAppendixA).Theestimatefor2020isbasedontheVehicleLicensingStatisticsfromSeptember2020[11].ThenumberofBEVsandPHEVsinthecarfleethasbeencalculatedusingT&E’sin-houseEUTRMfleetmodel.InthecentralscenariosalesofBEVsreach69%in2030andPHEVs31%.Theappendixdetailsotherassumptions.In2025,weestimatearequirementof50.5millionfullchargesperyearonthepublicnetworkinthemedianscenario.Ofthese23.7millionareforPHEVsand21.2millionfordailyBEVschargingwiththeremainderrapidmotorwaycharges(5.6million).Theannualtotalnumberoffullchargesforthecentralestimaterisesto209millionby2030(range130-289million)and610millionby2050(range401-818million).Figure3illustratesthereisalargeincreaseinthenumberofpublicchargesbetween2025and2030(about4times)withchargesthendoublingbetween2030and2035anddoublingagainfrom2035to2050.Thisillustratesitwillbeessentialtoreadythemarketforalargeincreaseinchargersafter2025.ThedataalsoillustratesthatarelativelysmallshareofPHEVscreatesarelativelyhighnumberofcharges(assumingahighutilityfactorintheorderof45%).ThisisbecausePHEVshaveasmallbatteryrequiringdailycharging-unlikemostBEVsandcanonlybechargedusinglowpower.Astudyby132.3.NumbersofChargersDifferentchargerlocationsandtypeshavedifferentadvantagesandlimitationsassummarisedinTable1.AbalanceisthereforeneededbetweenthedifferentchargingoptionsandtheOfficeofZeroEmissionVehicles(OZEV)throughpolicychoicescansteerthemarkettowardsdifferentoutcomesitseekstoachieve.Localfactorswillalsoinfluencetheoptimalbalanceofchargepointsandlocalauthoritiesthereforealsoneedtobeprovidedwiththeresources,anddeveloptheexpertise,tosteeranappropriatebalanceofchargingtypeswithintheirlocalarea.Table1:Descriptionofchargertypes.ChargertypeAdvantagesDisadvantagesSlowdomesticLowcost,simpleinstallationwithownedhomesOnlyavailabletodriverswithoffstreeparkingunlesschargepointismadeaccessibleforpublicuseSlow,kerbsideConvenient,chargeathome,helpsgridbalancingLocalchargermaybeoccupiedwhenneeded;poorbusinesscase-currentlyneedssubsidy;additionstreetfurnitureandcablesSlow,workplaceConvenientwhenworking&lowcostOnlyusuallyaccessibleforemployeesduringworkinghours;chargingduringthedaynotattimewhendemandlowest;officebuildingsfrequentlynotownedincreasinginstallationcomplexityFast,retailandleisureIntegrateschargingintodailyactivitiesHighercost;mayinvolveexpensivegroundworks;canaddtopeakloadongridoftenunavailableatnightRapid,urbanhubCarrechargedquicklySpecialtriptochargeusuallyrequired;expensive;oftenhighgridconnectioncosts;willaddtopeakloadongridunlesshubequippedwithon-sitebatteriesRapid,highwayCarrechargedquicklyandduringroutinestopsExpensive;oftenhighgridconnectioncosts;willaddsomewhattopeakloadongridToillustratehowdifferentfactorsinfluencethenumberofchargersneededinthefuture,T&Ehascreated3scenariosandanupper,mediumandlowercaseforeach.Thethreescenariosare:1.HighRapid-inwhichthereisahighshareofchargingatrapidurbanhubsandspeedofchargingisprioritised(Assumeschargersaredistributedbetween:Rapidchargers-40%,Fast-40%,Slow-20%)2.HighSlow-inwhichthereisahighshareofchargingatslowchargerslocatedatkerbsidelocationsathomeandatwork.Inthiscasechargingisoptimisedtoreduceimpactsontheelectricitysupply(Rapid-10%,Fast-40%,Slow-50%)3.Balanced-inwhichdestinationchargingaccountsforhalfallchargingandtheremaindersplitbetweenfastandslowcharging.Thisisintendedtobeagile,withabalanceofexpensivebutconvenientrapidandfastdestinationchargingandslower,lowercapacityworkandkerbsidechargers.(Rapid-25%,Fast-50%,Slow-25%).Astudyby14Thethreescenariosareillustrativeanddesignedtoshowtherangeinthetotalnumberofchargersrequired.Therewillbeatheoreticalmaximumnumberofchargesthatagivenchargercandoinayear,determinedbyitspowerrating,andamorerealisticestimateofhowmuchachargercanrealisticallybeused(utilisationrate).Thehigherpoweredthecharger,themoreEVsitcouldtheoreticallychargeinayearandthereforethefewerchargersrequiredtosatisfydemand.Figure4illustratesthenumberofchargersneededforeachscenario.MoredetailsoftheassumptionsbehindtheseestimatesareinAppendixA.Utilisationratesarehighlyuncertainandarelikelytochangeinthefutureasthechargingnetworkmatures.Maintainingagoodutilisationrateisessential.AnecdotalinformationsuggestsverylowutilisationratesformanychargepointsintheUKatpresent.Withtoomanychargersandlowutilisationreturnoninvestmentwillbeinsufficientandchargingcompanieswillbeatbestonlymarginallyprofitable.Thisislikelytoleadinthelongtermtoapoorerservicefordriversandhighcostspercharge.However,withtoofewchargersutilisationrateswillbegoodbutdriverswillstruggletofindaconvenientpublicchargepointofthetypetheyneed.ThisislikelytoleadtonegativemediacoveragethatwilldiscouragenewdriversbuyinganBEVuntil2035(whentheywillberequiredto).Growingthenumberofchargersattherightspeedisthereforeessential.T&EhasselectedutilisationratesthatarehigherthanmostsitescurrentlyachieveintheUKbutwhicharenotundulyoptimisticbasedupondiscussionswithstakeholders.ChargertypeFullchargesperdayTheoreticalmaximumMaximumassumedAverageassumedMinimumassumedSlowkerbside321.51Slowworkplace(5days/7perweek)2.11.110.7Fastdestination621.51Rapidhub321086Table2:AssumedutilisationratesTocalculatetherequirednumberofchargersfor2025,asimilarapproachwasusedbutwhichincludedamoredetailedanalysisofthecurrentchargingprovisionatalocalauthoritylevelacrosstheUKandscalingthistoensurethereisadequatecharginginalllocalauthoritiesthroughouttheUK.Astudyby15Figure4.Requiredchargersbychargingspeedin2030foreachchargingnetworkscenario.It’sassumedthatallmotorwaychargingusesrapidchargers,andallPHEVchargingusesslowchargers.ThenumberofchargersincludesrapidchargersstationedatmotorwayservicesandslowchargestomeetthechargingneedsofPHEVsthatusethepublicnetwork.Theestimatedrangeinthenumberofchargersrequiredstemsfromuncertaintyinchargerutilisationrates.Astudyby16Figure5:NumberofchargepointsrequiredintheUKforalternativechargerscenariosfrom2020[9]Astudyby17AdditionalChargingDevices1HighshareofRapidchargersBalancedHighshareofSlowchargers2020-2025total25,30026,00032,000Rapid3,3002,300400Fast/Slow222,00023,70031,400MonthlyInstallationRate3804606002025-2030total96,800108,300128,000Rapid21,80018,80013,200Fast15,60025,30028,200Slow59,40064,20086,700MonthlyInstallationRate1,6001,8002,100Table3:Estimatedminimumrequiredgrowthinchargersoverthe5yearperiods2020-2025and2025-2030.Asof1Jan2021,therewere20,775chargingpointsintheUKwithalmost336,600connectors.42.4.ComparisonwithotherstudiesAcomparisonofthenumberofchargerswithpreviousstudiesbytheCCCandT&Eindicatesthatlesscharginginfrastructuremayberequiredthanhasbeenpreviouslysuggested.Thisistobeexpectedgiventhefocusonsufficiencyinthiswork.ForskepticalnewcarbuyerstochooseanEVforthefirsttimeitmaybenecessarytoinstallmorechargersthanisactuallyneeded-althoughthiswillleadtoalowerutilisationrate.4Zapmap,“EVChargingStats2021”,Feb52021.Retrievedfrom:https://www.zap-map.com/statistics/3AsnotedbyZapMapandtheElectricVehicleChargingStatisticsbasedontheZapMapdata,manychargingstationshaveoneormoreconnectionscapableofcharginganEV.However,itisnotwellknownhowmanyofthesecouldchargemultiplevehiclessimultaneously.T&EhasfollowedOZEV’sdecisiontocountthenumberofchargingdevicesin2020;thisislikelyanunderestimateoftruechargingcapacity.Insubsequentyears,‘chargingpoints’impliesthenumberofconnectionscapableofindependentlycharginganEV.2DataonthenumberoffastandslowchargersineachLocalAuthorityin2020wasnotavailable,makingonlyarapid/otheranalysispossible.1Forthepurposeofthesecalculationsithasbeenassumedeachdevicecanonlycharge1EVatthesametime.Astudyby18Figure6:ComparisonofestimatesofrequirednumberofchargingpointswiththatmadebytheCCCin‘Thesixthcarbonbudget’[12]andbytheICCTintheir“70%Electricsharein2030”scenario[13].Astudyby192.5.ImpactofPHEVsTheapproachtakenallowedtheimpactofalargeshareofPHEVsontherequiredchargingnetworktobetested.TheimpactofhighsharesofPHEVscomparedtoBEVsonthechargingnetworkdependsupontheextenttowhichPHEVsaredrivenusingtheirbatteryandelectricmotor(utilityfactor).Atpresentrealworlddatashows[14]thatprivatelyownedPHEVshaveautilityfactorof37%andcompanycarsjust20%.ButifPHEVsaretohaveasignificantroleindecarbonisingcarsandvansamuchhigherutilityfunctionisneeded.TocalculatetheimpactofahigherorlowershareofPHEVsontherequiredchargingnetworkthreescenariosassumingalow,medianandhighfleetshareweremodelled.●LowPHEVScenario:PHEVsare12%of2030salesandthereare1.4millionPHEVsinthe2030UKfleet.●MedianPHEVScenario:PHEVsare31%of2030salesandthereare3.4millioninthefleet.●HighPHEVScenario:PHEVsare50%of2030salesandthereare5.5millionin2030.OtherassumptionsaredetailedinAppendix1.Figure6showstheeffectonthechargingnetworkofdifferentuptakescenariosforPHEVs.AsPHEVscancurrentlyonlyuseslowerchargers,eachadditionalPHEVdisproportionatelyincreasesthenumberofchargepointsrequiredcomparedtoaBEV.IftherearehighPHEVsalesuntil2035,thesesignificantlyincreasetheamountofpublicchargingneeded.Highsalesvolumesoflowrange,lowutilityfactorPHEVsthatcannotfastchargepressurisethechargingnetworkwithoutcorrespondinggainsindecarbonisationandelectricmilesdriven.IfhighsalesofPHEVscontinueuntilthe2035phaseout,ratherthandecreasingmorerapidlyandbeingdisplacedbyBEVsales.In2030,theUKwillneedathirdmorechargers(34%moredevicesareneededinthehighPHEVscenariovsthelow).However,oncePHEVsleavethefleetaftersalesendin2035,theUKcouldbeleftwithmorekerbsidechargingthanisnecessary,havingwastedinvestmentonmeetingPHEVchargingneeds.In2035:●FortheLowPHEVscenariothetotalrequirednumberofchargersis231,000●FortheMediumPHEVscenariotherequirednumberofchargersis255,000●FortheHighPHEVscenario,therequirednumberofchargersis288,000Thedifferencebetweenthelowandhighscenariosistherefore25%in2035.Astudyby20Figure7:EffectofincreasedPHEVnumbersoncharginginfrastructurenetwork.2.6.LevellingupchargingprovisionacrosstheUKToassessthenumberofchargepointsrequiredby2025T&EundertookamoredetailedanalysiswhichtookaccountoftheunevendistributionofchargepointsthroughouttheUKaswasillustratedinFigure1.Onaveragethereare20EVs(BEVsplusPHEVs)foreverychargingpointintheUK.Butthedistributionofchargingishighlyvariable.Fromnowuntil2025thefocusofgovernmentshouldbelevellinguptoensureadequatechargingineverylocalauthoritythroughouttheUK.ToachievethisT&Eestimatesitwillbenecessarytodeployanadditional22,000chargingdevicesthroughouttheUKtoensurethereisadequatecoverageinallareas.Anestimated87%ofareashavemorechargersthantheyareestimatedtoneedin2021;just12%oflocalauthoritieshaveadequatechargingfor2025.Figure8illustratesthenumberofnewchargingdevicesthatneedtobeinstalledineachUKlocalauthority.ThecalculationassumesthedistributionofEVsalesacrosstheUKin2020and2025remainsthesameandthatsalesfollowthesameS-baseduptakecurveinallareas.ThisisareasonableassumptionsincetheshareofEVssoldremainsfairlysmall.Itisalsoassumedthatthechargingnetworkfollowsthe‘Balanced’scenariointermsofproportionsofchargersofdifferentspeeds.Astudyby21Figure8:Percentageincreaseinchargingpointsrequiredby2025tomeetanticipateddemand,byLocalAuthority.Theanalysisexaminesthenumberofchargepointsneededtomeettherequirementsoflocalresidents.Somelocalauthoritiesmayattractalargenumberofvisitorsandthereforemayrequiremorechargingtomeettheirneeds.Otherauthoritiesmayattractalargenumberofcommutersdrivingintotheirareathatalsoneedadditionalchargepoints.Localconsiderationsareimportantandlocalauthoritiesshouldbegivenafargreaterroleandresourcestoensurethereissufficientchargingprovision.Finally,itispossiblethatthenumberofEVsregisteredinaspecificlocalauthoritymaybedisproportionatelyinfluencedbythepresenceofamajorleasingcompanylocatedinthatauthority,forexamplePeterborough.Thisemphasisestheimportanceoflocalassessmentsofchargingneeds.TheanalysisneverthelessprovidesanillustrationofwhereadditionalchargingisparticularlyneededintheUKbefore2025.Table3illustratesatalocalauthoritylevelthosethatappeartohavethebestchargingnetworksfortheirchargingneedsin2025;andtheauthoritiesthatneedtoinstallthemostchargerstomeettheirneedsin2025.Astudyby22LocalAuthoritiesrequiringnoadditionalchargepointinstallationsby2025Localauthoritiesrequiringthemostadditionalchargepointinstallationsby2025WestminsterStockportWandsworthLeedsKensingtonandChelseaSloughHammersmithandFulhamSwindonCamdenPeterboroughRichmonduponThamesBirminghamSouthwarkMiltonKeynesBrightonandHoveForestofDeanLambethSouthGloucestershireIslingtonSolihullDatamaybeinfluencedbythepresenceoflargeleasingcompanies.Table3.Localauthorities(LAs)withthemostandleastinstallationsareneededtoensurethechargingnetworkisadequatein2025.Table4,below,compilesthelocalanalysistogivearegionalanalysisofthepartsoftheUKwherethegreatestnumberofchargersarerequired.ItclearlyshowsLondontobebyfarthemostadvancedregionintermsofhavingthechargingnetworkneededforthenumberofEVsexpectedontheroadin2025.IncontrasttheEast,SouthWest,NorthernIreland,YorkshireandHumberandtheNorthWesthaveparticularlypoorcoveragegiventhenumberofEVscurrentlyregisteredandexpectedtobeboughtintheseregionsinthenextfewyears.Astudyby23RegionChargersInstalled4/1/2021AdditionalChargersNeededby2025Percentageofrequiredchargersby2025alreadyinstalledEast1,3003,10029%EastMidlands1,1001,50042%London6,2001,100100%NorthEast80040068%NorthWest14002,90033%NorthernIreland30070031%Scotland2,20050082%SouthEast2,9004,00042%SouthWest1,6003,70030%Wales80090048%WestMidlands1,2002,00038%YorkshireandTheHumber1,1002,20032%Table4.Regionalanalysisofthelevellingupofchargingnetworksneededby2025.Astudyby243.CreatingaworldclasschargingnetworkSection1highlightedtherearewidedisparitiesinboththeadequacyofchargingavailableacrosstheUKandusabilityofchargingnetworks.Whilsttheinstallationofnewchargingandimprovingtheuserexperiencearebothprimarilytheresponsibilityofprivatecompanies,governmentinterventionandfundingcanplayanimportantroletostrengthenthechargingnetwork.Thissectionaddressesthebarrierstocreatingaworldclasschargingnetworkandhowthesecanberesolved.3.1.StrengtheninglocalgovernmentresponsibilitiesandcapabilitiesLocalauthoritiesplayanimportantroleinfacilitatingtheroll-outofcharginginfrastructureparticularlyslowkerbsidechargersandthoselocatedincouncilownedoroperatedcarparks.Localauthoritiescanalsospecifyarequirementforchargingaspartofplanningconditions.Someauthoritieshavesupportedtheroleoutofextensivelocalnetworksincludingin:someLondonboroughs(CityofLondon,Westminster,HammersmithandFulham,KensingtonandChelseaandWandsworth),Dundee,Nottingham,OxfordandCoventry.Otherauthoritiessuchas:Fenland,CastlePoint,Selby,Barrow-in-Furness,Brentwood,Gravesham,Harlow,HaveringandRhonddaCynonTafhavemademinimalprogresstodatewith5orlesschargersinstalledper100thousandpeople.TheSecretaryofStateforTransporthassaid:“Yourpostcodeshouldplaynopartinhoweasyitistouseanelectriccar...”[15]Butclearlyitisandwillcontinuetobewhilstlocalauthoritieshaveneitherastatutoryresponsibilitytofacilitatetherolloutofchargingpointsortheresourcestodoso.EstablishinganewstatutoryresponsibilityforlocalauthoritiestofacilitatetherolloutofchargingpointsisessentialandthismustalsoclarifythespecificresponsibilitiesofdifferentlevelsoflocalgovernmentandrequirecooperationbetweenneighbouringauthoritiestocreateaseamlessnetworkforEVdrivers.Encouragingactionataregionallevelwillalsoreducethecostsoftheroll-out.Todate,muchofOZEV’sOn-streetResidentialChargepointSchemehasbeenspentoninstallinginfrastructureinoff-streetcarparksinpartduetoalackofengagementfromboroughanddistrictcouncils.Butmanyauthoritieslackthestafftomakeuseofthefund-sonewdedicatedresourcesfortherolloutofchargingisneededinalllocalcouncilscomplementedbythedevelopmentofguidanceandprovisionoftrainingandanonlinehelp-servicetoensureaconsistentlyhighqualityofchargingthroughouttheUK.Havingdedicatedresources,andoperatingaspartoflargerregionalnetworks,mayalsodiscourageauthoritiesfromattemptingtousechargingasasignificantnewrevenuestreamratherthanonlyseekingtocovertheircosts.Thebusinesscase,particularlyforkerbsidecharging,isalreadyweakandcanbeuncommercialifthelocalauthoritytriestoexcessivelyprofitfromnewlydeployedchargingpoints.Astudyby253.2.TacklingthehighcostofgridconnectionsforfastchargingThehighcostofgridconnections,particularlyforhigh-powercharging,isasignificantbarriertotherolloutoffastchargingalonghighways,fastchargingstationsinurbanareasand,inthefuture,depotanddistributioncentrechargingfortrucksandvans.ForEVstocomplementincreasinglyrenewablegridsasmuchchargingaspossibleshouldbeundertakenathomeatnightoratworkduringtheday.WhereRapidUrbanchanginghubsaredeployedtheseneedbatterybackupstoragetoavoidcreatingpeakenergydemands.However,formostcardriversroutinelyusingRapidchargingwillmakeEVuseexpensivebutsomeRapidchargingwillbeneededinhighwaylocationsforlongertripsandinmajorurbancentresfortaxis,deliverydriversandforcardriversthaturgentlyneedtocharge.Upgradingtheelectricitygridcandoublethecostsoftherapidchargerinstallation.TheRapidChargingFundprovidesapotentialsolutionandshouldbefocusedexclusivelyonhelpingtocoveraportionofthegridconnectioncostswherethesearehigh.ChannelingfundsthroughOfgemtoDistributionNetworkOperatorsseemsthebestuseofthesefunds.However,theRapidChargingFundcanonlyprovideastickingplastersolutionandalong-termstructuralplantotacklethehighgridconnectioncostsforEVchargingisneededthatshouldalsotackletheinabilityofnetworkoperatorstoinvestingridcapacityaheadofneed.Withoutthis,electricitynetworkupgradeswillcontinuetobeundertakenseveraltimesinthesamelocation.Ofgemrecentlyfinaliseditspricecontrolsforelectricitytransmissionfor2021-26(RIIO-2)whichincluded£11billionofupfrontfunding.TheequivalentsystemofpricecontrolsforelectricitydistributionnetworkcompanieswillbegininApril2023andaspartofthisthehighcostsforgridconnectionsforchargingandothergreenprojectsneedtobeaddressed.AnotherlimitationofthecurrentsystemisthatthereisnofreelyaccessiblemeansforEVchargingnetworkoperatorstounderstandandplanaroundtheexistinglocalconstraintsoftheUK’selectricitynetwork.Atpresent,onceanewpotentialsitehasbeenidentifiedtheDNOmustbecontactedtoobtainabudgetestimatetoestablishtheconnectionpointtoinstallEVcharginginfrastructureateachsite.ButnetworkconnectioncostsvarywidelydependingontheproximitytoexistingelectricalsupplyandwhetherthereiscapacityatthissiteandthiswillnotbeknownuntilbudgetestimatesarereceivedfromtheDNOcreatingdelaysandaddingcosts.Thissystemoftrial-and-errorisinefficientimposingcostsandsignificantlyslowingtherolloutprocess.SomeDNOs,suchasWesternPowerDistribution,provideanonlineEVCapacityMapthatprovidesasubstation-levelviewoflocationsthataremoreorlesslikelytohavecapacityforEVchargingsites.MostDNOsonlyofferfreely-availablegridcapacitydataattheprimarysubstationlevel,whichisofmuchmorelimiteduseforEVcharginginfrastructurenetworkplanning.AllDNO’sshouldberequiredtoprovidesimilartoolstotheEVCapacityMap.Astudyby263.3.Improvingtheuserexperience3.3.1.RoamingIntheUKtherearemorethan50differentprivatechargingnetworksandnosingleandsimplewaytoaccessallthedifferentnetworks.Thereisalsoonlyone,privatelyoperated,informationsourcecoveringmostEVchargingpoints(ZapMap).InEngland,EVdrivershaveawidechoiceofchargepointoperatorsbuttoaccessthesitesneedtoregisterwitharangeofnetworkproviders,navigatewidelydifferingpricingstructuresandexperiencehighlyvariableperformancefromnetworkoperators.InScotland,ChargePlaceScotland,operatesanationalEVchargingnetworkthatisownedandhasbeendevelopedbytheScottishGovernment.Therearenow1500chargepointsinthenetworkthatapproximatesto27forevery100thousandpeople,similartothe29currentlyinEngland.ThereareadvantagesanddisadvantagestobothpubliclyandprivatelyownedandoperatednetworksandbothsystemscanprovideEVdriverswithanexcellentservice.AllEVdriverswantisaffordable,convenientandreliablepublicchargepoints.WhilsttheproliferationofchargingnetworksinEnglandhasundoubtedlyencouragedinnovation,ithasalsocreatedenormouscomplexityfordrivers.Aselectriccarsbecomemainstream,charging,particularlyinEngland,mustbesimplifiedandnetworksbecomeasinteroperableasfillingstationsandasreliable.Ifnot,thediversityofoperatorsandapproachesislikelytobecomeanincreasingbarriertofutureEVuptake.Oneclearareaforimprovementistoenableeasyroamingbetweennetworks.TheAlternativeFuelsInfrastructureRegulations(2017)mustbereviewedbyOctober2022andOZEVshouldusetheopportunitytoconsiderwhetherthecurrentrulesarebeingmetandiftheyarefitforpurpose.Theregulationsstatethat“theabilityforanypersontorechargeanelectricvehiclewithoutenteringintoapre-existingcontractwithanelectricitysupplierto,orinfrastructureoperatorof,thatrechargingpoint”.Butmanyoperatorsrequireregistrationsthroughappstousechargingsitesthatinturnrequiresigningtermsandconditions-itisquestionablewhethermostUKchargepointoperatorsarecompliantwiththeregulation.Thegovernmenthasprovidedampletimeforchargepointoperatorstodeveloptheirownsolutionstoimproveinteroperabilitywhichtheyhavefailedtoadequatelydo.ThegovernmentconsultationonTheconsumerexperienceatpublicchargepoints[16]isastepintherightdirectionwithmanyconstructionproposals.Regulationisneededto:1.MakeeveryEVchargingpointaccessibleforallEVusers2.StreamlinetheprocessbywhichEVdriversaccesschargingnetwork3.Enablecardpaymentatallchargepoints4.Requireallpublicavailablechargepointstoberegisteredonadynamic,publiclyavailablenationalchargepointregistry5.Mandateminimumlevelsofmaintenanceandrepairandcustomersupport6.Providingaconsistentbasisforindicatingcosts.Astudyby27EVsarebecomingmainstreamandthesubstantialinvestmentrisksforearlychargepointoperatorshavebeeneliminatedandwillincomingyearsbereplacedbyahealthyandreliableincomestream.ThemarketneedstoworkforitscustomersandthegovernmentmustnowprioritisetheneedsofEVdriversoverthoseofchargepointoperatorstocreateaworldclasschargingsystemwhilstmaintainingahealthyenvironmentforfutureinvestment.3.3.2.OpendataaccessAnotherlimitationofcurrentsystemsisthatthereisnoopendatasetoflivechargepointinformation.Zap-MapprovidesanexcellentsystemforEVdriversbutlivedataisnotprovidedbyallnetworks,meaningthatdataisnotupdatedinrealtime.AsaprivateservicetheinformationheldbyZap-Mapisnotopenlyavailable.TheOZEVneedstodeveloptheNationalChargePointRegister(NCR)toacceptlivedata(byequippingitwithanInputAccessPointInterface)andmandatechargepointoperatorstoprovidetheinformation.Thisshouldincludefuturebookingcapabilitiesinthefuture.Anupgradetothesystemshouldbecompletedbytheendof2022atthelatest.3.3.3.ImprovingchargingatmotorwayserviceareasEcotricityhasthedubioushonourofoperatingtheUK’sworstchargingnetworkaccordingtoEVdrivers[2].Itsnetworkofmorethan300chargepointsismainlylocatedatthemotorwayserviceareas.ArecentsurveybyEVdriversbyZapmapwereparticularlycriticalofreliabilityandeaseofusewithrespondentscommentingthattheunitsareold,poorlymaintained,andfrequentlyoutofservicewithinadequateoutofhourssupport.Exclusivityagreementshavepreventedotherchargepointoperatorsfrominstallingequipmentatmostmotorwayserviceareasandcreatedavirtualmonopolythatisbeingexploitedthroughhighchargesandpoorservice.ThelaunchoftheCompetitionandMarketAuthority(CMA)investigationintotheelectricvehiclechargingsectorintheUKisanimportantopportunity.T&EurgestheCMAtodevelopproposalswhich:●RequirethecreationofadynamicopenaccessdatabaseofEVchargepoints●Addressthemarketfailureatmotorwayserviceareas●Requireincreasedpricetransparency●Enhanceinteroperabilitybetweenchargepointnetworks●Enablebookingofchargersinadvance.3.3.4.PricingPricingtransparencyisanotherareaofconcernwithdifferentnetworksoperatingentirelydifferentchargingstructures.Thisincludes:differentratesfor:membersandnon-members;forusinganapporpayingbycard;fortime;forconnecting;forthepowerofchargedelivery.Inthefuturechargesmayalsovarywithtimeofday.Withsomanypermutationsforpaymentitisdifficultforaregularuserofpublicchargerstoknowwhatistheiroptimumchargingapproach.Fornon-EVdriversthearrayofoptionsmayactivelydiscouragethemtopurchaseanEV.WithgreateropenaccesstodataitislikelytoolscomparingpricingoptionswillbecomeavailableandT&EseesthisasakeytoassistingEVdriverschoosetheoptumAstudyby28packagefortheirusepattern.OZEVshouldalsodevelopalegaldefinitionofpricetransparencywithstakeholdersandbuildthisintofutureregulation.3.4.Homechargingforall3.4.1.RequiringcharginginrentedandleaseholdpropertiesT&Eestimatesthataround12%[3]ofhomesintheUKwithoffstreetparkingarerentedorhaveparkingownedbythefreeholderandforthesepropertiesinstallationofhomerechargingpointscanpresentamajorchallengeand/orcost.Thisrepresentsavaluablechargingpotentialthatcouldsignificantlyreducetheneedformoreexpensivepubliccharging.However,toinstallchargingtheconsentoftheownerorfreeholderisrequiredandwithrentedorleaseholdpropertiesandcommunalcarparksthereareanumberofadditionalcomplexitiesthatcomplicateinstallingchargepoints.Therecentchange[17]totheElectricVehicleHomechargeSchemetoextendaccesstotherentedandleaseholdsectorisastepintherightdirectionwhilstthedecisiontoendtheschemeforprivatehomesfromApril2022alsotargetslimitedresourcestowardsthesectorsthisismostneeded.TheextensionoftheWorkplaceChargingSchemetosmalltomediumenterprisesandthecharitysector,willalsoenablesmallaccommodationbusinesses,suchasB&Bstoaccesssupportandenableeasierchargingforthosemakingovernightstops.Alegalobligationonpropertyownerstoinstallanincreasingnumberofchargepointswherethereisdedicatedparkingprovisionwouldcutthroughthecomplexityandensurethatovernightchargingispossiblewhereparkingisprovided.Thecostofthechargepointwould,overtime,becoveredthroughusefeesandifitisnotpossibletopowerthechargepointfromaspecificdomesticelectricitysupplythenacommercialchargepointcompanycouldinstallandmanagetheequipment.Inearlyyearstheratioofchargepointstoparkingspaceswouldbelowbutwouldneedtoincreaseovertime.3.4.2.StrengtheningplanningrequirementsAtpresentthereisnorequirementforpropertydeveloperstoberequiredtoinstallhomechargingfornewbuildpropertiesevenwhereoffstreetparkingisprovided.SomelocalauthoritieshaveintroducedplanningrequirementssuchastheLondonPlan,whichincludesarequirementfornewly-developedcarparkstoincludechargepointsin20%ofparkingbays.However,planningauthoritiesareoftenwillingtoignoresuchpoliciesinordertosecureinvestmentsinmajornewbuildings.TheUKGovernmentconsulted[18]onreformoftheEnglishBuildingRegulationsin2019andproposedthat:●Everynewresidentialbuilding(andbuildingundergoingmaterialchangeofuse)withanassociatedcarparkingspaceshouldhaveachargepointinstalled.●Everyresidentialbuildingundergoingmajorrenovationwithmorethan10carparkingspacesshallhavecableroutesforelectricvehiclechargepointsineverycarparkingspace.Astudyby29●Fornewnon-residentialbuildings(includingthoseundergoingmajorrefurbishment)-withmorethan10carparkingspacestohaveonechargepointandcableroutesforanelectricvehiclechargepointforoneinfivespaces.●Forexistingnon-residentialbuildings-thereshallbearequirementforatleastonechargepointwherethereare20carparkingspaces,from2025.Thereisapressingneedtocompletethereviewofresponsesandimplementthechangesthatshouldbestrengthenedinlinewithbringingforwardthephaseoutdateforcarsandvanswithenginesfrom2040to2030.Specifically,therequirementstoinstallcablingshouldapplyirrespectiveofthenumberofcarparkingspacesandtocommunalcarparksinbothresidentialandnon-residentialbuildings.3.5.IncludingelectricityintheRenewableTransportFuelsObligation(RTFO)TheRTFOisakeypolicytorequirethesupplyofrenewablefuelsintransport.Fossilfuelsuppliersforvehiclesareobligatedtosupplyrenewablefuelsintransport(thisyear9.6%).TheObligationismetthroughearningRenewableTransportFuelCertificates(RTFCs)andismainlyachievedthroughthesupplyofbiofuels.ThegovernmentisconsultingonproposalstoraiseRTFOtargetstoincreaseCO2savings.However,itcontinuestoomitelectricityusedtochargeelectricvehiclestocounttowardsachievingthetargetseventhoughhydrogenorRenewableFuelsofNonBiologicalOrigin(RFNBOslikee-kerosene)madefromrenewableelectricityareallowed.IntheEU,thesupplyofrenewableelectricitycountsalongsidebiofuelstowardstargetssetundertheREDII.LiquidrenewabletransportfuelsandrenewableelectricityarealsobothcreditedthroughtheCaliforniaLowCarbonFuelStandard.Tacklingthisanomalyprovideanadditionalincentivetowardstheshifttoelectriccarsbyprovidinganadditionalrevenuestreamforsuppliesorchargepoints(orpossiblyvehicles).AlthoughelectricityfortransportiscurrentlyexcludedfromtheRTFO,historically,suppliersofelectricitywereallowedtoclaimcreditsundertheGreenhouseGas(GHG)Regulationscreditmechanismwhichendedin2020.TheGHGregsdefinedtheelectricitysupplierastheowneroftheelectricityatthepointthatitismetered,linkingtotheElectricityAct1989todothis.Inpractice,thismeantthattobeaclaimantofelectricityundertheGHGRegulationsacompanyhadtobearegisteredelectricitysupplierwithOfgem.Onlytherenewablepartoftheelectricitywasrewardedandassessedbasedoneachsupplier’sannual‘FuelMixDisclosure’toOfgem.Thereareseveralissuestoresolveinordertoincluderenewableelectricityusedincarsbutnoneareinsummontable:1.WhatrenewableelectricityshouldcounttowardsRTFCs?T&Efavoursusingthegridaveragerenewablecontentofelectricity.DataarereadilyavailablethatcouldbeappliedbytheRTFOadministratorwithoutrequiringanyfurtherevidencefromtheclaimingentity.Whilstwerecognisethisdoesn’tsendasignaltothemarketthatelectricityforEVsshouldAstudyby30ideallyberenewable,37.0%oftheUKelectricitymixin2019/20wasrenewableandbetween60%and100%ofUKpowerwillberenewableby2030.2.Whichentityshouldbeeligibletoclaimreward?T&Efavoursallowingthechargepointoperator(wherethereisaseparateentityowningthechargepoint,whichisusuallythecasefornon-domesticcharging).Providingsupporttochargepointoperatorsmaximisesthelikelihoodthecreditwillincreasethesupplyofchargepoints.3.HowtorewardelectricityusewithintheEnergyAct?T&EconsidersdefinitionsintheEnergyActaresufficientlybroadtoallowtheinclusionofelectricityintotheRTFO.TheEnergyActstatesthatarenewabletransportfuelisaliquid,solidorgas.Indoingso,theintentionoftheActwastoallowthebroadestscopeofrenewableenergyvectorstobeincluded.Furthermoreachargedbatteryisaformofsolidfuel.IncludingrenewableelectricityforchargingEVswithintheRTFOwillsupporttherolloutofchargingandshouldbeallowed.Astudyby314.ConclusionsEVchargingintheUKisatakeystageofitsdevelopment.IthasexpandedtoprovideanadequatenetworkfortheearlyEVadoptersandthroughgovernmentsupportandearlyhighriskinvestmentovercomethechickenandeggdilemmatosupportthefirstelectriccars.ButthenetworkmustcontinuetoexpandasthenumberofEVsontheroadgrows;coveragemustimprove;andchargingmustbecomemuchsimplerandmorereliable.GovernmenthasakeyroleincreatingtheworldclassnetworkthatisneededfortheUKtoendthesaleofconventionalcarswithenginesby2030.Buttheroleofthegovernmentmustchangefromfacilitatinginnovationandincentivisingearlyadopterstobecominganeffectivemarketenablerandregulator.Thiswillinevitablyincludephasingoutorredirectingsomeofthesupportcurrentlybeingprovidedtofocusresourceswheretheycanhavegreatestimpact.Theemploymentopportunitiescreatedbyagreeneconomicrecoveryandthebenefitsofashiftawayfrompoweringtransportwithoiljustifythegovernmentcontinuingtoinvestinthetransitiontoelectriccars.However,itisunrealisticandunnecessaryforthepublicsectortobankrolltheshift-particularlywiththeeconomiccrisiscreatedbythepandemicseverelyimpactingpublicfinances.Financingofthetransitionneedstomoveawayfromincreasinglyexpensivegrantsandcapitalfundingforchargepointstowardsprovidingtaxbreaksforcompaniesinstallingchargepointsandrevenuefundingforlocalauthoritiestoenablethemtoemploystaffthatwillberesponsiblefortherolloutofchargingwithintheirlocalareaandputinplacethecontractsandlicencestoenablethistohappen.ThelargeproportionofUKhomeswithoffstreetparking(aroundtwo-thirds)andincreasingrangeofEVsmeansmostBEVuserswillonlyneedafullchargeonceortwiceaweek.Lessthanonein20driversneedtochargeeveryday.T&Eestimatesthatby2025theUKwillonlyneedbetween18and29thousandadditionalchargepointsdependinguponthemixofRapid,FastandSlowchargers.Thiscomparesto23thousanddevicescurrentlydeployed.IfthereisahighshareofPHEVstheamountofchargingrequiredincreasesbyaround23%(risingto33%by2030)asthesecarshavesmallerbatteriesandinmostinstancescannotFastorRapidcharge.TheestimatesofrequiredchargingarelessthanotherstudiesincludingthoseoftheClimateChangeCommittee[12]andT&E[19](thatusedadifferentmethodologyandlessUKspecificassumptions).OurresultsestimatethelevelofpublicchargingneededtoserviceEVsexpectedontheroadthatdonothaveaccesstooffstreethomechargingplusthosetakinglongertrips.Theincreaseinchargingbetweennowand2025shouldfocusonaddressingthepostcodelotteryofpublicchargingthatcurrentlyexiststhroughalevellingupprocesstoensureeverylocalauthorityhassufficientdistributedchargingacrossitsarea.ThiswillhelptoaddresstheunfairlynegativeperceptionofchargingintheUK.AsupportingonlinemapillustratestheprogressofindividuallocalauthoritiesintheUKinstallingchargingcomparedtothenumberofEVregistrationsandthenumberofchargersthatarelikelytobeneededby2025.TheregionalanalysisshowsLondonisclosesttoAstudyby32havingachargepointnetworkadequateforitsneedsin2025andtheSouthEast,SouthWest,EastandNorthWestaretheregionswherethemostchargersneedtobeinstalledby2025.Therearemorethansufficientprivatesectorchargepointoperatorskeentoinstallcharging-butparticularlybeyond2025,thereislikelytobealackofsiteswillingtopayforthechargersgiventheverylargeincreaseinchargepointsthatisrequired.Between2025and2030thenumberofadditionalchargepointsisestimatedtobe108,000.Insteadofusingpublicfundingtosupportthepurchaseofworkplaceandothercharging,thegovernmentshouldintroduceregulationstorequireownersofprivatecarparks(chargedfororfree)toinstallanincreasingproportionofchargepointsinparkingspacestheyprovide.Atpresentaround1%ofthecarsontheroadareelectric,asthissharegrowssomustthenumberofchargers.T&Eanalysisshowstheimportanceofdestinationchargingandregulatingparkingprovidersisthewaytoensurethesepointsaredeployed.Tohelpcarparkoperatorstomeetthecosts,taxbreaksshouldbeofferedtohelpoffsetthecosts.EnhancedCapitalAllowancesareavailableforthecostofchargepointsbutnottheelectricalandgroundworksneededtoinstalltheequipment.Extendingthecoststhatcanbeclaimedwouldhelpbusinessesoffsettheircoststhatcouldalsochargefortheuseofthecharger.TherecentchangestotheElectricVehicleHomechargeSchemetoextendthistotherentalandleaseholdsectorisapositivedevelopment.Butinthemediumtermregulationsshouldalsobeintroducedrequiringchargepointstobeinstalledbylandlordsofrentedpropertieswhereoff-streetparkingisprovided(andthereisarequestfromthetenant);andforallnewhomesandthoseundergoingmajorrebuildingworkswherethereisoff-streetparking.Homechargingisbyfarthemostconvenientandcheapestwaytocharge.TheGovernmentthroughProjectRapidhasidentifiedtheneedtostrengthenthechargingnetworkalongsidemajorroadsandthismoneyshouldbefocusedontacklingthehighcostsofgridconnections.Butalong-termsolutionneedstobefoundtoreducecostsofgridconnectionsforallprojectdeveloperswantingtoinstallchargers.ThesolutionwillneedincreasedgovernmentfundingofDNO’stostrengthenlocalgridspossiblysupportedbysmallincreasesinelectricitybillsforallusers.Existinggovernmentschemesincludingthe:ElectricVehicleHomechargeScheme;andWorkplaceChargingSchemeandUltraLowEmissionTaxiInfrastructureSchemeshouldbephasedoutonceregulationsand/orsupportivetaxbreakshavebeenintroduced.However,theOn-streetResidentialChargepointSchememayneedtocontinueforlonger.AnalysisbyCenexforT&Eindicatesthatthebusinesscaseforkerbsidechargingispresentlyweak.Inaddition,arecentsurveybyCentrica[20]foundauthoritiestypicallyonlyplannedtoinstallanadditional35kerbsidechargersby2025,lessthanisneededinmanylocalauthorityareas.Tohelpbalanceelectricitygrids,andprovideconfidencetoprospectiveEVdriversthattheywillbeabletocharge,kerbsidechargingmustbecomeanimportantpartofthechargingmix.The£20millionrecentlyallocatedforthispurposeishelpfulbutthecostsofkerbsidechargingneedtobereduced.FurtherR&Dtohelpoptimiseandreducethecostofkerbsidechargingpointscouldbebeneficialalongwithutilisingcheapergreenfinancing.OneAstudyby33innovativeoptionwouldbetoutilisethesystemsimilartothatofcontractsfordifferencetoasameanstoprogressivelyreducethesubsidytokerbsidechargers.Bidderstodeploykerbsidechargerswouldindicatethelevelofsubsidyrequiredwiththemostcompetitivebidsreceivingasubsidyasopposedtoafixedgrant.OLEVshouldexploreoptionsforsuchaschemethatshouldreducethelevelofsubsidyneededovertime.ThereisalsoaninequalitybetweenEVdriverschargingathomewitha5%domesticVATrateandthe20%chargedforusingapubliccharger.ChargingalowerVATrateforpublicchargingwouldlowertheadditionalcostsofchargingfor,typicallylessaffluentEVownersthatparkontheroad.ThereisalsoananomalyintheRTFOthatallowsrenewableelectricityusedtomakehydrogenfortransporttobeeligibleforRTFCs,butelectricityusedinbatteryelectriccarsisnot.ClosingthisgapwouldprovideanadditionalrevenuestreamforchargepointoperatorsandshouldbeaddressedinthereformoftheRTFO.ThisbriefingpaperprovidesaroadmapforaworldcallchargingnetworkintheUK.Itshowsbystimulatinginvestmentthroughregulationandmanagingthemarketitispossibletorolloutthechargingneededforthefleetofincreasinglyelectricvehicles.Itwillbeachallengebutonewhichcanbeachievedifthegovernmentmovesawayfromcapitalinvestmentstowardssupportinglocalauthoritiestomanagethelocalrolloutofchargepointsandregulatingtheemergingmarkettoensurecustomersreceivehighqualityservices.FurtherinformationGregArcherUKDirectorTransport&Environmentgreg.archer@transportenvironment.orgMobile:+44(0)7970371224Astudyby34AppendixA:ModellingAssumptionsThecharginginfrastructuremodelwasdevelopedtoestimatethenumberofpublicchargingstationstheUKneedstomeetforecastedEVchargingdemand.ThemethodanddatasourcesusedaredescribedinFigure9andEquation1,below.Figure9.Flowchartofcalculationsteps,inputsanddatasourcesAstudyby35DatafromtheNationalTravelSurvey(NTS)[4]onannualmileageandaveragetriplengthiscombinedwithanestimateofthepercentageoffutureEVdriverswhowillhaveaccesstohomecharging(fromtheEnglishHousingSurvey[3])toestimateayearlychargingneedperEV.WhendividedbyanaverageEVrangebasedonrealworlddata(fromEVDatabase[21])andweightedtomodelpopularity(VehicleLicensingStatistics[11]),thisgivestheaverageno.chargersperyearperEV.EVsalesestimatesareusedinT&E’sEUTRMfleetturnoveralgorithmtocalculatetheestimatedno.BEVsandPHEVsontheUK’sroadsinagivenyearthroughto2050.Foramedianuptakescenariowhere:BEVsachieve69%andPHEVs31%oftotalsalesin2030;EVadoptionfollowsastandardS-curve;totalUKfleetsizeistiedtoGDPandfleetturnoverbasedonanaveragevehiclelifespanof15yearsbeforeexitingthefleet-theEVnumbersshowninFigure10inagivenyearwereassumed.Figure10:PHEVandBEVfleetsizeforamedianEVuptakescenario(2030sales69%BEV,31%PHEV).FromthenumberofEVsontheUK’sroads,thenumberofchargesrequiredinayearcanbecalculated.Thethreescenariosusedrepresentaminimum,medianandmaximumchargingdemand.Astudyby36TableA-1.Assumptionsmadeineachofthechargingdemandscenarios.HighChargingDemandMedianChargingDemandLowChargingDemand%ageofEVdriverswithhomecharging51%55%67%EVRange(miles)200250300PHEVRange(miles)387550Charges/PHEV/year40.828.516.2Motorwaycharges/BEV/year3.93.12.6Charges/BEV/year16.212.07.4Thenumberofchargersneededtomeetthechargingdemanddependsonthebalanceofrapid,fastandslowchargers,chargerutilisationratesandchargercapacities.Chargercapacityisthenumberofchargesagivenchargercandoinayear.Therewillbeatheoreticalmaximum,determinedbythechargerpower,andarealisticestimatebasedonassumptionsofhowmuchachargercanrealisticallybeused.Forinstance,arapidchargercouldtheoreticallycharge>11000EVsayear,ifinconstant24huse,butwasassumedtobeunlikelytoachievemanymorethan2000inreality.Thehigherpoweredthecharger,thehigheritstheoreticalchargingcapacityandthereforethefewerchargersneededtosatisfyagivenchargingdemand.ThethreescenariosusedrepresentdifferentbalancesbetweenthenumberofchargesonRapid,FastandSlowchargers.Theproportionofchargersofeachtypeforthedifferentscenariosisshowninthetablebelow;thisisthenumberofchargepointsandnotonabasisofenergydeliveredornumberofcharges.Astudyby37TableA-2.Assumedchargerutilisationrates.ChargerutilisationMaximumMedianMinimumRapid31%25%19%Fast33%25%17%Slow(Kerbside)66%50%33%Slow(Workplace)onlyoperate5daysin750%47%33%PHEV50%44%38%Charges/dayMaximumMedianMinimumTHEORETICALMAXIMUMNO.CHARGES/DAYRapid106832Fast211.56Slow(Kerbside)211.53Slow(Workplace)onlyoperate5daysin71.070.711.002.14PHEV433.58Theratioofdifferenttypesofchargers,theirtheoreticalcapacityandestimatedutilisationsgiveanaveragechargercapacityforeachoftheHighRapid,BalancedandHighSlowscenarios.Thenumberofchargersrequiredinagivenyearisthensimplythechargingdemandinagivenyear,dividedbytheaveragechargercapacity;thisprocessissummarisedintheequationbelow.Equation1.Estimationofchargingdemandandcorrespondingsufficientcharginginfrastructure.Astudyby38Followingthis,tounderstandtheimpactthenumberofPHEVshasonchargingnetworks,threemorescenarioswherePHEVshadalow,medianandhighfleetshareweremodelled.Amedianchargerutilisationrateandthe‘Deer’chargerbalancescenariowasusedinthiscalculation.Astudyby39TableA-3.PHEVScenarios.PHEVShareofSales2030No.PHEVs2030LowPHEVScenario12%1.7millionMedianPHEVScenario31%4.0millionHighPHEVsScenario50%6.5millionThetablebelowshowstheinputdatavaluesandassumptionsthatwereconstantinthescenariosdescribedabove.TableA-4.Underlyingassumptionsforallscenarios.ValueSourceAverageannualmileage(non-motorway)6,640milesNTSTable0901[4]Averageannualmileage(motorway)783milesNTSTable0308[4]BEVRange(miles)250EVDatabase[21]BEVRangeathigherspeeds(miles)230EVDatabase[21]PHEVRange(miles)50ICCT[14]Rapidchargercapacity(>50kW)11,680BEVs/yearPodpoint[22]Fastchargercapacity(7-22kW)2,190BEVs/yearPodpoint[22]Slowchargercapacity(3-5kW)1,095BEVs/yearPodpoint[22]Astudyby40PHEVchargercapacity(3-5kW)2,920BEVs/yearPodpoint[22]BothcharginginfrastructureandEVdriversarenotevenlydistributedthroughouttheUK.Differentareaswillrequiremoreorlesscharginginfrastructurethroughto2025,dependingonwheretheycurrentlyareintheEVadoptionprocess.TomakeamoreaccurateestimateofthechargepointsneededineachLAin2025,anadjustmenttoaccountforcurrentandprojectedEVnumberswasmade.CurrentnumbersofEVsineachlocalauthoritywerecomparedtotheEVproportionsassumedintheS-curveofEVuptakeusedforthenationalmodelling.ThenumberofchargersrequiredineachLAwasthatrequiredfiveyearsaheadofthiscurrentpositionontheuptakecurve.TheoverallnumberofchargersneededintheUKdidnotvarysignificantly,butthisapproachhighlightedthoselocalauthoritieswhichwillrequiresignificantinvestmentandthosethatareaheadofthecurve.ThisprocessandthedatasourcesusedareshowninFigure11,below.Astudyby41Figure11:ProcessSchematicfortheLocalAuthorityadjustment.Astudyby42Endnotes1.UKnewcarregistrationdata,UKcarmarket-SMMT.(2016,August18).RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.smmt.co.uk/vehicle-data/car-registrations/2.Shanahan,J.(2020,December29).NewsurveyrevealsEVswitchersdon’tlookback.RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.zap-map.com/new-survey-reveals-ev-switchers-dont-look-back/3.UKMinistryofHousing,Communities&LocalGovernment.(2020,September7).DA2201:parkingandmainsgas-dwellings.EnglishHousingSurveydataonamenities,servicesandlocalenvironments.Retrievedfromhttps://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/898459/DA2201_Parking_and_mains_gas_-_dwellings.xlsx4.UKDepartmentforTransport.(2020,May8).NationalTravelSurvey:2019.NationalTravelSurvey:2019.Retrievedfromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/national-travel-survey-20195.Timeline-SI2020-StatutoryInstruments-UKParliament.(n.d.).RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://statutoryinstruments.parliament.uk/timeline/virDfwx4/SI-2020/6.DepartmentforTransport.(2020,November18).Governmenttakeshistoricsteptowardsnet-zerowithendofsaleofnewpetrolanddieselcarsby2030.GOV.UK.RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-zero-with-end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-20307.(Zap-Map),A.(n.d.).HowmanychargepointsarethereintheUK2021.RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.zap-map.com/statistics/8.Passengercars.(n.d.).RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.eafo.eu/vehicles-and-fleet/m19.DepartmentforTransport.(2021,April1).Electricvehiclechargingdevicestatistics:January2021tables.Electricvehiclechargingdevicestatistics:January2021.RetrievedfromAstudyby43https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/electric-vehicle-charging-device-statistics-january-202110.EdBirkett,W.N.(2020).ChargingUp.PoliciestodeliveracomprehensivenetworkofpublicEVchargepoints.PolicyExchange.11.DepartmentforTransport,DriverandVehicleLicensingAgency.(2020,December9).Vehiclelicensingstatistics.Vehiclelicensingstatistics:JulytoSeptember2020.Retrievedfromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/vehicle-licensing-statistics-july-to-september-202012.CommitteeonClimateChange.(2020).TheSixthCarbonBudget.TheUKspathtoNetZero.CommitteeonClimateChange.Retrievedfromhttps://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/The-Sixth-Carbon-Budget-The-UKs-path-to-Net-Zero.pdf13.MichaelNicholas,N.L.(2020).QuantifyingtheelectricvehiclecharginginfrastructuregapintheUnitedKingdom.ICCT.Retrievedfromhttps://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/UK-charging-gap-082020.pdf14.Real-worldusageofplug-inhybridelectricvehicles:Fuelconsumption,electricdriving,andCO2emissions.(n.d.).RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://theicct.org/publications/phev-real-world-usage-sept202015.DepartmentforTransport.(2019,November2).New“leaguetable”revealselectriccarchargingavailabilityacrossUKasTransportSecretarycallsonlocalauthoritiestodomore.GOV.UK.RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-league-table-reveals-electric-car-charging-availability-across-uk-as-transport-secretary-calls-on-local-authorities-to-do-more16.Theconsumerexperienceatpublicchargepoints.(n.d.).RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/the-consumer-experience-at-public-electric-vehicle-chargepoints/the-consumer-experience-at-public-chargepointsAstudyby4417.DepartmentforTransport.(2021,February13).Supportforsmallbusinesses,landlordsandleaseholders:governmentchargesuptheelectricvehiclerevolutionwith£50millionboost.GOV.UK.RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/news/support-for-small-businesses-landlords-and-leaseholders-government-charges-up-the-electric-vehicle-revolution-with-50-million-boost18.DepartmentforTransport.(2019).ElectricVehicleCharginginResidentialandNon-ResidentialBuildings.Retrievedfromhttps://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/818810/electric-vehicle-charging-in-residential-and-non-residential-buildings.pdf19.Mathieu,L.(2020).RechargeEU:howmanychargepointswillEuropeanditsMemberStatesneedinthe2020s.Transport&Environment.Retrievedfromhttps://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/01%202020%20Draft%20TE%20Infrastructure%20Report%20Final.pdf20.Councilsplantoinstalljust35on-streetEVchargersonaverageby2025.(n.d.).RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://www.current-news.co.uk/news/councils-plan-to-install-just-35-on-street-ev-chargers-on-average-by-202521.EVDatabase.(n.d.).RetrievedApril13,2021,fromhttps://ev-database.org/22.Howlongdoesittaketochargeanelectriccar?(n.d.).RetrievedMay18,2021,fromhttps://pod-point.com/guides/driver/how-long-to-charge-an-electric-carAstudyby45