迈向零排放中国城市的公共共享与慢行交通2023（英文版）--能源基金会VIP专享VIP免费

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urban mobility

beyond cars

China is racing towards

emission

road transport

urban mobility beyond cars

zero

PREFACE

Climate change has posed signicant threats to our planet, which is evident from the observed global

warming, the melting polar ice shields, the rising sea level, and more frequent and severe extreme weather

events. These alarming changes have caused extensive damage to cities, rural areas, and the rest parts of

ecosystems worldwide. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that human

inuence on the climate system is clear. To address climate change and ramp up the actions and investments

needed, the global community adopted “Paris Agreement” in December 2015. Its primary objective is to limit

the global temperature rise this century well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and strive to keep

even lower at 1.5°C. To have the goal within reach, global greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions need

to peak before 2025, decrease by 45% by 2030, and achieve net zero by 2050.

However, the current actions are neither broad, nor bold, nor fast enough. In 2020, the Arctic and the

Antarctic continent witnessed record-breaking temperatures of 38.0°C and 18.3°C, respectively (WMO,

2021a, 2021b). As this warming trend continues, 2023 is set to be the hottest year on record at many places.

Notably, Beijing experienced a scorching temperature of over 41.1°C, signicantly higher than the previous

records for the same period (Shi, 2023). The Middle East also endured an extreme heat index of 66.7°C,

reaching the upper thresholds for human tolerance. Meanwhile, the Southern U.S. grappled with an

exceptionally intense and extended heat wave from California to Florida. Phoenix City hit 43.3°C for 31

consecutive days (Patel, 2023). Furthermore, the return of El Niño has set the stage for soaring global

temperatures and intensifying damaging weather patterns. It underscores the urgency to accelerate

reductions in emissions.

China is the world’s second largest transport carbon emitter only after the U.S. Although currently,

China’s transport emissions account for about 9% of the national total (IEA, 2021, 2023a, 2023c), they are

comparable with many countries’ economy-wide emissions—three times that of the UK, twice as much as

Canada’s, and almost equal Japan’s. China’s transport sector could come into the sixth place if it were a

country. In China’s quest for zero emission transport, electric vehicles (EVs) is always the rst one that people

give credit to. Globally, China has ranked rst in both EV production and sales for eight consecutive years

since 2015. By the end of 2022, the country has seized 58% of global EV sales and 56% of total EV stock

(IEA, 2023b). However, China's large population, growingly concentrated people in cities, and diverse

economy mean that China's passenger transport cannot rely solely on cars. To ensure safe, equitable,

convenient, economical, and clean travel for 1.4 billion people, China must seek sustainable ways beyond

cars. Therefore, China prioritizes the development of public transport and active mobility and keeps

improving the service. There are also detours, some of which may serve as references for future development

in China and other countries.

This report aims to present China’s initiatives, progress, insights, and lessons learnt in the pursuit of zero

emission urban mobility beyond cars. It will be elaborated from the aspects including buses, urban rails,

shared bicycles, and electric two and three wheelers (E2/3Ws) . The information and discussions in this

report could be valuable to countries at different stages of transition who seek to accelerate the advancement

of zero emission urban mobility.

¹ Its Chinese name is new energy vehicles (NEVs), including battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs).

² Active mobility is the Chinese term of “slow transportation (慢行交通)” which includes both walking and non-motorized vehicles such as bicycles and e-bikes. It is

similar to the term of “micro mobility” that includes bicycles, two wheelers, and three wheelers, either privately owned or publicly shared. The major difference between

the two terms is whether walking is included or not.

³ This report will mainly look at the widely deployed electric two and three wheelers, because the fossil-fuel two and three wheelers, which are commonly used in rural

areas and small cities, are often deﬁned as motorcycles in China for their typical high speed of over 50km per hour.

This report is a knowledge product of Energy Foundation China. Authors are:

Yin Le, Senior Program Ofcer of the Transportation Program, Energy Foundation China

Zheng Biqi, Program Ofcer of the Transportation Program, Energy Foundation China

Wang Man, Consultant of the Transportation Program, Energy Foundation China

Gong Huiming, Senior Program Director of the Transportation Program, Energy Foundation China

Sun Xuefei, Senior Program Associate of the Transportation Program, Energy Foundation China

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

The team would like to thank the following experts for their contribution to this report:

Li Shanshan, Vice Country Director, Institute for Transportation & Development Policy

Liang Jindong, Executive Director, Beijing Smart & Green Transport Research Center

Peng Yuhui, Professor, Fuzhou University

The team also appreciates Ms. Li Li for her excellent editing, and appreciate the seless help from Ms. Lin

Weiwei, Ms. Xin Yan, Ms. Yang Peipei, Ms. Zhao Rui, and Ms. Zhuo Yuewen from Energy Foundation China.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This document was prepared based on information and data acquired from public sources, neither Energy

Foundation China nor any of its employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal

responsibility for the accuracy and completeness. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not

necessarily state or reect those of Energy Foundation China. This document is for reference only. Readers

are to exercise independent judgment on the contents, and Energy Foundation China does not assume any

legal responsibility for the consequences caused by the use of this document by any individual or institution.

Reference herein to any specic entity, product or service, does not necessarily constitute or imply its

endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by Energy Foundation China.

DISCLAIMER

To reference this report, please use following citation as:

Yin, L., Zheng, B., Wang, M., Gong, H.,& Sun, X. (2023). China is racing towards zero emission transport:

urban mobility beyond cars. Energy Foundation China (EF China).

CITATION

China is racing towards

zero emission transport:

urban mobility beyond cars

TABLE OF CONTENTS

IA GLIMPSE OF CHINA’S

URBAN MOBILITY

DEVELOPMENT

II TRANSIT

BUS

WHAT’S the scale and emission of transit bus

system in China?

WHY does China prioritize the zero emission

transformation of buses?

HOW does the policy motivate the changes?

KEY FACTORS determining China’s

urban mobility demand and international

comparison

KEY DRIVERS for China to move towards

zero emission urban mobility

Progress of zero emission urban mobility

beyond cars in China

III URBAN

RAIL IV SHARED BICYCLES AND

ELECTRIC TWO AND

THREE WHEELERS

WHY are shared bicycles and E2/3Ws

so popular?

WHAT impacts do shared bicycles and

E2/3Ws bring to urban mobility?

WHAT are the key ndings?

WHAT makes urban rail favored over road

transport?

HOW BIG and FAST does urban rail develop?

HOW does urban rail contribute to ease the

trafc and reduce emissions?

WHAT kind of policies enable such

development?

VI WHAT’S MORE FOR

LOOKING AHEAD?

Strengthen overarching planning

Improve the nancial sustainability of public

transport

Avoid “one size ts all” policy for E2/3Ws

management

Seize the opportunity of future technology

to provide more inclusive, safe and

environmental transport services.

ACCESS FOR ALL: improve the barrier-free

mobility

VKEY ELEMENTS FOR

SUCCESS

Vision, mission and actions

Proactive government and consistent and

sustainable policies

Consensus and alignment across stakeholders

High-efciency and low-cost manufacturing

along the supply chain

Overseeing, evaluating, and improving the

policy goals

Executive Summary 01

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 06

Milestones of China's Urban Mobility Development beyond Cars (2007-2022) 86

References 89

Major Policies of China's Urban Mobility Beyond Cars (2003-2023) 87

/54

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zeroChinaisracingtowardsemissionroadtransporturbanmobilitybeyondcarsurbanmobilitybeyondcarsABOUTTHEAUTHORSPREFACEThisreportisaknowledgeproductofEnergyFoundationChina.Authorsare:Climatechangehasposedsignicantthreatstoourplanet,whichisevidentfromtheobservedglobalwarming,themeltingpolariceshields,therisingsealevel,andmorefrequentandsevereextremeweatherYinLe,SeniorProgramOfceroftheTransportationProgram,EnergyFoundationChinaevents.Thesealarmingchangeshavecausedextensivedamagetocities,ruralareas,andtherestpartsofZhengBiqi,ProgramOfceroftheTransportationProgram,EnergyFoundationChinaecosystemsworldwide.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)hasconcludedthathumanWangMan,ConsultantoftheTransportationProgram,EnergyFoundationChinainuenceontheclimatesystemisclear.ToaddressclimatechangeandrampuptheactionsandinvestmentsGongHuiming,SeniorProgramDirectoroftheTransportationProgram,EnergyFoundationChinaneeded,theglobalcommunityadopted“ParisAgreement”inDecember2015.ItsprimaryobjectiveistolimitSunXuefei,SeniorProgramAssociateoftheTransportationProgram,EnergyFoundationChinatheglobaltemperaturerisethiscenturywellbelow2°Cabovepre-industriallevelsandstrivetokeepevenlowerat1.5°C.Tohavethegoalwithinreach,globalgreenhousegases(GHGs)emissionsneedACKNOWLEDGEMENTtopeakbefore2025,decreaseby45%by2030,andachievenetzeroby2050.Theteamwouldliketothankthefollowingexpertsfortheircontributiontothisreport:However,thecurrentactionsareneitherbroad,norbold,norfastenough.In2020,theArcticandtheAntarcticcontinentwitnessedrecord-breakingtemperaturesof38.0°Cand18.3°C,respectively(WMO,LiShanshan,ViceCountryDirector,InstituteforTransportation&DevelopmentPolicy2021a,2021b).Asthiswarmingtrendcontinues,2023issettobethehottestyearonrecordatmanyplaces.LiangJindong,ExecutiveDirector,BeijingSmart&GreenTransportResearchCenterNotably,Beijingexperiencedascorchingtemperatureofover41.1°C,signicantlyhigherthanthepreviousPengYuhui,Professor,FuzhouUniversityrecordsforthesameperiod(Shi,2023).TheMiddleEastalsoenduredanextremeheatindexof66.7°C,reachingtheupperthresholdsforhumantolerance.Meanwhile,theSouthernU.S.grappledwithanTheteamalsoappreciatesMs.LiLiforherexcellentediting,andappreciatetheselesshelpfromMs.LinexceptionallyintenseandextendedheatwavefromCaliforniatoFlorida.PhoenixCityhit43.3°Cfor31Weiwei,Ms.XinYan,Ms.YangPeipei,Ms.ZhaoRui,andMs.ZhuoYuewenfromEnergyFoundationChina.consecutivedays(Patel,2023).Furthermore,thereturnofElNiñohassetthestageforsoaringglobaltemperaturesandintensifyingdamagingweatherpatterns.ItunderscorestheurgencytoaccelerateDISCLAIMERreductionsinemissions.Thisdocumentwaspreparedbasedoninformationanddataacquiredfrompublicsources,neitherEnergyChinaistheworld’ssecondlargesttransportcarbonemitteronlyaftertheU.S.Althoughcurrently,FoundationChinanoranyofitsemployees,makesanywarranty,expressorimplied,orassumesanylegalChina’stransportemissionsaccountforabout9%ofthenationaltotal(IEA,2021,2023a,2023c),theyareresponsibilityfortheaccuracyandcompleteness.Theviewsandopinionsofauthorsexpressedhereindonotcomparablewithmanycountries’economy-wideemissions—threetimesthatoftheUK,twiceasmuchasnecessarilystateorreectthoseofEnergyFoundationChina.Thisdocumentisforreferenceonly.ReadersCanada’s,andalmostequalJapan’s.China’stransportsectorcouldcomeintothesixthplaceifitwereaaretoexerciseindependentjudgmentonthecontents,andEnergyFoundationChinadoesnotassumeanycountry.InChina’squestforzeroemissiontransport,electricvehicles(EVs)isalwaystherstonethatpeoplelegalresponsibilityfortheconsequencescausedbytheuseofthisdocumentbyanyindividualorinstitution.givecreditto.Globally,ChinahasrankedrstinbothEVproductionandsalesforeightconsecutiveyearsReferencehereintoanyspecicentity,productorservice,doesnotnecessarilyconstituteorimplyitssince2015.Bytheendof2022,thecountryhasseized58%ofglobalEVsalesand56%oftotalEVstockendorsement,recommendation,orfavoringbyEnergyFoundationChina.(IEA,2023b).However,China'slargepopulation,growinglyconcentratedpeopleincities,anddiverseeconomymeanthatChina'spassengertransportcannotrelysolelyoncars.Toensuresafe,equitable,CITATIONconvenient,economical,andcleantravelfor1.4billionpeople,Chinamustseeksustainablewaysbeyondcars.Therefore,ChinaprioritizesthedevelopmentofpublictransportandactivemobilityandkeepsToreferencethisreport,pleaseusefollowingcitationas:improvingtheservice.Therearealsodetours,someofwhichmayserveasreferencesforfuturedevelopmentYin,L.,Zheng,B.,Wang,M.,Gong,H.,&Sun,X.(2023).Chinaisracingtowardszeroemissiontransport:inChinaandothercountries.urbanmobilitybeyondcars.EnergyFoundationChina(EFChina).ThisreportaimstopresentChina’sinitiatives,progress,insights,andlessonslearntinthepursuitofzeroemissionurbanmobilitybeyondcars.Itwillbeelaboratedfromtheaspectsincludingbuses,urbanrails,sharedbicycles,andelectrictwoandthreewheelers(E2/3Ws).Theinformationanddiscussionsinthisreportcouldbevaluabletocountriesatdifferentstagesoftransitionwhoseektoacceleratetheadvancementofzeroemissionurbanmobility.¹ItsChinesenameisnewenergyvehicles(NEVs),includingbatteryelectricvehicles(BEVs),plug-inhybridvehicles(PHEVs),andfuelcellvehicles(FCVs).²ActivemobilityistheChinesetermof“slowtransportation(慢行交通)”whichincludesbothwalkingandnon-motorizedvehiclessuchasbicyclesande-bikes.Itissimilartothetermof“micromobility”thatincludesbicycles,twowheelers,andthreewheelers,eitherprivatelyownedorpubliclyshared.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwotermsiswhetherwalkingisincludedornot.³Thisreportwillmainlylookatthewidelydeployedelectrictwoandthreewheelers,becausethefossil-fueltwoandthreewheelers,whicharecommonlyusedinruralareasandsmallcities,areoftendeﬁnedasmotorcyclesinChinafortheirtypicalhighspeedofover50kmperhour.ChinaisracingtowardsExecutiveSummary01zeroemissiontransport:LISTOFACRONYMSANDABBREVIATIONS06urbanmobilitybeyondcarsIAGLIMPSEOFCHINA’SIITRANSITTABLEOFCONTENTSURBANMOBILITYBUSDEVELOPMENTKEYFACTORSdeterminingChina’s08WHAT’Sthescaleandemissionoftransitbus31systeminChina?urbanmobilitydemandandinternationalWHYdoesChinaprioritizethezeroemission36comparisontransformationofbuses?KEYDRIVERSforChinatomovetowards16HOWdoesthepolicymotivatethechanges?40zeroemissionurbanmobilityProgressofzeroemissionurbanmobility20beyondcarsinChinaIIIURBANIVSHAREDBICYCLESANDRAILELECTRICTWOANDTHREEWHEELERSWHATmakesurbanrailfavoredoverroad46WHYaresharedbicyclesandE2/3Ws61transport?sopopular?HOWBIGandFASTdoesurbanraildevelop?50WHATimpactsdosharedbicyclesand68HOWdoesurbanrailcontributetoeasethe52E2/3Wsbringtourbanmobility?trafcandreduceemissions?WHATarethekeyndings?73WHATkindofpoliciesenablesuch55development?VKEYELEMENTSFORVIWHAT’SMOREFORSUCCESSLOOKINGAHEAD?Vision,missionandactions80Strengthenoverarchingplanning83Proactivegovernmentandconsistentand80Improvethenancialsustainabilityofpublic83sustainablepoliciestransportConsensusandalignmentacrossstakeholders80Avoid“onesizetsall”policyforE2/3WsHigh-efciencyandlow-costmanufacturing81management83alongthesupplychainSeizetheopportunityoffuturetechnologyOverseeing,evaluating,andimprovingthe81toprovidemoreinclusive,safeand85policygoalsenvironmentaltransportservices.ACCESSFORALL:improvethebarrier-free85mobilityMilestonesofChina'sUrbanMobilityDevelopmentbeyondCars(2007-2022)86MajorPoliciesofChina'sUrbanMobilityBeyondCars(2003-2023)87References89ExecutiveChinaoperatesoneoftheworld’slargestandSummarycleanesturbanmobilitysystemChina'stransportsectoremitted9.46milliontonsofCO2in2022,Busandurbanrailaccountedfor72%ofnationwiderevenueurbanpassengervolumein2019.Sameyear,93accountingfor9%ofnationaltotalcarbonemissions(IEA,2023c).ThisbillionpassengertripswerecarriedbybusandurbanrailinChina(MOT,2014-2023),overninetimesofthemakesChinatheworld'ssecondlargesttransportcarbonemitteronlyvolumeintheU.S.(APTA,2023).aftertheU.S.UrbanmobilityrepresentsamajoremissionsourceofChina’sroadtransport,whichcontributesabout80%ofChina’stransportIn2022,Chinaledtheglobalbusmarketwithitseettakingaquarteroftheworld’sbuses.Intermsofnewcarbonemissionandabout7%ofChina’snationaltotalcarbonemission.bussalesworldwide,83%ofBEVand96%ofPHEVwereinChina(IEA,2023b).Asof2022,China’sbusTherefore,zeroemissiontransformationofurbanmobilityiscriticalforstockwas703,200(MOT,2014-2023),whichwas9.8timesoftheU.S.(APTA,2023).Amongthesebuses,Chinatoachieveitscarbongoals.77%hadalreadybeenelectriedandtheremaining23%fossilfuelbusesareexpectedtobefullyelectriedinChinahasbeenmakingeffortstoreduceurbanmobilityemissions,thecomingfewyears(MOT,2014-2023).Thisshiftisfacilitatedbythefactthatover99%ofthenewlyespeciallythroughitsunprecedentedandworld-leadingdevelopmentofpurchasedorreplacedbusesinChinabytheendof2022arenewenergyvehicles(NEVs).EVs.Bytheendof2022,Chinaaccountedfor58%ofglobalEVsalesand56%ofEVstock(IEA,2023b).However,China’stransitiontozeroGlobally,Chinahasthelargesturbanrailnetwork,intermsoflengthandthenumberofcitieswithurbanrails.emissiontransportrequiresmorethanjustEVs,duetoitslargepopulation,By2022,41citiesinChinahavehadmetroswithacollectivelengthof8,448kilometers.Thedailyridershipofvastterritory,complexterrain,diversiedandimbalancedeconomy,aswellChina’surbanrailshit53millionpassengertripsin2022(CAMET,2014-2023).asgrowingtraveldemandcomingalongwithfasturbanization.Chinamustdevelopahigh-capacityandcomprehensiveurbanmobilitysystembeyondInadditiontoitsstridesinbuselectricationandurbanrails,ChinahasalsobeenattheforefrontofBusRapidcarstoprovidesafe,equitable,convenient,economicalandcleantravelforTransit(BRT).By2022,ChinahadoverseventhousandkilometersofBRTinoperation.In2019,BRTlinesits1.4billionpeople.andvehiclespermillioninhabitantsinChinareached4.4kmand6.7buses(MOT,2014-2020),surpassingtheU.S.byfourfoldandvefold,respectively(APTA,2023).01Chinaalsoownstheworld’slargestbike,2/3WsandE2/3Wssystem.Sixtypercentofbikeridershipcomesfromsharedbicycles.By2022,thenationwideeetofsharedbicycleswas14.9million,withtheservicescovering400cities(Wei,2022).Meanwhile,81%of2Wsand20%of3Wswereelectried(CCCM,2023,andiResearch,2023).China’selectrictwoandthreewheelers(E2/3Ws)stockhadexceeded420millionby2022,1.3timesofChina’snationalcarstockandabout1.5timesofcarstockintheU.S.andEU.Thepushforzeroemissiontransport:tacklingclimate,air,andhealthDespitecarbonemissions,reducingcriteriaairpollutantsforairqualityandpublichealthalsomotivatesChina’stransitiontozeroemissiontransport.Passengertransport,includingurbanmobility,contributesabout12%ofnationaltotalNitrogenOxide(NOx)emissions(MEE,2022,2023).HighconcentrationsofPM2.5andozonecorrelatewithhighvehiclestock.Fifty-sixcitieswithlargevehiclestockfailtomeetbothPM2.5andozonenationalstandards,posingharmtothehealthofover330millionpeople(about24%ofChina’spopulation[IPE,2023candFuzhouUniversity]).02ChinaisdecouplingthetraveldemandgrowthChinatakessystematicapproachestowithemissionsintegratepoliciesandtechnologiestogetherwithstakeholders'alignmentbuilding,Inthepast50years,urbanbuilt-upareasinChina’smajorcitiesexpanded7.5times,increasingpeople’simplementationandevaluationcommutedistances(Liuetal.,2021).In2022,theaveragesingletripcommutedistanceinBeijing,Shanghai,Shenzhen,andGuangzhouwas11.7km,9.8km,8.5km,and9.1kmrespectively,increasedbyabout5%,Policiesplayavitalrole,buttherearealsoimplicitdrivers,includingvisionorlong-termgoals,proactive10%,12%,and5%fromtheir2020levels(Zhaoetal.,2020andWangetal.,2021,2022,2023).Withagovernment,strongimplementation,alignmentacrossstakeholders,andtocontinuouslyimprovingtargeted70%urbanizationratein2030,980millionpeoplemayliveincities,whichwillbringgrowingtraveltechnologiesandproductsonthemarket.demands(NBS,2023d).ThedemandcouldgoevenhigherifChina’surbanizationratereaches80%,thesameasthatoftheUKandtheU.S.Overthepasttwodecades,ChinahasbeenmakingeffortstodecoupleVisionguideslong-termactionsandstrengthensmarketconfidenceridershipgrowthfromemissionsbydevelopingEVs,adoptingcleanerinternalcombustionengine(ICE)vehicles,optimizingtransportmodestructure,andmanagingtransitdemands.Anambitiousvisionguidesthedifferentstakeholderstowardasharedgoal.Thiswillbuildmarketcondence,createeconomiesofscale,andenhancethecompetitivenessofadvancedtechnologyandproducts.BothfuelefficiencyandcriteriaairpollutantsemissionsofICEvehiclesarecontinuouslysignificantlytightenedAlignmentacrossstakeholderstobuildconsensusChinastrengthenstheemissionsreductionofICEvehiclesbyphasingouttheyellowstickerandoldcarsandAwiderangeofgovernmentdepartments,includingMOT,MOHURD,NDRC,MIIT,MEE,MPS,SAMR,MOFraisingstandardsforfueleconomy,fuelqualityandvehicleemissions.ChinaPhaseIIIfueleconomystandardsandetc,overseeurbanmobilitymanagement.Otherstakeholdersalongtheindustrychainincludeurbantightenurbanbusfuelconsumptionlimitsby15.9%,comparedtoPhaseIstandard(JinandWang,2011,planners,investorsandoperatorsofbuslinesandurbanrails,vehiclemanufacturers,consumers,drivers,andWenetal.,2014,&Wangetal.,2018).AccordingtoChinaVfuelqualitystandards,themoststringentchargingserviceproviders.Itiscrucialforallthesestakeholderstobuildconsensusandenhancegloballybyfar,over99%sulfurcontentindieselandgasolineneedtobereduced(TransportPolicy.net,2018).collaboration.NitrogenOxides(NOx)andparticulatematter(PM)frombusesdroppedasmuchas94%and97%byChinaVIvehicleemissionstandards,comparedtoChinaI.AndChinahasalsomovedtolead-freegasolinesinceProactivepoliciestoensureimplementationearly2000snationally(ScienceandTechnologyStandardsDepartment,2001,EnvironmentalStandardsInstituteandJinanAutomobileTestCenter,2005,andChineseResearchAcademyofEnvironmentalSciencesChinahasbeensteadilyexpandingitsbusandurbanrailnetworksaswellaselectrifyingitsvehicleeetstoetal.,2018).reduceemissions.MinistriesandlocalgovernmentsenactedsupportingpoliciesonsubsidiesandDedicatedBusLanes(DBL).Chinarolledoutnationalpilotprogramsonfull-scaleelectricationofpublicvehicles,Publictransitisthemostprioritizedurbantransportmodefordevelopmentincludingbuses,taxis,sanitationvehicles,postalandurbanlogisticsvehicleswiththetargetstoachievean80%marketpenetrationrateforNEVsby2025.AlltheseeffortsnotonlyspeedupChina’spursuitofzeroChinahaslegallyprioritizedpublictransitoveralltheothermodessince2005.Consequently,China’sbusemissiontransport,butalsostrengthenChina’sR&Dcapability,manufacturingefciency,andsupplychainridershipandvehiclemileagereached69billionpassengertripsand35billionkilometersin2019(MOT,2020),resilience.about15timesand9timestheU.S.levelsrespectively(APAT,2023).Publictransitdevelopment,especiallyurbanrails,bringsdowntheuseofcars.Annualprivatecarvehiclekilometerstraveled(VKT)isreducedbyEmbracinginnovationandnewbusiness2.5%peryearinthepastdecadesinBeijing,Shanghai,andChengdu,despitetheirgrowingpopulation,models:advancingplanning,financialurbanbuilt-upareas,andvehiclestock(EFChinaanalysis,XiamenEnvironmentProtectionVehicleEmissionsustainability,localizedpolicy,futuretechnology,ControlTechnologyCenter,BTI,ShanghaiUrbanRuralConstructionandTransportationDevelopmentandaccessibilityResearchInstitute,ChengduVECC).OverarchingplanningSharedbicyclesandE2/3Wsplayauniqueandcriticalroleforshort-distanceprivatetripsandconnectiontopublicmodesChinaneedstointegratemultifunctionallanduseintourbanplanning,inordertoimprovejob-housingbalanceandreducecommutingdistances.EightoutoftenChinesepeoplechoosebikesandtwoandthreewheelers(2/3Ws)asoneoftheirprimarychoicesofurbanmobilitybecausetheyareaffordable,convenient,exible,congestion-freeandcanserveasFinancialsustainabilityaverypleasant“last-mile”solution.E2/3Wsreplace23%traveloftripspreviouslybycars(ITDP,2022).Fifty-vepercentofsharede-biketripsconnecttourbanrailtransit.The“bikesandE2Ws+urbanrailtransit”Currently,bothbusesandurbanrailsheavilyrelyonsubsidies.Chinashouldconductadetailedanalysisofmodelhasbecomepopularamongthecitizens,expandingurbanrailaccess.coststructuretorenesubsidypolicies,whichwillensurenecessarynancialsupportwhilealsoboostoperationalrevenues.TODishighlightedasanewdevelopmentmodeltoencouragepublictransport04Transit-OrientedDevelopment(TOD)wasrstintroducedtoChinaaround2005.AnumberoflocalizedTODmodelshavebeencreatedandpracticedsincethen,including“railplusproperty”(R+P),“integratedhubstationdevelopment”,and“metrostation-centeredcomplexdevelopment”.Allthemodelsemphasizeintegratingtransitandlanduseplanning,thusreducingthetraveldemandandtraveldistances.03LocalizedpoliciesLISTOFACRONYMSANDABBREVIATIONSItisimportanttoavoid“onesizetsall”approach,particularlyconcerningE2/3Ws,whichhaveexperiencedμg/mMicrogramsPerCubicMeterLDVLight-DutyVehiclerapidandunregulatedgrowthoverthepasttwodecades.Coordinationisessentialamongauthorities,ACEAEuropeanAutomobileManufacturers’AssociationLNGLiquiedNaturalGasindustryassociations,companies,anduserstogovernthe420millionE2/3Ws.ThisapproachenablestheirAPMAutomatedPeopleMoverSystemMaaSMobilityasaServiceorderlydevelopmentandemissionreductionpotentials.APTAAmericanPublicTransportationAssociationMARAMinistryofAgricultureandRuralAffairs,PRCBEVBatteryElectricVehicleMEEMinistryofEcologyandEnvironment,PRCFuturetechnologyBMCTBeijingMunicipalCommissionofTransportMEMMinistryofEmergencyManagement,PRCBMSTCBeijingMunicipalScienceandTechnologyMIITMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,Thefutureoftransporttechnologyisexperiencingrapidgrowth.Autonomousvehicles,forinstance,areCommissionPRCpoisedtobringaboutsignicantchangesinthemobilityservicesmarket,impactingtheenvironment,BRTBusRapidTransitMNRMinistryofNaturalResources,PRCeconomy,andsocialwelfareinthecomingdecades.ChinashouldcapitalizeontheopportunitiespresentedBTIBeijingTransportInstituteMOCMinistryofConstruction,byfuturetechnologytoreshapeurbanmobility,makingitmoreinclusive,safe,andenvironmentallyfriendly.CAMETChinaAssociationofMetrosPRC(restructuredasMOHURDin2008)CATARCChinaAutomotiveTechnologyandResearchMOFMinistryofFinance,PRCTransportaccessibilityCenterCo.,Ltd.MOHRSSMinistryofHumanResourcesandSocialSecurity,CAUPDChinaAcademyofUrbanPlanningandDesignPRCConsideringChinahasabout85millionindividualswithdisabilitiesand210millionpeopleaged65orabove,CCCMChinaChamberofCommerceforMotorcycleMOHURDMinistryofHousingandUrban-RuralDevelopment,barrier-freemobilityisgainingimportance.AccessiblefacilitiesandservicescanprovideequitableaccesstoCFRNationalFireandRescueAdministration,PRCPRCtransport,employment,socialactivities,andpersonalfulllmentfordifferentvulnerablegroups.CNGCompressedNaturalGasMOSTMinistryofScienceandTechnology,PRCDevelopingbarrier-freemobilitywillpromotepublictransitusewhilebuildingamoreinclusivesociety.CO2CarbonDioxideMOTMinistryofTransport,PRCInsummary,byreningpoliciesrelatedtooverarchingplanning,nancialsustainability,contextualizedpolicies,CRAESChineseResearchAcademyofEnvironmentalMPSMinistryofPublicSecurity,PRCandinclusiveaccessibility,Chinacanadvanceitsprogresstowardzero-emissionmobility.LeveragingSciencesMtMillionTonnesdemographictrendscanalsoreinforcepublictransitpriorities.China'scomprehensiveapproachandupdatedDBLDedicatedBusLaneNAAQSNationalAmbientAirQualityStandardspoliciescanoffervaluableexperiencesforsustainablemobilitytransitionsworldwide.DGMOVEDirectorate-GeneralforMobilityandTransportNBSNationalBureauofStatistics,PRCDTIDepartingTimeIntervalNDRCNationalDevelopmentandReformCommission,05E-BikeElectricBicyclePRCECEuropeanCommissionNEANationalEnergyAdministration,PRCE-MopedElectricMopedNEVNewEnergyVehicleE-MotorcycleElectricMotorcycleNOxNitrogenOxidesE2WsElectricTwoWheelersOECDOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandE3WsElectricThreeWheelersDevelopmentEUEuropeanUnionO3Ozone/TrioxygenEVElectricVehiclePATHPortAuthorityTrans-HudsonCorporationFCVFuelCellVehiclePHEVPlug-InHybridElectricVehicleFYPFive-YearPlanPMParticulateMatterGDPGrossDomesticProductPM2.5FineParticulateMatterGHGsGreenhouseGasesPPM/ppmPartsPerMillionGIZDeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleR+PRailPlusPropertyZusammenarbeitGmbHRPKRevenuePassengerKilometersGVWRGrossVehicleWeightRatingRMBRenminbi(ChineseCurrencyOfcialName)ICCTInternationalCouncilonCleanTransportationSAMRStateAdministrationforMarketRegulation,PRCICEInternalCombustionEngineSMPShenzhenMetroGroupICE2WsInternalCombustionEngineTwoWheelersSqKm/kmSquareKilometerICE3WsInternalCombustionEngineThreeWheelersUITPUnionInternationaledesTransportsPublicsKm/hKilometerPerHourUSDUnitedStatesDollarKWhKilowattHourVGIVehicleGridIntegrationIEAInternationalEnergyAgencyVKTVehicleKilometersTravelledIMFInternationalMonetaryFundWBWorldBankIPCCIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeWDIWorldDevelopmentIndicatorsIPEInstituteofPublicandEnvironmentalAffairsWMOWorldMeteorologicalOrganizationITDPInstituteforTransportationandDevelopmentWPRWorldPopulationReviewPolicy06PARTIAGLIMPSEOFCHINA’SURBANMOBILITYDEVELOPMENT07I-1Chinaoperatesoneoftheworld’slargestpublicurbanmobilitysystemsKEYFACTORSdeterminingChina’surbanmobilityFigure1In2019demandandinternationalBusandUrbanRailPassengerVolumeofChinaandU.S.(2011-2020)comparison93BPassengerVolume(BillionTrips)Chinahasthethirdlargestlandareaandthesecondbiggesthumanpopulationinthe100passengertripswereworld,makingitstransportsystemrankingthetopbymanyindicators.TherstdeliveredbybusandurbankeywordaboutChina’spassengertransportandurbanmobilityishuge.80rail4inChinain2019.Butitisequallyimportanttounderscoreotherattributesofthissystem,includingbutnotlimitedtodiversied,stronggrowthcomplicated,substantialemissions,and60>9×U.S.5racingtowardszero.5Unlikeothermajoreconomies,whichhasrelativelystabilizedmobilitydemands,40China’surbanpassengertransportkeepsgrowingsteadilyandrapidly,whichmakesitspursuitofzeroemissionurbanmobilityoneofthemostchallenging.20080ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.2011201220132014201520162017201820192020BusUrbanRailMinistryofTransportofChina(MOT,2014–2023),AmericanPublicTransportationAssociation(APTA,2023,Table1&3)Figure2HalfWorld’sTop10LongestMunicipalMetro/SubwayNetworksin2020oftheTop10longestTotalrailtransit(Km)municipalmetro/subwaynetworksareinChina.700By2022,subwaysystemsin60041citiesofChinahadacollectivelengthof8,448km500(CAMET,2023).4003002001000SeoulChengduGuangzhouLondonShenzhenNewYorkTokyoMoscowShanghaiBeijingUITPSecretariat(2022a)4“Urbanrail”inChinareferstothepublictransportsystemthatusesrailstructureforload-carryingandguidance.Thissysteminstallsfullyorpartiallyencloseddedicatedraillinestotransportlargenumbersofpassengersusingtrainsetsorsinglerailcars.ThemainurbanrailtypesinChinaincludesubway,lightrail,monorail,tram,maglev,automatedpeoplemoversystem(APM),andcommuterrail.The"UrbanPublicTransportClassiﬁcationStandards"(CJJ/T114-2007)providesdeﬁnitionsforeachurbanrailtypebasedonfactorsliketheright-of-way,capacity,speed,trackposition,etc.5TheurbanrailnumberintheU.S.includesallﬁxed-guidewayrailmodesofurbantransit,suchasheavyrail,commuterrail,hybridrail,lightrail,andstreetcar.09200BFigure3China’svastlandanddiversBeoxt1opographyrequireaFigure4ThemostcrowedcityinUrbanRailPassengerTurnoverofChinaandU.S.(2018-2021)comprehensivetransportsystemTotalPopulationandDensityofSelectedMajorCitiesinChinaandChinaisShenzhen,withaRevenuepassengerWorld9populationdensitythatiskilometers(RPK)byurbanTurnover(BillionRPK)Thevastlandareas,extensivenorth-southandeast-westdistances,varyingaltitude,andintricaterailoccurredinChinainlandscapesposechallengesfortransportinChina.Meanwhile,eachtransportmodehasitseconomicTotalPopulation(Million)1.5times2019.250operationrange.Cars,subways,buses,electrictwo-wheelers,bikes,andwalkingaresuitablefordifferentdistances,rangingfromtensofkilometerstohundredsofmeters.Forightsandrailways,theyserveevenofLondon.≈4×U.S.6longerdistancesfromhundredstothousandsofkilometers.Therefore,acomprehensivetransportsystem0510152025303540isamust.Shanghai96%200ImbalancesofeconomyandpopulationintensifyBeijingcamefromsubway(metro),150demandsforhighlydiversifiedtransportchoicesChenduwhichreachedShenzhenIndividualsselecttheirpreferredmodesoftransportbasedonfactorssuchasaffordability,travelefciency,China191BRPKcomfort,andconvenience.TheimbalancesineconomicdevelopmentandpopulationdistributiondrivetheXi'an100needforawiderangeoftransportoptions.Shenyang≈1.7750Fasturbanizationpushesanincreasing×(U.S.+EU)traveldemand0ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.ChinaU.S.TokyoTherapidexpansionofcitiesandurbanizationhaveextendedpeople’stravelradiusincities,leadingtoNewYork2018201920202021increasinglyhighdemandsontraveltime/efciency,punctuality,high-capacityurbanmobility,etc.Thepassengerturnovergrewrapidly,withChina’surbanrailpassengerkilometersincreasingby77%betweenParis2015and2019,representingayear-on-yeargrowthrateof19%(CAMET,2020).WhilethedemandwentLondonTheWorlddownduringtheCovid-19pandemic,itmadearobustrecoveryin2023.ThisrevealstheincreasingneedforBogotaMetroOtherTypesofUrbanRaillongerdistancecommutingasurbanizationdevelopsandcitiesexpand.MetroSystemPassengerTurnoverofChina,EUandU.S.05,00010,00015,00020,00025,000(2018-2020)PopulationDensity(People/km)Turnover(BillionRPK）PopulationofChineseCitiesPopulationofForeignCitiesPopulationDensity180Zhou(2022),Alfonso(2016),ShenyangMunicipalStatisticsBureauandShenyangMunicipalEthnicand160ReligiousAffairsBureau(2023),PartyHistoryResearchOfﬁceofShenyangMunicipalPartyCommittee140(2023),Liu(2023)120100Figure5980MPopulationandUrbanizationRateofChina(2013-2022)80peoplemayliveincities60Population(Billion)UrbanizationRate(%)whenurbanizationgoalis40achieved,whichwill201670resultingrowingtraveldemands.020192020202165201814TheurbanizationratehasUSHeavyRailEUMetro&Tramincreasedfrom55%inChinaSubway602013to65%in2022.Thenationalaimisto1255reach70%by2030,meaningmoreurbanChinaAssociationofMetros(CAMET,2018-2021),APTA(2023),DGMOVEofEC(2022,Part2.3)1050transitandmorelong-distanceintercity45travel.Ifcomparedwiththeurbanizationratesof880%intheUKandthe40U.S.,thedemandcouldgoevenhigher.6353043022502020132014201520162017201820192020202120226TheU.S.metrostatisticsusesthedeﬁnitionof“heavyrail”,atermsimilarwith“subway”and“metro”,whichreferstoelectricrailwaysondedicatedrights-of-waythatUrbanpopulationRuralpopulationUrbanizationratetransportlargevolumesofpassengers.Itmainlyincludesthreetypes:(1)tracksinsubwaytunnels;(2)tracksonelevatedstructures;and(3)fencedground-leveltrackswithoutroad-crossings.NBS(2023d)7NumbersofEUmetroincludebothmetroandtram;othertypesofEUurbanrailstatisticsisunavailable.1110Box1TotalArea:9.6millionkmFigure615%TheProportionofPopulationAged65orAbove(2013-2022)FactsaboutChina,ofthepopulationinChinaisEUandU.S.Percentofthepopulationwithageabove65over65yearsold.35%EUChinahasbecomeanagedNorth-South5,500MountainsPlateausMajoritypopulationlives30%societysince2021andisonMaxDistance:33%26%intheplainsandbasins.thepathtojointhekmsuper-agedin2030s.TheAreaagingrateclimbsvery5,200Hills25%quickly,whichplaceshighHuhuanyongLine810%requirementsontransportEast-WestPlainsBasinssystemaccessibility.MaxDistance:12%19%km20%15%AgedSociety10%5%Heihe0%2017201820192020202120222013201420152016U.S.IndiaJanpanChinaEUWDIofWB(2023c),NBS(2023c)Area:57%U.S.Population:6%Area:43%Population:94%TengchongFigure7China’surbanareaincomeChinaAverageAnnualPerCapitaDisposableIncome(2013-2022)=1.3×DisposableIncome(USD)8,000nationalaverage7,000=2.4×6,000ruralareain2022Population105people/kmPopulation148people/kmPopulation34people/km5,000PercapitadisposableDensityDensityDensityincomeinChinaisgeographicallyimbalanced:SurfaceSurfaceSurface4,000Zhejiang’sstatisticin2022AreaAreaAreawas2.6timeshigherthan4.3millionkm9.6millionkm9.8millionkmthatofGansu,representingthehighestandlowest3,000amongprovinces(NBS,2023b).Total16,643billionUSDTotal18,100billionUSDTotal25,464billionUSD2,000GDPGDPGDPGDPGDPGDP1,000GDPPer37,357USDGDPPer12,814USDGDPPer76,348USD0CapitaCapitaCapita2013201420152016201720182019202020212022NationalRuralUrbanization75%Urbanization65%Urbanization83%UrbanRateRateRateNationalBureauofStatistics(NBS,2023a)8KnownasHuhuanyonglineorHeihe-Tengchongline,dividestheareaofChinaroughlyintotwopartswithcontrastingpopulationdensities.ThislinewasdrawnbyaChinesepopulationgeographerMr.HU9Yearofcitydata:Bogota,2016;Tokyo,ParisandLondon,2019;NewYork,2020;Shanghai,Beijing,ChenduandXi'an,2022;andShenzhen,2023.Huanyongin1935.1312ChinahasFigure8Figure10ALLChineseCityClassificationAverageOne-wayCommutingDistanceof15ChineseMajorCities105(2019-2022)monitoredmajorcitieshaveNo.ofCities714254increasingcommutingcitieswithpopulationmore189Beijingdistances.thanChengdu135ShanghaiIn2022,theaveragesingle1M70Chongqingtripcommutedistanceand14Zhengzhoutimeinfourmajorcitieswere:(2022)XI,anBeijing:11.7km,47minutes;ClassicationCriteriaPopolation>105-103-51-30.5-10.2-0.5≤0.2(Million)Shanghai:MegaSuperLargeMediumSmall9.8km,40minutes;SizeCityCityCityCityCityShenzhen:123458.5km,36minutes;ClassGuangzhou:Xiao(2014),Chen(2022)9.1km,38minutes.Urbanbuilt-upareasFigure9expandedRemoteSensingMonitoringonUrbanExpansionofTypicalChinese7.5Cities(1972-2020)timesin50yearsGuangzhouTheever-expandingurbanWuhanareahasincreasedresidentsincitiesandcommutingNanjingdistances,whichcollectivelyplacehigherdemandsontheurbantransitsystem.QingdaoTianjinChangshaJinanShenzhenHangzhou024681012Distance/km2019202020212022Zhaoetal.(2020),Wangetal.(2021,2022,2023)Liuetal.(2021)1514I-2Figure119%CarbonEmissionsfromChina’sTransportSector(2005-2022)KEYDRIVERSforChinatonationalcarbonemissionsmovetowardszeroemissionEmission(Mt)Transport'sShareinTotal(%)comefromthetransporturbanmobilitysector.1,20010%TheprimarydriversbehindChina’sshifttowardszeroemissiontransportarecarbonIn2022,carbonemissionsofemissionreductionforaddressingclimatechange,pollutantsreductionforimproving9%China’stransportsectorwasairqualityandpublichealthandleapfroggingitsautoindustryforsustainabilityand1,000946milliontons,accountingcompetitiveness.Urbanmobilityplaysacriticalroleinachievingthesegoals.Asforabout9%ofChina’stransportdemandstayshigh,thekeychallengeliesindecouplingeconomicgrowth8%nationaltotal,inwhich,aboutfromcarbonandairpollutantsemissions.3%comesfrompassenger7%transport.Transportisamajorsourceofcarbonemissionsincities.Forinstance,transport800sectorcontributed34%ofBeijing’scarbonemissionsin2019(BeijingTransportInstitute[BTI],2022),makingitthesecond-largestcontributoronlyafterthebuildings6%sectorandsurpassingtheindustrialsector.Toreducetransportemissionsofcarbonandairpollutantsincities,Chinahasstrivedtoelectrifyvehiclessince2009.Between6005%2015and2022,ChinahasheldthetoppositionworldwideforEVproductionandsalesforeightconsecutiveyears.4%400TrafccongestionisanotherpressingissueindenselypopulatedChinesebigcitiesandiswidelyregardedasaserious“bigcitydisease”.In2022,theaveragetravel3%speedinthe36selectedmajorcities10acrossChinawasonly22.7km/hduringweekdaypeakhours.Eighty-ninepercentofthesecitiessufferedwithmoderate2%congestionwithroadvehiclesmovingat18-25km/h(Wangetal.,2023).200Thedevelopmentofpublictransitandactivemobilitynotonlyprovidesanalternativetodrivingbutalsoeffectivelyreducescongestionandemissions.1%10Thethrity-sixselectedmajorcitiesincludeBeijing,Shanghai,Guangzhou,Shenzhen,Tianjin,Chongqing,Dalian,Qingdao,00%Ningbo,Xiamen,and26provincialcapitalcities(Harbin,Changchun,Shenyang,Shijiazhuang,Hohhot,Lanzhou,Yinchuan,Xi’an,Urumqi,Xining,Lhasa,Taiyuan,Jinan,Zhengzhou,Nanjing,Hangzhou,Fuzhou,Hefei,Wuhan,Changsha,Nanchang,2005Kunming,Guiyang,Chengdu,Nanning,andHaikou).2006200716200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212022TransportEmissionTransport%inChina’sTotalCarbonEmissionInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA,2021,2023c)Figure12Freight,64%76%NOxEmissionsbySectorsinChina(2021)ofnationalNOxemissionsTransportSector,76%comefromthetransportsector.Non-TransportSectors,24%PassengertransportisnotMinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentofChina(MEE,2022,2023)themajorcontributortoPM2.5nationally,butitcontributes12%oftheNOxemissionsandconcentratedincitieswithacombinedpopulationof910millionhabitants.Passenger,12%17MorethanonethirdofChina’spopulationlivesCitieswithhighvehiclestocktendtohavehighinnon-attainmentareas,witheitherPM2.5orO3concentrationlevelsofPM2.5andO3exceedingNAAQSin2022ApproximatelyFigure1311Figure1556PopulationinChinaExposedtoPM2.5in2022(Million)33%VehicleStock,PM2.5andO3AnnualAvg.ConcentrationsinCitiesofcitiesdonottomeetbothNo.ofCitiesChina(2022)PM2.5andO3nationalnationalpopulation,totaling140standards.Avg.VehicleStockPerCityinCityGroupsbyPollutantsConcentration(Thousand)464M48424%1204141600people,livein1400ofnationalpopulationand1004641200largevehiclestock.89100080ItiscriticaltoelectrifythesecitieswherePM2.5levelsdo800vehiclesandencouragenotmeetthecurrentnational60600morepassengerstotakestandardof35μg/m.400buses,urbanrails,andactive40200mobilityoptions.2205-1010-1515-2525-35＞35＜100100-120120-160＞160＜5AnnualAvg.Concentration(μg/m3)2070.1PM2.50305101520253035404550IPE(2023c)&FuzhouUniversity0AnnualAvg.PM2.5Concentration(μg/m3)InstituteofPublicandEnvironmentalAffairs(IPE,2023)ApproximatelyFigure1411PopulationinChinaExposedtoOzonein2022(Million)41%No.ofCitiesnationalpopulation,totaling250571M715people,livein20088150571citieswhereO3levelsdonotmeetthecurrentnational100standardof160μg/m.509918508010012014016018020011InFigure13andFigure14,citiesaregroupedaccordingtotheirannualaverageconcentration(inµg/m3)ofPM2.5(rangingfrom＜5,5–10,10–15,15–25,25–35,to＞35)andO3(rangingfrom＜100,100-120,120-160,to＞160).ThecenterpointofeachbubbleinbothﬁguresrepresentstheaveragePM2.5orO3concentrationIPE(2023)AnnualAvg.OzoneConcentration(μg/m3)oftheparticularcitygroup.19I-3Keepupgradingstandardsforfuelconsumptionlimits,vehiclecriteriaairpollutantsemissions,andProgressofzeroemissionfuelqualityurbanmobilitybeyondcarsinChinaFigure16ChinaPhaseIIIstandardFuelConsumptionLimitsforHDVsTightenedunderPhaseI-IIItightenedthefuelForovertwodecades,ChinahasbeenmakingeffortstodecoupletheemissionsfromStandardsconsumptionlimitsridership.Inadditiontoalleffortstocleanupthecareet,thecountryhasalsorespectivelybyprogressivelyraisedthefueleconomystandardsforcommercialheavy-dutyvehiclesReductionRate(%)(HDVs)fromPhaseItoPhaseIV,andtheemissionstandardsfromChinaItoVI.In23%termsofstructuraldevelopment,publictransitisthemostprioritized,andactiveCoachUrbanBusmobilityishighlyencouraged.Moreover,theelectricationofbuses,2/3wheelers,forcoachesandrailsystemsispropellingthetransitiontowardszeroemissiontransport.0and-5-15.9%-10.5%15.9%-10forurbanbuses-15comparedtoPhaseI.12-12.5%ChinaPhaseIVstandardfor-20HDVsfuelconsumptionlimitsiswaitingforofcial-25adoption.PhaseIVstandardforlightdutycommercialChinaPhasel-ll(07/2012-07/2014)ChinaPhaseIl-lll(07/2014-07/2019)vehicles(LDVs)hasnishedthepubliccommentingofJinandWang(2011),Wenetal.(2014),Wangetal.(2018)therstdraft.12Thesereductionsrepresentthearithmeticalaveragesof12deﬁnedgradesinstandards,whicharebasedontheGrossVehicleWeightRating(GVWR)ofcommercialvehicles.TheestimationdoesnottakeintoaccountthemarketshareofeachGVWRcategory.2021ChinaVIstandardrequiresaFigure17Thepublictransitplaysanincreasinglybiggerrole97%ReductionsofHDVEmissionLimitsonNOxandPMunderChinaI-VIStandardsreductioninNOxemissionsandaReductionRate(%)PublictransithasgainedgrowingimportanceinChina.In2004,theMinistryofHousingandUrban-Rural0Development(MOHURD)issuedthe“OpinionsonGivingPrioritytotheDevelopmentofUrbanPublic94%Transportation”.Moreover,buselectricationhasbeenaprioritysincethe2009“TenCities×OneThousand-10ElectricVehicles"PilotProgram,withcumulativepurchasesubsidiesaround200billionRMB($3.36billion).13dropinPMfromHDVs,asThegovernmentprovidessubstantialsupportforpublictransit,astheresult,thepublictransitbecomescomparedtotheearlier-20-12.5%cleanerdespitethegrowingscale,althoughsince2023ChinahasstoppedtheNEVpurchasesubsidy.ChinaIstandard.-30Table1PMLimit(g/kWh)-40NOxLimit(g/kWh)MajorNationalFiscalIncentivesforPublicTransit100.4-50-37.5%90.36-58.3%-600.32-708-56.3%0.28-80-72.2%-9070.246MajorIncentivesAnnualAverageCumulativeAmountProviderPeriod(BillionRMB)(BillionRMB)0.2-100-75.0%5I2I003I20002000I2003II-91.7%Vehiclepurchasetax22200aCentralGovernment2014-2022200bCentralGovernment2010-20220.16-91.7%4exemptionforallNEVsLocalGovernment/LocalGovernmentin20190.12III0072007III3PurchasesubsidyforallNEVs15/in2020IV01022010IV-94.3%0.08-97.2%-97.2%V201222012V-94.3%20.041Busoperationsubsidy100cVI-a2120VI-a0VI-b232021202V3I-b020Subwayoperationsubsidy14110dPMReduction%ofPMNOxReduction%ofNOxScienceandTechnologyStandardsDepartment(2001),EnvironmentalStandardsInstituteandJinana:Zhou(2023),b:ShangandYu(2023),c:Jia(2023),d:ThePaper(2023).AutomobileTestCenter(2005),ChineseResearchAcademyofEnvironmentalSciencesetal.(2018).SulfurcontentisreducedbyFigure18About77.2%ofthebusesontheroadhavealreadybeenelectried.Bytheendof2022,over98.7%ofnewlyoverpurchasedorreplacedbusesareNEVs.ItisevidentthatthetransitbuseetontheroadwillachievefullzeroReductionsofSulfurLimitsonDieselandGasolineunderChinaI-VFuelemissionsinthecomingfewyears.99%QualityStandardsFigure19Busandurbanrailindieselandgasoline.SulfurReduction(%)China’sUrbanTransitStructurebyRevenueRidership(2013-2022)collectivelyaccountforChinahasadopted-40lead-freegasoline%ofPassengerTrips73%nationwidesinceearly2000s.Thesulfurcontentin-46100%ofrevenueurbanpassengerdieselandgasolinehave-47%volumeincitieswiththebothsignicantlydroppedserviceinChina.from2000ppmand1500-52Theshareofurbanrailroseppmto10ppm,complyingby17%whilebusdroppedwithChinaI-Vfuelquality90%by13%from2012to2022.standards,whichisbyfarthemoststringentglobally.-582322SulfurLimit(ppm)-64SulfurLimit(ppm)80%2000-70200070%180018001600-67%160060%1400-7614001200-75%120050%1000-821000800800-8860060040040020040%2000-83%-940-10030%-90%I0022003I20%II032202006II2009III-97%10%-98%II2I010-99.5%IV20132013IV-99.3%0%201420152016201720182019202020212022V20172017VTaxiFerryBoat2013UrbanrailBusDieselReductioninDieselGasolineReductioninGasolineMOT(2014-2023,Part3.6)TransportPolicy.net(2018)13Theaverageexchangerateof2010-2022wasusedhere,whichwas6.55RMBto$1.14Bothbusoperationsubsidyandsubwayoperationsubsidyarethesumoflocalsubsidiesnationwide.Greenmobility15accountsforFigure20Figure22TheshareoffossilfuelbusesTheMixofTransportModesinBeijing(2012-2021)TransitBusStockbyFuelTypesinChina(2013-2022)inthebuseetdecreasedby74%ofBeijingurbanpassengerShareofTransportMode(%)SharebyFuelType(%)64%transportin2019.100100inonlyonedecade.8080In2013,diesel,gasolineandLNG/CNGbusesmadeup606087%ofthebuseet,butby2022,theirtotalsharehad4040plummetedto23%whileNEVs’surgedto77%,2020makingastrongcontrast.02013201420152016201720182019202020212012CarWalkBicycleUrbanRailBusActiveMobility(Walk&Bicycle)GreenMobility(ActiveMobility&PublicTransit)02013201420152016201720182019202020212022PublicTransit(Bus&UrbanRail)NEVPHEVDieselBEVLNG/CNGGasolineBTI(2022b)FossilFuelMOT(2014-2023,Part2.5)1.7MkmFigure21Figure2353%FossilFuelandPHEVBusStockbyEmissionStandards(2021)busroutesacrossChinaNumberandLengthofTransitBusRoutesinChina(2013-2022)fossilfuelandPHEVbusesequalscomplywithChinaVandVILength(ThousandKm)No.ofLines(Thousand)vehicleemissionstandards.41rounds180080PHEV2.3%OtherChinaretiredalmostalltheoftheEarth'sEquatoroldbusescompliantwith160070ChinaIandIIemissionBytheendof2022,therestandards.Amongthewere703,200transitbuses1400Diesel6.2%Diesel10.7%remainingfossilfuelandrunningonanetworkof60PHEVbuses,50%and3%78,000routes,coveringLNG/CNGOthermeetChinaVandVIalmostallthecitiesin1200Ch3in%aVI18%standards,while18%andChina.5020.5%LNG/CNG6.6%29%meetChinaIIIandIVChinaIIIstandards.1000Diesel11.8%4050%29%800ChinaVChinaIV306004002020010LNG/CNG11.2%002013201420152016201720182019202020212022TotalLengthofBusLinesNo.ofBusLinesOtherMOT(2014-2023,Part1.6&2.5)PHEV23.3%PHEV5.8%15Greenmobilityconsistsofwalking,bicycles,busesandurbanrails.Note:Thetotalpercentagemaybelessthan100%duetoroundingandthecategoryof“others”,whichreferstofuelswithasharelessthan1%.EFChinaAnalysis(2023)2425In2022,ChinaaccountedFigure24forSalesandStockofBEVBusesinChina,EUandtheRestoftheWorldMicromobility’szeroemissiontransitionhas83%(2013-2022)enteredanewstageofoptimization.ofglobalBEVbussales.NumberofBuses(Thousand)WorldShare(%)Micromobilityreferstoshort-distancetransportprovidedbylow-speedandlight-weightvehiclessuchasWiththeworld’s1/4bushuman-poweredandmotorized2/3Ws.InChina,micromobilitytransportismainlycomposedofbicyclesandeet,Chinaruns800100％2/3Ws(E2/3WsandICE2/3Ws).EightypercentofChinesefavormicromobilityastheirprimarychoicesofurbanmobility,revealingitssignicanceinthetransitiontowardzeroemissionurbanmobility.96%70095％ThefocusofsharedbicyclemarketisshiftingfromscalingupthebicycleofglobalBEVbuses.numberstohigherturnoverratesperbicycle60090%Bicyclesareaneco-friendlymodeoftransport,makingitcrucialforsteeringurbanmobilitytowardsagreenerfuture.Chinahasbeenactivelypromotingbicyclesharingprogrambyimprovingbicyclelanesandadding500dedicatedparkingspaces.Withtheintroductionofdocklesssharedbicycles17(hereafterreferredas“sharedbicycles”)inChinaaround2015,thetravelrateofbicycletraveldoubledfromitslowestpoint,resultinginthe40085%deploymentscaleof23millionsharedbicyclesandagreaterpresenceofbicyclesonthestreets.300China'seffortstopromotecyclinggobeyondmerelyexpandingthescaleofbicycleeets.Since2017,local80%governmentshavebeenurgingsharedbicycleoperatorstostrategicallydeployandschedulebicyclesbasedontraveldemands,whilealsoplacinglimitsonthesizeoftheeets.Thisaimstoenhancetheturnoverrateof200individualsharedbicycles,servingalargerurbanmobilitydemandwithfewerbicycles.TakingBeijingasanexample,thedailyturnoverrateincreasedfrom1.1timesperdayinthersthalfof2019to3.3timesperday75%bytheendof2022.100Twoandthreewheelershavesuccessfullyembracedelectrificationandare070%nowcommittedtodeliveringhigh-qualityproductsandsustainabledevelopment2013FollowingChina'surbanmotorcyclerestrictions,E2/3Wsexperiencedrapidgrowthassubstitutesfor2014ICE2/3Ws,withover84%of2/3Wsnowbeingelectric.However,duetothelackoftechnicalstandardsand2015regulationsattheearlystagesofE2/3Wsdevelopment,amajorityofE2/3Wsontheroadarenon-compliant2016withsafetyrisks.Forexample,E2Wsbecameheavierandfaster,resemblingmotorcycles.Occasional2017collisionsmayresultfromtheirquietoperationscombinedwithunpredictabledrivinginvehiclelanes.20182019Since2019,ChinahasintroducednewnationalmandatorytechnicalstandardsforE2/3Wsproductswith2020clearproductdenitionsandcategories,enablingauthoritiestomanageE2/3Wsunderexistingregulationsto2021reduceaccidents.Non-compliantproductswillberequiredtoquitthemarketwithinaspeciedperiod.20222013Thesestandardsnotonlyaddresstheissueswithproductclassicationanddenitions,butalsoencourage2014productimprovementsfromtheperspectivesofsafetyandenvironmentprotection.Forinstance,thenew2015standardsfore-bicyclesnowmandateamaximumweightof55kg,encouragingmanufacturerstoadopt2016lithiumbatteries,whichhavehigherenergydensity,lighterweight,andmoreimportantly,posenoriskof2017leakingharmfulsubstanceslikeleadsulfateandsulfurdioxide.In2022,thepenetrationrateoflithium2018batteriesintheE2Wssalesmarketreached25%,nearlydoubledsince2018.Undoubtedly,thisrateis2019expectedtocontinuerisingandthecurrentwidelyusedlead-acidbatterieswillbephasedout.2020202117Since2015,docklesssharedbicycleshavereplaceddockedbicyclesasthepredominantpartofChina'ssharedbicycleprogram.202227SalesStockChinaEURestoftheWorldChina'sShareinGlobalBEVBusStockChina'sShareinGlobalBEVBusSalesIEA(2023b),Bloomberg(2018)DeveloptheurbanrailforpassengertransportTherapidexpansionofurbanrail,whichis100%electried,hasreplacedaconsiderableamountofroadtransport.26%Figure25UrbanRailShareinTotalTransit(%)UrbanRailRidershipofChina(2013-2022)urbantransit16tripsincitieswiththeservicearemadebyTurnoverandVolume(BillionRPKorTrips)urbanrail.20030%Theshareofurbanrailpassengervolumeincreased18027%from11%in2015to26%in2022.16024%14021%12018%10015%8012%609%406%203%00%2013201420152016201720182019202020212022PassengerVolumePassengerTurnoverShareofUrbanRailsinTotalPublicTransitPassengerVolumeMOT(2014-2023,Part3.6),CAMET(2013-2023)16Urbanpublictransitincludestransitbus,ferryboat,andurbanrail.2680%Figure26Figure28ChinahasaroundStocksof2/3WsinChina(2022)oftheChineserespondentsMicroMobility(MainlyComposedby2/3Ws)PreferencebyCountry500Mprefer2/3Wsforurban(2021)18mobility,rankingthehighest2/3Ws,withoverwillingnessintheworld.Non-compliant2/3Ws84%UK45%55%beingE2/3Ws.3Ws2WsMostlocalgovernmentsU.S.47%53%haveestablishedtransitiondeadlinefornon-compliantGermany52%47%E2/3Wsbytheendof2023.However,inareasEwithweaksupervision,non-compliantE2/3WsmayFrance51%49%ExpressservicePassengerstillexist.oriented:60millionoriented:10millionItaly68%32%China80%20%ICEGlobal56%40%60%43%100%Non-compliant0%2Ws+E-Bicycles20%80%350millionMicroMobilityOtherFormsofTransportMicroMobilityinChinaCompliant2/3WsOtherFormsofTransportinChina3Ws2WsHeinekeetal.(2021),EFChinaAnalysis(2023)In2022,Beijing’ssharedFigure27EE2Wmopeds&E-bicyclesbicycleseetwasSharedBicyclesDeploymentandOperations(2017-2022)motorcyclesE3Wmopeds&39%motorcyclesofthesizein2017,yetNo.ofCitieswithService(County-LevelofAbove)No.ofSharedBicyclesinOperationinChina(Million)ICEserved40028ICE3Wmopeds&ICE2Wmopeds&19motorcyclesmotorcyclestimesmoretrips.30021Thegovernmenthas20014Motor:80millionNon-Motoroptimizedsharedbicycledeployment.From2017to1007EFChinaanalysis(2023)2022,citieswithsharedbicycledoubled,butnumber00ofdeployedbicyclesdecreasedby35%.201720192022No.ofCitieswithServiceNo.ofSharedBicyclesinFigure29Thepenetrationrateof(County-LevelandAbove)OperationinChina(Million)MarketPenetrationofLithiumBattery-poweredE2Ws(2018-2022)lithiumbatteriesinnewE2WssaleshasreachedProportionofLithiumionBattery-PoweredE2WsinAnnualSales(%)25%No.ofSharedBicyclesinOperationinBeijing(Million)TripsServicedbySharedBicycleinBeijing(Million)2.41000251.8750201.2500150.625010002017201920225No.ofSharedBicyclesinTripsServicedbyShared0OperationinBeijing(Million)BicycleinBeijing(Million)20182019202020212022Pei(2020),Wei(2022),andEFChinaAnalysis(2023)iResearch(2023)18Figuresmaynotsumto100%becauseofrounding.2829PARTIITRANSITBUSEVBUS30II-1Figure30InChina,TransitBusStockofChinaandU.S.(2011-2020)WHAT’Sthescaleand703,200emissionoftransitbussystemVehicleStock(Thousand)inChina?ransitbusesareinserviceby8002022Asthemostcost-efcientandexibleformofpublictransport,transitbusesarehighlypopularandwidelyusedthroughoutChina.Thecountry,whichinitiateditsrstbus700=9.7×U.S.routein1906,hassuccessfullyestablishedandoperatedtheworld’slargestandcleanestbussystem.600China’stransitbuseetgrewby55%duringthedecade.Overjustonedecade,Chinahassignicantlyreducedtheuseoffossilfuelbuses.500Thetotalshareofdiesel,gasoline,andLNG/CNGbusesintheeethadplummetedto23%by2022,from87%in2013(Figure22).Moreover,Chinaowns400theworld’slargestNEVbusmarketandeet,nomatterBEV,PHEVorFCV.Continuouseffortshavebeenmadetoenhancefueleconomy,lowervehicle300emissions,andimprovefuelqualitytoworld-classstandards.Limitsonfuelconsumptionper100kmofnewcoachesandbusesdecreasedby23%and16%200between2012and2019;NOxandPMemissionsofnewHDVsdecreasedby94%and97%between2000and2021;andthesulfurcontentindieselandgasoline100bothreducedbyover99%to10ppmby2017(Figure16,17&18).ChinaisoneofthepioneerswhopracticeBusRapidTransit(BRT).By2020,over0seventhousandkilometersBRTnetworkswereinoperationacrossChina(Figure34).201120122013201420152016201720182019202031ChinaU.S.MOT(2014-2023,Part2.5),APTA(2023,Table21).Figure31China’sbusridershipBusRidershipandVehicleMileageofChinaandU.S.(2019)reachedPassengerTripsandVehicleRevenueKilometers(Billion)69B70passengertrips60=15×U.S.50China’sbusmileagereached4035Bkm15X=9×U.S.30209X100VehicleMileagePassengerVolumeChinaU.S.MOT(2020,Part3.6),APTA(2023,Table1&8).3277%Figure32Figure346,150kmTransitBusofChinabyFuelType19(2022)BRTDevelopmentinChina(2013-2019)ofthetransitbuseetareBRTlinesinChinaisinelectried.Ridership(Million)LengthofLines(Km)serviceby201925008000By2022,thesharesofBEVBRTsystemlengthincreasedandPHEVintotaltransit7000123%from2,753kmtobusstockwere65%and6,150kminsixyears.12%,respectively.Other20001%TheEVshareofEUbus6000eetisabout1%(EuropeanAutomobileManufacturer’s15005000Association[ACEA],2022).DieselGasoline8.6%BEV400065%0.5%NEVPHEV77%12%10003000LNG/CNG13.2%20005001000020142015201620172018020132019MOT(2014-2023,Part2.5)PassengerTripsLengthofRoutesMOT(2014-2023,Part1.6&3.6)China’sshareintheworld’sFigure33Figure35BRTofChinacarriedNEVbusstock:GlobalBEVandPHEVBusStock(2022)BRTRidershipandGrowthinChinaandU.S.(2014-2019)1.7BBEVs：Ridership(Million)GrowthRate(%)passengertripsin2019.95.7%250030=27×U.S.PHEVs：EU1.6%EU0.8%2098.9%2000ChinaChinaChina95.7%95.7%98.9%10China150098.9%0RestoftheworldRestoftheworld-102.7%0.3%1000BEVPHEV-20500IEA(2023b)-3002015201620172018-4020142019ChinaPassengerTripsUSPassengerTripsChinaGrowthRateUSGrowthRateMOT(2015-2021,Part3.6),APTA(2023,Table1)19Otherfueltypesincludehydrogen,dualfuel,andtrolly.3433In2019Figure36II-2LengthofBRTlines:BRTLinesandVehiclesPerMillionInhabitantsofChinaandU.S.WHYdoesChina4.4km(2013-2019)prioritizethezeroemissionpermillionpeopleNo.ofKm/Vehicletransformationofbuses?=4×U.S.7Busisoneofthebestchoicesformassurbantransitwhentakingintoconsiderationsonairpollutioncontrol,congestionmitigation,nancialcapacity,socialfairness,andNo.ofBRTvehicles:6operationalexibility.6.7buses5Besides,busescouldbethepilotvehiclesfornewtechnologydemonstrations,which4canhelpscaleupthezeroemissiontransitionofothervehiclecategories.Likeotherpermillionpeoplecountries,Chinaprioritizesbusdevelopmentmainlybecauseitisnaturallygreeneras3amodeofpublictransport.Onaverage,onebusiscapableofreplacingatleast30=5×U.S.carsontheroad(ACEA,2022).Duetothislowoccupancyofroadsperpassenger,2developingbusescanfreeuproadspaceandhelpeasetrafccongestion.Itwillalso1reducefuelconsumption,carbonfootprint,andairpollutionperpassenger.03620132014201520162017201820192013201420152016201720182019LengthofBRTLinesNo.ofBRTBuses(KmperMPeople)(BusperMPeople)ChinaU.S.MOT(2014-2020,Part1.6&2.5),APTA(2023,Table21&50)SignicantpotentialsofFigure37LengthofLines&SpeedBRTsystemsexist.BRTScaleandOperationinSelectCities120ChampionCitiesofChinaNo.ofVehicle&HourlyThroughputfallbehindBogodabyBRTindicators:1200Guangzhou:100010038%bythroughputXiamen:8008032%byspeedBeijing:6006027%bylines&68%bystock40040200200HourlyPeakLengthofLinesPeakHourSpeed0No.ofVehicleThroughput(BRTBus)(HundredPeople/Direction)(Km)(Km/h)BogotaMexicoCityLosAngelesBeijingGuangzhouXiamenFarEastMobility(2023)35TransitbusisagreentransportmodebynatureOrderlyChargingandVehicle-GridIntegration(VGI)TheoreticalcarryingVGIandorderlychargingallowEVsasresponsivemobileenergysourcescapacity:toeithertakeenergyfromand/orsupplyenergytothepowergridwhenneeded.ChinahassetuppoliciesandpilotprojectstosupportVGI,1busespeciallyinregionswithrapidlydeployedEVs,likeShanghai,Beijing,≈30carsandGuangdongprovince.Forinstance,BeijinghasaVGIpilotprogramforBEVtransitbuses,fullyshiftingbuschargingtooff-peakhours.ItACEA(2022)demonstratesthevalueofVGIoperationsforpeakshaving(Lietal.,2022).BusesplayanimportantroleinnewtechnologydemonstrationsMobilityasaService(MaaS)Asapublicmobilityserviceprovider,thetransitbusoperationcompanymaintainsclosetieswiththeMaaSaimstoprovideanalternativeforprivatecarsthatmaybeasgovernment.Governmentsubsidiesarecrucialforsupportingbuspurchasesandoperations.Therefore,busconvenient,moresustainable,lesscongested,cheaper,andwithlargeroperationcompaniesoftensticktothegovernment’sguidance.Inlightofthese,buseshavealwaysbeenattransportcapacity.MaaSintegratesdifferentformsoftransportandtheforefront,leadingthewayinimplementingmandatoryend-of-lifevehiclerulesandemissionstandards,asrelatedservicesintoonecomprehensiveandon-demandmobilitywellaspilotingdemonstrationsofcutting-edgetechnologies.service.MaaSoffersend-userstheaddedvaluebylettingthemaccessmobilitythroughasingleapplicationandpayment.Tomeetacustomer’s“TenCities×OneThousandElectricVehicles”Pilotrequest,aMaaSoperatorprovidesdifferenttransportoptions,includingProgrampublictransit,activemodessuchaswalkingandcycling,car/bikesharing,taxis,carrentals,oramix.BeijinglaunchesChina’srstMaaSChinalaunchedthisprogramin2009anddeployedover27,400NEVsinplatform,whichincludesbuses,subways,sharedbicycles,ride-hailing,25pilotcitieswithinthreeyears,84%ofwhicharepublicserviceNEVs,walking,anddriving(MaaSAlliance,2023).particularlybuses(ChinaAutomotiveNews,2013).Threetypesofnewtechnologies,includingBEV,PHEVandFCVwereencouraged.China’sCustomizedBusEVmarkettookoffafterwards.Inordertomeetdifferenttransitdemands,Chinaintroducedanewmodel37ofcustomizedbuses,whichisbetweenthetraditionalbusesandtaxis.Peoplewhoworkandliveinthesameareawithsimilarcommuteneedscangrouptogethertoorderacustomizedbus.Theroute,frequency,andschedulearetailoredtomeetthisgroup’sspecicneeds.Besidesroutesdesignedfordailycommute,newproductsareemerging.Forexample,Shanghailaunchedmedical-themedcustomizedbusesinAugust2022totakepeopletotheirdesiredhospitalsandhelpmakedoctorappointmentsonthebus.Anew“buspooling”modelwasalsolaunchedinShenzheninJuly2022.By2021,94%ofprovinces,autonomousregions,andmunicipalities-includingBeijing,Hebei,andShanxi-hadcustomizedbusroutes,totalingover5,400routesthatgenerated180millionpassengertripsannually(Sun&Deng,2021).38Box2II-3Beijing:thepioneercityforzeroemissionbusesHOWdoesthepolicymotivatethechanges?BeijingwastherstbatchofpilotcitiesinChina’s“TenCities×OneThousandElectricVehicles”PilotProgram,startingwith50BEVbusesin2010(Zhang,2010).By2022,over90%ofBeijing’sPolicyplaysavitalroleforthezeroemissiontransitbuses,buseethasbeenelectried.bothstrategicallyandtactically.By2022,Beijinghad1,524buschargingpointdistributedat225busterminals(Li,2023).40BeijinglaunchedtheMaaSplatformin2019.ByMay2023,morethan30millionpeoplehadregisteredfortheplatform.Itservesnolessthansixmillionpassengertripsdaily,savingatleast400,000tonsofcarbonemissionsandfacilitatingthetradeof120,000tonsofvoluntarycarboncredits(Fang&Ran,2023).BeijinglaunchedChina’srstcustomizedbusroutein2013.By2022,ithad396customizedroutes,providingpersonalizedtransportservicefor20,000citizensdailyandhelpingthemsave30%commutetime(BeijingMunicipalCommissionofTransport,2023).Beijingalsoarrangescustomizedschoolbuses(BTI,2023).BeijingpilotedoneofChina’srstbusVGIprojectsatatransitbuschargingstationin2021(Lietal.,2022).Beijingdeveloped1005kmDBLsbytheendof2022(BTI,2023).Figure38PowerCurveofABusChargingStationinBeijingBeforeandAfterPilotingVGIPower(Kw)45040035030025020015010050022:0000:0002:0004:0006:0008:00ScreenshotofBeijingMaaSApp20:00BeforePilotingVGIAfterPilotingVGILietal.(2022)39ElevatepublictransportasanationalProvidefiscalincentivestosupportelectricprioritytransitbusesChinahasestablishedpublictransportasanationalprioritythroughinstitutionalizedpoliciesandspecicregula-Thepublictransportprioritystrategyestablishesnancingmechanismsfortransitserviceproviders,includingtions.asetofsubsidiesandpreferentialtaxationpolicies.Accumulatively,around200billionRMBinpurchasesubsidieswereprovidedthroughthe“TenCities×OneThousandElectricVehicles”PilotProgramandTherstnationallevelinitiativeonproposingpublictransportasasocialwelfaremeasuretiedtonationalafterward(Zhou,2023).In2019,thegovernmentprovidedsubsidiestotaling100billionRMBtosupporteconomicprogressandlivelihoodimprovementwasthe“OpinionsonGivingPrioritytotheDevelop-nationwidetransitbusoperations(Jia,2023).Forallpublictransportoperators,thevalue-addedtaxismentofUrbanPublicTransport”,issuedbytheformerMinistryofConstruction(nowMOHURD)in2004exempted.NEVtransitbusesreceiveexemptionsfromvehicleandvesselregistrationtaxandvehicle(MOC,2004).In2005,GeneralOfceoftheStateCouncilcirculatedthisopinionandenhanceditwith22purchasetaxaswell.recommendationsfocusedonpublictransportplanning,infrastructure,operations,rightsofway,incentives,andsupervision(MOHURD,2005).PreferentialtaxationpoliciessavespendingforNEVownersGuidingOpinionsonGivingPrioritytothePublicTransportinUrbanDevelopmentbytheState•Since2012,NEVbuseshavebeenexemptedfromvehicleandvesselregistrationtax.ThispolicywasCouncilofciallyelevatedpublictransitpriorityasanationalstrategy(StateCouncil,2013a).updatedthreetimesin2015,2018,and2022toincreasinglytightencriteriaonfuelefciency,mileagerange,MOHURDandMOTissuedopinionsoneconomicpolicies(MOHURD,2006)andotherimplementationandemissionreductionsoastofurtherencouragetechnologydevelopment.measures(MOT,2013).•Since2014,NEVbusesreceivedavehiclepurchasetaxexemption.TaxexemptionsforallNEVs(buses,In2007,LegislativeAffairsOfceofStateCouncilstartedtosolicitsuggestionsonUrbanPublicpassengercars,trucks,etc.)totaled200billionRMBfrom2014to2022,andareestimatedtoreach115TransportRegulations/Directives.ThismarkedtherstlegislativeefforttoformallyclarifythepublicinterestbillionRMBin2023aloneand520billionRMBbetween2024and2027(Zhou,2023).natureofChina’spublictransportsystem.MOTisactivelypushingfortheofcialreleaseoftheseregulationsin2023.NationalandlocalsubsidieshelpedelectricbuseskickoffEstablishtransitbusesaspioneersandleadersFavorablesubsidiesforprocurementandoperationsofNEVbusesareprovidedtopartiallyoffsetthehighwithquantifiedgoalsinreducingcarbonandaircostofNEVbuses.pollutantsemissions•Subsidiesforprocurementfromcentralandlocalgovernments:From2010to2022,nationalNEVpurchaseAirqualityimprovementhasbeenamajordrivingforcetoscaleupNEVbusesincitiessince2013.Thisimpetussubsidiesareestimatedtoreach200billionRMBintotal(Shang&Yu,2023).Municipalgovernmentsofmanyhasbeenfurtherstrengthenedbycarbonpeakingandneutralitygoals.largecitiesalsoprovidedadditionallocalsubsidies.Forexample,since2015Beijinghasprovidedthelocalpurchasesubsidyatthesamelevelasthenational(BeijingMunicipalScienceandTechnologyCommissionIn2013,ChinaimplementedtheActionPlanforPreventionandControloftheAirPollution(State[BMSTC],2015),andsince2018halftheratio(Li&Yao,2020).Council,2013b),whichmandatedthatatleast60%ofnewandreplacedbusesinBeijing,Shanghai,andGuangzhoumustbeNEVsorcleanfuelvehicles.•Subsidyforoperations:Akeypolicyistransitioningbusoperationsubsidyfromoiltoelectricity.In2015,thecentralgovernmentbeganphasingoutits“oilsubsidy”andshiftingtoan“electricitysubsidy”.ThisIn2018,ChinareleasedThree-yearActionPlanforFightingtoWintheBattleAgainstAirPollutionincentivizedtheinitialmarketforBEVandPHEVbusesinChina.By2019,thefuelsubsidyfundforfossilfuel(StateCouncil,2013a),whichmandatedatlease80%ofnewandreplacedbuses,sanitarytrucks,postbuseshadbeenreducedby60%,comparedto2013level.Besides,operatingsubsidiesforNEVbusesareofcetrucks,taxis,lightlogistictruckstobeNEVsinkeyairpollutionareas.Itfurtherrequired100%newprovidedonayearlypervehiclebasis(MinistryofFinance[MOF]etal.,2015).ManylargecitieshavealsoandreplacedbusesinmunicipalitiesandprovincialcapitalsinthesekeyareastobeNEVs.providedlocalsubsidiesfortheoperationsofNEVbuses.Forexample,Beijingprovidesanannualoperatingsubsidyof80,000RMBforeachqualiedBEVbus(Zhev,2015).In2021,StateCouncilreleasedtheActionPlanforCarbonDioxidePeakingBefore2030(StateCouncil,2021),whichre-emphasizeddevelopinggreenandlow-carbonpublictransportand42electrifyingvehiclesusedforurbanpublicservices.In2022,Chinareducedtheshareofdieselbusesinthetransitbuseettoonly9%,whilerampinguptheshareofBEVbusesto65%(Figure32).41Figure39CriteriaofMajorNational200BRMBTable2CitiesofferlocalsubsidiesNEVBusOperationSubsidiesinBeijing,Shanghai,andShenzhentosupportpreferredNationalSubsidyCriteriaforSubsidy20(2015-2019)NEVpurchasesubsidiesaretechnologies.NEVBusPurchaseprovidedforpassengercars,(2009-2022)buses,trucks,andotherqualiedvehiclesby2009-20122009-2012technicalcriteriatoPurchasesOperations20132013encouragetechnology(RMB/vehicle)(RMB/vehicle/year)20142014advancement.20152015Since2015：SameofnationalsubsidyBEVbuses:80,00020162016Operatingsubsidiesarealso(BMSTC,2015)20172017providedforNEVbuseswithBeijingSince2018：Halfofnationalsubsidy20182018anannualmileageof30,000(Lietal.,2020)20192019kmorabovebetween2015BEV2020BEV2020and2019.BEVandPHEVbuses:350,000BEV:90,000-140,00020212021to500,000PHEV:10,00020222022ShanghaiFCV:70,000(2021-2023)FCV:800,0002009-20122009-201220132013ShenzhenBEV:90,000Basedonannual20142014ShenzhenonlysubsidizeBEVbusesoperatingmileage2015201520162016a:Zhev(2015),b:BMSTC(2015),c:Li&Yao(2020),d:ShanghaiMunicipalTransportationCommission20172017(2021).20182018PHEV2019PHEV2019DedicatedBusLanes(DBLs)provideimportantnon-fiscalincentives2020202020212021Non-scalincentivesareusedtoachieveoptimalresultswithminimaleffort.DBLsweredesignedtogive20222022transitbusespriorityontheroad.Theyareexclusivelyforbususeduringspecichours,suchasthemorningrushhoursfrom7-9am.Non-busvehiclesarediscouragedfromusingthelanes,withpenaltiesforviolations.2009-20122009-2012InJune2023,MinistryofPublicSecurity(MPS)madeamendmentstooptimizetheefciencyofDBLwhile20132013maintainingtheright-of-wayoftransitbuses.Theadjustmentsincludemodifyingtimeslotsforexclusivebus20142014laneuse,allowingnon-publicvehiclesaccessduringnon-exclusivehours,andpotentiallypermittingother20152015publicvehiclessuchasshuttlebusesandschoolbusestoshareDBLsduringexclusivehours(Ren,2023).20162016FCV2017FCV2017Figure40ThelengthofDBLsgrows20182018LengthofDedicatedBusLanesinChina(2013-2022)20192019520202020Length（km）20212021timesto2022202220,00019,900km15,000from2013to2022.10,000Beijingalonehas1005km700,00090,000DBLsbytheendof2020600,00080,000(BTI,2023).500,00070,000400,00060,000300,00050,000200,00040,000100,00030,000020,000Max10,000Min0Subsidy/Bus(RMB)5,000AnnualSubsidy/Bus(RMB)MOF(2013,2014,2016,2019a,2019b,2020),MOF,MinistryofScienceandTechnology(MOST),etal.0(2015),MOFandMOT(2009),MOFetal.(2018),MOF,MIIT,etal.(2015).20132014MOT(2014-2020,Part1.6)2015201620172018201920202021202220Itwasprovidedintheformofelectricitysubsidy,whichwasshiftedfromtheoilsubsidyprovidedsince2010.4344PARTIIIURBANRAIL2121BasedonthedeﬁnitionsinFootnote4and6,“urbanrail”inChina,excludingthecommuterrailandtramwhichaccountfor12%and5%ofthesystemlengthin2022,issimilarto“metro”globallyand“heavyrail”intheU.S.China’slightrailisnotsameasitsU.S.counterpart.Itismoresimilartotheinternational“metro”or“subway”basedonstandardsinChina.ThisprinciplealsoappliestoChina’smonorail,maglevandAPM.45III-1UrbanrailhasmagnificenttransportcapacityWHATmakesurbanrail1.346mmFigure41China’surbanrailfavoredoverroadtransport?DailyRidershipofUrbanRail,BusandTaxiinChina(2022)transportedInitially,busdevelopmenttookoffbeforeurbanrailsinChinaduetothecountry’slessDailyRidershipDailyRidership53Mdevelopedeconomy.Butwithrapideconomicgrowthandurbanexpansion,travel(PassengerTrips)(PassengerTripsPerVehicle)distancesincreasedandhigherspeedandbetterefciencywereneeded.Also,thepassengertripsdailyinexplodingurbanpopulationrequiredhigher-capacitymobilitytohandlemassive×53million2022.passengers.Busescouldnotmeetthedemandforspeed,reliabilityandcapacityanymore.Urban845Withover900millionurbanresidents,trafccongestionhasbecomeahugeproblem.In2022,roadvehiclesin89%of36majorcitiesacrossChinamoveat18-25km/hRailduetocongestion(Wang&Cao,2023).Urbanrailspullaheadastherstchoiceoverstrugglingroadtransport.×97million13846Bus×57million43TaxiMOT(2022)Figure4255UrbanRailDailyRidershipNationwideandinMajorCitiesinChinacitiesinChinahaveurban(2013-2022)rails,butDailyRidership(MillionPassengerTrips)48%70ridershiphappenedin656045550majorcities:Beijing,Shanghai,45Guangzhou,andShenzhen.40352014201520162017201820192020202120223025201510502013NationalTotalShanghaiBeijingGuangzhouShenzhenCAMET(2013-2023)47BeijingandFigure43UrbanrailsarefasterandmorereliableShanghaiThe10BusiestUrbanRailsinChinaandComparisonwithGlobalCitiesUrbanrailispreferredbycitydwellersasitallowspassengerstotravelfartherandfasterwithhighpunctuality.urbanrailsareamongthe(2019)globalbusiest,withdailyridershipoverDailyRidership(MillionPassengerTrips)10M024681012Beijing10.9Tokyo2210.8Shanghai10.6Guangzhou9.1Fasterthanroad.NewYork235.71UrbanrailinChinaaverages36km/h(CAMET,2023),about58.6%fasterthantheaveragetravelspeedinthe36selectedmajorcitiesand44%-100%fasterinShenzhen4.9mediumcongestioncities(Wang&Cao,2023).Chengdu4.2Wuhan3.4Highfrequency.Nanjing3.22By2022,theaveragedepartingtimeinterval(DTI)24isshorterthan290seconds.Approximately25%oflinesdepartwithin180seconds.TheintervalisshortenedtoChongqing2.9under120secondsduringrushhoursinmegacities(CAMET,2013–2023);Xi'an2.6Hangzhou1.83Highpunctuality.Theaveragepunctualityremainsabove99.9%inyears(MOT,2023a);CAMET(2020),Statista(2022),MTANewYorkCityTransit(2020),PortAuthorityTrans-HudsonCorporation(PATH,2020),APTA(2020).4Longoperationhours.Onaverage,China’surbanrailsoperate17hoursdaily,upto18.7hoursinBeijing(CAMET,2013–2023);Enhanceshabitability.5Urbanrailhasbecomeanindicatorofthequalityoflife,attraction,competitiveness,andprosperityincities.Anewmodel,knownas“railplusproperty”(R+P)or“integratedhubstationdevelopment”,helpstorecovercostsandenablenancialsustainability.22ThenumbercoversbothTokyoMetroandToeiSubway24DTImeasuresthetimefromonetrainfullyleavestheplatformuntilthenexttrainstartsmovingin.TheintervalbetweentrainscanbeevenshorterthantheDTI.23ThenumbercoversMTANewYorkCityTransit,PortAuthorityTrans-HudsonCorporation,andStatenIslandRapidTransit4948III-2Figure44AboutHOWBIGandFASTdoesNumberofMetroVehicles,StationsandLengthinChina,Europe,U.S.30%urbanraildevelop?andWorld(2020)worldmetrovehiclesandChinaleadstheworldinurbanrailinfrastructure,especiallythenetworklengthandNo.ofVehiclesNo.ofStations&SystemLengthstationsareinChina.numberofcitieswithurbanrail.MetrosystemsdominatesChina’surbanrail,comprising88%oflengthand95%ofpassengerturnover.From2013to2022,the180,00018,000Bytheendof2020,Chinanumberofcities,lines,stationsandvehicleswithurbanrailgrewrobustlyat190%,had44,000metrovehicles261%,280%,and336%,respectively(CAMET,2014–2023).160,00016,000runningthroughover3,800metrostations,accounting50140,00014,000for32%and30%oftheworld’stotal,respectively.120,00012,000100,00010,00080,0008,00060,0006,00040,0004,00020,0002,0000No.ofMetroStationsLength(Km)0No.ofMetroVehidesEuropeU.S.WorldChinaCAMET(2021),UITPSecretariat(2022),APTA(2023,Table21,49,51)Table3WorldMetroRegionalDistribution2020WorldNumberofCitiesPopulationServed2022Europe(million)193N/AU.S.4652China251323China3842141450CAMET(2021,2023),UITPSecretariat(2022),APTA(2023,Table21,49,51),WorldPopulationReview(WPR,2023a,2023b),OfﬁceoftheLeadingGroupoftheStateCouncilfortheSeventhNationalPopulationCensus(ascitedinChen,2022),Liu(2023)25NumbersofChinaincludesubwayonly,insteadofallurbanrailsystems.51III-3DevelopmentofurbanrailsbringsdownthemileageofcarsHOWdoesurbanrailcontributetoeasethetrafficFigure45Beijing,Shanghai,andandreduceemissions?AnnualDrivingMileageforPrivateCarsinChina’sMegaCitiesChengduhaveseenoveraWithalltheadvantagesmentionedabove,urbanrailshavebeenpickingupmoreofMileage/km2.5%thetrafcloadandeasingtheburdenontheroad.In2022,urbanrailstook26%ofChina’surbantransitpassengervolume,increasingfromjust9%in2013.The2002annualdropinprivatecarincreasemainlycomesfromreplacingtheuseofcarsandtransitbuses.vehiclekilometerstraveled2003(VKT).5220042005EvenasChina’smegacities2006seetheirpopulation,urban2007built-upareasandvehicle2008stocknumbersgoup,2009privatecarmileageis2010actuallydecreasingsteadily.2011201220132014201520162017201820192020BeijingShanghaiChengduEFChinaanalysis,XiamenEnvironmentProtectionVehicleEmissionControlTechnologyCenter,BTI,ShanghaiUrbanRuralConstructionandTransportationDevelopmentResearchInstitute,ChengduVECC53Figure46III-4TopCities’ShareinChina’sVehicleStockandMetroMileageWHATkindofpoliciesMarketShareofVehicleStockandMetroMileage(%)enablesuchdevelopment?100Asanessentialpartofpublictransport,urbanrailbenetsfromthenationalstrategytoputpublictransportasthepriority.Besides,theencouragementon80Transit-OrientedDevelopment(TOD)aswellasmuti-functionalintegratedtransport60hubsalsocreateanenablingenvironmentforurbanraildevelopment.4055200Top70Top100Top45MetroMileageVehicleStockEFChinaanalysis,XiamenEnvironmentProtectionVehicleEmissionControlTechnologyCenter,BTI,ShanghaiUrbanRuralConstructionandTransportationDevelopmentResearchInstitute,ChengduVECCUrbanrailsarezeroemissionbecauseitis100%electrifiedUrbanrailsconsumeenergyfortractionandnon-tractionpurposeslikeairconditioning,lightingandplatformscreendoorsystem.Theenergyefciencyofurbanrailstaysstablebetween0.1to0.2kWh/personkilometer(MOT,2023a).54GovernmentalsubsidiessupportthesustainableBox3operationShenzhenmetro:bestTODdevelopmentwithleastTheinvestmentandoperationcost26ofurbanrailsystemsarenotablyhigh.Althoughthecostvariesacrosssubsidiesandhighestrevenuecities,onaverage,theconstructionofeverykilometersubwaymeans700-800millionRMBinvestmentandoftenexceeds1billionRMBinthemegacities.TakingShanghaiandBeijingforexample,theestimatedInmanycities,TODispracticedas“DevelopmentOrientedTransit”or“TransitAdjacentDevelopment”,investmentperkilometerreaches2billionRMBforShanghaiMetroLine20,and1.5billionRMBforBeijingwherethetransitsystemsandthesurroundingdevelopmentareindependentlyplannedwithpoorSubwayLine25Phase3(Rail-stdaily,2023).EstimatesshowthatsubwayinvestmentpaybackinChinaconnectivity.requiresatleast29years(Wu,2017),basedontheaveragelevelofcostsandrevenues.ShenzhenMetroGroup(SMP)distinguisheditselfbyintroducingmainlandChina’srstR+PTODmodelwiththedevelopmentofQianhaiDepotStationin2008.Inthiscase,SMPmaximizedtheutilityofdepotThefastexpansionofurbanrailnetworksandtheaffordableticketpricesarelargelyattributedtogovernmentlandforcommercialpropertyandsocialhousingdevelopmentalongsidemetroinfrastructure.Thissupport.Similartobuses,governmentsprovidesignicantsubsidiestotheoperationsofurbanrails.In2022,enabledShenzhenMetrotobecomenanciallyself-sustainedandreduceitsrelianceongovernmentthenationwidetotalsubsidiesformetros,aprimarycategoryofurbanrails,surpassed110billionRMB.Atthesubsidies.citylevel,Beijingallocatedover26billionRMBinsubsidiesin2022.Someothercities,includingHangzhou,SMPhassuccessfullyappliedtheR+PTODmodelto34metroprojects,developingacomprehensiveChongqing,Zhengzhou,Suzhou,Qingdao,Chengdu,Ningbo,andNanjingalsoprovidedsubsidiesover5valuechainconsistingofmetroinfrastructure,operations,integrationofurbandevelopmentandtransit,billionRMB(ThePaper,2023).andpropertymanagement.In2022,SMPearned16billionRMBinrevenuefromintegrateddevelopmentofmetroandproperty,thehighestamongallmetrocompaniesinChina.Meanwhile,SMPreceivedonlyEncourageTODasanewdevelopmentmodel531millionRMBgovernmentsubsidy,amongthelowestsubsidiesforallurbanrailsystemsinChina(Song,2023).In2018,GeneralOfceoftheStateCouncilissuedOpinionsonFurtherStrengtheningtheAdministrationofPlanningforConstructionofUrbanRailTransportation,emphasizingtheimportanceofestablishing57viablenancingmodelsandinternalizinglandvaluetocoverurbanrailsystemcosts(StateOfce,2018).Toreducerelianceonsubsidies,urbanrailcompaniesproactivelyexploretoestablishtheirown“self-restoration”mechanismsfornancialself-sufciency.TOD,providesapromisingapproach.ByapplyingtheTODmodel,developerscanengageinhigh-densitypropertydevelopmentaroundrailstations,generatingrevenuethroughrealestatetosupportsubwayoperations.SuccessfulglobalexamplesincludethenewWorldTradeCenterinNewYork,theGrandFrontinOsaka,theKowloonstationinHongkong.TheseTODprojectsarenanciallyself-sustainingwhilebenetingurbandevelopmentandmobilityimprovement.ChinaactivelypromotesTODtoeffectivelymanageitsrapidurbanizationwiththedevelopmentofpublictransitnetworks.LocalizedTODmodelsinclude“R+P”,“integratedhubstationdevelopment”,and“metrostation-centeredcomplexdevelopment”,emphasizingmultifunctionalmixed-useoflandandintegratedurbanplanningaroundtransithubs.ShenzhenleadsmainlandR+P.In2022,ShenzhenMetroreportedarevenueof16billionRMBfromstation-cityintegration.Inthesameyear,BeijingInvestment,theoperatorofBeijingMetro,hadatotalrevenueofnearly6.3billionRMBfromitsrealestatedevelopmentandprimarylanddevelopment.ChengduRailTransitGroupreceived6.2billionRMBfromstationcomprehensivedevelopmentrevenue.RailtransitinHangzhou,Qingdao,Ningbo,Nanning,Guangzhou,andothercitiesalsoreportedsignicantincomefromrealestate-relatedactivities(ThePaper,2023).26Theinvestmentcostincludeslandacquisitionandresettlement,civilengineering,roadoccupationanddiversion,pipelinerelocation,vehicles(railcars),mechanicalandelectricalequipment,etc.56PromotemultimodaltransporthubsintegratingBox4urbanrail,citybus,railway,andairportsShanghaiHongqiaoTransportationHub:thepioneerMultimodaltransporthubscanreducetransitdistancesandimproveefciency.TheStateCouncilissuedtheofintegratingmultipletransportmodes“OutlineofthePlanfortheDevelopmentofRoadTransportIndustryduringthePeriodofthe12thFive-YearPlan”inJune2012,settingtargetsofdeveloping42national-leveltransporthubs27characterizedbyShanghaiHongqiaoTransportationHubconsistsofShanghaiHongqiaoInternationalAirport,theintercityzero-distanceinterchangeandseamlessconnections(StateCouncil,2012).Thiskickedoffthedevelopmenthigh-speedShanghaiHongqiaorailwaystation,threemetrolines,buses,taxis,andamaglevstation.ofamultimodaltransporthubinChina.In2019,thehubwitnessedanaveragedailypassengerthroughputexceeding1million,reachingapeakInthefollowingyear2013,“GuidingOpinionsonPromotingtheDevelopmentofComprehensiveTransportdailyowof1.5million.By2021,theannualtotalpassengervolumehadexceeded300million.BecauseHubs”detaileddesignprinciples,keytasksandsafeguardmeasurestostimulatetheplanningandoftheconvenience,48%ofinboundpassengersarrivingatHongqiaoAirportorrailwaystationtakedevelopmentofthe42hubs.Socialcapitalsinvestmentandparticipationinthedevelopmentandoperationmetrolinestotheirdestinationsinthecity.Thehubencouragedmoreoutboundpassengerstochoosewasencouraged.Multi-purposeandmixeduseoflandensuredthesustainabilitywithdiversenancingandrailways,withtheshareincreasingfrom61%in2011to74%in2019.Theoverallpassengervolumeofwell-designedbusinessmodels(NDRC,2013).Hongqiaorailwaystationin2019was253%ofthelevelin2011.TheoverallpassengervolumeofTheCentralCommitteeoftheCommunistPartyofChina(CPC)andStateCouncil(2019,2021)furtherHongqiaoAirportinthesameyearwas135%ofthelevelin2011(ThePaper,2019).HongqiaoHubhasemphasizedthecommitmenttobuildingrobust,multi-level,integratedtransportationhubsystemsinthebecomethemostimportanttransporthubinEastChina,layingasolidfoundationfortheintegrationof“OutlineforBuildingChina’sNationalStrengthinTransport”and“NationalComprehensiveurbanfunctionsanddrivingtheeconomicprosperityofShanghai.Inaddition,itservesasavitalfacilitatorThree-dimensionalTransportationNetworkPlanningOutline”.MOFrevisedtherulestoallowtheuseoffundsfortheeconomicactivitiesoftheentireYangtzeRiverDeltaregionbyprovidingsubstantialsupportforgeneratedfromvehiclepurchasetaxesfortheconstructionofcomprehensivetransporthubs(Jinetal.,2023).regionaltransportationcenteredaroundShanghai.AstherstofitskindinChina,theHongqiaoHubmodelhasbeenfollowedbyothercities,including27Forty-twonational-leveltransporthubsareinBeijing,Tianjin,Harbin,Changchun,Shenyang,Dalian,Shijiazhuang,Qinhuangdao,Tangshan,Qingdao,Jinan,Hangzhou,Guangzhou,andShenzhen.Goingforward,Chinashouldseemore“HongqiaoHubs”toShanghai,Nanjing,Lianyungang,Xuzhou,Hefei,Hangzhou,Ningbo,Fuzhou,Xiamen,Guangzhou,Shenzhen,Zhanjiang,Haikou,Taiyuan,Datong,Zhengzhou,Wuhan,improvetheefciencyofpassengertransport.Changsha,Nanchang,Chongqing,Chengdu,Kunming,Guiyang,Nanning,Xi'an,Lanzhou,Urumqi,Hohhot,Yinchuan,Xining,andLhasa.ShanghaiHongqiaoInternationalAirport58ShanghaiMetroLine2ShanghaiMetroLine10ShanghaiMetroLine17ShanghaiHongqiaoRailwayStationScreenshotofAmap59PARTIVSHAREDBICYCLESANDELECTRICTWOANDTHREEWHEELERS60IV-1Sincethe2000s,ICE2/3WsfacedextensiverestrictionsinurbanareasacrossChina,primarilyduetoenvironmentalconcernsandtheirassociationwithillegalactivitieslikeWHYaresharedbicyclesandrobbery.GrowingtrafcaccidentsofmanagementchallengeswerealsopartoftheE2/3Wssopopular?concerns.Atthesametime,Chinastartedtoencourageprivatecars.However,privatecarsarestillnotthepreferredchoiceduetotheirhighpurchaseandInthe1980s,China’scitieswerecharacterizedbycompactlayouts,resultinginmaintenancecost.In2022,themediandisposableincomepercapitainChinawasshort-distanceurbanpassengertripsandlowdemandsforurbanmobility.31,370RMB,whileonly3,195RMB(NBS,2023e)wasspentontransportonMeanwhile,themotorcycleandautoindustryinChinawasstillatanearlyaverage.Peopleareeagertoseekaffordable,personalized,andefcientdevelopmentstage,andmostpeoplecouldnotaffordtobuyvehicles.Thismadetransportmodes.bicyclesandbusesthepreferredchoicesforurbanmobility.SharedbicyclesandE2/3WsseizeasignificantWhenChina’scitiesbeganexpandinginthe1990s,therewasanoticeableincreaseinmarketshareforurbanmobilitythetraveldistanceforurbanmobility.Supportedbyincreasingincomeandamoredevelopedmotorcycleindustry,agrowingpopulationchoosesmotorcyclestomeetSharedmodeisleadingbicyclesbacktocitiesthisdemandchange.Inthe1980s,privatebicycleswerewidelyusedinChinawithatravelrateMovingintothe2000s,publictransportandmotorcyclesbecametheprimaryexceeding50%,earningChinathetitle"BicyclesKingdom."However,solutionsforurbanmobility,whileprivatecarsalsomadetheirentrance.Meanwhile,underthedualforcesofurbanizationexpansionandautomobileindustrybicyclesexperiencedasignicantdeclineinmarketshareduetoinsufcientparkingdevelopment,thetravelrateofbicycleshaddroppedto5.5%.Wheninfrastructureanddedicatedbicyclelanes,easytheftrisks,andlimitationsforsharedbicyclesemergedaround2015,thetravelrateofbicyclesdoubledlong-distancetrips.to11.6%,withsharedbicyclescontributingtoapproximately60%ofthisincrease(BeijingTsinghuaTonghengPlanningandDesignInstitute&Becausepublictransportcouldnotprovidequalityhighdoor-to-doorserviceandMobike,2017).familyincomelevelsstillpreventedthemajorityfrompurchasingacar,ICE2/3Wsbecameprevalentinpersonalurbanmobility.ThiswasduetotheirsuperiorE2/3Wshavebeenthepreferredchoiceforurbanmaneuverabilitycomparedtobicycles,exibilitycomparedtopublictransport,andtravelanddeliveryaffordabilitycomparedtocars.E2Wsreignsupremeinurbanindividualmobility.Forexample,e-bicyclesHowever,thewidespreaduseofcheapmotorcyclesalsoresultedinsomeaccountedfor20%ofurbantransportinShenzhen,andnearly1/3inunexpectedissues,includinganincreaseinmotorcycle-relatedrobberiesandtrafcNanningin2022(Wang,Y.,2023).Regardingthedeliveryservice,E2/3Wsaccidentsinearly-developingcitieslikeGuangzhou.Theseissueshadnegativealsodemonstratesdominance.TakeJiangsuProvince,oneofthetopimpactsonthecity’simageandpublicsafety.Aftercarefulconsideration,Guangzhouthreeregionsforlogisticsservices,asanexample.In2022,therewereMunicipalGovernmentmadeadifcultdecisiontobantheuseofmotorcyclesin86,500deliveryvehicles(JiangsuRoadSafetyAssociation,2022),ofwhichdowntownareas.87%wereE2/3Ws,includingapproximately64,000E3Wsand11,400E2Ws.61-62Table4DistinctiveadvantagesdrivetheexpansionofBicyclesandE2/3WsforVariousDemandofUrbanMobilitysharedbicyclesandE2/3WsProductTechnicalStandardsComparisonEconomicallyaffordableProductE2/3Wsdemonstrateitscostadvantageswhetherforintensivecommercialutilizationordailypersonaltravel.Theirannualoperatingcostsremainwithin27%ofICE2/3Ws,andevenmoreaffordablecomparedtoprivateDesignSpeedCurbWeightAttributeDriverLicensecars.NotrequiredBicycleprivate//Non-motorizedAcquisitioncosts.TheacquisitioncostofmainstreamE2/3Wmodelsis50%-60%ofICE2/3WswithbicycleNotrequiredcomparableperformance.However,itisnoteworthythatE2/3Wshavelowerdurability—withsimilarusageintensity,E2/3Wshavealifetimeofthreetoveyears,whereasICE2/3WscommonlylastaroundeightsharedRequiredyears.bicycleRequiredRequiredEnergyconsumption.E2/3Wshaveonly4%–9%energycostofICE2/3Wsforthesamemileage,duetoprivate≤25km/h≤55kgNon-motorizedRequiredelectricity-gasolinepricedifferentialandenergyconsumptiondifferences.e-bicycleMaintenancecosts.E2/3WshaveamaintenancecostadvantagebecauseoftheirsimplerstructureandE-Bicyclecheapercomponents.Forinstance,replacingthebatteryona3000RMBE2Wcostsaround400RMB,whilereplacingtheengineinasimilarperformingICE2Wwouldcostapproximately1000RMB.Moreover,sharedincontrasttoICE2/3Ws,E2/3Wsdonotrequireregularmaintenancecostssuchasoilchangesandltere-bicyclereplacements.E-Moped20km/h-50km/h/MotorizedCongestion-free(2W)≤50km/h>40kgUtilizenon-motorlanes.Despitetheirmaneuverability,E2/3Wsaretypicallyclassiedasnon-motorizedvehiclesinroadmanagement.ThisclassicationenablesthemtoaccesslesscongestedE-Moped≤50km/h≤400kgMotorizednon-motorlanes.(3W)>50km/hMotorizedCompactsize.Comparedtoprivatecars,bothbicyclesandE2Wsoccupyonlyaquarteroftheroad>50km/h/Motorizedspace,andE3Wstakeupjusthalf.ThecompactsizeofE2/3WsallowsthemweavethroughcongestedE-Motorcycleroadsmoreseamlessly,especiallywhentrafcrulesmaynotbestrictlyenforced.(2W)≤400kgE-Motorcycle(3W)6364ConvenientandflexibleTable5Forbusinessuse,E3WsAnnualcostcomparisonofE2/3WsandICE2/3Ws28annualcostEasytocharge.AllE2/3ssoldinthemarketareequippedwithportablechargers,andthebatteriescanbeeasilydetachable.WithstablevoltageandwidespreadaccesstoelectricityinChina,peoplecantakePurposeFreight-ExpresslogisticPassenger-Commute<27%thebatterieshomeortoworkplacesforchargingconveniently.AlthoughindoorchargingisprohibiteddueVehicletypetopotentialrerisks,enforcingthisrestrictionischallenging.ManypeoplestilltaketheriskforthesakeofE3WsICE3WsE2WsICE2WsofICE3Wsconvenience.Vehiclecost(RMB)4500850030005000Fordailypersonaltravel,Easytopark.ThecompactsizeofE2/3Wsfacilitatesexibleparking.Itwillsavetimeandparkingcosts,585926/627E2WsannualcostespeciallyforinstantdeliveryandexpresslogisticsscenarioswhichoftenrequirefrequentstopsforLicensepricedoor-to-doorserviceinresidentialcommunitiesandnarrowalleyways.andtax(RMB)<33%Easymodication.ThesimplestructureofE2/3Wsallowsforeasyandcost-effectivemodicationstomeetindividualrequirements,whetherforpassengerorfreighttransport,suchasaddingacanopyforLifetime(Year)3858ofICE2Wsprotectionagainstrain.291202912058245824AnnualMileage29(km)5.6kWh4L(gasoline)1.6kW.h2.5L(gasoline)Thecostadvantageof24/7service.Comparedtoscheduledpublictransport,bicyclesandE2/3Wsnotonlyofferdoor-to-doorEnergyconsumption0.5/kWh8.12/L0.5/kW.h8.12/LE2/3Wsisevenmoreevidentservice,butalsocatertomobilitydemandsoutsidepublictransportservicehours.per100kmifcomparingtoprivatecars.EnergyPrice(RMB)400400/Lowentrybarriers120Annual11036Itaddressestheﬂexibletraveldemandsofvulnerablegroups,notablytheelderlyover60yearsold,Insurance(RMB)whonormallyhavelessincomeafterretirementandpreferslowspeedmobilityforshortdistancetrips,especiallyincitieswithoutgoodbusservice.Theyaccountedfor19.8%ofthenationalpopulationby2022.AnnualCost(RMB)Easytomasterdrivingskills.IndividualswithbikeridingexperiencecanquicklymasterdrivingE2/3Ws29106472006withoutextratraining.EFChinaanalysis(2023)Lowdrivingqualicationrequirement.E-bicycles,classiedasnon-motorizedvehiclesduetotheirlowspeedandlightweight,donotrequirelicenses.E-mopedande-motorcycledorequirecorresponding28BasedonmarketpricesandoperatingcostsofmainstreamE2/3Wsmodels.licenses.Nevertheless,laxenforcement,particularlyinsuburbsareaswithlimitedsupervision,hasledto29Assumingthedailyaveragemileagefor3Wsusedinfreightexpressis80km,andfor2Wsusedinpassengercommuteis16km,consideringayearas364days.manyunlicensedindividualsontheroad.ItfacilitatestheaccessibilityandpopularityofE2/3Wsamongadiverserangeofusers.66EnvironmentalandclimatefriendlyZeroemission.Poweredbyelectricity,E2/3Wsproducenogas,smellorotheremissionsduringoperation,contributingtocleanerairandsafeguardingpeople’shealth.Higherenergyefciency.E2Ws,whenfullyloadedwithpassengers,demonstrateonlyonefourthofthepercapitaenergyconsumptionofEVs,andE3WshavelessthanhalfoftheenergyconsumptionofEVs.65E2/3WsenergyefciencyFigure47IV-2EnergyEfficiencyofDifferentTransportModes>3×EVsWHATimpactsdoshared0.150bicyclesandE2/3Wsbring5tourbanmobility?30.0420.03020.0160.014TheemergenceofsharedbicyclesandE2/3Wsnotonlyencouragespeopletoshift0.008awayfromhigh-emissiontransportmodessuchICE2/3Ws,butalsoservesasaPassengerCapacitykWhperkmEVE3WskWhperpassengerkmsubstituteforshort-distancepublictransportorwalking.Inadditiontosolving“lastE2Wsmile”urbanmobilitydemandchallenges,theircombinationwithemergingindustriesEFChinaanalysislikeinstantdeliverycreatesnewmobilitydemands.60%55%28099.9%Therefore,sharedbicyclesandE2/3Wshavecomplexeffectsonthezero-emissionbicyclesridershipsharede-bicyclecitieshadnationalaveragetransitioninurbanmobility.comesfromsharedridershipservesestablishedbatterypowersupplyconnectiontorailswappingstations68bicyclesreliabilityprovidetransitaccountableinfrastructure67Replacehigher-emissionmodesoftravelFigure49In2022,PenetrationRateofE2/3WsinNew2/3WsSales(2020and2022)81%•E2/3Wshaveanoticeableimpactasanalternativetocar20202022Followingmotorcyclerestrictions,taxisandprivatecarshavegraduallybecomeoneofthepredominantformsofnew2Wssalesareelectric.ofpersonalizedurbanmobility.Asdirectalternativestoconventionaloptions,E2/3WsexhibitaremarkableTotalsalesof2Ws:60.20MTotalsalesof2Ws:62.06Msubstitutionrateof23%forcartravel(InstituteforTransportationandDevelopmentPolicy[ITDP],2022).20%•Theelectricationpenetrationrateof2/3Wscontinuestoincreaseofnew3Wssalesareelectric.Chinapossessedtheworld’slargestICE2/3Wseetwiththestockreaching100millionin2005.Bytheendof2022,E2Wsaccountedfor81%ofnew2Wssales,securingabsolutedominance.However,thefactof3Ws79%21%81%19%iscompleteopposite.Theriseoflast-milefreightdeliveryisincreasingthedemandof3Ws,butthepenetrationrateofE3Wsinnew3Wssaleswitnessedanoticeabledeclineto20%from29%in2020.TheSalesofE2Ws:SalesofICE2Ws:SalesofE2Ws:SalesofICE2Ws:mainreasonisthataround2020,localgovernmentsstartedimposingrestrictionsonnon-compliantE3Wsin47.60M12.60M50.10M11.96Murbanareas,buttheregulationsforcompliantE3Wshaveremainedunclear.ConsumersareworriedthatthenewE3Wstheypurchasedmightbeaffectedbynewrestrictiveregulations.TheytendtopreferICE3Wswithmoreclearlydenedregulatoryrequirements.Inthecontrasttoconsumers,manufacturershavepositiveexpectationsforcompliantE3Wsandaretranslatingthesepositiveexpectationsintoaction.84%ofthenewlyapproved3Wsmodelsin2022wereelectric,with94%beinghigh-poweredmodelsratedat800Worabove,alignedwithfreightICE3Wsproducts.Therefore,theelectricationtransitionof3Wsisexpectedtogrowinfuture,onceregulationsforcompliantE3Wsaredened.E2/3WsreplacesFigure4820202022TransportModesReplacedbyE-Bicycles(2022)23%Totalsalesof3Ws:2.22MTotalsalesof3Ws:2.29MWalk15%travelusedtobeconductedBus25%bypassengercars.UrbanRail13%29%71%20%80%SalesofE3Ws:SalesofICE3Ws:SalesofE3Ws:SalesofICE3Ws:0.65M1.57M0.46M1.83MCCCM(2021,2023),iResearch(2023)Bicycle24%PrivateCar19%Taxi&Ride-hailing4%ITDP(2022)6970In2022,Figure50CompleximpactsonpublictransportserviceAnnualAdditionofICE/E3WsModelsbyPurpose(2009-2022)84%•Increasingurbanrailattractivenessbybridgingthe“lastmile”UnitsofNewModelsAdded2Wstravelisparticularlyactivearoundurbanrailstations,indicatingmost2Wstripsareconnectedtotransit.ofcerticated3Wsmodels2,500Nationwide,bicyclesandE2Wsaccountedforover20%(TsinghuaTongheng&Mobike,2017)ofmobilityappliedforproductionarearoundurbanrailstations.Incitieswithextensiverailnetworksexceeding300km,thissharewasover30%.InE3Ws.2,000Beijing,withthecountry'slongestrailsystem,itreachedanimpressive40%.In2022,55%ofsharede-bicyclerideswereusedtoconnecttorailtransit."Sharedbicycles/E2Ws+urbanrailtransit"modelcould1,500befurtherpromotedbyprovidingnon-motorfacilitiesaroundurbanrailstations,suchasdedicatedparkingareaandnon-motorlanes.1,000•Divertingpassengersfrompublictransport500Foraveragedistanceofurbanmobilityof10km,sharedbicyclesandE2/3Wshavemuchlowercoststhanpublictransport.Theyalsoprovideexibilityinroutes,timesaving,andopportunitiesforphysicalexercise.0ThebenetshaveledtoanincreasingpreferenceforsharedbicyclesandE2/3Wsovertraditionalpublic20092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212022transport.E3WsFreightE3WsPassengerICE3WsFreightICE3WsPassengerITDP(2023)94%Figure51Figure52TravelexpenseofE2WsNewCertificatedModelsofE3WsbyRatedPower(2017-2022)couldbeaslowasofcerticatednewE3WsTravelCostComparisonbetweenE2WsandOtherTransportmodelshavearatedpowerUnitsofNewModelsModesfor10kmTravelDistance9%exceeding800W.4,000ofurbanpublictransit.713,500Unit:RMB3-7RMB3,0002.5RMB2,5001.5RMB~0.6RMB2,0001,500Shared1,000Private-ownedSharedUrbanRailBus500E2WsE2Ws0EFChinaanalysis(2023)201720182019202020212022RatedPower≥5000W3000W≤RatedPower<5000W1500W≤RatedPower<3000W800W≤RatedPower<1500WRatedPower<800W72IV-3TherestrictiononfossilfuelmotorcyclescreatedmarketopportunitiesforE2/3WsWHATarethekeyfindings?Intheearly2000s,thefossilfuelmotorcycles(including2Wsand3Ws)wasoneofthemajortransportTwoandthreewheelershaveemergedassolutionsduetotheiradvantagesoflowmodesinChina,accountingfor33%ofglobaldemandataround16millionunitsperyear(Marklines,2017).cost,convenience,exibility,andcongestion-free.TheyhavebecomethemostwidelyHowever,manycitiesinitiatedmotorcyclerestrictionsduetoconcernsonsafety,congestion,andpollution.adoptedandfastest-growingmodeofurbanmobilityinChina,atrendcouldalsobeMeasuresincludedhaltingnewmotorcyclelicensesinprovincialcapitalsandestablishingarea-specicobservedinmanydevelopingcountries.restrictions.By2020,morethan30%ofChina’scitieshadimplementedvaryingdegreesof“motorcycleWhatdistinguishesChina’sapproachisthesignicantprogressmadeintherestriction”,graduallypushingmotorcyclesoutofurbanareas(Wang,S.,2023).electricationof2/3Ws.Thisdevelopmenthadaprofoundimpactonthetransportsystem,positioning2/3WsasanactivedriverintheshifttowardszeroHowever,urbanmobilitydemandstillneedstobesatised.TechnologicaladvancementsinkeyE2/3Wsemissionurbanmobility.componentslikemotors,batteries,chargersandcontrollerssignicantlyimprovetheirloadcapacity,climbingability,andrange.Consequently,E2/3Wsemergedasreplacements,llingthegapleftbymotorcycle73restrictions.TraditionalmotorcycleproductionhubslikeJiangsuandZhejiangrapidlytransitionedtoE2/3Wsproduction.From2001to2010,E2/3Wsbusinessgrewrapidly,addingover240,000newcompanies(includingmanufacturersandsupportingcompanies).Theaverageannualgrowthrateinthisperiodwas33%,17timesthatof1991to2000.WhiletheE2/3Wsindustryunderwentrapidgrowth,theentrybarriersformanufacturersandproductsfailedtokeeppace.Withouteffectivequalitysupervision,lowqualityproductsoodthemarket.ConsumersareunabletoassessthequalityofE2/3Wsontheirown.TheytendtobuyE2/3Wsbasedonaffordability,highspeedandlongrange.Yet,theseproductsoftensufferfrompoorqualityandposepotentialsafetyrisks,suchastheriskofframebreakageorspontaneouscombustion.StandardsandregulationsdrivetheE2/3WsindustrytowardssustainablegrowthTheimpositionofthe“motorcyclerestriction”resultedinasurgeindemandforE2/3Ws.However,thisincreaseddemandwasmetwithaoodofsubstandard“motorcycle-like”products,leadingtopressingsafetyconcerns,suchasspontaneouscombustion,overspeeding,brakefailure,andchassisfractures.Outdatedproducttechnicalstandardsfailedtokeepupwiththemarket,leavingE2/3Wsontheroadwithoutclearclassicationandlegalbasis.E2/3Wsexperienceduncontrolledgrowthduetotheseregulatorygaps.ToaddressthesechallengesandsteerthesustainabledevelopmentofE2/3Wsindustry,Chinaintroducedtwonationalmandatorytechnicalstandardsin2018and2020—the“SafetyTechnicalSpecicationforElectricBicycle(GB17761-2018)”andthe"SafetySpecicationsforElectricMotorcyclesandElectricMopeds(GB24155-2020)”.TheprimarysignicanceofthenewstandardsistoclearlydeneproducttypesfordifferentE2/3Ws,allowinglocalgovernmentstomanageE2/3Wsbasedonexistingregulationsandeliminatingregulatorygaps.Anotherpurposeofthenewstandardsistoenhancecriticalelementssuchasresafetyandspeedlimits,guidingmanufacturestoproducehigh-qualityandenvironmentallyfriendlyE2/3Ws.Themandatoryrequirementsofthenewstandardsaretransitioningfrompartialtofullenforcement.Itdemonstratestheregulatoryauthorities'ambitiontoguidethesustainabletransformationofE2/3Wsindustry.Forproductsthatdonotcomplywiththenewtechnicalstandards,differentregionssettransitionperiodsrangingfromthreetoveyears.74By2022,asthetransitionperiodfornon-compliantE2/2Wscametoanendinmostregions,thesevehiclesEnablinginfrastructureofroadandpowergridwerephasedoutfromthesalesmarket.Withqualitycontrolimproved,regulationsnowaimtoexpandprovidesasolidfoundationoversightacrosstheentireE2/3Wslifecycle,addressingissuesofsales,trafcregulations,parkingandcharging,andrecycling.PavedroadsensuresmoothridershipAfterdecadesofconstructionandupdatesofroad,morethan99.98%ofChina’sroadnetworkSalesandtrafcregulations(ENNweekly,2019)inbothurbanandruralareasispavedwithasphaltorcement,whichenablesmoothCompliantE2/3Wsmustbelicensedforroaduse,whilenon-compliantonesrequiretemporarylicensesridershipofE2/3Ws.andafterthetransitionperiodtheyarenotallowedforuseorstorageinpublicareas.EnterpriseinformationStableandmassivepowergridensurestheaccountablechargingisalsocapturedduringbusiness-orientedE2/3WsregistrationtoensurecorporateresponsibilitiesfortrafcChina'spowersystemholdsaworldrecordforover30yearswithoutmajorwidespreadoutages(Zhao,safety,especiallyforinstantdeliveryandlogisticsvehicles.2023).Bytheendof2022,China'snationalpowergenerationcapacityexceeded2,560GW,equivalenttototalG7capacity,withthenationalaveragepowersupplyreliabilityof99.9%(ChinaElectricPowerNews,Parkingandcharging2023).Inadditiontoreliability,theaccessibilityofthepowergridisalsoacrucialfactor,ChinahadalreadyRegulationsnowrestrictE2/3Wsparkingandcharginginbuildingcorridors,stairwells,safetyexits,andachieved100%electricitycoveragein2013(WDIofWB,2023d).EvenremoteregionslikeTibet,Gansu,evenhomestopreventreaccidents.ThedevelopmentofcentralizedpubliccharginginfrastructuresisandQinghai,nowhavesolarphotovoltaicsystemstoensureaccessibleelectricity.Intermsofaffordability,underwaytoaddressthechargingdemands.withpricessignicantlylowerthanOECDcountries(40%),theU.S.(60%),andemergingeconomies(71%)(StateGridCorporationofChina,2021).China'saffordableelectricityalsomakesE2/3WshighlyRecyclingcost-effectivenesscomparedtoICE2/3Ws.Retailersareencouragedtoimplementtrade-inprogramsandcollectnon-compliantE2/3Ws.Localautomobileindustryassociationscanfacilitatethecompensatedremovalofnon-compliantE2/3Ws.76AcceleratingtheconstructionofsafeandconvenientchargingfacilityFireincidentisoneoftheprimaryconcernswithE2/3Ws.Approximately80%ofE2/3Wsresoccurduringcharging(Shi&Sun,2021),stemmingfromsubparbatteriesandelectricalcomponents,theabsenceofshort-circuitprotectioninearlymodels,andunsafechargingpracticeslikeusingimprovisedwiringandovercharging.AsallE2/3Wsareequippedwithportablechargersandlimiteddedicatedparkingandchargingspacesinurbanareas,peopleoftenchargetheirE2/3Wsinpublicareaslikestairwells,hallways,andnearemergencyexits.Itwouldobstructescaperoutesintheeventofare.Morover,peopleoftenbringtheentireE2/3Wsordetachablebatterieshomeforchargingduetoanti-theftandconvenience.However,theseconveniencescomeatthecostofsignicantsafetyrisks.Ifareoccurs,itcouldleadtomoreseverecasualtiesandpropertylosses.ToimprovethesafetyofE2/3Wsusage,authoritieshaveintroducedaseriesofregulationspromotingcentralizedparkingandchargingfacilitiesequippedwithsafetyfeatures.Forexample,Beijingresidentialareashadachievedfullcoverageofsuchfacilitiesbytheendof2022.Forhigh-frequencychargingindustrieslikeinstantdeliveryandexpresslogistics,battery-swappingmodelsareencouraged.Bytheendof2022,over280citieshadestablishedbatteryswappingstations(Yuan,2023).75Box5Beijing:sharedbicyclesandE2/3WsenvironmentallyIn2022,Beijingrecorded950millionsharedbicyclerides,representingapproximately42%ofthecity’saddressdevelopingmobilitydemandstotalrailtransitridership.Duringpeakhours,44.7%ofthesharedbicycletripswereconnectedtoorfromurbanrailstations(Kangetal,2023).ItdemonstratesmoreandmorepeoplechoosesharedSharedbicyclesbecomethepopularsolutionfor“lastmile”challengeofurbanbicyclestoconnecttherailtransit“lastmile”.mobilityE2/3Wssatisfythemajorityofdoor-to-doormobilitydemandsfrombothpersonaltravelandlivelihoodpurposesInBeijing,theaveragetraveldistanceincreasedfrom5kminthe1980sto10kmin2021.ThetravelrateofFigure54bicyclesplummetedtoa12%between1984and2014.However,thetrendreversedafter2014,primary2022BeijingCityResidents’TravelPurposesduetotheemergenceofsharedbicycles.Figure53BusinessDailyLife-ShoppingAverageTravelDistanceandTravelRateofBicyclesinBeijingCity0.2%8.6%SchoolDailyLife-Personal(bank/hospital)1.6%4.8%DailyLife-HomeTravelDistance(Km)ProportionofBicycle(%)18.1%DailyLife-Others703.6%12OtherDailyLife-63%10.2%EntertainmentDailyLife-Pick-upandPractice2.4%1060Commute1056.5%3.4%839%7.6505.817%620108.15.2404630DailyLife-Visit0.8%30%BTI(2023)200522016%100200012%•E2Wshaveagreatpotentialtosatisfyoverhalfofpersonaltraveldemand198620140In2022,theaveragecommutedistanceinBeijingwas11.7km,arangethatE2Wscaneasilycover.2021Comparedtopublictransport,E2Wsprovideon-demand,door-to-doortravelwithouttheissueofovercrowdedvehicles,satisfyingtheexibleandtime-savingtravelneedsofcommuters.TheprevalenceofAverageDistanceofBeijingCityMobilityBicycleCommutingProportionE2Wsduringpeakcommutinghoursisthebestevidence.Liu(2016)•E3Wsaddressagingpopulation’straveldemand•Growingurbanrailtravelhasincreasedthedemandforshort-distanceurbanmobilityconnectivityIn2022,aged60andabovemadeup21%ofBeijing’spopulation,manyofwhomengageindailyactivitiesAspublictransportnetworksexpandtoservemid-to-longdistancetravelincities,substantialconnectivityincludingtransportinggrandchildrentoschool,visitinghospitals,orgoingshopping.Thisagedpopulationdemandsaregeneratedaroundtransitstations.Itiscommonlyreferredtoasthe“lastmile”challenge.Inneedsexible,effortless,andpeople-carryingtransportoptions.However,privatecarswerenottheirrst2016,Didi,with80%oftheride-hailingmarketshareinChina,reportedthatover20%oftheordersinchoiceduetocostconsiderationsandtherequirementforadriver’slicense.In2021,only6.5%oftheBeijinghadtriporiginsordestinationswithin500metersofsubwaystations(Sha,2016).Thestatisticpopulationaged60andabovehadamotorvehicledriver’slicensenationwide.Non-compliantE3Ws,means278,000dailyride-hailingtripsconnectingtourbanrail.Thisscenariopresentsaseemingwhichremainunaffectedbymotorcyclerestrictions,emergedasanidealchoicefortheelderlyseekingparadox:Whywouldpeoplechoosemoreexpensiveandpotentiallycongestedtaxiorride-hailingconvenientandlicense-freeurbanmobility.Asthetransitionperiodfornon-compliantE2/3Wscomestoanservicesoverbicyclesforthelastmile?Thereasonliesintheusagecostsofprivatebicycles,includingendby2023,themobilitydemandsoftheagingpopulationonceagainbecomeanissuethatneedstobeanti-theftmeasures,storagefacilities,andmaintenance,makingthemlessfavored.addressed.•Sharingmodehelpscyclistsgetridoftheusagecost•E2/3WsbecametherstchoiceforinstantdeliveryandlogisticexpressSharedmodeseffectivelyseparateownershipfromusage,makingbicyclesconvenientfor“pickupandIn2022,Beijingprocessedapproximatelytwobillionexpressorders.Last-miledeliveryistypicallycarriedgo”.Peoplecanenjoytheexibilityofbicycleswithoutthecostofprivateownership,therebyrenewingoutbycourierswiththeirowntransport.Asatoolforcourierstomanagetheirearnings,thedeliveryvehicletheappealofbicyclesforshort-distancemobility.needstobehighlypracticalandcost-effective.Timelinessanddoor-to-doorserviceareatthecoreoflast-miledelivery’svalue.Moreover,thedeliveryfeeperordertypicallyrangesfrom4to6RMB(Lian,•Dedicatedbicyclelanessafeguardthesafetyofcyclists.2023).ThelowusagecostmakesE2/3Wsthepreferredchoiceforlast-miledelivery.In2022,BeijinghadBeijingremovedselectroadsidevehicleparkingspots,andaddedgroundmarkingstosafeguardthe43,845E3Wsdedicatedtodeliveryservices,andinstantdeliveryserviceswerepredominantlycarriedoutrightsofcyclists.Theseeffortsestablisheda3,200kminterconnectedbicyclenetwork(Sunetal,2020),byE2Ws.signicantlyimprovingcyclistsafetyandoverallconvenienceinurbanareas.7877PARTVKEYELEMENTSFORSUCCESSThereisnosinglesilverbulletforachievementsinChina.Instead,acombinedsystematicapproachisthekey.EVBUS79Vision,mission,andactionsHigh-efficiencyandlow-costmanufacturingalongthesupplychainItisfundamentallyimportanttoguidedevelopmentwithaclearvision,strongmission,andswiftactions.Differentstakeholderscanaligntheiractionstowardasharedgoal.Forexample,therecentnationalpilotsonChinaistheonlycountryintheworldthathasindustrialcapabilitiesacrossallcategorieslistedintheUnitedfullelectricationofpublicvehiclesaimtoachievean80%marketpenetrationrateby2025forNEVbuses,NationsIndustrialClassication.ThishasallowedChinatodevelopthemostcompleteandlargestpowertaxis,sanitationvehicles,postalandurbanlogistics.Inadditiontotheclearpolicysignalsandtargets,China’sbatteryindustryglobally,coveringR&D,production,recycling,andequipmentsupport.Keyrawmaterialsofenormousdomesticmarketof1.4billionpeoplealsoplaysasignicantrolebyattractingindustriestoinvestnegativeelectrode,electrolytesanddiaphragmsarelargelyimportindependent.Thelocalizationrateoflithiumfortechnologyandproductinnovation.Thismarketsizecouldcreateeconomiesofscale,reducingcostsandbatteryequipmentandotherkeyprocessesequipmenthassurpassed90%and80%,respectively.Thisboostingthecompetitivenessofadvancedtechnologyandproducts.completeindustrialchainenablesextremelyefcientmanufacturingatrelativelylowcosts.Butcriticalminerals,especiallycobalt,couldbecomeabottleneckforsustainabledevelopment.Despitethis,theYangtzeRiverProactivegovernmentandconsistentandDeltahassuccessfullyimplementedthecoordinateddevelopmentofindustrialclusters.ANEVmanufacturersustainablepoliciescanacquiretherequiredsupportingpartswithinafour-hourdrive,creatingaunique“four-hourindustrialcircle”thatiscurrentlyunparalleledoutsideofChina.Aproactivegovernmentisvitalfordrivingdevelopmentinthepublicsector.EndorsedbyStateCouncilandsupportedbydifferentministriesandlocalgovernments,ChinatakessteadystepstoexpandthenetworkofOverseeing,evaluating,andimprovingthepolicybusandurbanrailstoattractpassengers,andelectrifytheeetstoreduceemissions.Overthepasttwogoalsdecades,Chinaissuedatleastfourmedium-andlong-termplansanddozensofscalandnon-scalpoliciestoencouragethedevelopmentofcomprehensivetransportnetwork,newenergyvehicleindustryandTostaycurrentwiththechangingtechnology,passengerdemand,andmarketdynamics,Chinaregularlyhydrogenenergy.Thesepoliciesintegratetheinfrastructure,vehicle,batteryandalternativefuelsasonereviews,assesses,andupdatesitsdevelopmentgoalsandrelatedpolicies.Forexample,the2021Actionsystemforachievingzeroemissionpassengertransport.ByAugust2023,atleast23provinciallevelPlanforCarbonDioxidePeakingBefore2030setagoalforaround40%ofvehiclestobepoweredbynewgovernmentshaveissuedincentivepoliciestopromoteNEVbusdevelopment.andcleanenergyby2030.Twoyearslater,withNEVdevelopmentexceedingforecasts,thegovernmentadoptedanewpolicyin2023topilotfullelectricationofpublicvehicles.Itrequires80%ofnewlypurchasedConsensusandalignmentacrossstakeholdersandreplacedbuses,rentalcars,sanitationtrucks,postalofcetrucks,andurbanlogisticstruckstobeNEVsinthepilotareas.ThisadaptiveapproachtopolicydevelopmentreleasesthepotentialforazeroemissionTheshifttozeroemissionpassengertransportinvolvesmanystakeholders,includinggovernmenttransformation.departmentslikeMOT,MOHURD,NDRC,MIIT,MEE,MPS,MOF,SAMR,urbanplanners,investors,busandurbanrailoperators,vehiclemanufacturers,consumers,drivers,andchargingserviceproviders.Thislistcan81extendfurtherwhenconsideringlocaldifferencesacrossChina.Thesestakeholdersmayhavedifferentperspectivesonthechanges.Forexample,urbanrailsarethrivinginmajorcities,whilebuscompaniesfacetoughchallenges.InthecaseofE2/3Ws,themarketisgrowingwithconcretedemand,butitalsoposesseriouschallengestoroadsafety.Therefore,itiscrucialtoestablishtheconsensus,formcollaborativeefforts,alignwithpotentialpartnerstosolvethechallenges.80PARTVWHAT’SMOREFORLOOKINGAHEAD?China’surbanmobilitybeyondcarshasnotachievedzeroemissionsyet.Moreattentionandimprovementsarestillneeded.82StrengthenoverarchingplanningTheinherentawsintheanti-tamperingdesignhavetriggeredchaosintheaftermarketofE2/3Ws.Inordertosatisfyconsumerdemandsforenhancedspeed,range,andcomfort,variousunqualiedcomponentsoodedUrbanplanningandtransportplanninghavemutualimpactsoneachother.Strengtheningtheirintegratedthemarket,suchasillegallymodiedbatteries,canopies,etc.Peoplecaneasilyobtaintheseunqualiedplanningisthekeytocreatingpositivesynergies.Duringtheurbanplanningstage,mixed-purposeandcomponentsonlineorofineataverylowcost.TakingE2/3Wbatteriesasanexample,somesmallmultifunctionaluseofurbanlandsshouldbeappliedtopromotejob-housingbalance.Thecoordinatedbusinessesandhomeworkshopsproduce“newbatteries”byillegallyassemblingusedbatteries.Althoughdistributionofurbantransitnetworksandlandfunctionsiscrucialtoimprovecommutingefciency,easethesebatteriesareatlow-cost,theyposesignicantsafetyrisks,suchasspontaneouscombustion.However,congestionandreduceairpollution.Moreover,connectingandcoordinatingtransportmodesplanningwillsomecost-consciousconsumersaccepttherisktosavemoney,consideringtheeagerforrangeandmaximizebenetsduringpublictransitoperations.TheseplanningprincipleswerepoorlypracticedinChinachargingefciency.Beyondaccessibleunqualiedcomponents,thereisalsowidespreadavailabilityofillegalforyearsandrequireseriousattentioninthefuture.modicationservices.ThestructureofE2/3WsissimplerthanthatofICE2/3Ws,withalowthresholdformodicationtechnology.Consumerscanevenndstep-by-stepmodicationtutorialsonline.ImprovethefinancialsustainabilityofpublictransportThemanagementofE2/3Ws'usagebehavioralsofacessignicantchallenges.FlexibilityandconveniencearekeyreasonsforthepopularityofE2/3Ws,astheycannavigatestreetsandalleysfreelyandparkandchargeAfterthreeyearsoftheepidemic,peoplebegantoprefernon-publictransportlikeprivatecarsandactiveanywhere.However,theseadvantagesenableintrusionsintolanesandsidewalks,violatingparkingandmobility.Thesharpdropinridershipandrevenuemadeoperationsdifcult.Foryears,mostbusoperationschargingregulations.Takechargingbehaviorasanexample.Althoughlocalgovernmentshaveexplicitlyhavetorelyongovernmentsubsidies.LocalgovernmentssubsidiesforpublictransportaveragetensofprohibitedindoorchargingforE2/3Wsandhavesupplementeditwithcommunitymanagementagencyandmillionsannuallypercity,andbillionsinmegacities.However,economicdownturnsamplifythepressureonpropertymanagementcompanies,andpromotecentralizedpubliccharginginfrastructurestoaddresslocalnances.Moreover,theNEVbusoperationsubsidyphasedoutin2020.chargingdemands,indoorchargingpersists.Themainreasonisthattheviolationscanhappenanytime,anywhere,makingenforcementdifcult.Atthesametime,centralizedpubliccharginginfrastructuresarestillinToaddressthischallenge,publictransitsubsidiesshouldbeusedmorewiselyandpoliciesshouldberenedtheearlystagesofpromotionwithoutlargecoverage.toimprovethenancialsustainability.Forexample,differentialfarescouldbeappliedtovarioussocialgroup—maintainingdiscountsforvulnerablegroupsbutreasonablyraisingfaresforothers.TheexpensesofCorrespondingtotheseE2/3Wsissuesismanagementdilemma,whicharisesfromthreecrucialtransitbusorurbanrailoperationsshouldbeanalyzedandreasonablysplitbetweenpartsdeservingcontradictionssubsidiesandpartscoverablethroughimprovedmarketoperations.ThecontradictionbetweentherapidgrowthoftheaftermarketdemandforE2/3WsandtheoutdatedMoreover,theriseofprivatecompaniesprovidingpublictransportservicewithfewsubsidiesrequirestheproductstandardsandregulatorysystems.Regulatorslackthebasisandmeasuresforeffectivegovernmenttoreconsideritsroleofsubsidizedtransitinthefaceofcompetitionfromprivateentitiesandsupervision,allowingillegalmodicationsgrowuncontrollablywithinregulatoryblindspots.mobilityservices.ThecontradictionbetweenthewidespreadE2/3WsdemandforroadaccessandlimitedroadAvoid“onesizefitsall”policyforE2/3Wsresources.Chinacurrentlyhas330millioncars,whilethereare500millionE2/3Ws.ThoughE2/3Wshavemanagementcompactsize,theirdemandforroadresourcescannotbeignored.ThepredominantroaddesigninChinacentersaroundvehicles,leadingtofrequentviolationsbyE2/3WsenteringmotorlanesorsidewalksduetoWhilenewnationalstandardsandlocalregulationsforE2/3Wsareinplace,thismarksonlytherstlimitedroadresources.stepinthemanagementofE2/3Ws.NumerousissuesinthefulllifecyclemanagementofE2/3WsareurgentlyneededtobeaddressedThecontradictionbetweenthemassiveregulatorysubjectsandthelimitedoversightcapacity.With500millionE2/3WsinChina—anumberstillrising—theirusagescenariosarepervasiveinvariousaspectsofThenewnationalstandardshaveexplicitlyincludedE2/3WsinthescopeoftheProductQualityLawofChina,life.Theexistingregulatoryheavilyreliesonon-sitesupervisionbylawenforcementofcers,whichevidentlyoutliningmanufacturerandsellerresponsibilitiesforproductqualitybyclearlydeningproductcategories.cannotbeadequate.Throughenhancingtechnicalspecicationsandsafetyrequirements,thenewnationalstandardsaimtoensurethequalityofE2/3Wsenteringinthemarket.However,itcanonlyguaranteecomplianceatthetimeofPrecisemanagementcanbothaddressmobilitydemandandpromotesustainabledevelopmentproductionandsale.Theanti-tamperingdesignofE2/3Wscanbeeasilycircumvented,providingafoundationforillegalmodications.PresiseregulationsandmeasurescanaddressexistingmanagementchallengesofE2/3Ws,enablingthemtoplaytheirrightfulroleinthetransitiontozeroemissiontransport.83AdoptdifferentiatedmanagementfortheaftermarketandusagephasesofE2/3Ws.E2/3Wsarepopularprimarilybecausetheysatisfyvariousmobilitydemands,resultingindiverseusagecharacteristics.Forexample,E2/3Wsusedforlogisticsexpressmayseekmodicationstoincreasecargospace.Suchmodicationcanbeallowedonthebasisofsafety,butthecorrespondingrequirementsshouldbeimposedondriverqualicationsandvehicleinsurance.OptimizethescaleofE2/3Wseetsthroughthesharingmode.Introducesharede-bicyclesinareaswithlimitedroadresourcesandhighE2/3Wsfrequency,suchasmaincityarteries,leveragingtheadvantagesofthesharingmodetoreducethepresenceofE2Wsandeasecongestion.84MilestonesofChina'sUrbanMobilityDevelopmentbeyondCars(2007-2022)UrbanRailBusActiveMobility(Walking,Bikes,E2/3Ws&E-bikes)TargetFactApplydigitaltechnologyforthe"unmannedsupervision"ofsharedbicyclesandsharede-bicycles.SystemandTargetat1,000km&OverdeliveredtheTargetatNo.ofcitieswithOverdeliveredNo.ofcitiesRaisedtargetUrbanrailNo.ofcitiesOverdeliveredNo.ofcitiesTargetat10,000kmImplementelectronicfencingtechnologytodenepermissibleparkingareasandrestrictedareas.ItisnotonlyInfrastructure2,500kmurbanrailurbanrailsystemswithurbanlengthwithurbanrailwithurbanrailabletoeffectivelyregulateparkingbehaviorbutalsosignicantlyreducetheneedforon-sitesupervision.1,000km3,000kminservicethe3,000kmrailsystemsfrom2,500kmexceededsystemsinthe6,000kmsystemsinurbanrailnetworkby2025networkby2010&2020ininserviceserviceserviceinthe14thFYPSeizetheopportunityoffuturetechnologytotheMedium-andLong-Termnetworktargetseturbanrailexceeded20networktargetexceededurbanrailnetwork5,000kmnetworktargetprovidemoreinclusive,safeandenvironmentalDevelopmentPlanofthenetworkbyinthe12thFYP(setin2007)toexceeded40inthe13thFYPexceeded50Realizedthe10,000kmtransportservicesComprehensiveTransportin2007by47%2015inthe30Network(2006-2020)12thFYPby10%6,000kmbyby10%Busroute2025targetsetinthe14thWiththerapiddevelopmentofinformationtechnology,thefutureoftransportisalreadyenteringintopeople’sBusroutemileageFYPaheadofscheduledailylife.In2022,penetrationrateofnewpassengervehicleequippedwithadvanceddriverassistancemileagetoppedSubwaylength2020inthe13thNo.ofurbanrailfunctionshasreached34.5%inChina.exceededFYPsystemsintopped1.5Targetat72%NEVsin500,000kmservicemillionkmFuturetechnologywillrevolutionizethecurrenttransportsupplyanddemand.Forexample,sharedDedicatedBus2,700km,Targetat35%BRTrouteBEVbusesbuseetsby2025intheautonomoustaxiscanprovidemorepreciseandconvenienttransportservices,allowingvulnerablegroupstoLane(DBL)mileagemileagehitstockexceeded200BRTroute14thFYPenjoymorecomfortable,personalized,anddoor-to-doortravel;autonomousdeliveriescanoffermoreefcientovertooktheNEVsinbusreachedmileagehitandcost-effectivefreightservicestoaddressthe“lastmile”delimma.hit5,000kmU.S.tobeeetsby2020in5,000kmNearlydoubleNEVshareinbuseetsthe13thFYP300,000deliveredthe7,500kmItisagreatopportunitytoreshapeurbanmobilitytobemoreinclusive,safe,andenvironmental.However,WorldNo.1NEVproportionreached77%,achievedthenewtechnologynotonlybringsopportunitiesbutalsochallenges.TheintroductionofnewtransportservicesBusrouteintotaltransitElectricbicycle35%NEVbusBEVandNEVrequiresanewmanagementsystemandacleardivisionofresponsibilities,suchasdeterminingthemileagetoppedbusestoppedproductswerebusesstock2025targetofthe14thFYPresponsibilitiesforautonomousvehicles’sbehavior.Furthermore,pursuingimprovementsinautomationincludedinthesharetargetinreachedaheadofscheduleperformancewithoutcoordinationwithenvironmentalprotectioneffortswillresultinacontinuousincreasein1millionkm50%Chinathe13thFYPenergyconsumption.Compulsory(acturalshare400,000DBLmileagehitDBLmileagehitCerticationFacedwiththeirreversiblefuturetrendsintransportdevelopment,thegovernmentneedstoproactivelymanagement66%)and18,000kmaddresschallengesbyguidingthedevelopmentofnewtransportsupplytomeetthedemandsofurban10,000kmmobility,seizingtheopportunitytocreateamoreinclusive,safe,andenvironmentallyfriendlyurbanmobilityBEVshareover500,000TotalE2/3Wsincirculationsystem.BEVproportionintotaltransitbuses50%intotalexceeded400millionACCESSFORALL:improvebarrier-freemobilityhit25%transitbusNo.ofsharedbikesinserviceeetsChinahasmadegreatimprovementssince1980s,butthebarrier-freedoor-to-doortripremainchallengingreached15millionduetoinsufcientfacilities,poordesign,damages,blockagesandsoon.Effortsareneededtoimprovethefacilities,butmoreimportantly,increasingtheemploymentofpeoplewithdisabilitieswilldirectlyenhanceMarketpenetraionofsupply,testing,design,andusageoffacilities.E2Wsreached81%ofBarrier-freemobilityenablesequitableaccesstoopportunities.Incomesofpersonswithdisabilitiesremainlow,about30%ofthenationalaverage.Improvedaccessibilityisestimatedtobenetatleast500millionallmotorized2Wspeopleyearly,almost35%ofnationalpopulationinChina.Moreover,growingdemandforaccessibilitymaypushpublictransportimprovements.MostcitiesaredesignedforpeoplewithoutdisabilitiesandprioritizeEVBUSvehiclesovertheneedsofpedestrians,cyclists,ortransitusers.Thereisagreaterneedtobuildmoreinclusive,walkable,cyclableneighborhoodsaroundaccessibletransithubs.200720082009201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021202285RidershipYearlypassengerShareofpassengerYearlyturnoverPassengerTurnoverShareofShareofpassengervolumeexceededvolumeintotalpublicexceededvolumeexceededpassengervolumeintotalpublicvolumeintotal10billiontransitexceeded10%150billionexceeded20200billionpublictransittransitexceeded25%passengerkmbilliontripspassengerexceededkm20%TransitbuspassengerTransitbuspassengerFirstTransitbus94%customizedpassengervolumehit50billiontripsvolumehit70billiontripsbusroutevolumeprovinces&startedpeakedatmunicipalitiesoperationinoperatedBeijing78.2billioncustomizedtripsbusservicesRegisteredshared-bikeuserstopped400million,anddailyridershipreached45milliontrips86MajorPoliciesofChina'sUrbanMobilityBeyondCars(2003-2023)BusUrbanRailActiveMobilityUrbanMobilityOverallTransportStrategyMedium-andLong-termMedium-andLong-TermOutlineforBuildingNationalNationalComprehensiveMedium-andLong-TermDevelopmentPlanoftheDevelopmentPlanfortheStrengthinTransportationThree-dimensionalTransportationDevelopmentPlanforHydrogenComprehensiveTransportNetworkAutomotiveIndustry(2017-2026)(2019-2050)NetworkPlanningOutlineIndustry(2021-2035)(2006-2020)(2021-2035)AimingtodevelopChinaasoneoftheworld'sAimingforaworld-classtransportsysteminAimingtopromotehighqualitydevelopmentofAimingtobuildamodernizedcomprehensivetopautoproducersintenyears.Chinaandempahsizingongreengrowth.Aimingtobuildamodernizedhighqualityhydrogenforaclean,lowcarbon,safe,andtransportnetworkwithreasonablelayoutandnationaltransportnetworktosupporteconomyefcientenergysystem.optimalmodesstructuretoenableconvenient,Targetsby2020and2025:Targetsby2035and2050:development.smooth,safe,andreliabletransportby2020.-SeveralChineseNEVbrandsenterworld's-By2035,astrongtransportationnetworkisTargetsby2025:Top10inproductionandsalesby2025;basicallybuilt,withenvironmentalfactorsTargetsby2035:-AnnualCO2emissionreductionreaches1-2Targetsby2010and2020:-AnnualproductionandsalesofNEVreach2integratedintotransportinfrastructureplanning,-Greenizethelifecycleoftransportinfrastructuremilliontons;-1,000km&2,500kmurbanrailby2010&millionby2020;construction,operation,andmaintenance;construction;-Annualproductioncapacityofgreen2020;-PenetrationofNEVsalesexceeds20%bytransportenergystructuregreenizedbyfully-Continuouslydecreasetransportenergyhydrogenreaches100,000–200,000tons;-42nationalcomprehensivehubsby2020.2025.electrifyingorusingcleanandnewenergyfuelsintensitytorealizesignicantreductionsin-StockofFCVsreaches50,000associatedintheurbantransitandlogisticdeliveryvehicles;carbonemissioncomparedto2020levels;withasuitablenumberofhydrogensupply2017andpublicawarenessoflow-carbontravels-Strengthenpollutionsourcecontrolbasedonstations;increasedbyimplementinggreentraveltechnologyprogress;13thFive-YearPlanforNationalinitiatives;-TransformtransportenergytowardshighMedium-andLong-termTargets：ModernComprehensive-By2050,strongtransportationnetworkisfullyefciencyandlowcarbon/pollutionsolutions;-EncourageacomplementarydevelopmentTransportationSystembuiltwithworld-classenvironmental-ImprovethetransportinfrastructuresandmodelforBEVsandFCVs.(2016-2020)performances.servicesfordiversiedandpersonalizedtraveldemands.Aimingtobasicallybuildasafe,convenient,2019200720122013efcient,andgreencomprehensivetransport20182020202120222023system,andsomeareasleadinrealizingTransportSector11thFive-YearPlanforNational12thFive-YearPlanforNationaltransportmodernization.14thFive-YearPlanforGreen14thFive-YearPlanforNationalFive-YearPlansComprehensiveTransportationComprehensiveTransportationTransportation(2021-2025)ModernComprehensiveSystem(2006-2010)System(2011-2015)Targetsby2020:TransportationSystem-TransportcarbonintensitytobereducedbyAimingtoinitiallyformagreenanddecarbonized(2021-2025)AimingtoinitiallyformulateacomprehensiveAimingtoinitiallyforma"veverticalandve7%;developmentpatternforthetransportsector,transportsystemwithimprovedlayout,horizontal"comprehensivetransportnetwork,-Urbanrailnetworkof6,000km;frominfrastructure,equipmenttooperations,toAimingtorealizetheintegrateddevelopmentofstructure,capabilities,andqualitytoalleviatewithfocusesonhighwayandhighspeedrail-35%NEVsintransitbuseet;supportthenationaltransportdevelopmenttransportsystem,makebreakthroughingreentransportstressandsupportnetworks.-AnetworkofDedicatedBusLanescoversallstrategiesfromenvironmentalperspectives.andintelligentgrowth,andprogressinoverallsocioeconomicdevelopment.thecitieswithapopuluationover3million.transportcapacity,includingservicequality,Targetsby2015:Targetsby2025：efciencyandeconomicperformance.Targetsby2010:-Urbanrailnetworkof3,000km;-Carbonintensityofroadvehiclesandshipsto-Energyintensityofrailandroadtransporttobe-42nationaltransporthubs;bereducedby5%and3.5%;Targetsby2025:reducedby20%；-Airandnoisepollutionandcarbonemissionof-NEVshareintransitbuses,taxis&ride-hailing-Urbanrailnetworkreaches10,000km;-Subwayandlightrailnetworksjointlyreachtranpsortcontinuouslyreduced.carsandurbandeliveryvehiclestobeincreased-72%NEVsintransitbuseet.1,000km；to72%,35%,and20%;-Buildkeytransportsectionsin"vevertical-60pilotcitiesinprogresstoenable70%urbanandvehorizontalcomprehensive"networks.travelscarriedbygreenmobility(publictransit,walkingandbicycles).ActionPlansAirPollutionPreventionandThree-yearActionPlanforGreenTravelActionPlanActionPlanforGreenTravelActionPlanforCarbonDioxideImplementationPlanforFive-YearActionPlanforControlActionPlan(2013-2017)FightingtoWintheBattleAgainst(2019-2022)Creation(2020-2022)PeakingBefore2030SynergizingReductionsofBuildingChina’sNationalAirPollution(2018-2020)CriteriaPollutantsandStrengthinTransportationAimingtoimprovethenationalairqualityandAimingtopromotegreentravelandreinforceAimingtoreinforceimplementationoftheAimingtopeakcarbonemissionsby2030CarbonEmissions(2022-2030)(2023-2027)signicantlyreducingdaysofsevereairAimingtolargelyreducemajorairpollutants"prioritizingdevelopmentofpublicGreenTravelActionPlan.throughoptimizingenergyandindustrialpollutionwithinveyears;graduallyeliminatesuchasPM2.5togetherwithGHGstransportation"bycreatingenablingstructure;withcarbonintensityperunitofAimingtodevelopeffectivepatternsandAimingtomakesolidprogressduringthedaysofsevereairpollutionwithintenyears.emissions,andimproveambientairqualityasenvironmentforgreenmobilities.Targetsby2022:GDPreducedby65%+than2005,andexperiencesinsynergizingreductionofairinitialphasetoimplementthe“OutlineforIdentiedNEVsasoneofthekeymeasureswellasnumberofdayswithblueskywithin-Guidedthepublictoprioritizegreennon-fossilenergyshareincreasedto25%.pollutionandcarbonemissionsby2025,BuildingNationalStrengthinTransportation”.tobuildonthegoals.threeyears.Targetsby2022:mobilitiesandreducecaruse;andsubstantiallyimprovethesynergized-Improvepublictransportservicequality;-70%oftravelbygreenmobilityin60%oftheTargetsby2030:managementcapacityby2030.Targetsby2027:Targetsby2017:Targetsby2020:-Optimizeactivemobilitysystems;pilotcities;-NEVandcleanenergyvehiclepenetration-Over75%trasitbusesandover35%taxis-Requirepublicandsanitationsectorsaswell-Over80%ofnewlypurchasedand-Implementdifferentiatedmanagementof-Over80%satisfactionforgreenmobilityreaches40%;Targetsby2030:areNEVs;asgovernmentdepartmentstotakeleadinreplacedbuses,sanitarytrucks,taxis,etc.totraveldemands;services.-Greenmobilitycarries70%+urbantravelsin-AcceleratedeploymentofNEVsinpublic-PromotetheuseofNEVheavy-dutyusingNEVs,andincentivizeNEVconsumptionbeNEVsinkeyairpollutionareas;-Fostergreentravelcultures.citieswithapopulationover1million;sectorssuchastransitbuses;trucks;byindividualswithsubsidiesandissuanceof-100%NEVbusesinmunicipalitiesand-Oilconsumptionofroadtransportpeaks-NEVpenetrationinkeyairpollutionareas-Establishalong-termmechanismforthelicenseplates;provincialcapitalsinkeyairpollutionareas.before2030;reaches50%+;NationalTransitMetropolisDemonstrations-Atleast60%newlypurchasedandreplaced-Reducecarbonintensityofrevenuetransport-Promotemodalshiftsofroad-to-railandtocontinuouslypromotegreenurbanbusesinBeijing,Shanghai,andGuangzhoutoby9.5%andenergyintensityofrailtransportroad-to-waterforenvironmentalbenets.mobility,anddevelopatleast60pilotcitiesbeNEVorcleanfuelvehicles.by10%comparedtolevelsin2020.withapopulationover1millionandgreenmobilityshareover70%;-Institutionalizethetransportcarbonpeakingandneutralitymanagementsystem.87MajorPoliciesofChina'sUrbanMobilityBeyondCars(2003-2023)BusUrbanRailActiveMobilityUrbanMobilityOverallTransportSectorGeneralOfceofStateMOHURDOpinionsonMOHURD,NDRC,MOF&StateCouncilGuidanceonMOTOpinionstoImplementNDRCGuidanceonNDRCNoticeonMOHURDGuidelinesforMOTImplementationMOT,PublicityDepartmentofStateCouncilOpinionsonWorkSafetyCommitteeofStateCouncilInstructiononNDRC,NEA,MIIT,MOF,MNR,MOT"ManagementREFERENCESDevelopmentCouncilNoticeonPrioritizingtheDevelopmentMOHRSSJointRelease:PrioritizingtheDevelopmentthe"StateCouncilGuidancePromotingDevelopmentofStrengtheningPlanning,PlanningandDesignofAreasOpinionsonAcceleratingCPC,OfceofCentralFurtherStrengtheningStateCouncil:NoticeonKeyAssignmentsandMOHURD,MOT,MARA,MEMMeasuresforConstructionStrengtheningConstructionofUrbanPublicOpinionsonEconomicofUrbanPubliconPrioritizingthetheIntegratedTransportationConstruction,andAlongUrbanRailLinesDeploymentofNEVsintheCyberspaceAffairsPlanningandConstructionInitiatingManagementfortheResponsibitiesfor&SAMRJointlyRelease:oftheNationalTransitAlfonsoR.,Ó.A.(2016).Densidadesdivergentesysegregaciónsocio-espacialenlaBogotádehoy:unanálisisapartirdeuníndicedecalidaddelaMeasuresManagementofUrbanRailTransportationPoliciesforPrioritizingtheTransportationDevelopmentofUrbanPublicHubsManagementofUrbanRailTransportSectorCommission&NDRCJointlyManagementofUrbanRailFireSafetyofElectricBicyclesStrengtheningtheLifecycleImplementationOpinionsonMetropolisDemonstrations"densidad[Divergentdensitiesandsocio-spatialsegregationintoday'sBogotá:ananalysisbasedonadensityqualityindex].UniversitatPolitècnicadeSystemsDevelopmentofUrbanPublicTransportation"SystemsAimingtooptimizeurbanrailRelease:GuidingOpinionsonSystemsSafetySupervisionofFurtherImprovingtheCatalunya.https://upcommons.upc.edu/handle/2117/100521AimingtopromotecoordinatedTransportationAimingtodeveloppublicAimingtopromoteintegrateddevelopmentpatternsandAimingtopromotegreenEncouragingandRegulatingAimingtoimproveelectricbicycleElectricBicyclesServiceCapacityofEVAimingtoimprovethequalityAimingtoputurbanrailonandevelopmentofurbantransporttransportationasastrategicAimingtopromoteprogressindevelopmentofmultipletransprtAimingtorationalizeurbanrailimprovethecomprehensivegrowthoftransportationtheDevelopmentofAimingtoreducenancialrisksproductqualityandreducereChargingInfrastructureandscaleofthedemonstrationAmericanPublicTransportationAssociation.(2020).PublicTransporationRidershipReportFourthQuarter2019.https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/orderlyandrationalwithurbansocioeconomicAimingtoestablisheconomicsolutiontoaddressurbanpublictransportationplanningmodesandconstructionofdevelopmentandbalanceitbenetsforurbandevelopment.throughencouragingmassiveInternet-basedRentalBicyclesfromurbanraildevelopmentincidentsresultingincasualties.Aimingtoimprovesafetythroughstandardized2019-Q4-Ridership-APTA.pdfdevelopmenttrack.growth.mechanismstoprioritizepublicdevelopmentissuesincludingandregulation,infrastructureintegratedtransportationhubswiththelocaltransportdemanddeploymentofNEVsin(SharedBicycles)andavoidimproperplanningmanagementandqualitycontrolAimingtoremovethemanagement.transportationdevelopment.trafccongestion,airpollution,development,transitservicebyestablishingplanningandandnancialcapacity.Measures:transportservicesectors.beyondlocaltransportdemandMeasures:ofe-bikesthroughoutbottleneckofpowerchargingAmericanPublicTransportationAssociation.(2023).Factbookdatainexcel:AppendixA,2022publictransportationfactbook[Dataset].Measures:Targetsandmeasures:publicservices,andresourcequality,security,systemdesignprinciples,keytasksand-StrengthenintegrationofAimingtoelevatesharedbicycleandnancialcapacity.-Enhancetechnicalstandardsproduction,sales,usage,infrustructureforEVMeasures:https://www.apta.com/research-technical-resources/transit-statistics/public-transportation-fact-book-Requireurbanrailplanningto-Transitbusspeedreaches20Measures:conservation.intelligence,andoperatorsafeguardmeasures.Measures:urbanrailplanningwithoverallTargetsby2020:servicesandbettersatisfyandphaseoutnon-compliantdisassembly,andbatterydevelopment.-Provideclearregulationsandalignwithlocaleconomickm/handpunctuality90%;-Increaseinvestmentinurbaneconomicviability.-Encourageeconomicurbanurbandevelopmentplans;-300,000NEVstobedeployedpublictraveldemand.Measures:electricbicyclesinasteadyandrecyclingprocesses.guidanceforthecitiesonBeijingMunicipalCommissionofTransport.(2023).��年，北京交通致力让市民出行更美好[Beijingendeavorstoprovidebettertransitserviceforcitizensin2023].development;-Busstopscover50%urbanpublictransit;Targetsandmeasures:Targets:railoptionssuchaslightrailand-Coordinatemulti-functionalintransitbuses,taxis,and-Improveplanningandorderlymanner;Targetsby2025:projectdeclaration,http://ie.bjd.com.cn/bjrbbeijinghao/contentShare/5de090f5e4b03e4c1d7bd837/AP64409763e4b0017157a4ec3f.html-Encouragecommercializedbuilt-upareasand70%-Establishmechanismsto-EnsurepublictransportationTargets:-Enableefcientpassengertramsinsteadofsubwaybylandusealongraillinesfordailyurbanlogisticsdelivery,with2/3Measures:implementationmanagement,-Regulateparkingandcharging,Measures:-100%parkingspotsofnewimplementation,completionoperationstoimprovedowntownareaswithina300msupportthepreferentialfareanddominatesurbanmobility-Increasepublictransportationtransferandcargoreloadsettingentryleveldailylifeconvenience;ofthemconsumedbytransit-Implementpoliciestostrengtheninvestmentriskencouragetheconstructionof-Layoutkeytasksandclarifyresidentialbuildingsareacceptance,namingBeijingMunicipalScienceandTechnologyCommission.(2015,August12).北京市纯电动客车相关政策解读会在我委召开[UnderstandingBeijing’snancialeconomicviability;networkradius;subsidizepublictransitdevelopment;accountfor60%+ofurbanbetweenregions,cities,urbanpassengervolumeasatleast-Seamlesslyconnecturbanbuseetsand1/3bytherest,encourageorderlydeploymentcontrolandenhancemonitoringcentralizedparkingandsaferesponsibilitiesofeachrelatedcharger-ready;conventions,anddynamicincentivesforBEVbuspurchases].http://kw.beijing.gov.cn/art/2015/8/12/art_6382_43296.html-Setentrycriteriaforsubway-Publictransitcarries30%ofoperations;-Publictransportationfullymobilityby2020;andruralareas,andinsidecities7,000tripsperkmforsubwayrailswithabove-groundtransit,asoriginallyplannedin2015;andfacilitiesconstruction;andsupervisionofurbanrailchargingfacilities;governmentdepartment:-Chargingnetworkiscapableevaluation.applicationas100billionRMBurbantravels;-Protectthelegitimaterightscoversdowntownareasoflarge-Coverdowntownwithinabyusingthehubsthatwelland4,000forlightrail;pedestrianblocks,and-Adjustedtheabovetargetto-Regulateoperationalservicesprojects;-Prohibitillegalproduction,sales,ofserving20millionEVs;BeijingTransportInstitute.(2021).提高公交专用道利用率研究[Researchonimprovingtheutilizationofdedicatedbuslanes].($15billion)localGDPand3-Adoptspecicmeasuressuchandinterestsofpublictransitcitieswithina500mnetwork500mnetworkradiuswithinterconnectmultipletransport-Providedetailedrulesonneighborhoodstobuildmore600,000NEVsin2018;toimproveparking-Connectandcoordinateurbanandmodication.MIIT,SAMRandMPS-CoverageoffastchargingMPSMeasurestoOptimizemillionpopulation.asDedicatedBusLanestoemployeestokeepastableradius;publictransportationincitiesmodes;projectplanning,applications,compacturbanareas.-Atleast30%and35%ofmanagementandenforcementrailplanningwithtransportresponsibleforsourcecontrolofstationsathighwayserviceDedicatedBusLanesBeijingTransportInstitute.(2022a).北京交通领域碳中和目标、路径及策略研究报告[ResearchoncarbonneutralitypathwaysandstrategiesinBeijing’stransportationsecuretheprioritydevelopmentworkforce.-Rationallydevelopurbanrailinwithapopulationover3million-Followthe"zerodistancepermitting,andprocesses;newlypurchasedandreplacedoversight;systemandurbandevelopmente-bikeproductsqualityandareasisnolessthan80%inkeyManagementsector].ofpublictransportation.megaandlargecities.and1millionby2015andinterchange"standardto-InvolveprovincialDevelopmenttransitbuses,taxis,andurban-Strengthennancialandplanning;safetyduringproduction;airpollutionareasandnational2020,respectively;connecturbanrail,buses,andReformCommissionslogisticsdeliveryvehiclestobecybersecuritymeasuresto-Encouragemulti-functional,SAMR,MIIT&MPSJointlyMeasures:ecologicalcivilizationAimingtoincreaseroadtrafcBeijingTransportInstitute.(2022b).��-��年北京市交通发展年报[BeijingTransportDevelopmentAnnualReports2012–21].-Reach12and16publiccommuterrail,taxiesand(DRCs)ininitialreviewofprojectNEVsrespectivelyinthesafeguardusers'fundsandthree-dimensional,mixed-useofRelease:Opinionson-DevelopamanagementsystemSAMRandMPSresponsibledemonstrations,andnolessefciencywhilesecuretransportvehiclesper10,000privatevehicleswiththemainapplications.NationalTransitMetropolispilotonlineinformation;lands;StrengtheningSupervisionofforelectricbicyclestoregulatetheirforcompliancecheckandthan60%inotherareas.right-of-wayfortransitbuses.BeijingTransportInstitute.(2023).��年北京市交通发展年度报告[BeijingTransportDevelopmentAnnualReport2023].inhabitantsby2015and2020linerailwayandhighway,citiesandBeijing-Tianjin-Hebei-Specifyregulatory-RaisesubwayprojecttheImplementationofregistrationbeforeusage;enforcementofe-bikeproductsincitieswithapopulationover1intercityrailway,andairports.regionalcities.responsibilitiesandestablishaapplicationentrycriteriatoGDPNationalStandardsfor-Implementatransitionalperiodduringsales;Measures:BeijingTsinghuaTonghengPlanningandDesignInstitute.&Mobike.(2017).��年共享单车与城市发展白皮书[China’ssharedbicyclesandurbandevelopment]million;faircompetitivemarketorderfor300billionRMBand3millionElectricBicyclesandissuetemporarylicenseplates-Openbuslaneusetoshuttle[Whitepaper].http://www.199it.com/archives/581592.html-Over50%and70%busesaconducivedevelopmentpopulation,andlightrailcriteriafornon-compliantelectricbicyclesMPS,MIIT,SAMR,MOHURD,andschoolbuses;parkedatdeportorterminalenvironment.toGDP150billionRMBand1.5Aimingtopreventthemarkettoguidetheirgradualphase-out;NEA,CFR,andtheirprovincial-AdjusttimeslotsforbuslanesCAPOL.(2019).以交通为设计导向，建造地铁上方的城市生活[Buildurbanlivingabovesubwayswithtransit-orienteddesign].https://www.capol.cn/newsdetail.stationsby2015and2020inmillionpopulation.entryofnon-compliantelectric-Establishcross-departmentalandlocalafliatesresponsibleexclusiveuse;aspx?id=100000115665958citieswithapopulationover1bicyclesandaddressillegalcollaborationtoconductregularfore-bikeregistrationandsafety-Allowothertypesofvehiclesmillion.modicationactivities.oversightfortheimplementationofmanagementoftheriding,tousethelanesduringCentralCommitteeoftheCPC,&StateCouncilofChina.(2019).交通强国建设纲要[OutlineforbuildingChina’sstrengthintransportation].newnationalstandards.parkingandcharging;non-exclusivehours.https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2019-09/19/content_5431432.htmNDRC,MIIT,MEE,andSAMRCentralCommitteeoftheCPC,&StateCouncilofChina.(2021).国家综合立体交通网规划纲要[Outlinedevelopmentplanfornationalcomprehensiveresponsibleforbatteryrecycling.three-dimensionaltransportnetwork].https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2021/content_5593440.htm200320042005200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020202120222023CGMODEL.COM.(2023).上海虹桥综合交通枢纽鸟瞰[OverviewofShanghaiHongqiaoMultimodalComprehensiveTransportHub][Photograph].https://www.cgmodel.com/model/597657.htmlChen,Q.(2022,October8).中国现在有多少大城市？第七次人口普查分县数据报告（一）[HowmanymajorTaxExemptionsVehicle&VesselRegistrationTaxExemptionsforNEVs(busesincludedasamajorbeneciary)Upgratedtechcriteriaofeligiblevehicles:electricrangeofBEVandFCVbusesexceed150Tightenedtechcriteriaasdenedbythe"NEVProductsTechnicalSpecications":e-rangeofTightenedfuelconsumptioncriteriaforPHEVbuses:savecitiesarethereinChinanow?Reportonseventhnationalpopulationcensusbycounty(Part1)].Caixin.https://opinion.caixin.com/2022-10-08/101948861.htmlkmandPHEVexceed50km;PHEVbusesconsumelessthan60%fuel(electricitynotBEV,FCVandPHEVbusesexceed200km,300kmand50km;PHEVbusessave40%+40%+fuel(electricitynotcounted)accordingtonewlyGrant50%taxreductionforenergy-savingbuses,and100%taxexemptionforNEVbusessince2012counted)comparedtonationalfuelconsumptionstandardsatthetime.fuel(electricitynotcounted)accordingtonationalstandardsatthetime.tailoredstandardswhichisonaverage12%and14%stricterChen,X.,Han,Y.&Wu,M.(2023,April25).一升一降！共享出行创造巨大经济价值[Riseandfall!Sharedtravelcreateshugeeconomicvalue].Pishu.thanthenationalstandardsfor2022and2023.https://www.pishu.cn/zxzx/xwdt/592565.shtmlImplementedinaccordancewith"Catalogueofenergy-savingandnewenergyvehicleandvesselmodelseligibleforregistrationtaxexemptions"and"CatalogueofBEVandFCVChinaAssociationofMetros.(2013).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2018Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].passengervehiclemodelsbeyondregistrationtaxchargingscope".https://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxVehiclePurchaseTaxExemptionsforNEV(busesincludedasamajorbeneciary)ChinaAssociationofMetros.(2014).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2018Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].https://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxImplementfulltaxexemptionforNEVsbetween2014and2025alongsideincreasedtechcriteriasamewayastheabovevehicleandvesselregistrationtaxpolicies,and50%taxexemptionin2026and2027.TaxexemptionforallNEVsduring2014–22totaled200billionRMB;toreach115billionin2023aloneand520billionRMBfor2024–27byestimates.ChinaAssociationofMetros.(2015).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2018Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].https://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxFiscalSubsidiestoIncubateSmallNEVPilotsFiscalSubsidiestoDemonstrateNEVsinScaleFiscalSubsidiestoDeployNEVsNationallyandEncourageTopRunnersFiscalSubsidiesforFurtherNEVDevelopmentChinaAssociationofMetros.(2016).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2018Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].ProvidedcentralandlocallevelsubsidiesforpurchasingofNEVs,particularlyNEVbusesduringNarrowedthepricegapbetweenNEVsandfossilfuelvehicles;scalsubsidiesbecamemoreAddednewindicatorsofefency,mileage,etc,andtightenedsubsidystandardstoencourageAppliedexibleadjustmentandextensionofsubsidytohttps://www.camet.org.cn/tjxx2009–12underthe"TenCities×OneThousandElectricVehicles”pilotprogram.speciedbytechnologiesandvehiclecategories.technologyinnovationandtoprunners.maintainandstrengthenthedevelopment.ChinaAssociationofMetros.(2017).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2018Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].FiscalMOF&MOSTJointNoticeonMOF,MOST,MIIT&NDRCMOF,MOST,MIIT&NDRCMOF,MOST,MIIT&NDRCMOF,MIIT,MOST&NDRCMOF,MIIT,MOST&NDRCMOF,MIIT,MOST&NDRCMOF,MIIT,MOT&NDRCMOF,MIIT,MOST&NDRCMOF,MIIT,MOST&NDRCJointNoticeonhttps://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxIncentivesEnergy-Saving&NEVJointNoticeonExpandingtheJointNoticeonContinuingJointRelease:RewardsforJointNoticeonFiscalJointNoticeonAdjustmentJointNoticeonAdjustmentJointNoticetoPromoteJointNoticeonImprovingFiscalIncentivestoPromoteNEVDeploymentDemonstrationandEnergy-Saving&NEVNEVDeploymentConstructionofChargingIncentivestoPromoteNEVonFiscalIncentivestoandImprovementofFiscalDeploymentofNEVBusestheFiscalIncentivestoin2022ChinaAssociationofMetros.(2018).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2018Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].PilotDeploymentDemonstrationandInfrastructuresDeployment(2016-2020)PromoteNEVDeploymentIncentivestoPromoteNEVPromoteNEVDeploymenthttps://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxDemonstrationsDeploymentinPublicServiceUpdatedbus/coach2013DeploymentAllowedlocalsubsidiesforNotiedasubsidyphase-downplan:2022tobenalyearof88Subsidies/RewardsAreassubsidystandardsasProvidedrewardsintwoUpdatedsubsidystandardsSmoothedsubsidypurchaseofNEVbusestoExtendedthesubsidytill2022,NEVpurchasesubsidy;30%reductioningeneraland20%ChinaAssociationofMetros.(2019).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2018Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].300,000–500,000RMBperphasesof2013–15&since2016:phase-down:Adjustedthesubsidycontinue;divertedpurchaseandsubsidizedupto2millionreductionforpublicservicevehiclessuchasbuses,againsthttps://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxSubsidizedNEVpurchaseforpublicserviceareas:BEVandFCVbuses(length>10m)eligibletoreceive420,000–600,000RMBpervehicle;vehicleforBEVandFCV2016–20tosupportchargingBus/Coach(bylength):In2019and2020,reducedstandards:subsidiestoawardsforNEVvehiclesperyear;2021standards.PHEVbusestoreceive50,000–420,000RMBpervehicle.buses,andmaximum250,000infrastructuredevelopmentof120,000–500,000RMBper20%against2016;FebtoJune2018,upto60%busesoperationsince2020.SubsidystandardsforpublicChinaAssociationofMetros.(2020).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2019Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].RMBforPHEVbuses.thecitiesthatmetNEVvehicle;Localsubsidypervehiclecansubsidyreducedagainst2016;sectorNEVssince2020:nohttps://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxdeploymentscalecriteria.Subsidyphase-downforBEVsnotexceed50%ofthecentralSince2018,divertsubsidyreductionin2020,10%and&PHEVs:subsidy.fromencouragingpurchaseto20%reductionin2021andChinaAssociationofMetros.(2021).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2020Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].In2017and2018,reducedcharginginfrastructure.2022againstperviousyear.Aimingtoleadcommercialhttps://www.camet.org.cn/tjxx20%against2016;developmentofNEVsbyIn2019and2020,reducedmassivelydeployingNEVChinaAssociationofMetros.(2022).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2021Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].40%against2016.publicservicevehicles.https://www.camet.org.cn/tjxx2009FiscalSubsidiesforBusMOF&MOTJointRelease:InterimMeasures2015FiscalSubsidiesforBusMOF,MIIT&MOTJointNoticeonImprovingTransitTargetsby2025:ChinaAssociationofMetros.(2023).城市轨道交通��年度统计和分析报告[2022Annualstatisticsandanalysisreportonurbanrailtransit].OperationsforManagementofSpecialFundsinOperationsBusRenedOilPriceSubsidyPolicytoAccelerate-80%ofnewbuses,taxis,https://www.camet.org.cn/tjxxSubsidizingUrbanandRuralPassengerdeploymentofNEVbusessanitationvehicles,postalandSubsidizedbusoperationsinTransportduetoPriceRiseDivertedbusoperationurbanlogisticsvehiclestobeChinaAutomotiveNews.(2013,December12).“十城千辆”工程初探新能源汽车市场化[“TenCities,OneThousandElectricVehicles”pilotprogram,thersttheformoffuelsubsidy.ofRenedOilsubsidyfromdieselandCreatedacomparativeadvantageforNEVbusesanddrovefuelNEVs,withequalnumbersofexplorationofthemarketofnewenergyvehiclesinChina].ChinaAssociationofAutomobileManufacturers.gasolinetoelectricity.structuralchangeofbuseetsbydifferentiatingsubsidychargingpilesinstalled;http://www.caam.org.cn/chn/8/cate_81/con_5109126.htmlSetspecialfundstosubsidizetransitbusesandallocations.-DemonstratenewtechsruralroadpassengertransportoperatorstoProvidedyearlyoperationsubsidyupto80,000RMBperNEVsuchasVGIandorderlyChinaChamberofCommerceforMotorcycle.(2021,January12).��年我国摩托车产销量超��万辆[ProductionandsalesofmotorcyclesinChinaexceeded17offsettheirincreasedfuelcostsresultingfrombus.FuelsupplyfundforICEbusesreducedby60%betweencharging;millionin2020].http://cccmp.com/yaowen.aspx?id=1203renedoilpricerise.2015and2019against2013levels.-Includecarbonreductionfrompublicvehiclesin89TenCities×OneThousandElectricVehiclesNationalTransitMetropolisDemonstrationsvoluntaryGHGstrade.AimingtolaunchtheNEVmarketthroughpilotdemonstration.Aimingtosupportimplementationofthenationalstrategyforprioritizingthedevelopmentofpublictransportation,withanoverarchinggoaltoimprovepublictransitservicelevel,satisfyurbanpassengers’traveldemands,alleviatetrafccongestion,andrelievepressureofresourceconservationandenvironmentprotection.PilotProgramofDeployed27,400NEVsin25pilotcitiesduring2009–12;ofwhich,23,000NEVswerepublicservicevehiclesparticularlybuses.GreenTravelCreationwhichtargetedat70%urbantravelbygreenmobilityisapartofthisdemonstration.ComprehensiveSetprimaryKPIsforcitypilotsas:publictransitsharesover45%or40%oftheurbantravelswithorwithouturbanrailsystems;averagebusspeedincreases5%yearonyear;infrastructuresandaccessibilityfacilitiesimproved.ElectricationofPublicBetween2012andJan2023,atotalof76pilotcitiesin6batcheshaveaccomplishedkeytasksandbeenofciallynamedasNationalTransitMetropolis.SectorVehiclesChinaChamberofCommerceforMotorcycle.(2022,January14).完美收官，��我国摩托车产销超��万辆[Aperfectclosureof2021,productionandsalesofLian,Z.(2023,March29).新零售中局：“��分钟”如何重塑电商格局？[Gamesofnewretail:howdoes“30minutes”reshapethee-commercelandscape?].motorcyclesexceeded20millioninChina].http://cccmp.com/yaowen.aspx?id=1502Bosandao.https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/koSxXal6KTBFWpGfcy3eagChinaChamberofCommerceforMotorcycle.(2023,January16).��年我国摩托车产销量下滑��%，大排量摩托车增长��%[ProductionandsalesofmotorcyclesLiu,F.,Zhang,Z.,Zhao,X.,Liu,B.,Wang,X.,YiL.,Zuo,L.,Xu,J.,Hu,S.,Sun,F.&Wang,Y.(2021).UrbanExpansionofChinafromthe1970sto2020Basedondeclined16%inChinain2022,thoseoflargedisplacementmotorcyclesincreased47%].http://cccmp.com/yaowen.aspx?id=1658ChinaElectricPowerNews.RemoteSensingTechnology.ChineseGeographicalScience,31(5),765−781.http://egeoscien.neigae.ac.cn/en/article/doi/10.1007/s11769-021-1225-5(2023,Septermber14).全国平均供电可靠率达99.896%[Nationalaveragepowersupplyreliabilityratereaches99.896%].https://www.cec.org.cn/detail/index.html?3-325041Liu,M.(2016,July7).北京市第五次综合交通调查结果出炉小汽车出行比例首次下降[Beijing’sfthcomprehensivetrafcsurveyreleased,shareofcartraveldecreasedforthersttime].BeijingMunicipalGovernmentWebsite.https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2016-07/07/content_5089031.htmChineseResearchAcademyofEnvironmentalSciences,JinanAutomobileTestCenter,BeijingInstituteofTechnology,ChinaAutomotiveTechnologyResearchCenter,XiamenEnvironmentProtectionVehicleEmissionControlTechnologyCenter&TsinghuaUniversity.(2018).GB17691-2018重型柴油车污染物排放限Liu,X.(2023,May11).深圳人口微降，不必过度解读[Shenzhenpopulationslightlydecreased,butnoneedforoverinterpretation].LiuXiaoboFinancialCommenrary.值及测量方法(中国第六阶段)[Limitsandmeasurementmethodsforemissionsfromdieselfuelledheavy-dutyvehicles,ChinaVI(GB17691-2018)].Ministryofhttps://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/WeTftDjE4Tgg_rB9i8AkGQEcologyandEnvironmentofChina.https://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/fgbz/bz/bzwb/dqhjbh/dqydywrwpfbz/201807/W020180703397013304274.pdfMaaSAlliance.(2023).WhatisMaaS[Introduction].https://maas-alliance.eu/homepage/what-is-maas/Directorate-GeneralforMobilityandTransport.(2022).EUtransportingures:statisticalpocketbook2022.PublicationsOfceoftheEuropeanUnion.https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2832/216553Marklines.(2017).全球摩托车产量与销量(上)：印度市场占全球市场的�分之�[Globalmotorcycleproductionandsales(Part1):1/3oftheglobalmarketisinIndia].https://www.marklines.com/cn/report/rep1590201704ENNweekly.(2019,Septemer22).让每个乡村通上公路，中国为什么能？[WhycanChinahaveroadspavedforeveryvillage].https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/R2PRi1U0O1Q5-izWNajU7AMinistryofConstructionofChina(nowMinistryofHousingandUrban-RuralDevelopment).(2004).关于优先发展城市公共交通的意见(建城〔��〕��号)[Opinionsongivingprioritytothedevelopmentofurbanpublictransportation(JianchengNo.38of2004)].EnvironmentalStandardsInstitute&JinanAutomobileTestCenter.(2005).GB17691-2005车用压燃式、气体燃料点燃式发动机与汽车排气污染物排放限值及测量方法(中国第三、四、五阶段)[LimitsandmeasurementmethodsforexhaustpollutantsfromcompressionignitionandgasfuelledpositiveignitionenginesofNationalDevelopmentandReformCommission.(2013).促进综合交通枢纽发展的指导意见(发改基础〔��〕��号)[GuidingOpinionsonPromotingthevehicles,ChinaIII,IV,V(GB17691-2005)].TheStateEnvironmentalProtectionAdministrationofChina(nowMinistryofEcologyandEnvironment).DevelopmentofComprehensiveTransportHubs(FagaiJichuNo.475of2013)].https://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/fgbz/bz/bzwb/dqhjbh/dqydywrwpfbz/200701/W020110127400649893698.pdfMinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentofChina.(2022).��年中国移动源环境管理年报[Chinamobilesourceenvironmentalmanagementannualreport2022].EuropeanAutomobileManufacturers’Association.(2022).Factsheet:Buses.https://www.acea.auto/fact/fact-sheet-buseshttps://www.mee.gov.cn/hjzl/sthjzk/ydyhjgl/202212/W020221207387013521948.pdfFang,B.&Ran,L.(2023,May10).北京MaaS“小步快跑”，绿色出行一体化渐行渐近[BeijingMaaSplatformsetsthepaceforintegratedgreenmobility].BeijingMinistryofEcologyandEnvironmentofChina.(2023).��年中国生态环境统计年报[ReportonthestateoftheecologyenvironmentinChina2021].BusinessToday.https://www.bbtnews.com.cn/2023/0510/475315.shtmlhttps://www.mee.gov.cn/hjzl/sthjzk/sthjtjnb/202301/W020230118392178258531.pdfFarEastMobility.(2023).CityBRTdata[dataset].FarEastMobility:BRT&urbantransportplanning.https://brt.fareast.mobiMinistryofFinanceofChina.(2013).关于继续开展新能源汽车推广应用工作的通知(财建〔��〕��号)[Noticeoncontinuingthepromotiontheapplicaitonofnewenergyvehicles(CaijianNo.551of2013)].GeneralOfceoftheStateCouncilofChina.(2018).国务院办公厅关于进一步加强城市轨道交通规划建设管理的意见（国办发〔��〕��号）[OpinionsoftheGeneralOfceoftheStateCouncilonfurtherstrengtheningtheadministrationofplanningforconstructionofurbanrailtransportation(GuobanfaNo.52of201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