CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities2023TheshadedareasTohefsthhadeedmareaapsoifnthdeicmaapteindEicSateCEASPCAmPmeemmbberesrasndaasnsdociaatsesmoemcibaertse.members.ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonthismapdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheSecretariatoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.TheEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaTheUnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgrammeandthePacific(ESCAP)isthemostinclusive(UN-Habitat)isheadquarteredinNairobi,Kenya.EconomicinatenrgdoveSrnomcenitaallpClatofomrmmintihsesAsioia-nPafcoificrAsiaaTnhedRetghioenaPlOaffciceiffiocrA(sEiaSanCdAthePP)aciisfictsherevesmostinclusirgovernmerengtioanl.TphleaCtofmomrimssioninprtohmoeteAscsoioape-Prataiocnificregthieoreng.ionTahnedcCouontmrypmroigsrasmimoensinptrhoemregoiontescooperatiamongits53memberStatesand9associatefromFukuoka,Japanandfromitssupportingongits53mmeembmerbsienrpuSrstuaitotfessoluationndsto9suastsaisnaobcleiatemeofmficebineBrasngiknokp,Tuharislaundi.tWoithfinsthoeluUntiiteodnstosustainabelopmentcdehvaellolpemnengtechsa.lleEngSeCs.EASPCAPisisoonneeofothfeftivheefivNeatrioengsisoysnteaml,UcNo-HmabmitatisissaifoocnalspooinftftohrteheUnitedNatioregionalcommissionsoftheUnitedNations.monitoring,evaluationandimplementationoftheNewUrbanAgenda(HabitatIII,2016).ESCAPseTchreeEtSaCAriPastecsreutapriaptosurptpsortisnincclluussiveiv,rees,ilrieentsilientandsustainabledevelopmentintheregigeneratingagnedneasruacstittnaigionaancbtl-eioondr-eoivereielnonpttmeedednkntoinwktlhenedogreewg,iaolnenddbbygye,anUpdaNr-tnHbearybsittahteppSrrouomstvoatiinedasbiwnleitgDhegvoetvleeorpcnmmheennnttiGscoaaanldls,assistanceaacity-buildpinrogvidsinegtrevcihcniecaslaisnsisstauncpepanodrctapoafcitny-ationaldinepvareticluolaprmGoaeln11:tMoabkejecitcietsiavnedshu,mreangionalagreementheimplembuieldningtasetrivoicnesoinfsutphpeort2of0n3at0ionAalganednlodcaalforSseuttsletmaeinntsainbclluesivDe,esavfee,lreospiliemnteanndts.ustainable.developmentobjectives,regionalagreementsIntheurbanizingworld,UN-Habitatpromotesandtheimplementationofthe2030AgendafortransformativechangeincitiesandhumanSustainableDevelopment.settlementsthroughknowledge,policyadvice,technicalassistanceandcollaborativeactiontoleavenooneandnoplacebehind.Itsprogrammesaimtoadvancesustainableurbanizationasadriverofdevelopmentandpeacetowardsbuildingabetterqualityoflifeforall.1CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesCrisisResilientUrbanFuturesTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities2023©jamesteohart-LowangleshotofmodernglassbuildingsandgreenwithclearskybackgroundUnitedNationspublicationThispublicationmaybereproducedinwholeorinpartSalesNo.E.23.II.F.11foreducationalornon-profitpurposeswithoutspecialpermissionfromthecopyrightholder,providedthattheCopyright©UnitedNations2023sourceisacknowledged.TheESCAPPublicationsOfficeAllrightsreservedwouldappreciatereceivingacopyofanypublicationPrintedinIncheonthatusesthispublicationasasource.ISBN:9789210029100Nousemaybemadeofthispublicationforresaleore-ISBN:9789213584835anyothercommercialpurposewhatsoeverwithoutpriorpermission.Applicationsforsuchpermission,withaST/ESCAP/3096statementofthepurposeandextentofreproduction,shouldbeaddressedtotheSecretaryofthePublicationsBoard,UnitedNations,NewYork.Anyreferencetoacommercialentityorproductinthispublicationdoesnotimplyendorsement.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities2ForewordArmidaSalsiahAlisjahbanaUnder-Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsandExecutiveSecretaryoftheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificThepathtoasustainablefutureforAsiaandthePacific•Finally,theurgentneedtorespondtomultiplerunsthroughourregion’scities—economic,socialandcrisesmustbematchedwitharesolvetosafeguardculturalcentresfornearly2.5billionpeopleandhomeurbanfinances.Aclimateresponsiveurbaneconomictotheworld’slargesturbanpopulationandnumberofrecoverymustexpandanddiversifylocalrevenuepeoplelivingininformalsettlements.sources,strengthentransparencymeasuresinmunicipalfinancesystems,useland-basedfinancingThemegatrendofurbanizationacrosstheAsia-Pacificinstrumentsandincentivizeprivatesectorinvestment.regionhasnotcomewithoutdifficulties.Manyofthemultiplecrisestheworldfacesintersectinourcities,Giventhemultidimensionalnatureofcrises,citiescreatingnewchallengesandfurtherexposinglong-cannotfacethesechallengesalone.Multi-levelstandingissues,suchasinequality,urbanpoverty,governance,theengagementofallstakeholdersandaffordablehousingandanexpandinginfrastructurestrengthenedpartnershipsareessentialifwearetogap.Ourcitiesarewheretheseinterlinkedcrisesbuildcrisis-resilientcities.IremaingratefultoUN-aremostvisible,oftenaffectingthemostvulnerableHabitatforourcollaborationonthisimportantflagshipcommunities.publicationandforourcontinuedcommitmenttopromotesustainableurbandevelopmentacrossourThisreportprovidesguidanceonhowcitiescanbetterregion.manageurbanization,whilebuildingresiliencetocrisesandensuringthatfuturedevelopmentissustainable.ToInMayofthisyear,amilestonewasachievedwhendosorequiresafocusonfourthematicareas:MemberStatesattheseventy-ninthsessionoftheCommissionadoptedaresolutionrecognizingtheneed•First,wemustensurethaturbanandterritorialtobuildurbanresilienceagainstinterlinkedcrisesandplanningremainsthefoundationofhowourcitiesreaffirmingthevitalroleofESCAPinfosteringregionalaredevelopedandmanaged.Especiallyintimesofcooperationforsustainableurbandevelopmentandcrisis,holisticurbanplanningandhousingpoliciesarelocalizationoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.essentialtoreapingthebenefitsofsafe,sustainableandlivablecities.Weseehopeinthedynamismandresolveoftheregion’scities—notjustinrecoveringfromthe•Second,astheclimateemergencycontinuestopandemic,butalsoastestinggroundsforpolicyandgeneratemoresevereimpacts,ourcitiesmustleadinnovation.Iamhopefulthatthroughlocalaction,thetransitiontolow-carbonandresilient-developmentregionalcooperationandstrongpartnerships,thepathways.Whileshiftingtolow-carbonenergysourcesrecommendationsinthisreportwillhelpustocreateandtransformativeadaptation,citiesneedtoleveragenewapproachesandsolutionstooursharedurbannature-basedsolutionsforintegratedresponsestothechallenges.climate,cleanairandbiodiversitycrises.•Third,ourcitiesmustleveragedigitalinnovationwithinclusiveurbangovernancepoliciestobuildresilience,whileovercomingthedigitaldivide.Thepandemichashighlightedtheurgencytoensurethatnooneandnoplaceisleftbehindinurbandigitaltransformations.3CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesMaimunahMohdSharifUnder-Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsandExecutiveDirectoroftheUnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgrammeThepresentandfutureofhumanityareincallingforurgentactionfrompublicandprivatecities.Morethanhalfoftheworld’spopulationstakeholdersatalllevels.Thereportemphasizeslivesincitiesandby2050,thisproportioniskeythemes–urbanandterritorialplanning;climateexpectedtoreachnearlytwothirds.Thevisionofresilience;digitaltransformationandfinance–asSustainableDevelopmentGoal11–tomakecitieswellasspecificsub-themes,suchashousingandcommunitiesinclusive,safe,resilient,andadequacyandlocalactiontomovecitiesinthesustainable–hasthusneverbeenmorecriticalregiontowardsmoreresilientandsustainablethantoday.Yet,vastchallengesexistinachievingfutures.Thesesamethemesresonatewithmanythisvision,andalarmingly,wearenowhereclosetooftheprioritiesofthe134UnitedNationsMembermeetingtheGoal’stargetsbythe2030deadline.States,whichconvenedthisyearatthesecondsessionoftheUnitedNationsHabitatAssemblyTherecentlylaunchedSustainableDevelopmentinNairobi,andadoptedresolutionsforscaledandGoal11globalsynthesisreportcoordinatedbyacceleratedactionpertainingtoadequatehousing,UN-Habitatshowshowfarwearefromachievinglocalization,climate,planningandsmartcities.thetargetssetin2015toensureabetterqualityoflifeacrossourcitiesandhumansettlements.SomeThetimeisnowtotranslateresolutionsand2.8billionpeopleareestimatedtobeaffectedbyrecommendationsintoconcreteactionsanddifferentformsofhousinginadequacy,includingatinvestments.Theimmenseopportunitiesinherenttoleast318millionpeopleexperiencinghomelessness.urbanizationmustbeleveragedfullyinAsia-PacificGlobally,2.2billionpeoplestilllacksafelymanagedcitiestoensurethateconomicgrowthtranslatesdrinkingwater,3.4billionlacksafelymanagedintosharedprosperityforallacrosscities.Wemustsanitationand1.9billionlackhygieneservices.Aalsosupporttheuptakeandscalingofthenumeroustotalof99percentofurbanresidentsareexposedeffectivepracticesledbylocalgovernmentsandtoairpollutionaboveWorldHealthOrganizationstakeholdersthatarealreadydemonstratingthestandards.Thesefiguresareespeciallychallengingpotentialforchange.Inthisvein,Iappreciateourintoday’scontextofinterlockingcrisesthatarelong-standingengagementwiththeEconomicandsendingshockwavesacrossregions,countriesSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificandourandcommunities,includingintheAsiaandPacificotherpartnerstoguidesustainableurbanizationregion.policyandpracticeintheregion,includingthroughthecollaborativepreparationofthisreport.ThisreportonthefutureandresilienceofAsianandPacificcitiesisespeciallytimely.Itbringstolighttherisksfacedbytheregion’s2.48billionurbandwellersinthefaceofshocksandstressors,whileTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities4AbouttheReportTheFutureofAsian&PacificCitiesReport2023effortstowardsachievingsustainabledevelopmententitled,“CrisisResilientUrbanFutures”,providesatalllevelsofgovernmentandsociety.Thereportacomprehensiveanalysisandassessmentofcallsforarenewedcommitment,collaborationandsustainableurbandevelopmentintheAsiaandinnovationtoovercomelocalchallengesandcreatePacificregionatatimeofgreatdisruptionandamoreequitableandsustainableurbanfutureforalluncertaintyresultingfrommultipleinterlinkedglobalto“leavenooneandnoplacebehind”.crisesinapost-pandemicera.Thisreportaimstoextendvaluableinsightsintothespatial,economic,Asalways,thisflagshipreportcombinesawealthsocial,environmentalandgovernanceaspectsofofprimaryandsecondarydata,incorporatingcities,offeringholisticpolicyrecommendationsinformationfromreputablesources,suchasnationaltowardsasustainableurbanrecoveryfromthesestatisticalagencies,cities,academicandresearchcrises.institutions,inadditiontointernationalorganizationsanddevelopmentpartners.AnextensiveresearchUnderstandingthedynamicsandcharacteristicsprocessinvolvingdatacollection,analysisandofitscitiesiscrucialfornationalandlocalinterpretationwascarriedouttoensurethegovernments,businesses,localcommunities,accuracyandreliabilityoftheinformationpresented.researchersandurbanplanners.Throughthisreport,ESCAPandUN-HabitatcontinuetoworktogetherThroughoutthereport,casestudiesandtoprovideanupdated,reliableresourcefordecisioncomparativeanalysisareusedtoprovideamakersseekingtogainadeeperunderstandingcomprehensiveunderstandingofthesimilarities,ofthetrends,challengesandfutureopportunitiesdifferencesandpracticesacrossvarioustypologieswithinthelandscapeofthecitiesinAsiaandtheofcitiesintheAsia-Pacificregion.ThefindingsandPacific.Thereportbuildsonthreepreviouseditionsinsightspresentedareintendedtoinformandguideinthisseries:decisionmakersindevelopingmoreinformedurbanpolicyformulation,investmentstrategiesandurbanTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities2019;planningapproaches.TheStateofAsianandPacificCities2015;andTheStateofAsianCities2010/11.Itisexpectedthatthisreportwillserveasavaluableresourceforgovernments,civilsocietyIneachofthesereports,thekeyexistingandorganizations,businesses,researchers,developmentemergingtrendsinurbandevelopmentwithinthepartnersandanyoneinterestedingainingadeeperregionareexplored.Thepresentreportcontinuesunderstandingofthedynamicandevolvingnaturetotakeaforward-lookingperspective,capturingofAsia-Pacificcities.thetransformativemessagesoftheNewUrbanAgenda(2016)andcontinuingthethematictracksSignificantcontributionsfromnationalandlocalestablishedinthe2019editionofthisreport.Thegovernments,developmentpartners,civilsociety,currenteditionalsohassetamuch-neededagendaacademia,theprivatesectorandotherstakeholdersforasustainableurbanrecoveryacrosstheregion.tothereport’scontentswerealsomadeduringthededicatedreviewsofSustainableDevelopmentThe2023reportisreleasedinayearwhenprogressGoal11whichtookplaceaspartoftheregionaltowardsrealizingSustainableDevelopmentGoalandsubregionalmulti-stakeholderforumsonthe11onsustainablecitiesandcommunitiesisunderimplementationoftheSustainableDevelopmentreviewgloballybytheGeneralAssembly.ThisyearGoalsconvenedbyESCAP:alsomarksthehalfwaypointofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,providinganopportunetimeforreflection,recalibrationandreinvigorationof5CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesSixthNorthEastAsiaMultistakeholderForumDedicatedin-personthematicconsultationsontheonSustainableDevelopment,7−8Septemberreporttookplaceatthefollowingevents:2022,Ulaanbaatar,MongoliaNinthCityNetCongress,20−24SeptemberSixthNorthandCentralAsiaMultistakeholder2022,KualaLumpur,MalaysiaForumonSustainableDevelopment,6−7October2022,Almaty,KazakhstanESCAPExpertGroupMeetingon“LocalizingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalstoAddressSixthSouthEastAsianMultistakeholderForumInterlinkedCrisesinthePost-Pandemicera”,onSustainableDevelopment,7−8NovemberaspartoftheRegionalObservanceofWorld2022,Bangkok,ThailandHabitatDay,3October2022,Bangkok,ThailandSixthSouthandSouth-WestAsiaTwenty-EighthWorldCongressoftheEasternMultistakeholderForumontheSustainableRegionalOrganisationforPlanningandHumanDevelopment,5−7December2022,Islamabad,Settlements,5−8October2022,Surabaya,PakistanIndonesiaSixthPacificMultistakeholderForumonFifthSpatialPlanningPlatformMeeting,SustainableDevelopment,6−7December2022,1-3February2023,KathmanduhostedbySuva,FijiUN-HabitatROAP,theMinistryofLand,Infrastructure,TransportandTourism,Japan,SDG11Roundtable,TenthAsia-PacificForumonandtheMinistryofUrbanDevelopment,NepalSustainableDevelopment,27−30March2023,Bangkok,ThailandThesein-personconsultativemeetingswerecombinedwithnumerousvirtualconsultationswithexpertsandstakeholders.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities6AcknowledgementsThereportwasjointlydevelopedbytheEconomicThetechnicaleditorforthereportwasPaulandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificBunsell.ThereportwascopyeditedbyAlan(ESCAP)inBangkokandtheUN-HabitatRegionalCooper.ThedesignandlayoutofthereportwasOfficeforAsiaandthePacific(ROAP)inFukuoka,donebyTiruniYasaratne,MattSwords,ShellaJapan.ItwaspreparedunderthedirectionofRoxasandRyanWilloughbyofHealthInkDigital,SangminNam,DirectoroftheEnvironmentandSydney,Australia,withguidancefromtheESCAPDevelopmentDivision,ESCAP;CurtGarrigan,ChiefCommunicationsandKnowledgeManagementoftheSustainableUrbanDevelopmentSection,Section.ThereportwasprintedbyDocuFriends,ESCAP;andBrunoDercon,OfficerinCharge,UN-Incheon,RepublicofKorea.HabitatROAP.ESCAPandUN-HabitataregratefulfortheTheleadcoordinatorsofthereportwereOmarguidance,inputsandpeerreviewfrommembersSiddiqueandRebeccaPurbaoftheSustainableofthePenangPlatformforSustainableUrbanDevelopmentSection,ESCAP.Urbanization,specificallyfromthefollowingorganizations:CityNet;CommonwealthTheleadauthorsofthereportchapterswereasLocalGovernmentForum;EasternRegionalfollows:OrganisationforPlanningandHumanSettlements;HabitatforHumanityInternational;Shocksinthecity:multipleinterlinkedcrisesUnitedCitiesandLocalGovernmentsAsia-testsustainableurbandevelopment:OmarPacific;AsianCoalitionforHousingRights;Siddique,SustainableUrbanDevelopmentSection,LumantiSupportGroupforShelter;theHuairouESCAPCommission;UrbaniceMalaysia;andSeoulNationalUniversity.Urbanandterritorialplanningforresilientandimpactfulfutures:SanjeevaniSingh,SustainableThereportteamisgratefultotheESCAPEditorialUrbanDevelopmentSection,ESCAPBoardfortheirreviewandguidance.SpecialthanksareextendedtothefollowingESCAPUrbanresilienceatacrossroads:multilevelstaff,consultantsandinternsforthesubstantiveclimateaction:AlexeiTrundle,MelbourneCentrereviewofsuccessivedraftsofthereport:KatinkaforCities,FacultyofArchitecture,BuildingandWeinberger;SabineHenning;MichaelWilliamson;Planning,UniversityofMelbourneKatrinLuger;PatriciaWong;Wei-ShiuenNg;KyungkooPhilipKang;SanjaySrivastava;SoomiUrbandigitaltransformation:linkingHong;MatthewPerkins;ElenaJayalath;Pedroinnovationtoinclusion:MicheleAcuto,GodlewskiDePaivaLeite;AnnaSergeevnaMelbourneCentreforCities,FacultyofLuppova;PitchakonPadungdetpasuton;KrzysztofArchitecture,BuildingandPlanning,UniversityofZbigniewKaczmarski;KanikaGrover;NurMelbourneHamidah;LillyRoseDeluca;LiamCarlO’ConnorandGiancarloMangone.Urbanfinanceduringturbulenttimes:PushpaPathakandParthaMukhopadhyay,CentreforAdministrativeandlogisticalassistancewasPolicyResearch,NewDelhi,India,inpartnershipprovidedbySirikulChan-amnuaysookandOraniwithSunghoonKrisMoonandHongSooLee,AsianPotchapornkul,SustainableUrbanDevelopmentDevelopmentBankSection,ESCAP.Seizingtheurbanopportunity:PaulBunsell,ESCAPconsultant7CrisisResilientUrbanFutures©RyooGeonUk-agroupoftallbuildingsUN-HabitatwouldliketothankthefollowingThereportwasmadepossiblethroughfinancialstaff,consultantsandinternsfortheirspecificsupportprovidedbySuwonCity,RepublicofKorea,contributionorsupportduringthevariousphasesandtheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB),aswellasaofpreparingthereport:EdlamYemeru;BenedictresearchpartnershipwiththeMelbourneCentreforArimah;BernhardBarth;FumiyasuIshinaga;SachiyoCities,FacultyofArchitecture,BuildingandPlanning,Hoshino;RiccardoMaroso;ClintonMoore;DennisUniversityofMelbourne,Australia.Mwaniki;RobertNdugwa;SrinivasaPopuri;RaymondOtieno;andPragyaPradhan.AspecialthanksisextendedtoShunsukeManagioftheUrbanInstitute,KyushuUniversity,Fukuoka,Japan.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities8TableofContents12Abbreviations&Acronyms13ExecutiveSummaryIntroduction17ShocksandStressesintheCity:multipleinterlinkedcrisestestsustainableurbandevelopment20TheStateofAsianandPacificCities30Theimportanceofsustainedurbanprogressinchallengingtimes0131Chapter010249Chapter02UrbanandterritorialUrbanresilienceataplanningforaresilientcrossroads:multilevelfutureclimateaction40Embracingcompactness51Low-carbonurbanforsustainabilityandfuturesresilience54Citiesascatalystsfor44Inclusiveaccesstoclimateactionhousinginamulti-crisescontext63Advancinglow-carbonandclimateresilient47Strengtheningurbanandcitiesterritorialplanning9CrisisResilientUrbanFutures0367Chapter030479Chapter04UrbandigitalUrbanfinanceduringtransformation:linkingturbulenttimesinnovationtoinclusion81Leveragingurbanfinance69Aregionaldigitalforapost-pandemictransformationrecovery73Digitalcapacity:84Reimaginingmunicipalinnovationacrossscalesfinanceforasustainablefuture77Fosteringurbandigitalopportunities92ImprovingurbanfinanceConclusion95Seizingtheurbanopportunity98Unitedurbanfutures:buildingsustainablecitiestogetherthroughregionalcooperationTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities10Figures0.1Progresstowardsachievingthe17SustainableDevelopmentGoalsinAsiaandthePacific181.1Urbanconcentrationincapitalcities352.1PercapitagreenhousegasemissionsinrelationtourbanizationinAsiaandthePacific522.2a.Sea-levelanomalyintheMaldivesunderbaselineanddifferentclimatechangescenarios582.2b.Urbanareasexposedto1msea-levelriseunderSSP3climatechangescenariointheMaldives582.3a.TotalannualprecipitationintheMaldivesunderbaselineanddifferentclimatechangescenarios592.3b.AveragetemperatureintheMaldivesunderbaselineanddifferentclimatechangescenarios592.4Urbanpopulationexposuretomulti-hazardriskunderSSP32℃warmingscenarioinNorthand61CentralAsia2.5TargetG1bysubregion(coverageofmulti-hazardwarningsystems)613.1KeyICTstatistics,Asia-Pacificregion,2017−2019723.2COVID-19EpidemiologyInvestigationSystem,RepublicofKorea764.1aLocalshareoftotalgovernmentrevenue864.1bShareofpropertytaxesinlocalrevenue86Boxes0.1“Urban”–theproblemofdefinitions220.2Pandemicwarriors:empoweredwomenleadingAsia-PacificcitiesthroughCOVID-19challenges241.1Urbanplanningandhousingforall341.2Definingcitysystems361.3Newcapitalcitydevelopmentintheregion391.4Compactdevelopmentacrossneighbourhoodstomegacities412.1Womenincityleadership–championsoftransformativeclimateaction562.2EconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificMaldivesproject–DownscaledIPCCAR658climatemodelforgranularriskassessmentandpolicymaking2.3Multi-hazarddisasterrisksofcitiesinNorthandCentralAsia613.1TheSafetipinappandSheRisesframework713.2Thereal-timeurbanfloodforecastingandwarningsystemofShanghai733.3FromtheCityDataHubtotheCOVID-19DataHub:theresponseoftheRepublicofKoreatothe75COVID-19Pandemic4.1Alongroadtomunicipalbonds824.2Fromsavingstoskylines:howdomesticpensionfundscandriveurbaninfrastructure834.3Thefundingandprovisionofeducationandanequitableurbanfuture844.4LandvaluecapturefinancestheMassTransitRailway(MTR)ofHongKong,China894.5Entrepreneurialurbanism:anewprivateurbanrailnetworkinThailand915.1ShapingtheAsia-Pacificurbanfuture:theevolutionofvoluntarylocalandsubregionalreviews995.2SuwonCityempowersasustainableurbanfuture101Tables1.1Thecontributionofthecompactcitytourbansustainability434.1Propertytaxesasapercentageofgrossdomesticproductindifferentregions8711CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesAbbreviations&AcronymsADBAsianDevelopmentBankAIIBAsianInfrastructureInvestmentBankASEANAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationsCCTVclosed-circuittelevisionCDCCenterforDiseaseControlandPreventionCOPConferenceofPartiesDEGURBAdegreeofurbanizationESCAPEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificFAOFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsGDPgrossdomesticproductGISgeographicinformationsystemHFCShydrofluorocarbonsICTinformationandcommunicationstechnologiesIDPinternallydisplacedpeopleILOInternationalLabourOrganizationITUInternationalTelecommunicationsUnionMRSCMunicipalResearchandServicesCenterNDCsNationallydeterminedcontributionsOHCHROfficeoftheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHumanRightsOECDOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentPPEpersonalprotectiveequipmentRLDCsRegionallyandLocallyDeterminedContributionsROAPRegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacificSDGSustainableDevelopmentGoalSMEsmallandmediumenterpriseSLCPsshort-livedclimatepollutantsUN-HabitatUnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgrammeUNCTADUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopmentUNESCOUnitedNationsEducational,EconomicandScientificOrganizationUNHCRUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugeesUNICEFUnitedNationsChildren’sFundVLRvoluntarylocalreviewVSRvoluntarysubnationalreviewWFPWorldFoodProgrammeWHOWorldHealthOrganizationTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities12ExecutiveSummaryCitiesinAsiaandthePacificfaceacomplexsetofindustrialization,countriesacrosstheregionareinterlinkedcrises,whichcarryprofoundimplicationsforexperiencingunprecedentedurbandevelopment.Asthesocialfabricanddevelopmentprospectsoftheregion.citiescontinuetogrowandinfrastructuraldemandsrise,TheconsequencesoftheCOVID-19pandemicarefar-governmentsandurbanplannersmusttackleissuesreaching,and,asaconsequence,citiesarestillstrivingrelatedtoaccesstoaffordablehousing,infrastructure,tofullyrecover.Vulnerabilitiesinaffordablehousing,mobility,energy,environmentalsustainabilityandsocialinsufficientaccesstobasicservicesandfragileorfailinginclusion,andincorporateadvancementsindigitalhealth-caresystemshavebeenexposed.Socioeconomictechnologiestoensurethattheregion’scitiescanthrivedisparitieshavebeenexacerbatedbyunemploymentandasliveablecentresofeconomicvitality.Understandingrisingcosts.Povertyhasincreased,oftencompoundedbythesecomplexurbanizationtrendsiscriticaltoinforminadequateaccesstohousingandessentialservices.Aspolicymakersandachievesustainabledevelopmentincitiesgrapplewiththepost-pandemicrecovery,ensuringtheAsia-Pacificregion.Thesuccessfulimplementationtheequitabledistributionofresourcesandsupporttotheofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopmenthingesmostvulnerableisofparamountimportancetopreventoncities’abilitytoadoptappropriateinnovativepoliciestheexacerbationofexistinginequalities.andtechnologies,secureurbanfinancingandcultivatecapabilitiesacrossalltiersofgovernancetosupporttheTheeconomicimpactofthepandemicandpost-pandemicimplementationofthesepoliciesandtechnologies.criseshasaddedalayerofcomplexitytotheurbanlandscape.BecauseofdisruptionstoglobalfoodandfuelGovernments,policymakersandstakeholdersmustworksupplychains,tradeandtourism,manycitiesinAsiaandtogethertoaddresstheinterlinkedchallengesrelatedthePacifichavesufferedsevereeconomicdownturns.totheCOVID-19recovery,socialinclusion,economicThishasparticularlyaffectedinformalworkersandrevitalizationandtheclimateemergencytoensuremarginalizedslumcommunities.Thelossoflivelihoodsthatnoonenorplaceisleftbehind.Urgentintegratedandreducedeconomicopportunitiescontinuetopushaction,innovativedigitalsolutionsandparticipatoryvulnerableurbanpopulationsintogreaterpovertyandapproachesarerequiredtonavigatethesecrisesandmarginalization.ThesechallengesarecompoundedbymitigatethedisparitiesthatthreatentostallprogresstheclimateemergencytowhichAsiaandthePacificistowardslocalizingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsparticularlysusceptible.Inadequateurbanplanningandintheregion.ESCAPandUN-Habitatwithpartnersinfrastructuredevelopmentincreasesthevulnerabilityhavelaunchedthisreporttosupportpolicymakersinofcitiesandurbandwellers,particularlyininformaltheireffortstoshapepost-pandemicpathwaysinurbansettlementstotheimpactsofclimatechange.centres.Thereportfocusesonthefourkeythematicareas:urbanandterritorialplanning;resilientmultilevelTheconvergenceofmultiplecrisescombinedwithclimateaction;digitaltransformationsincities;andurbanmarkedshiftsinurbanizationtrendscallforintegratedfinance.Init,theinterlinkagesbetweenthesethemesandequitableapproachestourbandevelopment.andtheopportunitiesforregionalandintermunicipalWithaburgeoningpopulation,rapideconomicgrowth,cooperationtobuildcapacityandenhanceprogressofadvancinginnovationandtechnology,andincreasingcitiesintheAsia-Pacificregionareidentified.13CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01Chapter02Tostrengthenurbanandterritorialplanning,theClimatechangeandthethreatsitbringstofirstchapterprovidesananalysisofthecurrenturbancentresinAsiaandthePacificaredynamicsfacedbycitiesintheAsia-Pacificregionaddressedinthesecondchapter.Theregionastheygrowandevolvespatially,especiallydueremainsvulnerabletoextremeweathereventstotheconsequencesofunplannedacceleratedandclimate-relatedhazards,whichcarryurbanization.Itisfocusedontheinterconnectedsignificantimplicationsforcities.Therapidnetworkofsystemswithincities,andthebenefitspaceofurbanization,oftencoupledwithofurbanandland-useplanningandcompactrisinggreenhousegasemissions,inadequatecitiestoimprovequalityoflife,resilienceandinfrastructure,limitedfinancialresourcesandsustainability.Theroleofholisticapproachestocompetingdevelopmentpriorities,complicatesurbanandterritorialplanningisfundamentaltoeffortstoimplementeffectiveclimatemitigationaddressingthechallengesrelatedtoallaspectsmeasures.Toadvancelow-carbonandresilientofurbanlifeintheregion,includingmobility,urbanfutures,citiesintheAsia-Pacificregionequitableaccesstoservicesandaffordableshouldconsideradoptingthefollowingpolicyhousing,especiallyforpeoplelivingandworkingrecommendationssupportedbyanenablingininformalsettlements,arehighlightedintheenvironmentatthenationalandregionallevels:chapter.Thefollowingfourpolicypathwaysarerecommendedforconsiderationbypolicymakers•Integrateurbancommunitiesaskeyinthechapter,whichincludesadiscussiononactorstobuildresilienceagainsthowtheycouldbeimplemented:climateandothershocks;•Createapolicyenvironmentfor•Deployinnovativeurbanadaptationtransformativeandresilienturbanpathwaystoaddressexistingandplanning,enabledbymultilevelnewclimaterisks;governance;•Enhancedatacollectionandlocal•Ensurecapacity-buildingandevidencetoinformandacceleratecoordinationforeffectiveurbanclimateactionincities;planningandlocalaction;•Shifttolow-carbonsourcesto•Developholistichousing,urbantackletheurbanenergycrisis;planning,anddisaster-riskmanagementpolicies,strategies•Provideplatformsformonitoring,andregulationstotacklethereporting,verifyingandintegratingaffordablehousingcrisesincities;multilevelclimateaction;•Promoteintegrated,compact,•Harmonizeandenhancenatureinmixed-useneighbourhoodscitiestoaddressclimate,cleanairandcities,supportedbypublicandbiodiversitycrises.transportandactivemobilitytomeetclimateandsustainabilitytargets.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities14Chapter03Chapter04UrbandigitaltransformationintheAsia-Pacific•UDrbeavnelofipnapnecoepplela-ycsenateprievodtnalartoiolenainlsamdavratncciitnygregionisthemainpointofdiscussioninthethirdpprooglirceiessatosweanradbslerersalfiozirnignctlhuesiSveusatnadinasubsletainablechapter,whichisfocusedonhowtoensureDuervbealnopdmeveenltoGpmoaelsnti.ntheAsia-Pacificregion.inclusivity,accessibilityandtheequitabledistributionofdigitaltechnologies,particularlyin•AEdnehqaunacteufirnbaanncigaolvreesronuanrcceescaarpearceiqtyuiaretdaltloinvestareaswithlimitedinfrastructureandresources.inlecvreitliscatoladreesaisg,nsauncdhaimspinlefmraestnrtuicntculrues,ivheoudsiginitga,lLeveragingpartnershipswiththeprivatesectorhsetaraltthecgaierse,weidthucaactiloenararnedsislieoncciaelsmeirnvdicseest.,allofpresentsasignificantopportunitytodriveinnovation,mobilizeinvestmentandimplement•wPhriocmhoatrecvitiazletnoeancghaiegveemseunsttaaindabmleulatni-dinclusivedigitalsolutionsatscale,whichwouldultimatelyusrbtaaknedheovldeelorppmaretnnte.rMsheipasnwfohrildei,gtihtaelCOVID-19acceleratetheregion’sprogresstowardsattainingptarnadnsefmoricmaantidonmsuilntipclietiecsr.isescontinuetostrainthesustainableandinclusivesmartcities.Thefinancialcapacitiesofmanygovernmentsinthefollowingthreepolicyrecommendationsareregion,leavinglimitedfiscalspacetoallocatefundsimmediateactionsthatcouldadvanceurbandigitalforinvestmentinurbandevelopment.Inchapteropportunities:4,theurgencyofexploringinnovativefinancingmechanisms,public-privatepartnerships,and•Developpeople-centrednationaldomesticandinternationalcooperationtobridgesmartcitypoliciesasenablersfortheurbanfinancegapandensuretheregion’sinclusiveandsustainableurbanresilienceandprogresstowardslocalizingthedevelopment;SustainableDevelopmentGoalsishighlighted,whichalsoincludesthefollowingpolicypathways:•Enhanceurbangovernancecapacityatalllevelstodesign•Expand,diversifyandincreaseandimplementinclusivedigitalmunicipalrevenuecollectionstrategieswithaclearresiliencetostimulatealocaleconomicmindset;recovery;•Promotecitizenengagementand•Establishatransparentframeworkmulti-stakeholderpartnershipsforforintergovernmentaltransfersfordigitaltransformationsincities.greatereconomicresilienceagainstfutureshocks;•Ensurethatland-basedfinancinginstrumentsarealignedwiththedevelopmentofcompactpolycentricurbanareas;•Createmorestableandpredictablepolicy,regulatoryandincentiveframeworkstoenhanceprivatesectorinvestmentforurbaneconomicrecovery;•Promoteenablingenvironmentstofacilitateclimate-responsiveurbanfinanceandmunicipalfinanceinstrumentsinsupportoflocalclimateaction.15CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIMAGE©Julia-Khiva:peopleinthestreetofoldtownTheinterconnectednatureofthekeythemesandtheincludingtheimpactsoftheCOVID-19pandemicandtheneedforregionalcooperationtofostercrisis-resilientlimitedfiscalspaceavailabletogovernments.urbanfuturesintheAsia-Pacificregionaredrawnoutinthefinalchapter.StrategicinterventionsforregionalThecitiesoftheAsia-Pacificregionfacemultiplecrises,collaborationareproposed,suchasvoluntarylocalandbuttheyhaveauniqueopportunitytostrengthensubnationalreviews,intermunicipalcooperationandsustainableurbandevelopmentandaccelerateprogressroadmapstoaccelerateprogresstowardsachievingtowardslocalizingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.SustainableDevelopmentGoal11insupportoftheTheregion’scontinuedurbanizationandgrowingESCAPResolution79/7,whichmemberStatesadoptedcapacitiesprovidefertilegroundforinnovationandatitsseventy-ninthsessiontoadvanceregionalcollaboration.Byembracingcrisis-resilienturbancooperationforsustainableurbandevelopmentanddevelopmentstrategies,citiescanrespondtoimmediatelocalizationoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsinAsiarecoveryneedsandpavethewayforasustainableandandthePacific.Suchroadmapsshouldfocusontechnicalinclusivefuture.Theurgencytobuildclimate-resilientcapacity-buildingandtoolsexchangetosupportmultilevelcitiesandharnessdigitaltechnologiesforenhancedurbangovernance,planning,financingandaction.Regionalplanning,multilevelgovernanceandservicedeliverycallsurbancooperationplatformspromotestrongeralliancesforpartnershipsatalllevelstobeleveragedandregionalwithnationalgovernments,internationalorganizationscooperationtobeintensified.Throughpeople-centredandclimatefinanceinstitutionstoincreaseaccesstourbanpolicies,intermunicipalcollaborationandinnovativeresourcesandsupportformuchneededclimate-resilientfinancingmechanisms,thecitiesofAsiaandthePacificandsustainableurbandevelopmentinvestments.Thecannavigatetheirmulti-crisesenvironment.Withtherightimportanceofcomprehensive,inclusiveandinnovativeplans,policies,investmentsandpartnershipsinplace,theapproachestourbandevelopmentisemphasizedtoregioncanbewellplacedtoachieveasustainableurbanovercomethechallengesposedbymultiplecrises,recovery.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities16©SeanPavonePhoto-NambaParks,Osaka,JapanIntroductionShocksinthecity:Multipleinterlinkedcrisestestsustainableurbandevelopment17CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIntroductionTheworldisfacingmultipleandinterlinkedcrises,aperfectstormthatistestingthelimitsofcurrentdevelopmentparadigms.AscountriesandcitiesacrossAsiaandwhilethecompoundingcriseshaveledthePacificstruggletorecoverfromtorisinginflationglobally.Higherpricesthehealthandsocioeconomiccrisisaredrivingcountries,especiallylow-resultingfromtheCOVID-19pandemic,incomecountries,intodebtdistress.theeffectsofclimatechangecontinuetoApproximately60percentoflow-incomeravagetheregion.Geopoliticaltensionscountrieswereindebtdistressin2022andthegrowingfoodandenergycrisiscomparedto30percentin2015(WFP,areunderminingprospectsforatrue2022).recoveryandare,consequently,placingtheaspirationsoftheNewUrbanAgendaApproximately60perandlocalizationoftheSustainablecentoflow-incomeDevelopmentGoalsintheregioncountrieswereindebtseeminglyoutofreach.distressin2022comparedto30percentin2015.CurrentdatafromtheEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandtheAdditionally,highinflationiswideningPacific(ESCAP)showthattheAsia-inequalityandworseningpoverty–makingPacificregionisnotontracktoachieveitincreasinglydifficultforeconomicallyanyoftheSustainableDevelopmentvulnerablegroupstomeetbasicneeds.GoalsandisregressingwithregardtoSustainableDevelopmentGoal13onclimateaction.ProgresshasslowedFigure0.1.Progress1Nopovertytowardsachieving2Zerohungerthe17Sustainable3Goodhealthandwell-beingDevelopmentGoalsin4QualityeducationAsiaandthePacific5Genderequality6CleanwaterandsanitationSource:ESCAP,Asiaandthe7AffordableandcleanenergyPacificSDGprogressreport2023:8Decentworkandeconomicgrowthchampioningsustainabilitydespite9Industry,innovationandinfrastructureadversities.Availableathttps://10Reducedinequalitiesunescap.org/kp/2023/asia-and-11Sustainablecitiesandcommunitiespacific-sdg-progress-report-202312Responsibleconsumptionandproduction(accessedon2June2023)13Climateaction14Lifebelowwater15Lifeonland16Peace,justiceandstronginstitutions17PartnershipsforthegoalsTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities1895percentofconfirmedCOVID-19AccordingtoUN-Habitat,95percentofconfirmedcasesin2020wereinurbanareas,COVID-19casesin2020wereinurbanareas(UN-Habitatascitiesbecamehotspotsforandothers,2020),ascitiesbecamehotspotsforsuchsuchcasesgloballyduetotheircasesgloballyduetotheirconcentrationofpopulation.concentrationofpopulation.ThesocioeconomicconsequencesofthepandemicandthesubsequentenergyandfoodcrisesmadeworsebythecrisisinUkrainearecompoundingexistingchallengesofurbanization.Incitiesaroundtheworld,theCOVID-19pandemichasexposedlong-standingvulnerabilitiesandhighlightedtheneedtocomprehensivelyaddresssuchissuesasaffordabilityandliveability.Notably,thepandemichasservedasaturningpoint;theneedfortheregion’surbancentrestobuildresiliencetofutureshocksandstressorshasneverbeenmoreevident.Citiesacrossthedevelopinganddevelopedworldareagainatthefrontlineofthemultipleinterlinkedcrises,andcity-levelresponsesremaincriticalforbuildingresilienceandensuringtheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.©tuomaslehtinen-ScenicviewoftheLumpini(Lumphini)ParkandBangkokcityinThailandfromabove19CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIntroductionThestateofAsianandPacificcitiesCitiesintheregioncontinuetoexpand.AsiaandtheInfact,manyofthecountrieswiththelowestlevelsofPacificishometo54percentoftheworld’surbanurbanizationintheregionarechangingatthemostrapidpopulation,withmorethan50percentoftheregion’srate.Nearlytwothirds(63.1percent)(WorldBank,2021)populationalreadylivinginurbanareas(ESCAP,2019b).ofthepopulationoftheLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicEvenpriortothepandemic,citieshadfailedtokeepliveinruralareas.Thecountryhasbeenfacingsignificantpacewithcontinuedandoftenunplannedurbanization.urbanizationsince2010,climbingtoarateofupto4.9Thishasledtolong-standingchallenges,suchasurbanpercent,whichishigherthantheglobalaverageof2poverty,multidimensionalinequalitiesandenvironmentalpercent(UN-Habitat,n.d.).2Thisputsagreatamountofdegradation.pressureonurbanandemergingurbansettlements.SouthAsia,theleasturbanizedregionofAsia,alsoisprojectedUrbanizationtrendsanddriverstoexperienceintensegrowthinthecomingdecades.Itsurbanpopulationexceeds743millionandisestimatedtoUrbantransformationinAsiaandthePacificoverthereachapproximately1.28billionby2050(UnitedNationspastfewdecadeshasoccurredatanunprecedentedrateDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2018).(ESCAP,2019b).Eventhoughtheregion’surbanizationratehasslowed,urbangrowthisprojectedtocontinueforUrbanizationacrossAsiaandthePacificisdrivenbyadecades.Thepopulationofpeoplelivinginurbanareasvarietyofforces.Aprimaryfactorforurbanpopulationintheregionisprojectedtoincreasefromapproximatelygrowthisthenaturalpopulationincreasefromnew2.48in2023to3.38billionin2050,resultinginangenerationsofcity-bornurbandwellers.Regionally,someadditional970millionurbanresidentsoverthesameofthelargestcitieswereseeingadeclineinnetmigrationperiod.1in2021comparedtotherisingurban-bornpopulationgrowth.(IOM,2021).AnotherimportantcontributingfactorThepopulationofpeoplelivinginisadministrativereclassification,asurbanboundariesurbanareasintheregionisprojectedexpandorruralsettlementsurbanizethroughdevelopmenttoincreasefromapproximatelyandpopulationgrowth.Bothinternalandcross-border2.48billionin2023to3.38billioninmigrationarealsoimportantcontributorstourbanization2050,resultinginanadditional970inmanycountries,asmillionsofpeoplemovefromruralmillionurbanresidentsoverthesameareasorothercountriestotownsandcitiesinsearchperiod.1ofemployment,educationandotheropportunities.AsreportedbyWorldBank(2022),theproportionoftheruralThistrendinurbangrowthisoccurringwhilecitiesacrosspopulationinIndiadecreasedsignificantlyfrom82pertheregionareatverydifferentstagesofdevelopment.centin1960to65percentin2021,complementedbyaSomecitiesinAsiaandthePacific,suchasBangkok,haveconcomitantincreaseintheurbanpopulationfrom17.9peralreadyundergonesignificantgrowth;others,suchascentin1960to35percentin2021.Vientiane,areonlyatthebeginningofthistransformation.1ESCAPCalculationbasedonUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2018b).2AccordingtoestimatesbasedonUnitedNationsDepartmentofEco-nomicandSocialAffairs(2018b),urbanizationannualgrowthratehasfluctuatedbetween3.2and3.5percent.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities20Inaddition,someurbancommunitiesintheregionhaveTheseimmenseagglomerationsmayevencoalesceintobeenforciblycreatedasaresultofdisplacement.The“mega-urbanregions”thatareclosertocountriesinnumberofurbanrefugeesinAsiaandthePacificeitherscaleandeconomicsignificance.Thesizeandvarietyofdisplacedbypoliticalevents,suchasethnicconflict,orbytheseextendedurbanareasdemandnewapproachestheconsequencesoftheclimatecrisisandgeophysicaltourbangovernancefromlocalmunicipalauthoritiestodisasters,totaled2.8millionin2019(IOM,2021),whichmetropolitanframeworksspanningarangeofdifferentwasinadditiontoanother6.2millionuptomid-2022,whostructures.wereinternallydisplaced(UNHCR,2022).Typically,thoseuprootedmovetocities.Some80percent,or2.8millionThoughmegacitiesoftendominatepolicyandmediapeopleclassifiedaspeopleforciblydisplacedbythediscussions,theyaccountforlessthan20percentofUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR),thetotalurbanpopulationintheregion.3Approximatelywhichincludesrefugeesandinternallydisplacedpeople45percentoftheurbanpopulationinAsiaisinurban(IDPs),aresettledinurbanandperi-urbanareas.Thisareaswithpopulationsof500,000orless(UnitedNationsfigure,forexample,was97percentinAfghanistanbyDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2018).2020(IOM,2020;UNHCR,2018).Approximately45percentofContinuedurbangrowthistransformingtraditionalsocialtheurbanpopulationinAsiastructures.Forexample,urbanizationhasbeenlinkedtoisinareaswithpopulationsofchangesinestablishedculturalandsocialnorms,such500,000orless.asincreasedfemaleparticipationinthelabourforce,lowerfertilityratesandageingsocieties(Trask,2022).Thesesecondarycities,whichoftenattractlessattentionNevertheless,whilegreatereconomicandsocialfreedomsinpolicyandpublicdiscussions,arefrequentlywhereareoftenpossibleincitiesformarginalizedgroups,suchthechallengesofurbanizationandinequalityaremostaswomen,personswithdisabilitiesandolderpersons,acute,aslocalauthoritieslackthecapacityorresourcesthetrade-offsformanyhaveincreasedinequality,torespondtothechallengesofrapidurbanization.Thisuncertaintyandmarginalization.Urbanmigrationcanleadhighlightstheimportanceofchannelingmoresupporttofragmentationinfamilystructures,declinesinfertilityandinvestmentintosmallerurbansettlementsacrosstheandshiftingnorms.Whilesomecitiesareaddressingregion.anageingpopulation,othersareexperiencinga“youthbulge”oracombinationofboth–aphenomenonthat,Muchofthecurrenturbangrowthisoccurringinthewhilepotentiallyofferingbenefits,suchasadigitalsavvyoutskirtsofcities.InHoniara,thegrowthhasreachedworkforce,alsobringsaccompanyingchallengesofmorethan15percentinsomeperi-urbanareasand,employment,developmentandsecurity.withinthecity,thegrowthischaracterizedbythespreadofinformalsettlementsinareasvulnerabletofloodingandTheregion’sacceleratingeconomicgrowthaspartoflandslides(UnitedNations,2017).ThiscontinuestoresulttheCOVID-19recoveryisalsoalteringthenatureandinthecreationofperipheral“desakotaareas”,whicharestructureofitscities.Urbancentrescontinuetoberapidlycharacterizedbyurbansprawl.Thesesettlementsfacereconfiguredbyglobalization,informationtechnologiesparticulardevelopmentchallenges,asmanyofthemlackandotherpowerfulforcesofchange.Newandtheresources,infrastructureorevengovernanceduetounprecedentedurbanformshaveemerged.Cities,suchthelackofadministrativerecognitiontobeeffectivelyasShanghaiandKarachi,forexample,haveexpandedintomanaged.metropolitanareasencompassingtensofmillionsofurbanresidents.By2025,twothirdsoftheworld’s49megacitieswillbeintheAsia-Pacificregion(GlobalData,2019).By2025,twothirds3ESCAPcalculationsbasedonthecurrentpopulation(2023)of29oftheworld’s49Asia-PacificmegacitiesasclassifiedbyUNESCO/estimatedtotalurbanmegacitieswillbeinthepopulation(2023)inAsia-Pacificx100=17,52%.Sources:TheUnitedAsia-Pacificregion.NationsEducational,EconomicandScientificOrganization(UNESCO)definitionofmegacityisavailableathttps://en.unesco.org/events/eau-mega2021/megacities(accessedon31May2023)andUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2022).21CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIntroductionInthiscentury,thedevelopmentfocusoftheregionToalargeextent,thedistinctionbetweenpositivewillshiftdecisivelytocities.AsmanycountriesinAsiaandnegativeurbancharacteristics–socialinclusionandthePacificgraduatetomiddle-incomecountryorsegregation,densityorovercrowding,livelihoodstatus,theirneedsarechangingfromtraditionalareascreationorjoblessness–ultimatelydependsonofdevelopmenttomorediversifiedsectors,includinghowacityismanaged.Urbanizationcanboostservices,technologyandinnovation.Demandforprosperity,participationandserviceaccess,butittechnicalassistanceandsupportinurbanmanagementcanalsoleadtotheformationofslums,inequalityislikelytoincrease,presentinganimportantentrypointanddisenfranchisement.Forcitiestorealizetheirfullforinternationalagenciestosupportdevelopmentacrosspotential,thevalueof“localizing”theimplementationtheregion.Urbanizationneednotbea“problem”,ifoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsisespeciallysoundlymanaged.importantinthecontextofcities.Box0.1“Urban”–theproblemofdefinitionsagloballyharmonizedmethodtodefineurbanandruralareaswasofficiallyadoptedbytheOnechallengeindefiningurbanareasisthelackUnitedNationsStatisticalCommissionin2020.ofconsensusonthedefinitionof“urban”.TheThemethod,titledthedegreeofurbanizationclassificationsvaryfromcountrytocountry.The(DEGURBA)(EuropeanUnionandothers,2021),Asia-Pacificregionhasanextraordinarilydiverseestablishessimilarthresholdsandaneasytonumberofurbanforms,rangingfrommegacitiestoimplementworkflowfordefiningsettlements,peripheralsettlements.Inthiscontext,definingwhatandidentifiesasystemofsettlementsalongtheconstitutes“urban”isdifficultasthebreadthofscaleurban-ruralcontinuum,solvingthelong-standingblurstheboundariesbetweencityandcountrysidechallengeofbinaryurban-ruralclassificationsthat–makingthetraditionaldistinctionlessmeaningful.distorturbanizationtrendsacrosscountries.TheAsettlementof10,000people,forexample,maybedegreeofurbanizationclassifiestheentireterritoryclassifiedasbeingurbaneventhoughitmayhaveofacountryalongtheurban-ruralcontinuum.Itmoreincommonwithitsruralsurroundingsthanacombinespopulationsizeandpopulationdensitymegacityofmillions.thresholdstocapturethefullsettlementhierarchy(EuropeanCommission,2020).ThetwinchallengesofdiversityofurbandefinitionsatthenationallevelandthelackofaclearlineMorethan50countrieshavedirectlyappliedthebetweenurbanandruralcommunitiespromptedmethod,includingcountriesfromtheAsia-Pacifictheinternationalcommunitytodevelopagloballyregion.Theyvaluethisapproachtoimprovetheirharmonizedmethodtodefineurbanandruralareas.understandingofurbanizationprocessesandtheThroughthiscommitment,whichwasledbyUN-productionofcomparabledatawithinandacrossHabitat,theEuropeanCommission,theFoodandterritories.WhilethemethodaimstoenhancedataAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationscomparability,itshouldbenotedthatitismeantto(FAO),theOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationcomplementandnotreplacethealreadyexistingandDevelopment(OECD)andtheWorldBank,anddefinitionsusedbynationalstatisticalofficesandthroughextensiveconsultationswithcountries,ministries.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities22TheresponseoftheAsia-Pacificregiontourbanizationandmarginalizedgroups,andabottom-upapproachisstillevolvingwithinthecontextofapost-pandemicshouldbetakentopromoteurbangovernanceandrecovery.Somecountrieshavehistoricallydiscouragedpolicydevelopment.Thisshouldincludeintegratingcivicthegrowthoftheirtownsandcitiesthrough“ruralization”participationandensuringfairandtransparentdecisionprogrammesorrestrictiveregistrationsystems.ThemakingprocessesintotheplanningandmanagementofCOVID-19pandemichasresultedinadeclineintheusecitiesasanessentialsteptowardsrealizingwhattheNewandeconomicvalueofurbancentralbusinessdistrictsUrbanAgendareferstoasthe“righttothecity”.duetohybridandremoteworktransitions.TheCOVID-19pandemichasWell-manageddecentralizationresultedinadeclineintheuseandcanprovidethebasisformoreeconomicvalueofurbancentraladaptiveandresilientcrisisbusinessdistrictsduetohybridgovernanceforcitiesprovidedandremoteworktransitions.therearesufficientresourcesandcapacity.Ingeneral,however,authoritiesarestillstrugglingtoWell-manageddecentralizationcanprovidethebasisforkeeppacewithurbangrowth,whilestateandagencymoreadaptiveandresilientcrisisgovernanceforcitiesprogrammesremainfocusedonruralareaswithoutprovidedtherearesufficientresourcesandcapacity.acknowledgingtheirdeepeningconnectionwithcities.Withawell-establishedlegal,institutionalandfinancialTheincreasingclosenessbetweenruralandurbanareasinframeworktosupportmunicipalcapacity,togethertheAsia-Pacificregionisacomplexandongoingprocess.withsufficientpoliticalwillandaccountability,localizedItcanleadtopositiveoutcomes,suchasimprovedlivinggovernancestructurescanfacilitatemoreinclusiveandstandardsandeconomicopportunitiesandchallenges,effectiveprocessestomanageresponsestoglobalincludingthepotentiallossoftraditionalculturalpracticescrises(Fischer,2021).However,whileurbanareascanandenvironmentalconcerns.Balancingthesechangesisbewellsuitedtopoliticaldecentralization,inpractice,essentialtoensuresustainableandinclusivedevelopmentmanycitiessufferfromweakandfragmentedgovernanceintheregion.implementationsystems.Inmanyinstances,thetransferofresponsibilityhasplacedgreaterpressureonalreadyTheurbanareasoftheAsia-Pacificregionrequirestrainedresources,whichdeclinedduringthepandemic.innovativeandcollaborativesystemsofgovernance.ForThisisespeciallythecasewhenthedutiesofgovernmentcitiestofunction,centralgovernments,localauthorities,havebeendevolvedtomunicipalauthoritieswithoutthecommunities,civilsocietyorganizationsandbusinessesnecessaryfinancialorhumanresourcesandcapacitiesmustactivelyparticipateingovernancestructuresandtocarryoutthesedutieseffectively.Thiscanleadtodecision-makingmechanisms.Developingtheknowledgeadeteriorationofinfrastructureandservices,whichandframeworksforsuccessfulmulti-stakeholderdisproportionatelyaffectsvulnerablegroups.collaborations–forexample,withprivatesectoractors–remainsachallengeformanyurbanareas.LackofTobeeffective,politicaldecentralizationmustalsoeffectivegovernancesystemscanleadtoservicegaps,beaccompaniedbyanappropriateleveloffiscalandshortfallsandinequity,whilewell-designedandregulatedbudgetarytransferstoensurethatlocalauthoritieshavesystemshavethepotentialtosubstantiallybenefitservicethecapacitytomeettheirresponsibilities.Thisshoulddeliveryandotherbasicfunctions.includedevolutionofkeyfunctions,suchaslocalfiscalmanagement,withtheprovisionofcapacitydevelopment.Creatingvirtualandin-personplatformstopromoteProcessestoensuremonitoringandtransparencyaregenuineparticipationandaccountabilityisvitaltoensureneededtokeeplocalauthoritiesaccountable.Citiesmeaningfulcontributionsfromindividualsandcivilsocietyshould,therefore,enjoysignificantautonomywithinorganizationstotheseprocesses.Considerationsshouldabroaderframeworkthatensurestheircontinuedbemadetoengageunderrepresentedcommunitiescommitmenttotheirconstituency,includingthepoorestandmostvulnerablemembers.23CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIntroductionPoverty,informalityandinequalitiesintheregion’scitiesGlobally,includingtheAsia-Pacificregion,thepandemicMorethan65percentofemploymentinAsia-Pacificpushedapproximately100millionmorepeopleintocitiesisintheinformaleconomy,whichhasbeenextremepoverty(Gopalakrishnanandothers,2021).Thedisproportionatelyaffectedbythepandemicandispoorest20percentofsocietyexperiencedthesteepestslowertorebound.(ADB,2022).Twoofthelargestdeclineinincomesduringthepandemic,andthepoorestemploymentsectors,wholesaletradeandretailtrade,40percenthavenotyetrecoveredtheincomelostdueandthefoodandaccommodation(aproxyfortourism)toCOVID-19(Gopalakrishnanandothers,2021).sectors,whichtogetheremployedmorethan350millionworkersinAsiaandthePacificin2019(ILO,2022),haveMorethan65percentofalargeshareofinformalworkersintheirworkforce.employmentinAsia-PacificcitiesisThesesectorsalsoaccountedforamuchlargershareintheinformaleconomy,whichhasofjoblosses;women,youngpeopleandinformalbeendisproportionatelyaffectedworkerswereparticularlyhardhitbyjoblossesastheybythepandemicandisslowertoaccountedformorethan50percentofthetourism-rebound.relatedworkforceandapproximately40percentofwholesaleandretailtrade(ILO,2022).Withinternationaltravelnotexpectedtoreachpre-pandemiclevelsbefore2024,thelossesinjobs–especiallyinthefoodandaccommodationsectors–maynotrecoveruntil2024(ILO,2022).Box0.2.Pandemicwarriors:empoweredwomenleadingAsia-PacificcitiesthroughCOVID-19challengesDuringtheCOVID-19pandemic,womeninbusinessesreportedadeclineinsales,comparedAsia-Pacificcitieshaveplayedacrucialroleinto47percentofmale-ownedbusinesses(ADB,variousaspects,showcasingtheirresilienceand2021b).Additionally,theInternationalLabourdetermination.AccordingtoareportbyUNWomenOrganization(ILO)reportedthatwomenintheAsia-Pacific,womenconstitutethemajorityofAsia-Pacificregionexperiencedadisproportionatefrontlinehealth-careworkers,accountingfor70perburdenofunpaidcarework,spendingapproximatelycentofthehealth-careworkforceintheregion(UN-4.7hoursperdayoncaregivingactivities,comparedWomen,2021).Furthermore,astudyconductedbyto1.7hoursformen(ILO,2021).ThesestatisticstheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)indicatedthathighlightthesignificantcontributionsofwomen,women-ledsmallandmediumenterprisesfacedtheobstaclestheyfaced,andtheneedforgender-uniquechallengesduringthepandemic.Thestudyresponsivepoliciesandsupportsystemstoaddressrevealedthat58percentofwomen-ownedthegenderedimpactsofthepandemicintheregion.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities24Socialandeconomicprotectionpoliciestosupporttheparticularlywhereformalandnon-formaltenuresystemsurbanlabourforceaffectedbythepandemichavenotcomeintoconflict.InmanyPacificcities,inefficientadequatelyconsideredinformality.Workers,especiallyinadministrationandcompetingclaimsofpublic,privateandtheinformaleconomy,havenotonlyexperiencedincomecustomarylandtenuresystemshavehalteddevelopmentloss,buttheyhavealsofacedmarginalizationastheyandperpetuatedthegrowthofinformalhousingtofillwerenotregisteredforsocialprotectionprogrammes.thegap.InadditiontoplacingtheurbanpooratconstantConsequently,theseworkerswerenotimmediatelyriskofeviction,thisrestrictsthemfromusingtheireligibleforgovernmentassistance.Majorstructuralshiftspropertyascollateraltosecurecreditforbusinessorareevidentthroughchanges.Thecasualizationoftheeducationalpurposes.Aslandpricescontinuetoriseduelabourmarketaswellasgrowthofthegigeconomyandtodevelopmentprojectsandinvestmentspeculation,theremotework,forexample,couldincreaseinformalityinthepoorareincreasinglydrivenoutofthecities.workplace.InsecurelandtenureandtheTherisingcostoflivingandinterestratesarecontributingresultingthreatofevictionisatotheproblemofunaffordablehousinginurbancentres,primarycauseofurbanvulnerability,whichpricesoutthepoorandincreasinglythemiddleparticularlyinslumsandinformalclass.Insecurelandtenureandtheresultingthreatsettlements.ofevictionisaprimarycauseofurbanvulnerability,particularlyinslumsandinformalsettlements.Landgovernanceremainsachallengeforsomeurbanareas,©DavidDavis-PeoplelivinginpovertyalongthecanalsofManilaPhilippines25CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIntroductionUrbaninfrastructureandservicesAsurbanpopulationsincrease,balancedandinclusivedevelopmentacrossthecountry.theneedforwell-managedpublicForinstance,KhonKaen,oneofThailand’smostrapidlyservicesandinfrastructurecontinuesexpandingcities,hasa20-yearstrategyplanwith136togrow.projectsinplace;oneofthemistheLightRailTransit(LRT)project,whichisactivelysupportedthroughfundingAsurbanpopulationsincrease,theneedforwell-managedandenablingpoliciesbytheGovernment(WorldBank,publicservicesandinfrastructurecontinuestogrow.2023).Ontheotherhand,anothercityinThailand,CitiesmustaddresstheseneedsbytacklingahostNakhonSawan,wasabletomobilizeclosetoB8billionofchallenges,including,amongthem,environmentalfrompublic-privatepartnershipsforurbaninfrastructurecrisesandfinancialpressuresfacedduringCOVID-19developmentafterthecityupdateditszoningplansandandthesubsequentrecovery.Asoneexampleofresetthepermissibleheightofbuildings(WorldBank,addressingthesechallenges,Thaicitiesandtheircentral2023).Theexperiencesofthesetwocitiesunderscoregovernmentagenciesareactivelyseekinginnovativetheneedforasupportiveandenablingenvironmentfinancingsolutionsforurbaninfrastructure.Mostoftheandpartnershipsatnationalandlocallevels.Central4.6billionThaibaht(B)(approximately$130,600,000)governmentsmustrecognizethesignificanceofurbanbudgetallocatedfordevelopingcitiesgoesmostlytodevelopmentandprovideadequateresourcesandsupportBangkokanditsneighbouringregions(WorldBank,tocities,suchasKhonKaen,toenablethemtoimplement2023).Distributingthesefundsmoreevenlytofosterthetheirstrategicplansandenhancetheoverallwell-beinggrowthofsecondarycitiescouldcontributetothenation’softheircitizens.Concurrently,localgovernmentsshouldoverallgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)andpromotemoreproactivelyseekalternativeavenues,suchasrevisingcityzoningregulationsandpublic-privatepartnerships,toovercomefinancialconstraintsanddriveurbandevelopmentprojectsforward.DigitaldividesandinequalitiesTechnologicalinnovationanddigitaltransformationsAtthesametime,itisimportanttonotethatwhilecreateopportunitiestoconnectpeopletogoods,servicesdigitalconnectivityoffersnumerousbenefitstohealth,andeachotherinnewwaysasgovernmentsandtheitalsobringschallengesrelatedtoprivacy,securityprivatesectorincreasinglydeliverservicesonline.Theandequitableaccess.IncreasingconnectivitycanalsoCOVID-19pandemichasproventhatdigitalconnectivityisintroducenewvulnerabilitiestomarginalizedgroupsandnolongeraluxury,instead,itisacornerstoneforresilientexacerbatewell-entrenchedchallenges.Benefitsfromcommunitiesandasocialdeterminantofhealth.Thisisurbandigitaltransformationarenotspreadequally.Fordemonstratedthroughadvancementsintelemedicineinstance,globally,27percentofolderpersonsinurbanforpopulationsinunderservedareas,healthinformationareaslackInternetconnectivity(EmilyRoyallandothers,accessandeducation,includingforcommunitieslivingin2021a).AccordingtotheInternationalTelecommunicationsinformalsettlements.PatientscanconsultwithdoctorsUnion(ITU),768millionchildrenandyoungpeople25andhealth-careprovidersviavideocalls,phonecallsoryearsoryoungerinSouthAsialackInternetaccesschatlines,eliminatingtheneedforin-personvisits.Digital(EmilyRoyallandothers,2021b).Thisshouldbecarefullyconnectivitysupportspublichealthinitiativesbyenablingconsideredwhendevelopingsolutionstobridgetheso-authoritiestodisseminateimportanthealthalerts,conductcalled“digitaldivide”.healthsurveysandtrackthespreadofdiseasesmoreefficiently.Onlineresources,articlesandvideoshelpindividualsmakeinformeddecisionsabouttheirhealthandwell-being.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities26Urbanfoodinsecuritiespeoplethanin2019(FAOandUNICEF,2021).ThepandemicledpoorurbanhouseholdstoreducetheirfoodGlobalsupplychaindisruptionsstemmingfromthebasketandmealfrequencyduetolossofincomeandpandemicandthecrisisinUkrainehavehadadevastatingrisingfoodpricesresultingfromsupplychaindisruptionsimpactonfoodsecurityintheAsia-Pacificregion.Ukraine(Ohlyandothers,2021).andtheRussianFederationtogethersupplyalmost24percentofgloballytradedwheatandalmost13percentThepandemicledpoorurbanofgloballytradedmaize(WFP,2022).Inaddition,thehouseholdstoreducetheirfoodRussianFederationisamajorsupplieroffertilizers,oilandbasketandmealfrequencyduegas.Sanctionsandexportrestrictionshaveaffectedthetolossofincomeandrisingfoodglobalsupplychain,increasedfuelpricesandhinderedpricesresultingfromsupplychaincountries’abilitytogrowfood,whichwillincreasefooddisruptions.insecurityfarbeyond2022(WFP,2022).India,whichaccountsformorethan35percentofglobalriceexports,IntheAsia-Pacificregion,1.8billionpeople(FAOandbannedtheexportofbrokenriceandincreasedexportUNICEF,2021)cannotaffordahealthydiet,whichtaxesonothertypesofriceinearlySeptember2022accordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)(Jacob,2022).Thiscouldfurtherincreasefoodprices.AshelpsprotectagainstmalnutritioninallitsformsandofAugust2022,theFAOFoodPriceIndexremainedat10.1noncommunicablediseases(WHO,2020).Becausepoints(or7.9percent)aboveitsvalueayearagoin2021differentpartsoftheeconomyarerecoveringatdifferent(FAO,2023).paces,lower-incomeandpoorhouseholdscouldfacepersistentfoodinsecurityandmalnutrition.Whiledisaggregateddataonfoodinsecurityinruralandurbanareasarenotreadilyavailable,thescaleoffoodinsecurityintheregionisacutelyfeltinurbanareas.Estimatesindicatethatmorethan1.1billionpeopledidnothaveanadequatedietin2020(FAOandUNICEF,2021).Anestimated375.8millionpeoplefacedhungerintheregionduringthepandemic,whichis54millionmoreCitiesandtheplanetarycrisisRisingsealevels,coastalerosion,heatwaves,bushfiresandtheincreasedintensityofprecipitationandstormsareThoughcitiesareoftenassociatedwithnegativeexpectedinthecomingyears(IPCC,2021).Therelativeenvironmentalimpacts,well-managedurbanareascansealevelintheregionhasincreasedmorerapidlythanbenefittheplanet.Amongotherpotentiallypositivetheglobalaverageandcountriesareexperiencingcoastaloutcomes,citiesandtownscanpromotemorecompactarealossandshorelineretreat(IPCC,2021).Thisincreaseslanduseanddeliverbetteraccesstoessentialservices,cities’vulnerabilitytostormsurges,coastalinundationandsuchassanitation,wastemanagementandpublicsaltwaterintrusionintoaquifers,leadingtolossoflifeandtransport.Theycanalsoprovidethenecessaryscaleforbiodiversity,billionsofdollarsoflossesanddamagetoenergy-efficientservicesandinfrastructure,resultingininfrastructure.Asinformalsettlementsareofteninareaslowerpercapitaemissions.Urbanareasareideallysuitedthatarefloodprone,poorersectionsofthepopulationforfinancingandimplementinggreentechnologiesthataremorevulnerabletotheeffectsofrisingsealevels.canlowerpercapitafossilfuelconsumption(UN-Habitat,Exclusionaryurbanplanningandlimitedinvestmentin2022).infrastructuredevelopmentincreasecities’risksoflossesfromextremeweatherevents.27CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIntroductionRapideconomicgrowthandurbanizationhasresultedincomelossduetoadverseweatherevents,canbecomeinanincreaseindemandforenergyintheregion.Themoreintenseinmanyvulnerablecities.currentenergycrisishasheightenedexistingissues,suchasthehighdependencyonfossilfuelsandanunevenAseconomiesandurbanareascontinuetoexpand,powerdistributionnetworkintheAsia-Pacificregion,itisexpectedthattheiremissionswillcontinuetoparticularlyininformalsettlements.Disruptioninfuelrise.Short-livedclimatepollutants(SLCPs)consistingsupplychainsandgrowingenergydemandshasledtoofblackcarbon,methane,ground-levelozoneandrecordpricesfornaturalgas,coalandoil,promptingmanyhydrofluorocarbons(HFCs)arethelargestcontributorsAsia-Pacificcountriestoregulatepricesandreducenon-totheanthropogenicglobalgreenhouseeffectafteressentialenergyconsumption(Yep,2022).4Higherenergycarbondioxide,responsibleforupto50percentofpricespushcountriesintodebt-distressandfurtherclimatechange.Duetotheirshortatmosphericlifetime,burdenurbanhouseholdsaffectedbylossofincomeSLCPsalsohavegreaterpotentialtoboostglobalwarmingandfoodinsecurities.Protestsagainstrisingandvolatileandposesignificantadverseeffectsonhealthandtheenergycostsareoccurringincities,whichareprolongingenvironment.Infact,manysourcesofairpollutantsareeconomicrecovery.Theenergycrisishasexacerbatedalsosourcesofgreenhousegases,makingcleanairexistingrecoverychallengesincities.Theseincludeactionscritical(RIFSPotsdam,2023).ensuringenergyaccessforall,particularlypowerreliabilityandcleancookingininformalsettlementsandlimitedTomitigatetheimpactofclimatechange,citiesmustuptakeofrenewableenergytechnologiesandefficiencyinvestinlowemissionandclimate-resilientdevelopmentimprovementsinkeyurbansectors,suchastransport.supportedbypoliciesandstrategies,capacitybuildingandtechnicalsupport.Low-elevationcoastalzonesCities,asenginesoftheeconomy,accountforneedtotakemeasurestominimizetheimpactofrisingapproximately70percentofenergy-relatedemissionssealevels,saltwaterintrusionintoaquifersandshoreline(IPCC,2022).AccordingtotheParisAgreement,ifretreat.immediatemeasuresarenottakentolimittheincreaseoftheglobaltemperatureto1.5°Cabovepre-industriallevels,4Seealsohttps://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/PlattsCon-greaterimpacts,suchasfoodinsecurity,inequalityandtent/_assets/_images/latest-news/062722-infographic-asia-pacif-ic-economies-ballooning-energy-crisis-oil-gas-lng-coal-electricity.jpg©jakartatravel-CitycontrastinJakarta,IndonesiacapitalcityTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities28COVID-19exposesunequalurbanhealthsystemsThecombinationoffoodinsecurities,climatechangeequipment(PPE)anddifficultyinmaintainingsocialandpollutionincreasestheriskofcommunicableanddistancing,contributetothedisproportionateimpactonnoncommunicablediseasesforurbanpopulations.vulnerableurbancommunities.Moreover,individualsinUrbanhealthsystemsintheAsia-Pacificregionhavelow-incomeareasmayhavejobsthatdonotallowremotenotkeptpacewithcontinuedurbanization,particularlywork,makingthemmorevulnerabletoexposure.Theinprovidingservicesininformalsettlements.ThedistributionofCOVID-19vaccinesoftenfocusedonurbanCOVID-19pandemichasshownthatunderlyingissuescentreswithbetterinfrastructure.Asaresult,slumswereofinequalityandexclusion,alongwithovercrowding,overlookedintheinitialphasesofvaccinedistribution,andinadequateaccesstohousingandbasicservicesleadingtodelaysinreachingvulnerablepopulationsincities,wereafactorinthehighertransmissionand(Acharya,GhimireandSubramanya,2021).morerapidspreadofCOVID-19(UN-Habitat,2021).Wealthierneighbourhoodsoftenhavebetter-equippedAccordingly,improvingaccessibilitytohealthcarehospitalsandmedicalfacilities,whilelower-incomeiscriticalfortacklingfuturepandemicsanddiseasecommunitiesfacelimitedaccesstohealth-careservices.outbreaks.Inaddition,engagingandworkingThepandemichasintensifiedtheconsequencesofthiscollaborativelywithlocalcommunitieshaveproduceddisparity,asindividualsinunderservedareasmoreoftenbetterhealthoutcomesduringthepandemic.Investinginstruggletofindanearbyhealth-carecentre,leadingcommunitypartnerships,alongwithmeasurestocollecttodelayedorinadequatetreatmentforCOVID-19anddisaggregateddataandimprovingaccesstotheInternet,otherhealthconditions.Factors,suchasovercrowdedwouldhelprespondtofuturehealthshocksincities.livingconditions,limitedaccesstopersonalprotective29CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesIntroductionTheimportanceofsustainedurbanprogressinchallengingtimesDuringandaftertheCOVID-19resilienceandunityofcitiesintheAsia-pandemic,citiesintheAsia-PacificPacificregion,settingaprecedentforregiondemonstratedremarkableregionalfuturechallengesthatmayarise.collaborationandsupportforoneanother,indicatingtheimportanceofcollectiveThesustainablerecoveryoftheAsiaandactiontomitigatetheimpactsofthecrisis.PacificregionwillbelargelydeterminedbyThroughvariousregionalcooperationitsurbanareas–theirstrengthsandtheirinitiatives,citiessharedknowledge,shortcomings.Urbanizationisapositiveresourcesandbestpracticestotackleandinevitableprocessinacountry’sthechallengesposedbythepandemic.developmentthatcannotbeignoredorForinstance,Singaporeextendeditsforciblyconstrained.Itcan,however,expertiseincontacttracingandhealth-beguidedtowardsmoreinclusiveandcaremanagementtothecitiesofSeoulsustainableoutcomes.andTokyo,amongothers,helpingthemdeveloprobustsystemsforcontrollingDespitechallenges,sustainableurbanthespreadofthevirus.Furthermore,planningthataddressesclimatechange,cities,suchasShanghaiandHongKong,andleveragesdigitalizationandfinanceChina,collaboratedonsharingdataandstillrepresentanextraordinaryopportunityexperiencesrelatedtopublichealthforcountriestoliftthemselvesoutofmeasures,enablingtimelyandeffectivecrises.Drawinguponconsultationsonthedecision-making.Cities,suchasSuva,statusofSustainableDevelopmentGoalPune,HoiAnandSubangJaya,organized11onsustainablecitiesandcommunitiesvirtualforumswithESCAPinwhichtheyintheregion,inthepresentreport,sharedstrategiesonmanagingpublicthelinkagesbetweenurbanplanning,healthcrisesandthesocioeconomicclimateaction,digitalizationandfinancerecovery,ensuringaccesstoessentialinurbanareasofAsiaandthePacificservices,andimplementingsocialsafetyareexplored.Thereportconcludeswithnetsforvulnerablepopulations.5Inactionsforpolicymakerstoguideurbanadditiontotheexchangeofinformation,cooperationandpartnershipstoaddresscitiesintheregionalsoprovidedaidseveredisruptionsandlong-standingandsupporttoeachother.SydneyanddevelopmentchallengesincitiesforaMelbourne,forexample,sentmedicalsustainableurbanrecoveryinAsiaandthesuppliesandequipmenttocitiesinIndiaPacific.duringthedevastatingsecondwaveofCOVID-19,showingsolidarityand5Forfurtherinformationonthisproject,pleasevisitcompassionintimesofcrisis.Thesehttps://www.unescap.org/our-work/environment-devel-collaborativeeffortsshowcasedtheopment/cities-for-a-sustainable-future/resilient-inclu-sive-citiesandhttps://urbaneconomicresilience.org/.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities3001Chapter01Urbanandterritorialplanningforaresilientfuture31CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01Asian-Pacificcitiesarediverse,complexanddynamicsystemsthatarecontinuouslyevolvingandgrowing.ThesecitieswillhouseapproximatelyUrbanizationand3.38billionpeople,representingthepopulationtrends,majorityoftheworld’surbanpopulationregardlessoftheirby2050.6Urbanizationratesandleveltrajectories,arecriticalofurbanizationvarybysubregionandfactorsforurbanandcountry.Countries,suchastheLaoterritorialplanning.People’sDemocraticRepublicandMaldives,arerecordingsomeoftheUrbanizationandpopulationtrends,highesturbangrowthratesintheregionregardlessoftheirtrajectories,arecriticalandlowestlevelsofurbanization,at33factorsforurbanandterritorialplanning.percentand41percent,respectivelyHowever,whenurbanizationoccursinan(Lang-atJunior,2018).Ontheotherhand,unplannedmanner,particularlyincountriescountries,suchasJapanandtheRepublicwheretherateisincreasingrapidly,itofKorea,areexperiencingaslowdownposessubstantialproblemsforurbaninthegrowthoftheirurbanpopulations.planning,managementandenvironmentalTheUnitedNationsDepartmentofsustainability,andplacesimmenseEconomicandSocialAffairsestimatespressureonlocalgovernmentsalreadyadeclineintheurbanpopulationofgrapplingwithlimitedresourcesandJapan(absolutenumbers),withmarginalcapacitytomeettheescalatingdemandgrowthoftheproportionoftheurbanforurbanservices.Theconvergenceofpopulation(UnitedNationsDepartmentmultiplecrisesfurtherexacerbatestheseofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2018a).Itchallenges,intensifyingthestrainonurbanalsoestimatesthattheurbanpopulationsystems,amplifyingsocialinequality,and(absolutenumbers)oftheRepublicofincreasingvulnerabilitytoclimatechangeKoreaisincreasing,butatalowrate,withanddemandforvitalresources,suchaspopulationlossevenoccurringinsomewater.cities.ThefactorsinfluencingthesetrendsinJapanandtheRepublicofKoreacanbe6ESCAPcalculationbasedonUnitedNationsattributedtodecliningbirthrates,ageingDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2018b).populationsandthecountries’alreadyhighlevelofurbanization,at90percentinJapanandat80percentintheRepublicofKorea(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2018b).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities32UrbanizationtrajectoriesandInformalsettlementsandslumsarewherethemostmarginalizedleavingnoonebehindandvulnerablepeopleliveincitiesintheregion.Asof2018,AsiaUrbanandterritorialplanningcanplayasignificantroleandthePacifichadthelargestinnotonlyshapingthefutureofcitiesintheAsia-Pacificnumberofpeoplelivingininformalregion,butalsoinimprovingqualityoflifeandreducingsettlements(approximately650inequality.Prioritizingequitabledistributionandutilizingmillion).universaldesignprinciplesensuresbarrier-freeaccesstoservicesthatconsiderthespecificneedsofmarginalizedInformalsettlementsandslumsarewherethemostandvulnerablepopulationgroups,includingtheelderly,marginalizedandvulnerablepeopleliveincitiesinwomen,peoplewithdisabilitiesandyoungpeople.theregion.Asof2018,AsiaandthePacifichadtheAccordingtoESCAP,asof2016,atotalof717millionlargestnumberofpeoplelivingininformalsettlementsyoungwomenandmenaged15to24liveintheAsian(approximately650million)(UnitedNationsDepartmentandPacificregion,accountingformorethan60percentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2018a).Thesesettlementsoftheworld’syoungpeople.Projectionsalsoindicatethatoftenlackaccesstocleanwater,sanitationfacilitiesandtheproportionofelderlyisexpectedtoincreaseto16perreliableelectricity,andarethemostvulnerabletothecentofthepopulationofAsiaby2040(Jong-Wha,2018).impactsofmultiplecrises.WomenandgirlsmostlybearGenderdisparitiesaremoreacuteintheurbanareas.theresponsibilityofcollectingwater,managinghouseholdWomen,especiallythosefrommarginalizedcommunities,choresandensuringfamilyhygieneinthesechallengingencounterbarrierswhentryingtoaccessbasicservices,environments,furtherburdeningtheirhealthandwell-suchaswater,sanitation,housing,transport,educationbeing.andhealthcare,asdistance,affordability,safetyandculturalnorms,forexample,presentobstaclesthatpreventthemfromfullyparticipatinginurbanlifeandaccessingessentialamenities.©AlexeyStiop-HouseinTajikvillage33CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01Box1.1.UrbanplanningandhousingforallUrbanandterritorialplanningcanfacilitateaccessIn2022,theGovernmentofthePhilippineslaunchedtobasicservicesandtheupgradingofinformalaflagshipprogramme,thePambansangPabahaysettlements,createaffordablehousingandimproveparasaPilipino(4PH)(Regani,2023),whichaimstotheresilienceofcities.Infillingandinclusionaryaddressthecountry’s6.5millionhousingshortagezoningregulationscanrequiredeveloperstoincludebybuilding1millionunitsannuallyuntil2028(PNA,acertainpercentageofaffordablehousingunitsin2023).Thismulti-stakeholderprogramme,whichtheirprojects,incentivizepreservingandupgradingengageslocalgovernments,theprivatesectorexistingaffordablehousing,andpromotehigher-andcommunities,intendstotransforminformaldensitymixed-usedevelopmentsthatcanincreasesettlementsintoprimemixed-useresidentialsiteshousingsupplyandmakehousingmoreaffordableandwaterfronts.Featuresoftheprogrammeincludeincities.Specialconsiderationmustbeextendedin-cityresettlement,high-densityhousinginhighlytowomeninlow-incomehouseholds,astheytendurbanizedareasanduseofidlegovernmentland.tofacedifficultyinaccessingaffordablehousingduetoincomeinequalitiesandsystemicbarriers.TheGovernmentofIndiaisaddressingtheaffordableSinglemothersoftenfaceadditionalvulnerabilitieshousingshortagethroughthePradhanMantriAwasandstruggletofindaffordablehousingthatmeetsYojana(PMAY),amissionwithatargettobuild20theirneeds,particularlyiftheyarealsoresponsiblemillionhomestobenefitslumdwellersandlow-forchildcareandothertypesofcaregiving.Overall,incomegroupinitiallyby2022(extendedto2024)addressingtheaffordablehousingchallengeincities(Bai,2022).Fundingconstraints,delayswithprojectprovidestheopportunitytotransformthequalityapprovals,landavailabilityandacquisition,qualityoflife,improveresilienceandsustainability,andofconstruction,limitedawarenessandoutreach,catalyseeconomicdevelopmentthatleavesnooneresettlementandrehabilitationissues,inadequatebehind.Therehavebeensomesignificantpolicyinfrastructure,andestablishingrobustmonitoringandinterventionsintheregiontoaddressthehousingevaluationmechanismsaffectedthesuccessandcrisis,suchasinthePhilippinesandIndia.demonstratedthecomplexityofdeliveringadequateandaffordablehousing.Todate,7.5millionhouseshavebeencompletedundertheproject(India,MinistryofHousingandUrbanAffairs,n.d.).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities34MinimizingsprawlandSprawlingcitiesareakeyfactorbehindthesustainabilitycrisis.Sprawlreducestheaffordability,livabilityandmaximizingresiliencesustainabilityofacity.Unfortunately,astheregion’scitiesexpandeconomically,theyareincreasinglysprawling.UrbanizationpatternsintheAsia-PacificregionexhibitFigure1.1depictsthedegreeofurbanizationforseveralspatialvariations.Megacities,suchasBangkok,citiesintheAsia-Pacificregion,comparingdatafromSeoul,Mumbai,Delhi,Jakarta,ShanghaiandManila,2015to2023.Thevisualsshowtheverticalgrowthoftheareexperiencingcontinuedgrowth.Forexample,theurbancoresofmegacities,suchasBangkokandSeoul,populationofBangkokincreasedfrom9.4millionin2015alongwiththeexpansionoftheboundariesofcitiesto10.7millionin2021,a12percentincreaseinjustsixduetosprawl.Suchsprawlhasincreasedthecostsofyears(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialmunicipalinfrastructuredevelopmentandoperatingcostsAffairs,2022).Additionally,thepopulationsofsecondarybyapproximately20-35percent(Gielenandothers,cities,especiallythosealongthecoast,arealso2021).ProjectionsindicatethatSouth-EastAsiaispoisedgrowingatanextremelyhighrate.Comparedwithmanytodoubleitsurbanlandbetween2010and2050(Baker,otherpartsoftheworld,theAsia-PacificregionhasaEllisandRoberts,2016).Thisexpansionnecessitatesdisproportionatelyhighnumberoflargecitiesonthecoaststrategicinvestmentsininfrastructure,includingtransport,(Nunn,SmithandEldrick-Barr,2021),leadingtogrowingenergysystems,waterandsanitation,andhousing,andconcernsoftheescalatingrisksofrisingsealevelsandclimate-proofingmeasuresforcoastalcities.Toaddressfloodingduetoclimatechange.thesedemands,comprehensiveurbanplanning,land-managementstrategiesandclimateaction,supportedbyComparedwithmanyotherpartsofappropriatesocialandeconomicpolicies,andbolsteredtheworld,theAsia-Pacificregionhasabyenhancedlocalgovernmentcapacityandresourcesaredisproportionatelyhighnumberoflargecitiesrequired.onthecoast,leadingtogrowingconcernsoftheescalatingrisksofrisingsealevelsandfloodingduetoclimatechange.2015vs2023UrbancentreUrbanclusterFigure1.1.UrbanSeoulconcentrationinRepublicofcapitalcitiesKoreaSource:EuropeanCommission(2023).BangkokThailandNote:CapitalcitiesofseveralAsia-PacificcountriesbetweenBaku2015and2023experiencedanAzerbaijanincreaseinurbancentresdensityasindicatedbythecolourredinthemaptoshowcasetheirdegreeofurbanization,7whichcouldalsoshowcasetheverticalgrowthincities.7Urbancentre(inred)definesacity:Anurbancentreconsistsofcontiguousgridcellsof1sqkmwithadensityofatleast1500inhabitantspersqkmandaminimumtotalpopulationof50000.Formoreinformationseehttp://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Urban_centre.35CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01MakingcitiesmoreresilientandTerritorialPlanning,provideguidanceandprinciplesformakingcitiesandterritoriesmorecompact,sociallyTheformandfunctionofcitiesareaffectedbyavarietyinclusive,betterintegratedandinterconnected,whichofaspects,whichareexplainedinbox1.1.Thesedynamicultimatelyfostersustainableurbandevelopmentandbuildinterconnectedelementsneedtobefactoredintoeffortsresiliencetoclimatechange(UN-Habitat,2015).todevelopproactivepolicyandplanningsolutionsthatfostersustainabilityandresilience.Frameworks,suchastheUN-HabitatInternationalGuidelinesonUrbanBox1.2.DefiningcitysystemsThesocialfabricofcitiesincludesculturalaspectsandsocialnetworks,whichreflectthediversity,Acitysystemreferstothecomplexandrichnessanduniquenessofurbanlife.interconnectednetworkofsocial,economic,environmentalandspatialcomponentswithinThemanagementandprotectionofnaturalcitiesandurbanareas,constitutingdynamicresourcesandenvironmentwithinandaroundrelationshipsandconnectionsbetweenvariousacityaffectsfactors,suchasairquality,waterelementsthatcontributetotheform,functionality,resources,greenspacesandbiodiversity,which,livability,resilienceandsustainabilityofacity.inturn,affectsitsresilience,sustainabilityandThesecomponentsbroadlyincludepopulation,livability.infrastructure,builtenvironment,economy,governance,socialsystems,environment,Theuseofinclusiveandinnovativedigitaltechnology,mobilityandtransport,andresilience:solutionsandinfrastructureenhancestheefficiencyandconnectivityofacitythroughAcity’spopulationisdynamicandconstantlythedeploymentofsmart-citytechnologies,changing,constitutingadiversemixtureofages,dataanalytics,internetconnectivityanddigitalculturesandlabour.platforms.ThephysicalinfrastructureistheskeletalsystemTheintegratedtransportmodesandnetworksofacitysupportingitsoperationsandthedailywithincitiesprovideformobilityandconnectionlivesofurbanresidentsthroughtheprovisionofthroughroadandrailnetworks,publictransport,transitsystems,communicationsystems,publiccyclingandpedestrianwalkways.utilitiesandamenities.Theresilienceofcitiesandtheirabilitytoadapt,Thebuiltenvironment,definedbyitsarchitecture,respond,andrecoverfromshocksandstressors,buildings,variousscalesandgreenandpublicdisastersandenvironmentalchallengesrequiresspaces,shapestheform,functionalityandlivabilitystrategiestargetingclimatechangemitigation,oftheurbanlandscape.disasterpreparedness,energyefficiency,wastemanagementandurbanplanningthatcutEconomicactivitiesacrossformalandinformalacrossandneedtobefactoredintothephysicalsectorsdriveacity’sfinancialgrowthandprovideinfrastructure,builtenvironment,governance,employmentopportunities.Thegrowthandtechnologicalsolutionsandenvironmentalsustainabilityoftheeconomyofcitiesaredirectlymanagementofcities.affectedbytheirpopulationdynamics.ThesecomponentsinteractandinfluenceeachotherCitiesaregovernedbyinstitutions,policiesandwithinthecityecosystem.Theyformacomplexwebregulations,consistingoflocalgovernmentbodies,ofinterdependenciesandinteractionsthatneedtobeadministrativeframeworksandlegalsystems.factoredintourbanterritorialplanningandpolicies.Goodgovernanceensuresthatcitiesarewell-Understandingandmanagingtheseinteractionsaremanagedandthatpublicservicesareprovidedincrucialforsustainableurbandevelopmentandtoanequitable,efficientandaffordablemanner.improvethequalityoflife,resilienceandsustainabilityofcities.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities36Economicactivitiesplayanimportantroleindrivingtheenhancingaccesstojobopportunitiesandprovidingsustainabilityofcities.AsiaandthePacificishometoequitableaccesstosupportiveinfrastructure,includingsomeoftheworld’sfastest-growingeconomies,includingchildcareservices.IntheAsia-Pacificregion,morethanChina,IndiaandseveralSouth-EastAsiancountries.Amid65percentofthepopulationisemployedintheinformalthebackdropofthemultiplecrises,thesignificanceofsector(ILO,2018).Thisvariesacrosstheregionfromcitiesandlocaleconomicdevelopmenthasbecomemorebelow20percentinJapantoapproximately90perpronounced,astheymakesubstantialcontributionstocentandaboveinBangladesh,Cambodia,India,theLaonationalandregionalGDPbyfunctioningascatalystsforPeople’sDemocraticRepublicandNepal(ILO,2018).economicrecovery,stimulatingoveralleconomicgrowthGovernmentsandplannersintheregionareincreasinglyandinfusinginnovationintovarioussectors.Plannersmustrecognizingtheimportanceofsupportingtheinformalconsidereconomicfactorsrelatingtoland-usedecisions,sectorduetoitssignificantcontributionstotheurbaninfrastructureplanning,housingrevitalizationeffortslandscapeandnationaleconomies.Urbanplanningplaysandsustainabilitygoalstocreateeconomicallyvibrantanimportantkeyroleinpresentingopportunitiesfortheandsustainableurbanenvironments.Additionally,urbaninformalsectortothrive.planningcansupportwomen’seconomicempowermentbyfosteringwell-designedmixed-useneighbourhoods,FormalizationandagilityofurbanplanningpoliciesandframeworksNationalurbanplanningpoliciescontinuetoevolveacrossnationalurbanplanningpoliciestoguidesustainabletheregioninlinewithanincreasingfocusonsustainabledevelopmentandurbangrowth,exemplifiedbytheurbandevelopment,resilience,inclusivity,climateaction,NationalPhysicalPlan(NPP).TheNPPisfocusedonlong-smartcitiesandparticipatoryprocesses.Thesepoliciestermspatialplanningpolicy,providingacomprehensivefacilitateanintegratedapproachandvisionforurbanframeworkforland-usedevelopmentacrosstheandterritorialplanningthatconsidersurban-to-ruralcountry(Malaysia,2020),andhasbeensuccessfulinlinkagesandfostersacommonvisionandcooperationguidingsustainableurbandevelopmentandfosteringacrossdifferentlevelsofgovernmentandstakeholders,asbalancedregionalgrowth.However,theimplementationadvocatedbytheNewUrbanAgenda(NUA).oftheplanhasencounteredchallengesduetolimitedcapacityandresources,lackofcoordinationamongSeveralcountriesintheregionareprioritizingintegrateddifferentgovernmentagenciesandlevels,anddifficultyurbanandterritorialplanningasafundamentalprincipleinestablishingeffectivemonitoringandevaluationtosupportsustainableurbandevelopment.Theseeffortsmechanisms.encompasspromotingcompactandwell-plannedcities,sustainabletransportsystems,energyefficiency,wastemanagementandtheconservationofnaturalresources.Malaysia,forinstance,hassuccessfullyimplemented37CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01TheRepublicofKoreahasachievedsignificantsuccessplanningframeworks.Manygrowingcitiesintheregioninurbanplanninganddevelopment.Thecountry’sFive-areexperiencingunregulatedandunplannedgrowthYearPlansforBalancedNationalDevelopment(OECD,patterns.Withoutformalization,itisdifficulttoprioritize2019b)hasbeeninstrumentalinpromotingsubnationallong-termgoals,addressenvironmentalconcerns,anddevelopmentandreducingdisparities.TheGovernmentensureequitableservicedeliveryanddevelopment.hasfocusedoncreatingbalancedgrowthacrossdifferentMoreover,thelackofresponsivenessofexistingplanningsubnationals,investingininfrastructure,promotingframeworkshinderstheabilityoflocalgovernmentstoindustrialclustersandenhancingconnectivitythroughactswiftlyduringcrises,whichisespeciallyimportantinhigh-speedrailnetworks.TheCheonggyecheonStreamAsiaandthePacific,astheregionispronetotyphoons,RestorationProject(WorldBank,n.d.)inSeoulisaearthquakesandfloods.notableexampleofurbanrevitalization,transforminganeglectedwaterwayintoathrivinggreenpublicspace.Insummary,amongthechallengesfacedbyurbanandSimilarly,theurbanplanningpoliciessetbyJapanterritorialplanninginAsiaandthePacificarethelackofemphasizecompactandmixed-usedevelopment,efficientformalizationofplanningframeworks,existingframeworkspublictransportsystems,disasterpreparednessandthatarenotagileenoughtorespondtomultiplecrises,preservationofculturalheritage.TheadoptedTransit-fragmentedgovernance,unregulatedgrowthpatternsOrientedDevelopmentapproach,whichfocusesonandinefficientresourceconsumption.Overcomingtheseurbandevelopmentalongtransitcorridors,hasledtothechallengesrequiresthesettingofrobustpoliciesandcreationofvibrantandwalkableneighbourhoods.planningframeworks,enhancedgovernancemechanisms,integratinginformalsettlements,thepromotionofsocialDespiteprogressinrecentyears,urbanandterritorialequity,andstrengtheneddatacollectionandmanagementplanningintheAsia-Pacificregioncontinuestofacesystems.Theseeffortsareessentialtoachievingsignificantchallenges,particularlyamongrapidlysustainableandinclusiveurbandevelopmentintheregion.urbanizingcountriesthatlackrobust,formalizedandagile©Natalia-HistoricalChewJettywithwoodenfishingboats,UnescoWorldHeritagesite,GeorgeTown,Penang,MalaysiaTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities38Box1.3.NewcapitalcitydevelopmentintheregionSeveralcountriesintheAsia-PacificregionhaveIn1995,MalaysiainauguratedPutrajayaasitsdevelopednewcapitalcitiesforavarietyofreasonsfederaladministrativecapital,shiftingsomeofitsincluding,amongthem,toimproveadministrativeadministrativefunctionstothenewcity,whichefficiency,addressovercrowdingandoverpopulation,isonly25kmsouthofKualaLumpur(O’Connell,andenhanceurbanplanningandinfrastructure.2021).Thenewcapitalcitywasmeticulouslyplannedwithdesignedinfrastructure,wideroads,TheVisionofIndonesia2045,ledbytheMinistryofmodernarchitectureandgreenspaces,makingitanNationalDevelopmentPlanning,aimstoestablishaestheticallypleasingandenvironmentallyfriendlyIndonesiaasasovereign,advancedandprosperouscity.Putrajayaisknownasoneofthegreenestcitiescountry.Toaddressaccessibility,infrastructureintheworld,withanabundanceofbiodiversity,constraints,transportationsystemchallengesandandithasawell-developedinfrastructuresystemoverpopulationinJakarta,theGovernmentpassedwithgoodconnectivity,includinganefficienttheCapitalCityBillinJanuary2022,pavingthetransportationnetwork,whichhasmadethecitywayfortheconstructionofthenewcapitalcityapopulardestinationfortourists.Overall,thenewnamedNusantara(ASEAN,2020).Thenewcapitaliscitydevelopmenthascontributedtowardsimprovedlocatedatthegeographiccentreofthecountryandaccesstoservicesandabetterqualityoflifeforall.isplannedtobeagreenandsustainablecitythatcovers632,850-acres(roughlythreetimesthesizeTheGovernmentofTurkmenistanledanintegratedofNewYorkCity).Seventy-fivepercentofthecityismultilevelgovernanceapproachtoplanandplannedasgreenspaceforprotectedlandandfoodimplementthenewcityofArkadag.Basedontheproduction.Constructionof14percentofthenewconceptofacompactintegratedandmix-usecapital’sinfrastructurehasbeencompleted.Thenewdevelopment,thecityisbeingbuilttohave64,000capitalwillnotonlyrelievecongestion,butitalsoinhabitantswiththeaimofpromotingahighqualitywillprovideanopportunitytoupgradethestrainedoflifeasthenewcapitalcityfortheAhalregion.TheinfrastructureofJakarta.Byrecognizingtheneedcity’splanning,implementationandmanagementforsustainabledevelopmentandacknowledginghavebeendesignedwithaviewofcreatingatheflawsininfrastructureandconnectivity,thevibrant,low-carbon,mixed-useandsmartcityGovernmentofIndonesiahassetanexampleforthatcontributestotheimplementationoftheNewtakingactionandmovingtowardsbuildinganUrbanAgendaandthe2030Agenda.Thecityplansinnovativecitythatsupportssocietalgrowthandtointroducethefirstpublicelectrictransportinprosperity.ThisscaleandmagnitudeofdevelopmentTurkmenistan.8requiresamajorinvestment.TheGovernmenthasopenedpathwaysforforeigninvestmentscombined8Forfurtherinformationonthisinitiative,seehttps://www.turk-withtaxincentives(100percenttaxholidayfor10menistan.gov.tm/en/post/73549/electric-vehicles-city-arkadag.to30years)toencourageinvestmentinallsectors,includinginfrastructure,maritimeaffairs,publicworksandeducation.Thesepoliciesarepresentinganewexampleofpublicandprivatefundingforcitydevelopment.39CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01EmbracingcompactnessforsustainabilityandresiliencePromotingcompactintegratedsustainability.ThisapproachalsodirectlycontributesdevelopmentisacomprehensivetowardseffortstorealizeSustainableDevelopmentGoalapproachtourbanplanningthat10byaddressingsocialinequalities.Traditionalurbanenhancestheefficiency,liveabilityplanningoftenreinforcessegregationandexclusivity,andsustainabilityofcities,butanintegratedapproachbreaksdownbarriers,whilecontributingtowardsthewhichimproveaccessibilitytohousing,amenitiesandimplementationofthe2030Agenda.opportunities,ensuringthatnooneisleftbehind.Beyondpromotingsocialequity,compactdevelopmentalsoPromotingcompactintegrateddevelopmentisacontributestoSustainableDevelopmentGoal7,whichcomprehensiveapproachtourbanplanningthatenhancesadvocatesaffordableandcleanenergy.Byfacilitatingtheefficiency,liveabilityandsustainabilityofcities,theefficientuseofresourcesandinfrastructure,travelwhilecontributingtowardstheimplementationofthedistance,energyconsumptionandcarbonemissions2030Agenda.AttheheartofSustainableDevelopmentarereduced,whichfurthersupportsenvironmentalGoal11istheaspirationforliveableandaffordablesustainability.Moreover,thisapproachbolsterseconomiccitiesandcommunities,characterizedbyinclusivity,development,acentraltenetofSustainableDevelopmentconnectivity,resilience,safety,cleanlinessandapeople-Goal8.Theclusteringofvariousfunctionswithincentredapproach.Compactmixed-usedevelopmentacompactspacestimulateseconomicactivityandalignsperfectlywiththisobjectivebyoptimizinglandentrepreneurship.Asaresult,localeconomiesflourish,useandintegratingdiversefunctionswithinalimitedandindividualsbecomebetterconnectedtoemploymentspace,therebyimprovingaccessibility,resilienceandcentres,fosteringsocialmobilityandeconomicempowerment.Inthegrandtapestryofurbanplanning,compactmixed-usedevelopmenthasemergedasacompellingthreadthatweavestogethertheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.ImprovingqualityoflifeandefficienciesThebenefitsofwell-designedcompactcities,ataforsmall-scaleentrepreneurshipandlocalemployment.neighbourhoodscaleoratalargercityscale,aremanifold.Multi-tenantcommercialbuildingswithanchorlargeTheycontributetoimprovedqualityoflifeforresidentstenantsreducecostsforsmallertenants.Theprovisionthroughefficientlanduse,reducedtraveldistancesandofpublicandprivatesocialspaces,andintegrationofcongestion,enhancedsocialcohesion,vibrancy,culturallive,workandplaylifestylesandopportunities,alsorichnessandlivability.Economicviabilityandaffordabilityincreasesfoottrafficandpotentialinteractionsofdifferentarealsopromoted,alongwithsustainableresourcebusinessesandpotentialcollaboratorsthatcandrivemanagement(Kotullaandothers,2019).cross-sectoralinnovationsandbusinessdevelopmentandincreaseconsumer-facingbusinesses’profitabilityandHigherdensitiesofoverlappingresidents,businessesresilience.Overtime,thiscreativeecosystemcanattractandleisurespacespromotesthesharingofresourcesmorebusinesses,entrepreneursandotherelementsofandbuildseconomiesofscale,whichcanreducebusinessdevelopmentecosystems,oneofthemanylivingandinfrastructurecostsandrisks,stimulatebenefitsofurbanagglomeration,whicharemaximizedinbusinessopportunities,andmakemoreefficientuseofhyperdense,mixed-use,pedestrian-drivencompacturbaninfrastructureandspaces.Italsoprovidesopportunitiescoresofmajorcities(Moretti,2013).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities40Inaddition,thedevelopmentofintergenerationalInfrastructureefficienciesneighbourhoodscanreducecityhealth-caresystems’ofcompactcitiesprovidecostsbyintegratingelderlycarefacilities.Volunteerandmunicipalitieswithmorefunding,careresourcesbecomemoreaccessibleandavailable,whichfreesupbudgetstoinvestinasneighbourhoodelderlyresidentscanprovidechildcaremorepublicgoods,includingsoftservices,whichcansupporttheirmentalresilienceandinfrastructure,suchaspublicparks,well-being,andincreasetheinclusivenessofcities.businessdevelopmentandjobtrainingprogrammes.Compactdevelopmentalsoreducesurbansprawlanditsassociatednegativeimpacts.SprawlincreasesmunicipalInfrastructureefficienciesofcompactcitiesprovideinfrastructuredevelopmentandoperatingcosts,typicallymunicipalitieswithmorefunding,whichfreesupby20-35percent.This,inturn,createsbudgetdeficitsforbudgetstoinvestinmorepublicgoods,includingsoftmunicipalities,whilecompactdensemixed-usedistrictsinfrastructure,suchaspublicparks,businessdevelopmentgeneratemunicipalprofits(Porter,2021).Inthelongandjobtrainingprogrammes(OECD,2012).Brisbane,term,sprawlburdensresidentswithsubstantiallyhigherAustraliahasembracedtheconceptofacompactlivingcostsbyrequiringlongercommutesandincreasedcitytoaddressurbansprawlandpromotesustainabletransportcostsforbothresidentsandmunicipalitiestodevelopment.Thecityhasinvestedintheexpansionsuchadegreethatthetransportcostssubstantivelyofpublictransport,includingbusandferryservices,tonegatesavingsfromlowersuburbanhousingpurchaseconnectresidentstoemploymentcentres,educationalpricesforresidents.Theincreasedutilitydemandandinstitutionsandrecreationalareas.Thecity’sdevelopmentinfrastructurecostsofsprawlaretypicallypassedontoapproachencourageshigherresidentialdensities,betterresidents.Sprawlreducessocialmobilitybenefitsthatconnectingresidentstoamenitiesandservices.compactcitiesgenerate,therebylimitingresidents’accesstoemploymentopportunitiesandaffectingtheirabilitytoaffordtheircostsofliving.Box1.4.CompactdevelopmentacrossneighbourhoodstomegacitiesTokyo,amegacity,isknownforitsefficientlanduseavibrantstreetlifeandsenseofcommunity.Theandcompactdevelopment,whichdemonstratestheintegrationofhousing,offices,retailoutletsandapplicabilityoftheconceptfromneighbourhoodstoentertainmentvenueshadcreatedalivelyandmegacities.Thecity’stransit-orienteddevelopmentdynamicurbanenvironment(KimandSeo,2019).approachhasledtothecreationofnumerousmixed-useneighbourhoods,whereresidentialareasMelbournehasembracedcompactmixed-useareseamlesslyintegratedwithcommercial,retaildevelopmentprinciples,particularlyinitscentralandinstitutionalfacilities.Thishasgivenresidentsbusinessdistrict(andinner-cityareas–whichisalsoconvenientaccesstoamenitieswithinwalkingreflectedinthecity’sactiveroleinadvancingthedistance,reducedtheneedforlongcommutesandSustainableDevelopmentGoals,suchasthrougheasedcongestion(Murooka,ShimizuandTaniguchi,aVoluntaryLocalReview)(Melbourne,2022).The2021).city’surbanplanningpoliciesencourageamixofresidential,commercialandculturaluses,resultingSeoulhassuccessfullyimplementedcompactmixed-invibrantneighbourhoods,suchasSouthbankandusedevelopmentinseveralneighbourhoods,suchDocklands.TheseareasofferadiverserangeofasHongdaeandGangnam.Theseareascombineamenitiesandcontributetothecity’seconomicresidential,commercialandculturalspaces,fosteringvitality(DevelopmentVictoria,2023).41CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01GreenerandmorecarbonneutralcitiesandneighbourhoodsTheRooftopGreeningInitiativesofHongKong,China©kafka©saiko3p-MallmainstreetinManali,IndiaweredevelopedtoenhancethequalityoflifeandenvironmentalsustainabilitygiventhelimitedspaceinIndonesiaandthePhilippines,andongoingprojectsforthecity.RooftopsaretransformedintogreenspacescitiesinGeorgia,India,Pakistan,SriLankaandThailandwithgardens,parksandurbanfarms.Theseinitiatives(Vemuriandothers,2023).Busrapidtransitsystemshaveproviderecreationalareas,improveairqualityandfosteralsotransformedcitiesthroughtheuseofhigh-capacitycommunityengagementthroughgardeningactivities,buseswithdedicatedroadwaysinfiftyAsiaPacificcitieswhichisintendedtoincreasetheratioofgreenspacestotodate,transportingmorethan9.6millionpassengersper10m2perperson,increasepublicgreenspacesthatpeopleday(GlobalBRTData,2023),whilereducingcongestion,canaccesswithin400metresorfiveminutesbywalkinglocalairpollutionandglobalcarbonemissions.acrossatleast50percentofthecity,andincreaseurbantreecanopyperurbanareato30percentofthecity’sDevelopingacompactcityiskeytoachievingcarbontotalarea(C40,2020).Publicpedestriansocialspacesneutralitybyimprovingenergyandresourceconsumption.incompactwalkablemixed-usedistricts,suchasdistrictIntegrated,compact,pedestrian-drivenmixed-useplazas,courtyardsandparks,boostsocialinteractionsbycitiesconsumelesslandareaandhouseholdenergy,increasingfoottrafficandthequantityanddiversityofandaremoreprofitableformunicipalities,residentsandlive,workandplayactivitieswithinthearea.Parksbecomebusinesses(UN-Habitat,2018).Sustainableresourcemorewidelyusedandalsooffergreaterpotentialforsocialmanagementisenhancedbyreducingtheneedforinteractions,asdifferentbuildingoccupantsaccesspubliclong-distancetravelandassociatedenergyconsumption.spacesatdifferenttimes,suchasoffices,restaurants,Itencouragestheuseofpublictransport,walkingandresidences,daycarecentresandschools.Thestrategiccycling.Moreover,compactmixed-usedevelopmentoftenintegrationofwildnaturalenvironmentsintopublicspacesincorporatesgreenspacesandsustainableinfrastructure,andneighbourhoodssupportsoutdoorliving.improvingenvironmentalsustainabilityandenhancingtheresilienceofurbanareas.Table1.1showsthecontributionLocatingdifferentlandusesincloseproximityreducesofcompacturbandevelopmenttosustainability.thedistancesbetweenhomes,workplaces,schoolsandamenities,encourageswalking,cyclingandtheuseofpublictransport,andreducesrelianceonprivatevehicles.Thishelpstoalleviatetrafficcongestion,lowercarbonemissionsandimproveairquality.LaunchedattheConferenceofParties(COP)21,whichwasheldin2015,theMobiliseYourCityPartnershipwasestablishedasaleadingglobalpartnershipforsustainableurbanmobilityplanningandpolicydevelopmentfordevelopingandemergingeconomies.Thepartnershiphasmorethan70membercities,withacombinedpopulationthatexceeds75millionpeoplein32countries(MobiliseYourCity,n.d.).UnderitsGlobalMonitor2023,ithasidentifiedinvestmentneedsof22.3billioneuros–whichincludescitiesinIndia,TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities42Table1.1.ThecontributionofthecompactcitytourbansustainabilitySub-characteristicsContributiontourbansustainabilityofthecompactcityEnvironmentalbenefitsSocialbenefitsEconomicbenefitsShorterintra-urbanFewerCO2emissionsGreateraccessibilityduetoHigherproductivityduetraveldistanceslowercosttoshortertraveltimeforLesspollutionfromautomobilesworkersLowertransportcostsLessautomobileFewerCO2emissionsHighermobilityforpeopleDevelopmentofgreendependencywithoutaccesstoacarjobs/technologiesLesspollutionfromautomobilesImprovedhumanhealthduetomorecyclingandwalkingMoredistrict-wideLessenergyconsumptionLoweringcostofenergyDevelopmentofgreenenergyutilizationsupplytohouseholdsjobs/technologiesandlocalenergypercapitaandfewerCO2emissionsMoreenergygenerationindependenceLoweringcostofenergysupplytohouseholdsOptimumuseoflandConservationofHigherqualityoflifeduetoRuraleconomicresourcesandmorefarmlandsandnaturalmorerecreationalactivitiesdevelopment(suchas,urbanagricultureandopportunityforbiodiversityurban-ruralrenewableenergy)linkagesFewerCO2emissionsduetoshorterfoodtravelmileageSource:OECD(2012).Planningcompactcitiescanoccuratmultiplelevels,frameworks,andoratneighbourhoodorprojectinvolvingvariousstakeholdersanddecision-makinglevels,throughpartnershipswithcivilsocietyandthebodies.Thisincludesnationalandsubnationalprivatesector.Overall,promotingcompactintegratedgovernmentssettingbroadguidelinesandframeworkstodevelopmentisvitalforsustainableurbandevelopment,shapeurbandevelopmentthroughurbanandterritorialasitcontributestowardseffortsaimedatrealizingmultiplepoliciesandcityormetropolitangovernmentsthroughSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandfosteringefficient,thedevelopmentofmasterplansorcity-wideplanninglivableandvibrantcitiesforfuturegenerations.43CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01InclusiveaccessTheHumanRightsCouncil,initsresolution43/14,adoptedon19June2020,callstohousinginauponStates“totaketherighttoadequatehousingintoaccountinstrategiesformulti-crisesadaptationtoandmitigationofclimatechange”and“toworkwithaffectedcontextcommunitiesandindividualstodevelopandpromoteenvironmentallysustainableAccesstoaffordableandadequatehousingisanabsoluteandsoundhousingdesign,constructionnecessitytoattainadecentqualityoflifeandfortheandmaintenancetoaddresstheeffectsofdevelopmentofsustainableandresilientcities.Thisisclimatechangewhileensuringtherighttoespeciallyrelevantinamulti-crisescontextinwhichadequatehousing”.buildingresilienceatthehouseholdandcitylevelsisessentialforaddressingchallengesrelatedtodisasters,Prioritizingandinvestinginaffordableandadequateclimatechange,publichealthemergencies,andsocialhousingallowscitiestoaddresstheseinterconnectedandeconomicshocks.AccordingtotheOfficeofthecrisesbyprovidingstability,resilienceandsupporttoUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHumanRightsvulnerablecommunities.Energy-efficientconstruction(OHCHR),climate-fuelleddisasterswerethemaindrivermethods,adoptingelectricallypoweredappliancesandofinternaldisplacementoverthepastdecade,forcingheatingandcoolingsystems,andlocatinghousingnearanestimated20millionpeoplefromtheirhomeseachpublictransitareseveralstrategiesthatcanreduceyear(UnitedNations,2022).Thosewhoarehomelessortheimpactofhousingonclimatechange.Housingandlackingaccesstoresilientorsecurehousingarethemostcommunitiescanalsobedesignedandbuilttobemoreadverselyaffected,oftenlivinginareasthatarevulnerableresilienttonaturaldisastersandclimatechange(Officetofloods,hurricanesandcyclones,stormsurges,ofPolicyDevelopmentandResearch,2022).Additionally,mudslides,earthquakesandtsunamis.Manycountrieshousingconstructioncanstimulateeconomicactivityandimplementingdisasterriskmanagementmeasuresfailtojobs.AkeytargetoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,considertheireffectsonvulnerablecommunitiesandtheirunderGoal11target11.1istoensureaccessforalltorighttohousing.Estimatesindicatethatthebuildingandadequate,safeandaffordablehousingandbasicservices,constructionsectoraccountsfor39percentofglobalandupgradeslumsby2030.However,thefoundationenergy-relatedcarbondioxide(CO2)emissions,mostnatureofhousingmakesitanintegralpartofseveralotherofwhichisconcentratedinmiddle-andhigh-incomeGoals(HabitatforHumanity,2021).countries(UnitedNations,2022).However,low-incomecountriesrequirethemostconstructionifSustainableManyinformalsettlementsarealsoinecologicallyDevelopmentGoaltarget11.1istobeachieved.Membersensitiveareas,suchasriverbanks,hillsidesorcoastalStatesneedtorespondurgentlytotheclimatecrisisandzones,increasingthevulnerabilitytonaturaldisastersalsoensureaccesstosustainablehousing,whilefocusingandenvironmentaldegradation.Balancingtheneedforonthosemostinneed.TheHumanRightsCouncil,inupgradingwhileensuringenvironmentalsustainabilityanditsresolution43/14,adoptedon19June2020,callsresilienceposessignificantchallenges.AddressingtheseuponStates“totaketherighttoadequatehousingintochallengesrequiresacomprehensiveandmultidimensionalaccountinstrategiesforadaptationtoandmitigationofapproachthatconsiderslegalframeworks,financialclimatechange”and“toworkwithaffectedcommunitiesmechanisms,communityparticipation,institutionalandindividualstodevelopandpromoteenvironmentallycapacity-buildingandsustainableurbanplanningsustainableandsoundhousingdesign,constructionandstrategies.Itisessentialtoadoptinclusivepeople-maintenancetoaddresstheeffectsofclimatechangecentredparticipatoryapproachesthatinvolvebuildingwhileensuringtherighttoadequatehousing”.communitiesandensuretheirmeaningfulparticipationindecision-makingprocessestoprioritizetheirneeds.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities44InclusiveupgradingapproachesEmbracingparticipatoryplanningandcommunityisvitalforthesuccessfulimplementationofupgradingengagementapproachesenablesresidentsofinformalinitiatives.However,limitedinstitutionalcapacity,settlementstoactivelyparticipateinshapingthedecisionsfragmentedgovernancestructuresandinadequatethatimpacttheirlivingenvironment.Theseapproachescoordinationmechanismscanhindertheplanning,fosterasenseofownershipandresultinthedevelopmentimplementationandmonitoringofupgradingprogrammes.ofsustainablesolutionsthatmeetthespecificneedsofresidents.ExamplesofsuccessfulinitiativeswereEffectivecoordinationandimplementedinThailand,wheretheBaanMankongcollaborationamonggovernmentprogrammehassupportedparticipatoryslumupgradingagencies,localauthoritiesandprojects(Chandran,2021),andinIndia,wheretheRajivstakeholdersisvitalfortheAwasYojanafocusesoninclusiveandsustainablehousingsuccessfulimplementationoffortheurbanpoor(India,n.d.).Theseeffortshighlightupgradinginitiatives.theimportanceofadequateandaffordablehousing,andinclusiveapproachesinaddressingthechallengesfacedTheAsia-PacificregionhasdevelopedinnovativesolutionsbyinformalsettlementsandimprovingthelivingconditionsthatareapplicableatscaleifurbangovernancesystemsofvulnerablepopulationsintheAsia-Pacificregion.areenabledtodoso.Forinstance,inIndia,inMaharashtrastate,ofwhichthestatecapitalisMumbai,developersTherearemanychallengesassociatedwiththeupgradingcanbegivenownershipofinformalsettlementareasofinformalsettlements.Thesesettlementsoftenlackatnocost,iftheresidentsconsent,andredevelopthelegalrecognitionandsecurelandtenure,whichmakeslandinanymannertheychoose,aslongastheexistingimplementingupgradinginitiativesdifficult.Unclearhouseholdsareprovidedhousingintheredevelopedareapropertyrightsandownershipdisputescanhinderforfree(Cooper,2020).Becauseofhighlandvalues,theformalizationprocessandleadtoresistancefromdevelopersmustdevelopmixed-use,densedevelopmentsresidentsorconflictinginterestsamongstakeholders.onthelandtogenerateaprofit.ThisresultsintheSignificantfinancialresourcesarerequired.Limiteddevelopmentofhigh-quality,mixed-incomeandmixed-accesstofundingandbudgetconstraints,especiallyusecompact,pedestrian-friendlycommunities.atalocallevel,canimpedetheimplementationofcomprehensiveandsustainableupgradingprogrammes.InformalsettlementsnotlocatedinprecariousareaswithinSecuringfinancingforinfrastructuredevelopment,citiescanbemoreeffectivelyintegratedthroughinsituhousingimprovementsandcommunityfacilitiesisaupgradingthatregularizeslandrightsandimprovesaccesscommonchallenge.Informalsettlementsoftenlackbasictobasicservicesandhousing.infrastructureandessentialservices,suchaswatersupply,sanitation,electricityandpavedroads.Upgradingeffortsrequiretheprovisionoftheseservices,whichmaybecostlyandtechnicallychallenging,especiallyindenselypopulatedsettlementswithlimitedspace.Engagingandmobilizingresidentstoparticipateintheupgradingprocesscanbedifficultduetomistrust,differingprioritiesandconflictswithinthecommunity.Effectivecoordinationandcollaborationamonggovernmentagencies,localauthoritiesandstakeholders45CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01Urbanplanning’svitalroleinenablingaffordablehousingUrbanplanningcanplayanofaffordablehousingunitsduetomarketpressuresorimportantroleinenablingdeterioration(Allbee,JohnsonandLubel,2015).affordableandinclusivehousingthroughpolicies,regulationsThepandemiccausedasignificantshiftinhousinganddevelopmentstrategiesthatmarketsandhousingdemand,andshowedthecentralityaddresstheproblemsrelatedtotheofhousingandinequitiesincities.Becauseoftheaffordabilityofhousingincities.lockdownmandatesandsocialdistancing,alargeportionofthelabourmarketusedtelework,whichledtoUrbanplanningcanplayanimportantroleinenablingincreaseddemandforlargerdwellingsandhigherhouseaffordableandinclusivehousingthroughpolicies,prices.Maintaininganaffordablehousingsupplyinacityregulationsanddevelopmentstrategiesthataddressthewithagrowingeconomyisequallychallenging.Thisisproblemsrelatedtotheaffordabilityofhousingincities.demonstratedbythegeneraldeficiencyinhousingsupply,PoliciesandregulationscanrequiredeveloperstoincludeasevidencedbythelowratioofhousingcomparedtoacertainpercentageofaffordablehousingunitsintheirGDP,lowhousingloansasashareoftotalcreditratioprojects.Bymandatingamixofaffordableandmarket-(CarrascoandShah,2018),andthatonethirdoftheratehousing,plannersensurethataffordablehousingregion’shouseholdsliveininformalsettlements(ADB,optionsareintegratedintovariousneighbourhoods,which,2014).Urbanplanningcancontributetowardsincreasinginturn,promotessocioeconomicdiversityandpreventshousingsupplybyensuringefficientland-usepracticestheconcentrationofpoverty(LocalHousingSolutions,andallocatinglandformixed-usedevelopmentsthatn.d.).Promotingthedevelopmentofhigher-densityandincludeaffordablehousingandsettingappropriatedensitymixed-useprojectscanincreasethehousingsupplyandrequirementsclosetotransportationhubs.Urbanplannersmakehousingmoreaffordable.Byallowingforgreatercanbeinstrumentalinthestreamliningapprovalprocessesbuildingheights,reducedbuildinglinesandflexiblezoningforhousingprojects,whichwouldreducebureaucraticregulations,plannerscanencouragetheconstructionofhurdlesandexpediteconstructiontimelines.moreunitsonagivenparcelofland,makinghousingmoreeconomicallyfeasible(Freemark,2023).Improvinghousingaffordabilityrequiresamulti-facetedpolicyapproach.Facilitatingastrongersupply-sideAnothersolutionistoofferincentives,suchasexpeditedresponseisessentialforcountriesintheregiontoaddresspermits,densitybonusesorfinancialsubsidiestounderlyingimbalances.Thisrequiresareviewofland-usedevelopers,whoincludeaffordableunitsintheirprojects.regulations,greaterfocusonurbanplanning,incentivizingByaligningincentiveswithaffordablehousinggoals,theuseofidleland,andtheprovisionofadequatesocialplannerscanencouragedeveloperstoparticipateinandaffordablehousingdirectlybythepublicsectorandinitiativesintendedtopromoteaffordablehousing(MRSC,indirectlythroughincentivesofferedtoprivatedevelopers.n.d.).UrbanplanningcanalsofocusonpreservingandSupply-sidemeasuresoftentaketimetoproduceresults,rehabilitatingexistingaffordablehousingstock.Plannerswhileplacingapremiumondemand-sidemeasurestendscanidentifyat-riskpropertiesandimplementstrategiestoworkmorequickly.Suchmeasurescanincludetargetedtomaintaintheiraffordability,suchasofferingtaxcredits,governmentsupport,progressivetaxationonproperty,grantsorloansforrenovations,andensurelong-termtargetedmacroprudentialpolicytocontainsystemicrisksaffordabilityagreements.Thisapproachpreventsthelosswhilebeingmindfulofitsrepercussionsonlower-incomehouseholdsandowner-occupiers,andmakinguseoftargetedfinancing,insuranceandguaranteemechanisms(Debandothers,2022).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities46StrengtheningurbanandterritorialplanningTostrengthenandadvanceurbanandterritorialplanningKeyintheregion,policymakers,governments,developersRecommendationsandcommunitiesneedtoworktogethertocreateanenablingandagileregulatoryframework,andexpandurbandevelopmentfinancesinwaysthatcontributetotheeffectiveplanningandsocioeconomicperformanceofurbanareaswhiletakingintoconsiderationthechallengespresentedbythemulti-crisescontext.Inthisregard,belowaresomekeyrecommendations.Createapolicyenvironmentfortransformativeandresilienturbanplanning,enabledbymultilevelgovernanceToaddressthechallengesresultingfromamulti-Integratedurbanplanningapproachesshouldcrisesandpromotesustainableurbandevelopment,bepromoted,whiletakingintoaccounttheitisimperativetofurthersupporttheformalization,interdependenciesbetweendifferentsectorsandagilityandintegrationofnationalurbanpoliciessystemsasacriticaltooltosupportlong-termandsubnationalplanningframeworksandpoliciesdevelopment,andcrisisadaptationandmitigationsupportedbyinternationalcommitmentsandstrategies.Multi-stakeholderengagementandnationalandsubnationaltransformativevisions,participatoryprocessesshouldbefosteredtowhilebeingalignedwithlocalpriorities.Maintainingensureinclusivityandtransparency.Collaborationaneffectiveregulatoryframeworkrequiresadoptingandnetworkingamongcities,alongwithfinancialparticipatoryapproaches,promotinginclusivityandsupport,wouldfurthersupportsustainableurbansocialequity,andstrengtheningmonitoringanddevelopment.evaluation.Ensuretheprovisionofcapacity-buildingandcoordinationforeffectiveurbanplanningandlocalactionToovercometheimpactsofmultiplecrisesandresponsibilities,allocationofresources,synchronizedcontributetowardssustainabledevelopment,action,institutionalcapacityandaddressingbuildingcapacityandresources,andstrengtheningfragmentedgovernance.Capacity-buildingtheauthorityofcitiestogovernandplanprogrammesandknowledgeexchangeplatformseffectivelylaysthefoundationforeffectivelocalshouldbeestablishedtoenhancetheskillsofcityaction.Successfulimplementationrequiresofficialsandplanners,especiallytodealwithmulti-intergovernmentalcoordination,clearrolesandcrisessituations.47CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter01Developholistichousing,urbanplanninganddisaster-riskmanagementpolicies,strategiesandregulationstoaddresstheaffordablehousingcrisisincitiesToboostaccesstoadequateandaffordablesocialhousingprogrammesandupgradinghousingincitiesandtacklethehousingcrisis,informalsettlement,promotingmixed-incomeacomprehensiveapproach,theengagementneighbourhoods,allocatingpubliclandforaffordableofmultiplestakeholdersandthedevelopmenthousing,engagingcommunitiesindecision-makingofvariousintersectinghousing,planningandprocessesandsecuringsufficientfinancialsupport.disaster-riskmanagementpolicies,strategiesByimplementingthesemeasures,citiescanaddressandregulationsareneeded.Thisincludessettingthepressingissueofhousingaffordabilityandclearhousingaffordabilitytargetsacrossavarietycreateinclusiveurbanenvironmentswhereresidentsoftenurearrangements,providingincentivesforhaveaccesstoqualityhousing.Thiswouldimprovethedevelopmentofaffordablehousing,fosteringlivingconditions,reducehousinginequalities,andpublic-privatepartnerships,developinginnovativecontributetowardstheoverallwell-being,improvedfinancingmechanisms,reformingregulationsresilienceandsustainabilityofcitiesintheAsia-tostreamlineprocesses,developingtargetedPacificregion.Promoteintegrated,compact,mixed-useneighbourhoodsandcitiessupportedbypublictransportandactivemobilitytomeetclimateandsustainabilitytargetsTopromotetheestablishmentofintegratedcompactevaluationmechanisms.Byadoptingthesepolicymixed-useneighbourhoodsandcitiesduringrecommendations,governmentscancreateurbanmultiplecriseswiththeobjectivetofosterresilience,environmentsthatarecompact,economicallysustainabilityandsocialcohesion,Asia-Pacificvibrant,sociallyinclusiveandenvironmentallygovernmentsmustprioritizeandimplementkeysustainable,whichwouldresultinimprovedlivabilitystrategies.Thisentailsrevisingzoningandland-andqualityoflifeforresidents.usepoliciestofacilitatemixed-usedevelopment,developingguidelinesandurbanplanningstrategiesAcontinuedcommitmentandcomprehensivethatencourageuniversaldesignprinciplestoapproachtointegratedtransportandland-useensurebarrier-freeaccesstocitiesandservices,planningcanfurtherenhancesustainablemobility.especiallyforwomen,theelderly,peoplewithFinancialsupportneedstobedirectedtopublicdisabilitiesandyoungpeople,fosteringpublic-transportandactivemobilityinfrastructureandprivatepartnershipstosupportthedevelopmentofservices,includingsharedbikes,e-bikes,e-scooterstheseneighbourhoods,engaginglocalcommunities,andridehailing.Saferoadinfrastructureandparking,ensuringsocialequityinvestingininfrastructureandclearregulations,affordableprices,andpaymentconnectivity,reformingregulationstostreamlinemethodsthatarealsoaccessibletolow-incomeprocesses,andestablishingmonitoringandgroupswould,therefore,needtobeconsidered(ESCAP,2021).ThefutureofurbandevelopmentintheAsia-Pacificregionacrosstheregion,andsubstantivelymitigateadverseisachoice.ThecontinuedgrowthandurbandevelopmenteffectsresultingfromthediversecrisestheAsia-Pacificinvestmentsintheregioninthecomingdecadespresentregionfaces.Byincorporatingclimateimperativesintoauniqueopportunity.Inthischapter,itisclearlyindicatedurbanandterritorialplanning,citiesandcommunitiesthaturbanandterritorialplanningwillplayakeyinthewouldbebetterpreparedtocopewiththechallengesdevelopmentofmorecompactcitiesandaddressingtheofthechangingclimate,whichisthesubjectofthenexthousingcrisis,whichcansignificantlycontributetowardschapter.increasedqualityoflife,sustainabilityandresilienceTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities4802Chapter02Urbanresilienceatacrossroads:multilevelclimateaction49CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02TheconceptofurbanresilienceisideallysuitedtoplanforthemultiplicityofshocksandstressorsthatAsiaandthePacificcitiesface.Ashighlightedinthe2019FutureofLow-carbongrowthandAsian&PacificCitiesReport,resilience-thetransitionofurbanbuildingentailsenhancingsystemicurbanareaspresentsthegreatestattributes,suchaslocalizedrobustnesseconomicopportunityandflexibility(ESCAP,2019b).Buildinggloballyinmorethanaresilienceenablescitiesandtownstocentury.bettercopewith,andcapitalizeon,unexpectedandunknownexternalcrisesAsalreadynoted,AsiaandthePacific(Trundleandothers,2016).Asmultipleishometomorethanhalfoftheworld’sinterlinkedcrisescontinuetoevolve,urbanpopulation.Theregionbecamefocusingonresiliencemakesiteasierofficially“majorityurban”in2019(ESCAP,toshiftawayfromapredisposition2019b).However,midwaythroughthetowardstargetedefficiencies,maximizedcriticaldecadeforclimateaction,andproductivityandsiloedspecialization,andtheimplementationperiodforthe2030marksastep-changefrompre-COVIDAgenda,theregion’sinterrelatedprogresseffortstoframecitiesprimarilyasthetowardssustainableurbandevelopmentengine-roomsofeconomicdevelopmentandlow-carbon,climate-resilientcitiesacrosstheregion(Friendandothers,andtownsremainssignificantlyoff-track2014).(ESCAP,2023).DataonSustainableDevelopmentGoal11,asnotedelsewhere,Climatechangeisa“wickedproblem”andaregenerallypoor.Keyareasthatareamultifacetedglobalthreatthataffectsfallingshortofthetargetsofthe2030urbandevelopmentintheAsia-PacificAgenda,suchasreducinghumanandregion.Itinterconnectsurbanproduction,economiclossesduetodisasters(11.5),consumptionandassociatedcity-centricarebeingdirectlyhinderedbytheresourceflowsandconcentrationsacceleratingonsetofclimatechange.withlong-term,non-linearimpactsTheseimpactsareparticularlyacuteinthethatadverselyaffecttheinhabitants,citiesandtownsofAsiaandthePacific,infrastructureandecosystemswithinwhicharedisproportionatelylocatedinthesehuman-dominatedspaces.Thecoastal,ripariananddeltaareas.Thesecouplingofclimaticandurbanchangesinareasarealsobeingheavilyaffectedtheregionactsasaconfounding“helix”,bytropicalandmonsoonalhydrologicalwiththesedualdynamicscomplicatingcycles,increasingtheirvulnerabilitytoadaptationplanningandeffortstobuildclimaterisks,suchasstormsurges,cloudclimateresilience.Low-carbongrowthandbursts,tropicalcyclonesandfloodingthetransitionofurbanareaspresentsthe(Nunn,SmithandEldrick-Barr,2021;greatesteconomicopportunitygloballyRollins,WheelerandFrazier,2022).inmorethanacentury.Thefocusofthischapterisonclimate-relatedelementsofresiliencebyexamininghowthecitiesofAsiaandthePacificareforgingpathwaystomitigate,adaptandcapturetheopportunitiesarisingfromtheclimatecrisis.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities50Low-carbonAsshowninfigure2.1,moreheavilyurbanizedcountriesurbanfuturesacrossAsiaandthePacifictendtohavehigherpercapitacarbonemissions.ThisisafunctionofthemoreGlobally,astrongcorrelationbetweenlevelsofconventionalcarbon-intensiveeconomicdevelopmenturbanizationandgreenhousegasemissionscontinues.pathwaysfollowedbymanyoftheregion’smemberDecouplingurbanizationtrendsfromcarbon-intensiveStatesandthecontinuedpresenceofcarbon-intensivegrowthisimperative.Thiscorrelationisintertwinedproductionandtheextractionoffossilfuelscarriedwithnotonlyhousehold-levelincomeandconsumptionoutbymanyoftheregion’smoredevelopedcountriesincreasesinurbanareas,butalsowiththeroleofcitiesin(AndrewandPeters,2022).Themoreurbanizedcountrieskeyareasofenergy-intensiveproduction(Rafiq,SalimandandterritoriesofEastandNorth-EastAsiaarehubsNielsen,2016).Citiesaccountforanestimated70percentofindustrialproductionandexportersofasignificantofglobalenergyconsumptionandasimilarshareofglobalshareoftheworld’svalue-addedconsumerproducts;carbonemissions(IPCC,2022).Despitepositivesignsofresourceflowsarenotreflectedinterritorialproduction-adecouplingofurbanizationlevelsandcarbonemissionsbasedcarbonintensitymeasures.ThePacific,however,acrosstheOECDcountries(Wangandothers,2021)anddivergessignificantlybetweenthehighlyurbanizedandinsomemetropolitanareasinAsia(Fujiiandothers,2018),moredevelopedmembersofAustraliaandNewZealand,thispatternisnotyetevidentinurbanizingemergingandthebroaderspectrumofPacificislandcountriesandeconomies,wherethebulkoffutureurbangrowthwillterritorieswherecarbonfootprintsarelower,andurbanoccur,andwhereenergyconsumptionisgrowingthemostconsumptionandproductionpatternsdifferfrommuchofrapidly(Rafiqandothers,2016;Wangandothers,2016).therestoftheworld(Komugabe-Dixsonandothers,2019).DespitepositivesignsofadecouplingofurbanizationlevelsandcarbonemissionsacrosstheOECDcountriesandinsomemetropolitanareasinAsia,thispatternisnotyetevidentinurbanizingemergingeconomies,wherethebulkoffutureurbangrowthwilloccur,andwhereenergyconsumptionisgrowingthemostrapidly.©安琦王-Eco-environmentallyfriendlygreenenergyofsustainabledevelopmentofsolarpowerplantwithnanchangskyline51CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02Figure2.1.PercapitagreenhousegasemissionsinrelationtourbanizationinAsiaandthePacificENEANCAPACSEASSWASingapore100%NauruJapanR²=0.481R²=0.1483NewZealandAustraliaR²=0.5544R²=0.6223MarshallIslandsMalaysiaPalauRepublicofKoreaBruneiDarussalam80%CookIslandsRussianFederationR²=0.4398Iran(IslamicRepublicof)MongoliaNewCaledoniaArmeniaFrenchPolynesiaChinaTuvaluDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKoreaGeorgia60%KiribatiFijiIndonesiaAzerbaijanKazakhstanPercentageTurkmenistanofpopuationThailandlivinginPhilippinesUzbekistanNiueurbanareasBangladeshPakistanBhutanMaldives(2020)VietNamKyrgyzstan40%Timor-LesteMyanmarIndiaLaoPeople'sDemocraticRepublic20%Micronesia(FederatedStatesof)VanuatuTajikistanCambodiaAfghanistanSolomonIslandsTongaNepalSriLankaSamoaPapuaNewGuinea0%0.11.010.0100.0TonnesofannualCO2eproducedpercapita(2020),logscaleSources:Author’sownelaboration.DatasourcedfromUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2018b);GlobalCarbonAtlas.Availableathttps://globalcarbonatlas.org/emissions/carbon-emissions/(accessedon28June2023).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities52By2050,itisprojectedthatOfthe100Asiancitiesreportingapproximatelyhalfoftheworld’smitigationactionstotheCarbonadditionalurbandwellerswillbewithinDisclosureProjectin2020,atotalofthisregion;India,China,Bangladesh44percenthadacity-wideemissionsandIndonesiaareexpectedtoaccountreductiontargetand48percenthadafortwothirdsofthisgrowth.climateactionplan.By2050,itisprojectedthatapproximatelyhalfoftheOfthe100Asiancitiesreportingmitigationactionstotheworld’sadditionalurbandwellerswillbewithinthisregion;CarbonDisclosureProjectin2020,atotalof44percentIndia,China,BangladeshandIndonesiaareexpectedhadacity-wideemissionsreductiontargetand48pertoaccountfortwothirdsofthisgrowth(UnitedNationscenthadaclimateactionplan(ClimateDisclosureProject,DepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2018b).2021).TheseresultsweresignificantlyhigherthantheIndiaisprojectedtohavereached“majorityurbanized”otherpredominantlydevelopingregionsofAfricaandLatinstatusslightlybeforethemiddleofthiscentury.IftheAmerica.InthePacific,thesepercentageswerehigherworld’smostpopulouscountryweretofollowasimilaragain–71percentand67percent,respectively.TheseurbanizationpathwayasChinaoverthelatterhalfofthefigureswerecomparablewiththoseofNorthAmerica,andtwentiethcentury,theadditionofafurther400millionhigherthanthoseassociatedwithEuropeancountries,buturbanIndiancitizenswouldcorrelatewithamorethandisclosingcitieswerelocatedentirelywithinAustraliaanddoublingofpercapitaterritorialemissionsacrossruralandNewZealandanddidnotincludeanyPacificIslandurbanurbaninhabitants.Withaprojectednationalpopulationagglomerations.of1.6billion,thisequatestoatotalterritorialproductionof6.4GtCO2eby2050,morethandoubleitscurrentMeasurementandreportingarecriticaltoenablinglevel,andanamountequivalenttothecurrentleveloflow-carbonurbanfutures,astheyarefoundationaltotheUnitedStatesofAmericatoday(AndrewandPeters,policydevelopmentandcentraltoensuringequityin2022).Itis,therefore,criticalthaturbanizationtrajectoriestransformativeurbanchange(Leavesley,TrundleandinAsiaandthePacificaredecoupledfromcarbon-Oke,2022).Analysisofcarbonemissionsattributabletointensivemodesofurbanlivelihoods,consumptionandexistingurbanareasandfromurbanexpansionneedsproduction.tobeacceleratedacrosstheregion.However,awiderevidencebaseisneededtoestablishpolicyrationalesandCity-levelemissionsreportinginAsiaandthePacificisprioritiesforreducingurban-relatedemissions(MokhleslimitedbythelowproportionofcitiesthatoffervoluntaryandDavidson,2021).TheGlobalCovenantofMayorscarbondisclosureandbycomplexitiesandgapsinforClimateandEnergyisthelargestglobalallianceforreportingmethodologies.Therearekeyissuesfromcityclimateleadership;itincludesmorethan11,500citydifferencesinsubnationalgovernance(forinstance,andlocalgovernments,ofwhich324areinthefollowingcomparingurbanagglomerationstomunicipalandotherESCAPsubregions:thePacific;South-EastAsia;Eastsubnationalboundaries),thescopeofemissionsreported,andNorth-EastAsia;andSouthandSouth-WestAsia.andtheselectionofgreenhousegasesmeasuredTheGlobalCovenantofMayorsforClimateandEnergy(Wiedmannandothers,2021).ThelargestdatasetCityResearchandInnovationAgendaproposesfourcollatingcity-levelemissionsdatagloballyismaintainedsteps–orstages–togenerateevidence-basedclimatebytheCarbonDisclosureProject,whichdrawsonanactionsatthecityscale(Okeandothers,2022).TheseannualsurveyitconductsinpartnershipwithICLEI–stepswerebasedonanincreasinglycohesiveglobalLocalGovernmentsforSustainability.Asof2020,moreurbandiscourseonclimateaction,buildingontheseminalthan800citieshavevoluntarilyreportedtheircarbonIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)-emissionsthroughtheCarbonDisclosureProject(CarbonfacilitatedCitiesandClimateChangeScienceConference,DisclosureProject,2021).However,only15percentofheldinEdmonton,Canadain2018(Hunterandothers,thecitiesreportingwereintheAsia-Pacificregion,even2022).thoughitishometomorethanhalfoftheworld’scitieswithapopulationthatexceeds500,000(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2019).53CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02CitiesascatalystsforclimateactionDespitemanycitiesacrossAsiaandthePacificalsothattheirlocalgovernmentsandassociatednationalchampioningclimateaction,mostoftheregion’surbanagenciesareabletoadapturbangrowthrapidlytoareasremainheavilydependentonfossilfuels.Citiesbecomecompatiblewithzerocarbonurbanfutures.oftenfacelimitationsinchoosingtheirenergymixbecauseenergysupplytendstobeunderthelegislativeDespitelimitations,citiesaretakingoncreativeandjurisdiction–ordirectownership–ofnationalorprovincialimpactfuldecarbonizationinterventions.IntheREN21governments.ArecentESCAPreportreviewingclimatesecondglobalreviewofcities,aninventorywasambitioninAsiaandthePacificidentifiedthatfourfifthsconductedofarangeofbestpracticeexamplesoflocaloftheregion’smemberStateshavemadenet-zeroorgovernmentsdrivinglow-carbontransitionsintheircitiescarbonneutralitypledgesatthenationalscale(ESCAP,andtowns(REN21,2021).Observedinterventionscanbe2022).However,emissionstrajectoriesacrosstheregionbroadlygroupedintofourcategories:(a)stationaryenergyandnationaldeterminedcontributions(NDCs),whichsupplyintegrationforbuildings,infrastructuresystemsandsetoutclimateactionscommittedbyUnitedNationswastemanagement;(b)electricandactivetransport;(c)MemberStates,haveyettoreflecttheseaspirations.Asbuiltformenergyefficiencyupgradingandelectrification;ofNovember2022,theregion’sNDCsreflectedatotaland(d)incentivesfordecarbonizationofurbanindustryincreaseingreenhousegasemissionsof16percentandcommerce.CitiesacrossAsiaandthePacificcontinuefrom2010levelsby2030(ESCAP,2022).Limitingglobaltopursueinnovativeapproachesinmanyoftheseareas,warmingto1.5°CrequiresemissionsfromAsia-Pacificbutsubregionalissues,nationalgovernanceframeworkstoreducetonearly50percentoverthesameperiodanddifferingcitytypologies,haveledtodistinctvariations(ESCAP,2022).intheselow-emissionspathways.TheAsia-PacificregionhascollectivelyCitiesarealsomotivatedbypublichealthandmobilityaccountedformorethanhalfofglobalfactorsthatintersectwithdecarbonizationgoals.PriorgreenhousegasemissionseveryyearsincetotheCOVID-19pandemic,increasinghealthconcerns2012.Between2010and2020,theregion’srelatingtourbanairpollutionandsmogemergedasaemissionsroseby25.5percent,whiletherestdistinctivedriveroftheuptakeofrenewablesacrossmuchoftheworld’semissionsdeclinedby0.3perofAsia(Jabbarandothers,2022;LiuKongandZhan,cent.2021).Thishasunderpinnedurban-focusedelementsofnationaldecarbonizationstrategiesincountriesTheAsia-PacificregionhascollectivelyaccountedforsuchasChinaaswellasmunicipaleffortstoadvocatemorethanhalfofglobalgreenhousegasemissionseverystrongernationaldecarbonizationeffortsincountriesyearsince2012.Between2010and2020,theregion’ssuchasJapanandtheRepublicofKorea(REN21,2021).emissionsroseby25.5percent,whiletherestoftheIthasalsoacceleratede-mobilityandhydrogenvehicleworld’semissionsdeclinedby0.3percent(ESCAP,uptake,includingthroughtheprocurementofmunicipal2022).Throughout2022,emissionsfromnaturalgasfleets,publictransportvehiclesandfacilitationofgloballydeclinedby1.6percent–drivenbythecrisisinrideshareschemes,whichprovidean“off-ramp”fortheUkraine–andbyanevenlarger1.8percentinAsiaanddecentralized,oil-dependenturbantransportsector.thePacific(IEA,2023a).However,theresultingenergydemandledtotherapidexpansionofcoaluse.EmissionsChina,EuropeandtheUnitedStatesofAmericafromcoalreachedarecordhighof15.5GtCO2ein2022,collectivelyaccountedfor95percentofglobalelectricwhileemissionsfromoilspiked2.5percent(IEA,2023a).carsalesin2022(IEA,2023b)butinemergingmarketsEmissionsfromdevelopingandemergingeconomiesandanddevelopingeconomiesacrossAsia,demandformarketsinAsia,excludingChina–grewby4.2percent,electricvehiclesisincreasingrapidly(IEA,2023b).Electricfasterthananyotherregionglobally.Itis,therefore,criticalcarsalesinIndia,ThailandandIndonesiatripledbetweenthatcitiesinAsiaandthePacificarenotonlyatthecentre2021and2022.China,JapanandtheRepublicofKoreaofeffortstodecarbonizetheexistingurbansystems,butremainimportantglobalexportersofelectriccars,electricmotorsandlithium-ionbatteries.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities54Withincities,facilitationofactivetransport–includingTheglobaldiversityincity-levelapproachestoclimateelectric-assistedmobilityoptions,suchase-bikes,mitigationalsoprovidesarichtapestryofpolicy,providesanessentialmultifacetedplatformforaddressinginfrastructureandinvestmentexperimentsthatareclimatemitigation,urbancongestionandhumanhealthregularlysharedandadoptedhorizontallyonanadhocandwell-being(MoloneyandDoyon,2020).TheCOVID-19basis,ratherthanaspartofamorecomprehensivepandemichasresultedinvolatileandnationallyvariedmultisectorallow-carbonstrategy(Hauptandothers,shiftsintransportation,withsocialdistancingtemporarily2020).Oneoftheearliestglobalclimate-focusedcityreducinguseofpublictransport,andevolvingwork-networksisC40,whichhasinventoriedmorethanfrom-homepatternscontinuingtofurthershifttransport14,000city-basedclimateactionsandincludes94ofbehavior.SeveralcountriesacrossAsiaandthePacifictheworld’slargestcities,encompassing15percentofhaveincorporatedsustainabletransportinitiativeswithintheworld’surbanpopulationandaquarterofglobalGDPtheirCOVID-19recoveryplansthroughasubsetthat(Davidson,CoenenandGleeson,2019).Critically,C40specificallytargetslow-emissionstransportoptionshasbeennotedasoneofthemosteffectiveplatformsinurbanareas.Examplesofcountriesdoingthisareforreplicatingurbanclimateaction.Notably,areviewofBangladesh,China,Indonesia,NepalandPakistan,allactionscarriedoutin2015indicatedthatthreequartersofwhichhaveintegratedincentivesforelectricvehiclesofthoseundertakenbyC40citiesweresubsequentlyandassociatedcharginginfrastructureintotheirrecoveryimplementedbyothercitiesacrossthenetwork(Acuto,strategies.ThePhilippinesandChinaalsohaveincluded2016).initiativestobuildinfrastructureforcycling(EarleyandNewman,2021).Urbanclimateinfluencers:beyondcityboundariesCitygovernmentsareoftenrestrictedintheircapacitytheTinaRiverHydropowerprojectinSolomonIslands,todirectlyfinancemedium-andlarge-scalesupply-whichisdesignedtoshiftthecapitalHoniarafromsideinitiativesduetolegislativeboundaries.Theextentbeingdependentondieselgeneratedbaseloadpowertowhichbaseloadenergyissuppliedfromwithincitytorenewablesby2026(GreenClimateFund,2021).areasvariessignificantly,asmanyurbanareasareRenewableswithstorageareparticularlyappealinginbeingpoweredfromlargepowerplantsoutsideoftheirPacificcitiesandtownsthatdependondieselimportedmunicipalboundaries,whoseassociatedgreenhousegasthroughlengthysupplychainsandtherefore,mustemissionsfallunderthe“Scope2”classification(Lovellcontendwithsomeoftheworld’smostexpensiveandParry,2022).However,severalmunicipalcouncilselectricityandtransportcosts(Cable.co.uk,2022).inMelbourne,Australia,foundnovelnon-monetaryapproachestoincentivizetheuptakeofrenewableswithinEveninNorthandCentralAsia,wherefossilfuelsaretheirjurisdictions,bringingtogetherresidentsinterestedavailableinabundance,investmentinrenewablesisinpurchasinghouseholdsolarphotovoltaicsystemstoimprovinggridreliabilityandexpandingbeyondtheleverageheavydiscountsfromsolarproviderswithoutconventionaluseofhydropoweracrossmuchofthesubstantivesupportfromeithertheprivatesectororsubregion.Nearby,intheKazakhcityofKyzylordaandnationalorstategovernments(HadfieldandCook,2019).thetownofShu,forinstance,ADBhasfinancedtwomajorsolarplantstotackleurbanelectricityshortages,asDevelopmentassistanceforclimatemitigationprojectsageingcoalpowerplantfleetsbegintofail(ADB,2021a).remainsprimarilyfocusedonthenational-level,ratherTheseprojectsareintendedtoscaleupinvestmentinthethanatthecity-levelscale,forlower-andmiddle-incomesectoracrossKazakhstan.Meanwhile,energyefficiencycountriesacrosstheregion.Investmentsthroughmulti-measuresbeingdeployedacrosstheKazakhcapital,partnerprogrammesandmultilateralclimatefinanceAstana,withsupportfromtheWorldBank,arereducingmechanismsarehavingasubstantiveimpactonthedemand-sidepressureandallowingforbetterintegrationenergymixofseveralAsiaandthePacificcities.Oneofofemergingenergytechnologies(Behnkeandothers,themostsubstantiveprojectsinthePacificsubregionis2017).55CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02Somecitygovernmentsarealsousingtheircontrolover©Suplim-AerialviewofaHoChiMinhCity,Vietnamdevelopmentprocessestoincorporatedecentralizedenergyrequirements.TheChinesecityofLuanzhou,forandKenway,2022).Similarly,thelocalgovernmentfortheexample,requiresthatnewresidentialbuildingswithlessAustraliancapital,Canberra,isintheconsultationphasethantwelvefloorsinstallasolarwaterheatingsystem,ofaregulatoryproposaltobannewgasconnectionswhileundermasterplanningprocessesforgreenfieldacrossthecityby2024,aspartofeffortstoremovesites,Chinesecities,suchasShenzhen,Zhongbaandfossilfuelfromthecity’sstationaryenergysupplyafterSagahaverolledoutsolardistrictheatingsystems(Islamalreadytransitionedthecity’sexistingelectricitysupplytorenewablesourcesin2020(AustraliaCapitalTerritoryGovernment,2022).Box2.1.Womenincityleadership–championsoftransformativeclimateactionInthe2022SustainableCitiesIndex,itwasnoted2019).Theobjectiveoftheinitiativeistoscaleandthathalfofthetop10sustainablecitieswereledbyreplicatethelearningsfromwomenwhohaveorfemalemayors(TorrieandMorson,2022).Incontrast,continuetoholdpositionsofleadershipinglobalUnitedCitiesandLocalGovernmentsestimatesthatcitiestakingtransformativeclimateaction,andjust5percentofmayorsgloballyarewomenandprovidetraining,toolkitsandnetworksdesignedtothatfemaleelectedlocalgovernmentrepresentativessupportemergingwomenleadersanddevelopmoreareoutnumberedbymenatarateoffourtoonegender-inclusiveurbanclimateactionpolicies.(UnitedCitiesandLocalGovernments,2015).InAsiaandthePacific,amongthe“top50”sustainablecitiesTheinitiativealsohighlightskeywaysthatwomenwithfemaleleadersareSydney(Australia),Mumbaiaredisproportionatelyaffectedbyclimatechange-(India),Tokyo(Japan)andSingapore,representinginduceddisasters,aninequitythataffectswomenmorethanhalfofthecitieslistedfromacrossthedirectlyandhaswidersocietalimplicationsforregion.theresilienceofurbancommunitiesasafunctionoftheprevalenceofwomentaskedwithcaringSince2017,C40citieshasbeenrunningresponsibilitiesandunpaidworkincitiesandtownsWomen4Climate,aglobalgender-inclusiveclimateglobally.actionleadershiptrainingprogramme(C40Cities,TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities56Urbanclimateadaptation:uncertainpathwaysthroughmultipleinterlinkedcrisesUrbanclimatechangeadaptation–theprocessofMoreradical,transformativepropositionsareemerging,modifyingcitiesandtownstodealwithoccurring,however,asclimaticchangesworsenandtippingpointsunavoidableandprojectedimpactsfromanthropogenicarereachedatlocalandglobalscales.Manyoftheseclimatechange–hashistoricallyfocusedontheriskstransformativeadaptiveprocessesarebeingputforwardthatareposedtoacity’sbuiltform,itsinhabitants,withinAsiaandthePacific.Therelocationofthecapitalanditscapacityforeconomicproduction(TrundleandofIndonesiafromJakartatoEastKalimantanisoneofOrgano,2022).Incontrasttotheproposalputforwardtheearliestexamplesofamassurbanrelocationinpartabove,thesechangesaregenerallypresentedasbeingduetotheclimatecrisis(VandeVuurstandEscobar,incremental,addressingparticularcurrentorprojected2020).CountriesinthePacificarealsodrawingupplansclimateshocksandstressesthroughinterventionsinthetorelocatecommunitiesatthehighestriskfromclimatephysicalformandfunctionofcitiesandtowns(Berrang-impactsinordertoavoidinternalmassdisplacement,Fordandothers,2021).Thesetypesofinterventionsoftenasthresholdsforhabitationandlivelihoodsarecrossed,focusonthecomponentsofurbansystemsthataremostthecollapseoflivelihoodsinlow-lyingruralareasisvulnerable(suchasinformalsettlements),mostcriticaltheearliestclearevidenceofclimate-inducedrural-to-(suchasmajorinfrastructureortransportassets),ormosturbanmigrationintheregion,whichincreasesaforminfluential(suchasbuildingcodesorinsuranceschemes)ofurbanizationthatisnotcurrentlywellmodeledor(Eakin,KeeleandLueck,2022;McEvoyandothers,2013;understood(McDonnell,2021;Trundle,2021).Trundle,BarthandMcEvoy,2019).©aryfahmed-Hulhumale-Maldives,Aerialviewfromside57CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02Box2.2.EconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificMaldivesproject–DownscaledIPCCAR6climatemodelforgranularriskassessmentandpolicymakingMaldiveshasoneofthelowestterrainsintheworld;underthebusiness-as-usualscenario(SSP2).ESCAPmorethan80percentofitsislandsarelessthan1hasusedIPCCAR6globalclimateprojectiondatametreabovethemeansealevel.Giventheglobalonsea-levelriseincombinationwithhighresolutionsea-levelriseof3to4millimetresperyear,31toCopernicussea-levelanomalydatatoidentifythe50percentoftheMaldivespopulationarelikelytoriskhotspots.Theresultsshowthatapproximatelybeexposedtosea-levelriseandrelatedevents,14percentofurbanareaswith0to1metreelevationsuchascoastalstormsurges.Coastalinundationsareundertheriskofa1metreincreaseinsealevelareexpectedtotakeplacemorefrequentlyby2100underthefutureclimatescenario.BaselineNear-TermNear-TermMid-TermMid-TermSS24.5SS37.0SS24.5SS37.0Figure2.2a.HaaAlifuMaldives:Sources:ESCAPcalculationsSea-levelHaaDhaaluSealevelanomaly(m)basedonIPCCInteractiveanomalyunderbaselineandAtlas,2021;CopernicusClimateintheShaviyanidifferentclimateChangeService,ClimateDataMaldiveschangescenarioStore,2018andMinistryofunderNoonuEnvironment,ClimateChangebaselineandRaaSealevelanomaly(m)andTechnology,Govt.ofdifferentAtollboundaryMaldives,2016.climateLhaviyani0.824-0.829changeBaa0.830-0.834Notes:scenarios0.835-0.8391.SealevelanomalyreferesKaafu0.840-0.8440.929-0.934totheheightofwaterMale’City0.935-0.939overthemeanseasurface.AlifuAlifu0.940-0.9442.Thebaselineperiodis2014.AlifuDhaalu0.945-0.9593.Near-termperiodis2021-1.045-1.0512040.Vaavu1.052-1.0574.Mid-termperiodis2041-Faafu1.058-1.0632060.Meemu1.064-1.069Dhaalu1.070-1.075Disclaimer:Theboundaries1.076-1.082andnamesshownandtheThaadesignationsusedonthismapdonotimplyofficialLaamuendorsementoracceptancebytheUnitedNations.GaafuAlifu0200400GaafuDhaaluKilometresGnaviyaniSeenuKudafinolhuHaaAlifuMaldives:Sources:ESCAPcalculationsHuvarafushiUrbanareasexposedbasedonIPCCInteractiveto1msealevelriseAtlas,2021;CopernicusKulhudhuffushiunderSSP3ClimateChangeService,2042-2060climateClimateDataStore,2018HaaDhaaluchangescenarioCoastalDEM30TM(v2.1),2021,ESRIbasemapandMinistryofShaviyaniEnvironment,ClimateChangeandTechnology,Govt.ofFigure2.2b.NoonuSealevelanomaly(m)Maldives,2016.UrbanareasunderSSP37.0,exposedtoHolhudhooKomandoo2041-2026Notes:1msea-levelThebaselineperiodis2014.riseunderFarukolhufushiLhaviyani1.058-1.063SSP3climateHulhumaale1.064-1.069Disclaimer:TheboundarieschangeHulhuleMale’CityOlhuvelifushi1.070-1.075andnamesshownandthescenarioinVaavu1.076-1.082designationsusedonthistheMaldivesRakeedhoomapdonotimplyofficialAtollboundaryendorsementoracceptanceIslandboundarybytheUnitedNations.UrbanareaMeemuDhiggaruMaduvvariLandsurfaceelevation(m)0-11.01-3>30100200KilometresTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities58BaselineNear-TermMid-TermNear-TermMid-TermSS24.5SS24.5SS37.0SS37.0Figure2.3a.HaaAlifuTotalannualprecipitationSources:Asia-PacificTotalannualHaaDhaalu(mm)ClimateChangeAdaptationprecipitationInforamationPlatformintheMaldivesShaviyaniNodata(AP-Plat),2023andMinistryunderbaseline<2,008.48ofEnvironment,ClimateanddifferentNoonu2,008.49-2,215.19ChangeandTechnology,climateRaa2,215.2-2,360.35Govt.ofMaldives,2016.change>2,360.35scenariosLhaviyaniNotes:Baa1.ThebaselineperiodisKaafu1981-2000.2.Near-termperiodisMale’CityAlifuAlifu2021-2040.AlifuDhaalu3.Mid-termperiodisVaavu2041-2060.FaafuMeemuDisclaimer:TheboundariesDhaaluandnamesshownandthedesignationsusedonthisThaamapdonotimplyofficialendorsementoracceptanceLaamubytheUnitedNations.GaafuAlifu0200400GaafuDhaaluKilometresGnaviyaniSeenuBaselineNear-TermNear-TermMid-termMid-TermSS24.5SS37.0SSP2-4.5SS37.0Figure2.3b.HaaAlifuAveragetemperatureSources:Asia-PacificAverageHaaDhaalu(°C)ClimateChangeAdaptationtemperatureinInforamationPlatformtheMaldivesShaviyani<27.25(AP-Plat),2023andMinistryunderbaseline27.25-27.35ofEnvironment,ClimateanddifferentNoonu27.35-27.45ChangeandTechnology,climateRaa28.05-28.15Govt.ofMaldives,2016.change28.15-28.25scenariosLhaviyani28.25-28.35Notes:Baa28.55-28.651.Thebaselineperiodis28.65-28.75Kaafu28.75-28.851981−2000.28.85-28.952.Near−termperiodisMale’City>28.95AlifuAlifu2021-2040.AlifuDhaalu3.Mid−termperiodisVaavu2041-2060.FaafuMeemuDisclaimer:TheboundariesDhaaluandnamesshownandthedesignationsusedonthisThaamapdonotimplyofficialendorsementoracceptanceLaamubytheUnitedNations.GaafuAlifu0200400GaafuDhaaluKilometresGnaviyaniSeenuUsingclimateprojectiondatawitha5kmspatialByusingadownscaledclimateprojectiondata,resolutiondownscaledfromtheIPCCAR6globalitispossibletoidentifyriskhotspotsthataredatabytheAsia-PacificClimateChangeAdaptationemerging,intensifyingandchangingunderdifferentInformationPlatform(AP-Plat),ESCAPhasclimatescenarios,whichenablesamoregranularconductedagranularriskassessmentofclimateexposurecalculation,mobilizationofresourcesandchange,includingforfloodsanddroughts.targetedpolicymakingtobuildresilienceatthesubnationallevel.TheongoingprojectinMaldivesisdemonstrativeoftheglobalEarlyWarningforAllInitiative(EW4All)pillar1ondisasterriskknowledge.59CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02ThescalingofurbanfarminginitiativesacrosscitiesandSingaporeFoodAgency(Diehlandothers,2020).ThetownsinAsiaandthePacificisalsobeingincreasinglyremovaloftheCheonggyecheonhighwayinSeoultorecognizedaspartofasuiteofurbannature-basedreducetransportemissionswhileimprovingurbancoolingsolutionsthatagglomerateco-benefitsoffoodsecurityandfloodwatermanagementremainsoneofthemostandeconomiclivelihoodswithurbanbiodiversity,coolinggloballyrecognizableexamplesoftransformativeurbanandwaterretentionbenefits(Frantzeskakiandothers,resiliencethathasintegratedecosystemrestorationwith2019;Zariandothers,2019).Bestpracticeexamplesmitigationandadaptationprinciples(Robinsonandothers,includetheHongKongRooftopRepublic,theSingapore2022).FoodSecurityRoadmapandthesubsequentlyestablishedCopingwithconcurrentclimateshocksSea-levelriseresultsfromthedisruptionofclimatic(Nunn,SmithandEldrick-Barr,2021;Rollins,WheelerandsystemscausedbytheriseinanthropogenicgreenhouseFrazier,2022).ThisisparticularlythecaseinthePacific,gasemissions.However,itisthemultiplicityofregionallywhereIPCCnotesthat“67percentofinfrastructureisspecificshort-termshocksandlong-termstressors–aslocatedwithin500mofcoastline,commercial,publicwellastheirinteraction–thatcontinuestoconfoundandindustrialinfrastructuresareparticularlyvulnerableurbandecisionmakers,expertsandrelevantactors.duetothelocationofurbancentres”(Mycooandothers,ThestrongcorrelationbetweencitiesinAsiaandthe2022).Inthecaseofcoastalsettlements,theirproximityPacificandlow-lyingandcoastalareashasledtoatotheoceanexacerbatesotherimpacts,forinstance,significantfocusonprojectedandobservedsea-levelcompoundingtheingressofstormsurges,andworseningriseintheregion,alongsideeffortstoquantifytheerosionandthedegradationofbuildingsduetosalinerelativeexposuresandrisksfacedbytheseurbanareasingress.©beau-BoatstiedonthedockalongtheriverbankoftheThuBonRiverintheOldQuarterofHoiAn(HộiAn)TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities60Box2.3.Multi-hazarddisasterrisksofcitiesinNorthandCentralAsiaAccordingtoESCAPcalculationsbasedonIPCCexacerbatedbyclimatechange.Undera2-degreeAR6globalclimateprojectiondataonmulti-hazard,warmingscenario,severalcitiesintheNorthandTurkmenistan,Uzbekistan,KazakhstanandtheCentralAsiaregionwithahighurbanpopulation,southernregionoftheRussianFederationwillincludingAshgabat,Nukus,SamarkandandbeexposedtohigherriskofnaturaldisastersRostov-onDon,areexposedtohigherrisk.Figure2.4Urbanpopulationexposuretomulti-hazardriskunderSSP32℃warmingscenarioinNorthandCentralAsiaSanktPeterburg(SaintPetersburg)NizhniyNovgorodPPeremrmOmskKrasnoyarskKKaazzaannUUfafaCChehlyealbyinaskbinskMoskva(Moscow)VoronezhSamaraYekaterinAsbtaunargNovosibirskUrbanPopulationRostov-na-DonuVolgogradAstana300,000-1million(Rostov-on-Don)1-5millionBishkekAAmlmaatylty5-10millionTTbbilisiliisiTashTaksehknenttYerYeevreavannmorethan10millionBakuShimkent!!!!!!!NumberofCountries!!!!!AveragescoreMulti-hazardindexunderSSP301,0002,000(worst-case)2°CofwarmingKilometres0/Nodata5-66.01-88.01-1010.01-1212.01-14Sources:ESCAPcalculationsbasedonNotes:Multi-hazarddataconsistofDisclaimer:TheboundariesandnamesshownandtheIPCCWGIInteractiveAtlas-CoupledModel1)AnnualconsecutivedrydaysdesignationsusedonthismapdonotimplyofficialendorsementIntercomparisonProjectPhase6(CMIP6)2)Annualmaximum5-dayprecipitationoracceptancebytheUnitedNations.Dottedlinerepresents2021,UrbanAgglomerationPopulationfor3)AnnualsurfacewindandapproximatelytheLineofControlinJammuandKashmiragreed2020andUNGeospatial.4)AnnualdavswithmaximumtemperatureuponbyIndiaandPakistan.ThefinalstatusofJammuandbeenagreeduponbytheparties.morethan35°C.Kashmirhasnotvetbeenagreeduponbytheparties.(UrbanareasofNorthandCentralAsiaexposedtointensifyingandexpandingmulti-hazardriskunderSSP3scenario,2℃warming)Tobuildresilience,citiesneedtofirstunderstandmajorityofthecountriesreportedhavingamoderatethespecificrisks,suchasdrought,flood,stormsandorlimitedlevelofearlywarningscoverage(UNDRRheatwaves,whichareemergingandintensifying.andWMO,2022).CitiesinNorthandCentralAsiaOncetherisksarebetterunderstood,aneffectiveandinthewiderAsiaandthePacificregioncanbuildmulti-hazardearlywarningserviceisoneoftheresiliencetoclimatechangebysharingknowledgemostcost-effectiveclimateadaptationmethodstotobuildclimateriskknowledgeandsharebestsavelivesandlivelihoods.Accordingtothetargetpractices,includingthroughimprovingtheearlyGscoreoftheSendaiFramework,whichmeasureswarningservicescompatiblewithinfrastructureandtheavailabilityandaccesstoearlywarningsystems,populationdensityofurbancitiesbyimprovingonamongthecountriesinNorthandCentralAsia,noSendaiFrameworkreportingandmakingprogressincountryhasreportedhavingacomprehensivelevelimprovingtheearlywarningsystems.ofamulti-hazardearlywarningsysteminplaceandaTargetG1bysubregioncoverageofmulti-hazardwarningsystems151Figure2.5120.8TargetG1bysubregion90.6(coverageofmulti-hazard60.4warningsystems)30.20NCAAUS/NZPACIFICSIDSSEASSWALLDCSIDS0ENEAUnreportedLDCLimited(0-0.25)Moderate(0.26-0.5)Substantial(0.51-0.75)Comprehensive(0.76-1.0)AverageNotes:ENEA,EastandNorth-Asia;NCA,NorthandCentralAsia;AUS/NZ;Australia/NewZealand;SIDS;SmallislanddevelopingStates;SSWA,SouthandSouth-WestAsia;LLDC,landlockeddevelopingcountries;LDC,leastdevelopedcountries.61CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02Theintersectionoflong-termchangeswithshort-termduetotheunevennatureofeconomicdevelopmentshocksisprovingtobeespeciallychallengingforcitiesacrosstheregionandassociatedissuesofinequality,acrosstheregion.Heatwaveswithhighermaximumandwithrapidland-usechangeanddensificationfurtherovernightminimumtemperatures–overlongerperiodsconfoundingclimatesignalswithdirectenvironmentaloftime–areaffectingcitiesandtownsacrossAsiaandpressures–suchaslandsubsidence,asisthecaseinthePacificonamorefrequentbasis,beingcompoundedJakarta(Shawandothers,2022).AsiaandthePacifichasbytheUrbanHeatIslandEffect–whenurbanareassomeoftheworld’slargestinformalsettlementareas,asexperiencehighertemperaturesthantheirsurroundingwellascitieswithsomeofthehighestshareofinformalareasduetohumanactivities,andurbanizationcaninhabitantsglobally.Thisaddsfurthercomplexitytoincreasenighttimeurbantemperaturesbymorethanadaptationplanningmeasures,limitingthecapacityfor4°C(Bosomworth,TrundleandMcEvoy,2013).Analysislocalandnationalgovernmentstointerveneeffectivelyinofdaytimetemperaturedifferencesinsomeofthecitiestheseareas(Frenchandothers,2021).inSouthandSouth-WestAsiawereevenlarger;astudycoveringKathmandu,NewDelhiandDhakaindicatedthatTheprevalenceofinformalsettlementsisoftentemperaturesinthecitycentreareasweremorethan10°Cnotedtobeakeychallengeforlocalgovernmentstohigherthantheirperi-urbansurroundings(Maharjanandimplementeffectiveurbanadaptationactionintheothers,2021).Climatechangeisalsocausingheatwave-region,particularlyincountrieswithspecialneeds.associatedmorbidityandmortalityincitiesandtownswelloutsideofhistoricalareasofexposure,suchasinHobartTheprevalenceofinformalsettlementsisoftennotedtointhefarsouthofAustralia,whereemergencyresponsebeakeychallengeforlocalgovernmentstoimplementsystemsarenotdesignedtoaddressthesehazardseffectiveurbanadaptationactionintheregion,particularly(Whiteandothers,2016).incountrieswithspecialneeds.AsnotedintheIPCCreport,inSamoa,“severalnational-levelprogramsonTheinequalityoftheseimpactsondisaggregatedurbanadaptationhavehaddifficultiesinengagingwiththesubgroupsdemonstratestheimportanceoftargetinglocallevelevenifthedecision-makingpowersonactualactionsandpoliciesonaneedsbasisthatisconsistentlandmanagementsitwithinthecommunities”(MycoowiththeSustainableDevelopmentGoalsethicof“leavingandothers,2022).However,itisalsorecognizedthatno-onebehind”.Numerousstudies,forexample,haveextensivelatentadaptationcapacitiesareheldoutsideofhighlightedtheadditionalandoverlookedclimaterisksgovernmentcontrol,withendogenousformsofresiliencefacedbyurbandwellersengagedincaregiving,whoarealreadywidelydeployedbycommunities–includingthoseoverwhelminglywomen(SoganiandViswanathan,2020).livinginformally–inresponsetoclimatedisastersacrossHowever,itistheintersectionalityoftheseadditionaltheregion(Regenvanu,2010;Trundle,BarthandMcEnoy,orvariedclimatevulnerabilitiesthatcompoundsurban2019;Usamahandothers,2014).inequalities.Forinstance,failuretoadequatelyconsiderthegenderednatureofnotonlyhousingtenure,butalsoInananalysisoftheirsub-nationalreportingdatabase,theperi-urbanfoodharvestingandgardeninginPacificislandCarbonDisclosureProjectreviewedtheclimateactionsofurbancontextshasbeenfoundtoexacerbaterisksofmorethan800citiesglobally,withacollectivepopulationgender-basedviolenceandworsenfamilies’capacitiesofmorethan800millionacross84countries(Carbontoprovideeducationandchildcare(Butcher,AcutoandDisclosureProject,2021).Inadditiontomitigationactions,Trundle,2021).Thiswasfurtherworsenedduringthemorethan459citiesreportedhavingdevelopedanCOVID-19pandemic,duringwhichurbanhouseholdsadaptationplan,withmorethan3,400adaptationactionsbecamemoredependentonalternativefoodsourcesdueinventoried.Thetopfiveareasofactiongloballyweretotheeconomicimpactsoflockdowns(Leseandothers,groupedintourbangreening,communityengagement,2021).disasterpreparedness,floodmappingandhazardresistantinfrastructuredesign.CitiesinAsia,however,AsnotedinIPCCAR6,AsiaandthePacificencompassesfocusedmoreheavilyonflooddefensesandprojectsandeveryclimatezoneidentifiedglobally,fromtropicaltopoliciestargetingvulnerablecitizens,whilecitiesinthepolar(Shawandothers,2022).Asaresult,thereisnoPacifictendedtoincludesea-levelrisemodellingandheat“onesizefitsall”approachtoadaptationfortheregion’sandthermalimagingalongsidefloodmapping,andmorecitiesandtowns.TheIPCCreportdoes,however,notewidelyimplementedstormwatercapturesystems(CarbonthatadaptationinAsiancitiesisparticularlychallengingDisclosureProduct,2021).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities62Advancinglow-carbonandclimateresilientcitiesTomitigateandadapttotheimpactofclimatechange,Keycitiesmustinvestinlow-carbondevelopment,strengthenRecommendationsclimateresilienceandbepreparedfortheconsequencesofhighertemperaturesandheavierprecipitation.Assuch,keyrecommendationsareasfollows.IntegrateurbancommunitiesaskeyactorstobuildresilienceagainstclimateandothershocksBuildingurbanclimateresiliencemustdrawondeeplytransformativereconfigurationofurbanthecapacitythatsubstantivelyexistsoutsidesystems,aprocessthatwillultimatelyresultinaofthedirectcontrolofbothnationalandlocalsignificantredistributionofresources,rightsandgovernments(Trundle,BarthandMcEnoy,power.Indoingso,thestatehasthecriticalrole2019).Instead,itcurrentlydrawsonfunctions,ofmoderatingthisprocessinanequitableandnetworksandlatentcapacitiesofthevastethicalmannerinordertoensurethatnourbanarrayofinstitutions–informalandformal–thatcitizenisleftbehind(Leavesleyandothers,2022).constitutethemoderncity.Atthecoreofthesedecentralized,butinterconnected,communitiesCities–theirgovernments,andtheircitizensarethenetworksofhouseholdsthatgroundthe–provideanidealtestbedforlocaladaptationlivedexperiencesofurbancitizens.WhiletheinitiativescapableofdrawingonvastresourcescitiesoftheAsia-Pacificregionareprofoundlytodevelopandimplementinnovativeadaptationdiverseinnature,thecriticalfunctionofactions.However,indoingso,actionsmustcommunitiesinbuildingurbanclimateresiliencereflectawidervisionofclimatejusticeandurbanisevidencedbothacrosstheregionandgloballyrightsifeffortsaretoaddresstheentrenchment(Mitchellandothers,2021).Governmentsneedofinequalitythatisheavilyintertwinedwithtotakemoreproactivemeasurestointegratetheclimatecrisis.Tothisend,itisnecessarytourbancommunities,especiallythosethatareincorporateconsiderationsofrightsandjustice,mostvulnerabletotheimpactsofclimatechange,addressingthosemostvulnerableandatriskinaninidentifyingandimplementingadaptationequitablemanner(Ziervogelandothers,2017).Itmeasures.isthisnegotiationoftheformsofurbanresiliencethatareadoptedthroughtransformativepeople-Urbangovernanceandsustainableurbancenteredprocessesdrivenbyacrisisthatwillhavedevelopmentinitiativesmustbetterreflectthemostsubstantialimpactonthesustainabilitytheirpositionasfacilitatorsofclimate-resilientofthecitiesandtownsoftheAsia-Pacificregiondevelopment,ratherthanjustbeingtheexclusivetotrulyleavenourbancitizenbehind.providersandarbitersofthisheavilyvalue-basedunderstandingofwhatmustinevitablybea63CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02DeployinnovativeurbanadaptationpathwaystoaddressexistingandnewclimaterisksToprogressbeyondcurrentcrisesscenarios,knowledgeinurbandesignandredeployinnovativeadaptationpathwaysareneeded.ecosystem-basedadaptationwithincitiesandUrbanadaptationpathwayscontinuetobetowns.Considerationofthesealternativeurbanenvisionedbasedonhistoricalpathways.Citiesadaptationpathwaysisfundamentaltotheethichavebecomehighlydependentonfossilfuel,andofjusttransitions,wherebyexistingimbalancestheirgrowthhasreliedoninequitableextractionofpowerandhistoricalinequalitiesoccurringinofresourcesandhumanlabourfromtheGlobalthedistributionofresourcesanddecision-makingSouth,includingfrommuchoftheAsia-Pacificarereconfiguredaspartoftheresponsetotheregion.Thisentrenchedinequalitydrivesglobalclimatecrisis.callsforclimatejustice,aswellastheemergentlossanddamagemechanism.However,theAssumptionsof“bestpractice”urbangovernancediversityofurbanconfigurationsintheAsia-tendtosupportthehomogenizationofPacificregionhighlightsboththenon-linearityurbangovernanceandplanningprocesses,ofurbandevelopment,andthecriticalrolethatreinforcedbyglobalizedpracticesandindustriesurbanexperimentationandinnovationmustplayengagedinurbandevelopmentanddesign.intransformingcitiesandtownsinordertocopeThisagglomerationofurbanismcontradictsawiththeknownandunknownshocksandstressesfundamentaltenetofresiliencethinking,wherebyofthetwenty-firstcentury.redundanciescanbedrawnonasafunctionofdiverseanddifferentiatedsystemcapacities,ThecitiesandtownsofAsiaandthePacific,elementsthathaveenabledthefunctionalincludingareasofinformalitythatoperateoutsidereconfigurationand–ultimately–thesustainabilityoftheseassumedurban“norms”offeravastofcitiesandtownsthroughthemassiveupheavalsopportunityforrethinkingclimateresilience.oftheindustrialandmodernages.ByenablingExamplesincludeproposalstoredesigncitiesthesealternativeurbandevelopmentpathways,aroundcustomarylandtenuresystems,builditisfarmorelikelythateffortstorealizethedisasterresponsemechanismsthroughcommunitySustainableDevelopmentGoalsandavertmuchofgovernancestructures,adapttraditionaltheclimatecrisismightsucceed.EnhancedatacollectionandlocalevidencetoinformandaccelerateclimateactionincitiesToenhanceevidence-basedaction,decisionsknowledge-sharingandcapacity-buildingataimingtomitigategreenhousegasemissionsandthecommunityleveltosupportrobustdatareducevulnerabilitytoclimateshocksmustbecollectionandanalysisareneeded.Communitiesinformedbylocaldataandinformationthathaveoftenpossessknowledgeandinsightsonanacceptedscientificquality.Somecountriesadaptationandmitigationmeasuresbasedonstilllackreliableinformationonnationalandlocalexperience.Furthermore,preparationofcity-emissions.Strengthenedtechnicalcooperationlevelassessmentsanddatacollectiononclimatecouldprovidesupporttodevelopnationalandvulnerability,includinginformalsettlements,arelocalemissionsinventoriesforeffectiveclimatekey.Thesesupportstrategicplanningonclimateactionandfacilitateopenaccesstoandusechangeandregularriskassessments,vulnerabilityofmonitoringdata,includingthroughsatellite-assessmentstoclimatechanges,geographicgenerateddataandopen-sourcedata.informationsystem(GIS)hazardmappingandcityresilienceprofiles,earlywarningsystems,recoverySimilarly,forcommunity-ownedresponsestoplansandtheprovisionoftechnicalsupportfromincreasingclimateriskstobeeffective,dialogues,internationalnetworksandprogrammes.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities64Shifttolow-carbonsourcestotackletheurbanenergycrisisThetransitiontolow-carbondevelopmentisofrenewableorlow-carbonenergysources,necessarytonotonlymitigatetheimpactsofenergy-efficientconstructionanddesigninclimatechangeresultinginincreasedenergytheconstructionsector.Thisalsoincludestheuseforheatingandcooling,butalsotosupportenforcementofcarbontariffsandemissionsustainabledevelopmentandreducethegreatercodesandplanningstrategies,forexample,strainoncostoflivingstressesplacedontransit-orienteddevelopmentthatfacilitatesthehouseholds.Developmentofcomprehensiveurbanuseofpublicornon-motorizedtransport.Theseenergystrategies,includinglow-carbonpledgesinitiativesare,therefore,anessentialelementinwithdefinedroadmapsandmilestonesthatdrawreducingthecontributionofurbanareastoclimateongoodpracticesarecritical.Thesecouldalsochangeandothernegativeenvironmentalimpacts.includeincentivesfortheuptakeofrenewableandlowemissionenergysourcesthroughlocalPublic,privateandcivilsocietystakeholderseachandglobalfinancialmechanisms,suchascarbonhaveacriticalroletoplayinsupportingthelow-pricingandeco-budgeting,aswellasefficiencycarbontransition.Bycollaboratingandleveragingmeasures,suchascityclimateplanningandlow-theirstrengths,theycancollectivelyadvancelocalcarbonpublictransport.low-carbondevelopment,fostersustainabilityandaddressthechallengesofclimatechangeandMoresustainablepatternsofconsumptionandenvironmentalsustainabilityeffectively.productioncanbeachievedthroughavarietyofmeasures,suchasthroughincreaseduptakeProvideplatformsformonitoring,reporting,verifyingandintegratingmultilevelclimateactionTheurbandimensionsofnationallyfocusedconsistentandeffectivemanner,presentingclimateframeworksareincreasinglybecomingbarrierstoverticalintegrationandhorizontalmoreexplicitwithintheremitoforganizations,comparisonandknowledge-sharing.Byreportingandfundingmechanisms.Atthecityadvocating,designingandideallyprovidingscale,manycitiesarealsolooking“upward”platformsbuiltonanagreedandstandardizedtonationalandmultilaterallevelstoidentifyframework(rangingfromreportingproceduresopportunitiestoleveragefinance,partnersandtorequirementsformetadataandtransparency),sharelessonslearned,andtoresolvekeypolicyeffortstotakeclimateactionthroughlocalizedandregulatorybarriersintransitioningtolow-frameworks,suchasvoluntarylocalandcarboneconomiesandaddressingclimaterisk.subnationalreviewreports(VLRsandVSRs)andregionallyandlocallydeterminedcontributionsTheseefforts,however,arelargelyadhoc(RLDCs)canbeconsideredattheregionalscale.andemergent,anddifficulttoaggregateina65CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter02Harmonizeandenhancenatureintocitiestoaddressclimate,cleanairandbiodiversitycrisisToenhancethequalityoflifeincitiesandrespondofnaturalenvironments.Theimportanceoftomultiplecrises,approachesthatharmonizethisreconfigurationandrethinkingofurbannatureandenhanceitspresenceincitiesmustenvironmentsisreflectedinitsfocusasastand-beadopted.TheglobalclimatecrisisisheavilyalonetargetwithintheKunming-MontrealGlobalintertwinedwiththeglobalbiodiversitycrisis,withBiodiversityFrameworkunderwhichtarget12aimstheimpactofurbanareasonhabitatdestructionto“significantlyincreasetheareaandquality,andextendingwellbeyondperi-urbanhinterlandsintoconnectivityof,accessto,andbenefitsfromgreenthevastfoodandmaterialproductionsystemsandbluespacesinurbananddenselypopulatedonwhichurbanpopulationsdepend(Knappandareas”by2030.Sucheffortscanalsocreateco-others,2021).Theisolationofurbancitizensfrombenefitsthatcanhelpaddresstheclimatecrisisatthedestructiveoutcomesofthesesupplychainsthelocalscale.limitstheabilitytoofferincentivesforbehaviouralchange,thatnegativelyimpacthumanhealth,Nature-basedsolutionsandwiderurbanwell-beingandtheliveabilityofcitiesthemselvesapplicationsofecosystem-basedadaptation(TrundleandMcEvoy,2016).Thesecompoundingareemergingrapidlyasasuiteoflow-costimpactsincludeinactivelifestylesandrespiratoryapproachesthatcanbeappliedandcalibratedfordamageduetopoorairquality,whichleadtourbancontextsacrossAsiaandthePacific.Theseincreasedmorbidityandmortalityresultingfrominvolve,forexample,rooftopurbanagriculturetheUrbanHeatIslandeffect.Atamacroscale,tominimizecarbonfootprints,applicationsoftheseprocesses–consideredcollectively–arevetivergrassesandbambootoriverbanksforcontributingtowhatisincreasinglybeingreferredfloodmitigationandthecreationofurbanwildlifetoasthesixthmassextinction.corridorsthatreduceurbanheatandrainwaterrunoff.ManyoftheseapplicationsarealsomoreThereintegrationofnatureintoallaspectsofcosteffectivethanheavyor“hard”infrastructureurbandesign,planninganddevelopmentoffersapproaches,buttheyrequirearethinkingofurbananopportunitytorecalibrateurbanspacessothatdesign,and–often–arecalibrationofcodes,normsofhumanhabitationcanbereconfiguredpolicies,legislationandgovernanceexpectations.throughtechnologicaladaptationandmodificationInconclusion,theclimatetransformationsthatneedtoAscitiesintheregiongrapplewithincreasingclimatebemadetoourcitiesrequiremorethantechnocraticandenvironmentalchallenges,digitaltechnologiessolutions;theymustalsobeimaginative,pluralisticandcanplayacrucialroleinenablingmoresustainable,abovealldemonstratecareforurbaninhabitants,manyinclusiveandagileurbansystems,whichisthesubjectofwhomarebeingincreasinglyleftfurtherbehindbyofthenextchapter.crisesandriskfallingbackfurtherastheclimatecrisiscontinuesunabated(Watersandothers,2023).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities6603Chapter03Urbandigitaltransformation:linkinginnovationtoinclusion67CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter03DigitalinnovationisapriorityforcitiesacrosstheAsia-Pacificregion,fromlargeglobalizingcitiestoperi-urbanareasandexpandingtowns.Leveragingdigitalizationtoenhanceurbanaredrivingunprecedentedlevelsservicesandbuiltenvironments,includingofdigitalizationofcityservices,through“smart”innovation,hasbecomeainfrastructuresandprocesses.Critically,partofurbanpolicyacrosstheAsia-Pacificthesechangesarealsoopeningupnewregion.9Manyexamplesofthisarealreadyopportunitiesaswellaschallengesforbeingdeployed.Real-timeinformationoncitiesinadvancingtheimplementationtrafficimprovespublicsafetyandreducesofthe2030AgendaforSustainableairpollutionandenvironmentalfootprints.Development.Forinstance,recentworkPublicsafetydepartmentsusedataonbyMcKinseynotesthat70percentofcriminalactivitytoadoptbetterpreventiontheSustainableDevelopmentGoalscouldmeasures.Telemedicine,e-alertsandbeadvancedthroughsmartapplicationsmonitoringhelpaddresspublichealthandthatcitiescouldimprovequalityofneeds;thiswasespeciallythecaseduringlifebybetween10andupto30percenttheCOVID-19pandemic.(Woetzelandothers,2018).LargemegalopolisestosmalltownsareForinstance,recentworkbyexperimentingwithdigitalinnovation.McKinseynotesthat70percentDigitaltoolsarealsobeingdeployedtooftheSustainableDevelopmentfacilitatepublicparticipationindecision-Goalscouldbeadvancedmakinginmanyurbangovernancethroughsmartapplicationsandprocesses,includingplanning,communitythatcitiescouldimprovequalityengagement,climateactionandhousing.oflifebybetween10andupto30percent.DigitaltoolsarealsobeingSimilarly,recentanalysisofthepotentialdeployedtofacilitatepublicofdigitaltwins10inimplementingtheparticipationindecision-makingSustainableDevelopmentGoalshasinmanyurbangovernancestressedhowtheseinnovationscouldprocesses,includingplanning,advanceidentificationofkeyinequalitiescommunityengagement,andoverlapsbetweenactionagendasclimateactionandhousing.(Tzachorandothers,2022).Atthelocallevel,mobiledeviceshave9Inthiscase,“smart”referstoICTs-enhanceddeliverybecomeanimportantavenueforofurbanplacesandservices,butasdetailedintheimprovingpublicservices,oftenallowingchapter,thereaderisencouragedtomovefromthisforinstantdisseminationofinformationterminologyto“digitalinnovation”instead.Foranaboutpublictransit,trafficconditions,explanation,seeOECD(2019a).weatherinformation,safetyalertsand10Digitaltwinsareunderstoodasdigitalrepresen-neighbourhoodevents(UnitedNationstationsofanintendedoractualreal-worldphysicalDepartmentofEconomicandSocialproduct,systemorprocess.SeeBarricelli,CasiraghiAffairs,2019).ThesetransformationsandFogli(2019).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities68Thepandemichashighlightedtheimportanceandinequalities.Accordingly,akeyquestioniswhetherurgencyofaddressingsocial,economicandtechnologicaldigitalinnovationshouldbereconciledwiththepressinginequalitieshavesandhavenots(Eruchaluandothers,needtoensurefutureurbandevelopmentleavesno2021),inordinatelylimitingaccesstourbanemployment,citybehind(AcutoandParnell,2016).Thelandscapeofeducation,healthinformation,andthewidercapacityurbandigitaltransformationintheAsia-Pacificregionforurbannetworkingandengagementatacriticaltime.iscomplexandrequirescloserexaminationandmoreThedigitaldividehashinderedhumanitarianresponseseffectivecoordination,especiallyatthepolicylevel.DigitaltoclimatedisastersinthePacific.Itisincreasinglyinnovationshouldbebetteralignedwithandconnectedrecognizedthateffortstodatehaveeitherfailedtototheopportunitiesintheregionforurbantransformationadequatelyaddressorexacerbatedexistingurbanandconcurrentlyaddresstheexclusionsanddigitaldivide.AregionaldigitaltransformationDespitegrowthindigitalconnectivityandinfrastructure,investmentsinlargercitiesacrosstheregion.Notably,thereisnonethelessanaccessandutilizationgapacrossasreportedintheMITTechReview,theleadingdigitaltheAsia-Pacificregion.InformationandcommunicationseconomiesofSouth-EastAsialikelyamountedto$194technology(ICT)developmenthasadvancedconsiderablybillionin2022,markinga20percentincreasefrom2021intheregion,includingbroadbandconnectivityandandindicatingrobustgrowthandhighdigitalpenetration.adoptionofdigitalstrategies,policiesandplanstoAsimilarperformancewasalsorecordedacrosspartsbuildsmartcitiesandsocieties.WhileITUstatisticsofEastAsia(Baijalandothers,2022),withmajordriversinOctober2020indicatethatmorethan98percentbeingconcentratedinrapidlyurbanizingareas.Smartofthepopulationintheregioniscoveredbyamobileinnovationandthegrowingmomentumofthedigitalnetwork,lessthan50percentareusingtheInternet–economyhavebecomemoredeeplyentrenchedindemonstratingthatthereisgapbetweenhavingaccesstourbanandinfrastructurepolicybynationalgovernmentsnetworksandthecapacitytoeffectivelyusetechnologyandlargeprivatesectorentitiesoverthepastfive(ITU,2020).Subregionally,768millionofthechildrenyears(AsianInfrastructureInvestmentBank,2020).Inandyoungpeople25yearsoryoungerwholackInternetaddition,athrivingacademicsectorandaburgeoningaccessliveinSouthAsia(Royal,2021).non-governmentalspherehavebeenpromotingdirectdigitaltransformationsinurbanareasacrosstheAsia-TheriseofthedigitaleconomyishelpingtobuildPacificregion.Thedigitaltransformationcannolongerbemomentumforadigitalurbantransformation.OvertheunderestimatedbyurbanpolicymakersintheAsia-Pacificpasttwodecades,thepopularityintheAsia-Pacificregion.regionof“smartcity”themesanddigitaltransformationinitiativeshasbeenincreasing.The“digitaleconomy”−Thedigitaltransformationcantheeconomicactivitythatresultsfrombillionsofonlinenolongerbeunderestimatedbyconnectionsamongpeople,businesses,devices,dataandurbanpolicymakersintheAsia-processes(Deloitte,2023)–isnowasizeableproportionPacificregion.ofGDPacrossmostcountriesintheAsia-Pacificregion,includingintheSouth-EastAsiasubregion.Thedigitaleconomyisakeydriverofthedevelopmentofdigitalinfrastructureandexpandingeconomictransactionsand69CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter03NationalgovernmentsacrosstheAsia-Pacificregionareknowledgeinstitutionsinatruly“poly-lateral”advocacyincreasinglyembracinginitiativesthatarefocusedonfordigitaltransformation.Thishasbeenthecaseofa“smart”anddigitaltransformation.AmongthemanyMcKinsey,ASEANandtheGovernmentofSingaporecompellingexamplesarethefollowing:IndialaunchedtheadvocatingtheprimepositioningofSouth-EastAsiamuch-reported100SmartCitiesMissionin2015,whichanddrivingthelaunchofthepan-regionalASEANSmarthasnowextendedintoanewcycle;theNational14thFive-CitiesNetworkin2018,whichcovers26citiesacrossthisYearPlan(2021)ofChinaemphasizessmartinnovationsubregion.Thesenetworkedurbandigitaltransformationanddigitalvillages;theGovernmentsofJapanandtheinitiativesarepoisedtoplayakeyroleintacklingdiversity,RepublicofKoreahaveestablishedtheJapaneseSmartgapsandinequalitiesacrossAsiaandthePacific.CityGuidebookandSmartCityKoreaNationalpolicy,respectively;andSingaporeholdstheuniquestatusasaYet,cautionwhen“goingdigital”isneeded,asmanycity-Statewithgloballeadershipinthisareaandisthrivingsocialissuescanariseinthetransformation.Fortobea“smartnation”.Anexampleisthedevelopmentexample,Aadhaar,thenationalbiometricdigitalidentityofHealthCityNovena(Sivaramakrishnan,2019)–aprogrammeofIndia,hasbenefitedinformalworkers,suchmasterplanforcommunity-focusedhealthinwhichascabdriversanddomesticworkers(OECD,2018),andinfrastructure,suchaspedestrianwalkways,undergroundleveragedentrepreneurialinnovationsindigitalidentitiescarparksandoutdoorgreenspaces,existtocomplementtocreateopportunitiesforsocioeconomicuplift(Shyam,andamelioratethecitizen-patientexperience.Middle-2021).Butthesystemcouldalsoentrenchexistingculturalincomecountriesacrosstheregionalsoaredevelopinginequalitiesexperiencedbymarginalizedworkersandleadquicklyinthisarea.Forexample,Nepalhassetantomoreeconomicinequalities.ambitiousgoaltowardssmartinnovationinperi-urbansettingsandVietNamlaunchedanationalframeworkWhilesmartinnovationsoffermuchfocusedonregulatingandbuildingnewhubsin2018.promiseacrosstheAsia-PacificregionandareadvocatedexplicitlybymanykeyAcrosstheAsia-Pacificregion,theprivatesectorregionalplayers,itshouldbenotedthatthehasbeenamajordriverofsmartinnovationandhastransformationstakeplacewithincomplexproactivelycampaignedformeasuresthatsupportdigitalurbancontextswithvulnerability,inequalitytransformation.Criticaltothispicturehasbeentheriseandmarginalization.ofmajorEast,SouthandSouth-EastAsiantechnologyplayers.ThisexpansionhasprogressedalongsidetheWhilesmartinnovationsoffermuchpromiseacrossconsolidationofmajorinternationalcompaniesoperatingtheAsia-Pacificregionandareadvocatedexplicitlybyinthedigitalprivatesector.Tothisend,majorurbanmanykeyregionalplayers,itshouldbenotedthattheareasintheESCAPSouth,South-EastandEastAsiantransformationstakeplacewithincomplexurbancontextssubregionsareuniquelypositionedintermsofco-locationwithvulnerability,inequalityandmarginalization.Itiswithcriticaldigitaltransformationactorsthatprovideespeciallyimportanttoadvocatedigitalsolutionsandso-urbaninnovation“livinglabs”,butalsocity-university-called“smartcity”policiesthatsupportsustainableurbanprivatesectortripartiteexperimentalhubs.Examplesofdevelopmentandareinclusive,accessibleandcentredonthesearetheSmartShanghai,theUN-HabitatPeople-theneedsofthepeople.Furthermore,specialattentionOrientedSmartCityProgrammeandtheSmartUrbanshouldbegiventomarginalizedorvulnerablesegmentsofCo-InnovationLabinSingapore.thepopulation,includingwomen,theelderly,peoplewithdisabilitiesandyoungpeople.Thegrowingdegreeofentrepreneurialexperimentation,coupledwithincreasingbuy-inamongnationalgovernmenthasresultedinmultilevelcollaborationsthatinvolvemultilateralbodies,city-to-citynetworksandTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities70Adividedregion:digitalinequalitiesandinnovationnuancesAsiaandthePacificisthemostdigitallydividedregionInnovationacrosstheregionneedstogohandinhandglobally.Itremainsstarklydividedwhenitcomestowithanappreciationfordiversityofconditionsandaccesstotechnologicaladvances.ITUstressedin2023requirestheinclusiondiverseviewpointson“smart”hownearly40percentofthepopulationremainedinterventions.Forinstance,ageandgender-sensitiveunconnectedorpoorlyconnectedtoInternetresources,digitalsolutionsrequirecloserattention.Arecentreviewwithmostrecordednon-usersdisproportionatelyoftheSpeciallyDesignedZoneforWomen,rolledoutconcentratedinremotecommunities,andwithintheinDistrict2-2(Saerom-dong)intheSejongSmartCityfemalepopulation(ITU,2023).RecentESCAPanalysisoftheRepublicofKorea,hasstressedthelimitedvaluestressedhowtheAsia-Pacificregionisthemostdigitallythatextensiveclosed-circuittelevision(CCTV)coveragedividedamongthefiveregionsoftheUnitedNationspresentsversusothermoreaccessiblesafetysolutions,accordingtotheDigitalTransformationIndex(Jun,emphasizinghowwomenoftenneedmoreactivesafetyParkandKim,2021).Morenuancedandintersectionalsystemsthanpassivesurveillancesystems(Changandunderstandingsofthe“digitaldivide”areneeded.others,2022).Box3.1.TheSafetipinappandSheRisesframeworkSafetipinisasocialorganizationwithalong-standingIn2022,SafetipinlaunchedtheSheRISEShistoryofsuccessfulurbansafetyenhancementin(Responsive,Inclusive,Safe&EquitableCities)SouthAsian,South-EastAsianandAfricancities.FrameworkforCaringCities(Mehrotraandothers,Theorganization’sworkisfocusedonthreemobile2022),whichisaimedatfurtherstrengtheningphoneapplications(MySafetipin,onmobilephones,thedeploymentofeconomicsandtheethics“ofSafetipinNitefornighttimedata,andSafetipincare”attheheartofsmarturbaninnovation.TheSiteasaweb-basedplatform)allcentredaroundframework“considersthemultipleandintersectingsupportingurbandwellerstomakesafeandinformedformsofdiscriminationfacedbywomenincities”,decisionsaboutenhancingtheirpersonalsafety“acknowledgesthedifferentexperiencesandneedsastheytravelincities,suchasChennai,Suratorofwomen”and“respondsthroughpolicies,schemes,Jakarta.TheservicesandworkofSafetipinhaveservices,andlawstopromotetheirenhancedfocusedonpromotinginclusion,accessibilityandparticipationindifferentaspectsofurbanlife”.gender-sensitiveurbandevelopment,leadingtoSafetipinasanexampleofhowdigitaltools,urbantheimplementationoftheprinciplesofinclusivityinnovationandinclusivitywithcleargenderandinitscrowdsourcingtechnologiesandsafetyauditsintersectionallensescanbeimplementedeffectively(ViswanathandBasu,2015).Sinceitsinceptiontocreateatangiblechangeintheregion’surbanin2013,Safetipinhasworkedin45citiesinAsia,areas.LatinAmericaandAfricanotonlydirectlywithusersviaitsapps,butbysupportingsafetypolicySource:ADB(2022a).andinterventionwithgovernmentalandnon-governmentalorganizationsthatusebigdatatoimproveinfrastructureandservices.71CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter03DigitalaccessremainsacriticalissueacrosstheAsia-DigitalaccessremainsacriticalPacificregionandrequirestargetedunderstandingissueacrosstheAsia-Pacificandsolutions.Thediversityofdigitalexperiencesandregionandrequirestargetedchallengesacrosstheregionisvastandpotentiallyquiteunderstandingandsolutions.bewildering.Forexample,90percentofthehouseholdsinJapanhaveInternetaccesscomparedtoonly11SeeWorldBankGroupandITUindicatordashboardfor2020.approximately18percentofhouseholdsinAfghanistan.11Availableathttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.Tangibleactiononthisfrontisurgent,butitalsorequiresZS?locations=JP-AF(accessedon23June2023).preciseandnuancedresponseswithaclearawarenessoflocalcomplexities.Figure3.1.KeyICTstatistics,Asia-Pacificregion,2017−2019MobilenetworkcoverageInternetaccessanduse98.6%202096.1%IndividualsusingInternetaccessInternetaccess94.2%theinternetusingmobileusingfixed(%)88/100inhabitants88/100inhabitants20172020201720202017202038.6%44.5%61.7%76.6%12.9%15%Householdinternetandcomputeraccessathome,Internetusebyyoungpeople(15-24y/old)Digitaldivide201953.4%ofhouseholdsintheAsia-PacificregionhadInternetaccessathome41.1%ofhouseholdsintheAsia-Pacificregionhadaccesstoacomputerathome48.3%201941.3%70.3%of15-24yearoldsusedtheInternet70.4%37%Population,countryclassifications,GNIpercapitaandtotaltelecommunicationinvestmentTheAsia-PacificregionisthemostpopulousChinaandIndiaarethelargestAccordingtoWorldBankdata,theaverageGNIp.c.regionintheworld,with4.2billionpeople,telecommunicationmarketsinthe(Atlasmethod)ofcountriesintheregion(includingthemostofwhomliveinruralareas.region,giventheirpopulationsize.high-incomecountriesofAustralia,BruneiDarussalam,Japan,theRepublicofKorea,NewZealandandMostcountriesintheAsia-PacificregionareITUdatashowthattotalSingapore)is$11369.low-tomiddle-incomeeconomies.telecommunicationinvestmentsfortheregionamountedto$103.720ofthe34countriesintheAsia-PacificregionforFourteencountriesintheregionareclassifiedbillionin2018,77percentofwhichwhich2019datawereavailablehadaGNIp.c.oflessbytheUnitedNationsassmallislandcamefromChinaandIndia.than$5000developingStates(Fiji,theFederatedStatesofMicroneisia,Kiribati,Maldives,theMarshallOnlysixcountries,namelyAustralia,BruneiDarussalam,Islands,Nauru,PapaNewGuinea,Samoa,Japan,theRepublicofKorea,NewZealandandSingapore,SolomonIslands,Timor-Leste,Singapore,hadaGNIp.c.inexcessof$30000Tonga,TuvaluandVanuatu),and11countriesareclassifiedasleastdevelopedcountriesCountrieswiththelowestGNIp.c.intheregioninclude(Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,Cambodia,Afghanistan,Bangladesh,Cambodia,Myanmar,NepalKiribati,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic.,andPakistan.Myanmar,RepublicofNepal,SolomonIslands,Timor-LesteandTuvalu).ForGNp.c,countriesareselectedbasedonITUregions,whereavailable.Thedatausedweregatheredin2019.NodatawereavailablefortheDemocraticSources:ITUWTIDatabaseandWorldBankdata.Availableathttps://www.itu.People’sRepubicofKorea.Seehttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.int/hub/publication/d-ind-dig_trends_asp-01-2021/(accessedon2June2023).CD?end=2019&name_desc=false&start=1964TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities72DigitaltransitionsintheregionalsointroducenewgroupsandinformalworkersdirectlythreatenedbyICTvulnerabilitiesandissuesrelatedtoresilience.Recentinfrastructuredisruptions.Hence,theurbancomplexityESCAPworkcentredonChinaandIndia(LiuandFan,ofthedigitaldividegapcallsforinterventionsthat,2022)underlinedhowwhileglobalandregionalInternetwhilerecognizingtheinfrastructuralbasisofdigitalbandwidthrosesharply(approximatelyby35percenttransformations,alsotacklesocioeconomicdeterminantsglobally,rangingfrom24percentinOceaniato36perofinequalityacrosstheAsia-Pacificregion–linkingcentinEastAsia)duringthepandemic,ICTinfrastructurephysicalandsocialinterventionsasalreadyrecognizedbyresilienceandreliabilityissueshavebecomeevenmoretheUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialcriticalforthecontinuationofbusinesses(smallandAffairs(vanDijk,2022).Centralacrossmostoftheregioninformalbusinessesinparticular),governmentsandistheissueofcapacityfordigitalsystemsanddigitaleducation.Thestudystressedthatoneofthemostinnovation.criticalissuesisadeeplyurbanizedone,withvulnerableDigitalcapacity:innovationacrossscalesEnhancingthecapacityofcitiestoleveragedigitalbiasinalgorithmsthroughapplicationsineverydaytransformationsandharnessthepotentialofsmartservicesandurbanprocesses,suchastransport,andthesolutionsforsustainableurbandevelopmentarekeyregulationofthedeploymentofsmarttechnologiesandprioritiesfortheAsia-Pacificregion.Localgovernmentsindevelopinginclusivedigitalurbaninnovationstrategiescanplayacentralroleinaddressingdatabreaches,andvisionsfortheircitiesandcollaboratingwithvariousprivacyanddatamisuse,managingtheriskofcybertheftstakeholder,includingtheprivatesector,academiaandandattacks,dealingwithdataprivacyconcerns,andcivilsociety.workingwithtechnologyexpertstoaddressidentifiedBox3.2.Thereal-timeurbanfloodforecastingandwarningsystemofShanghaiAreal-timeurbanfloodforecastingandwarningevaluationwithjustafewclicks.WiththehelpofsystemwasbuiltforPudongNewDistrictinmeteorologicalforecastestimates,andreal-timeShanghai,covering1,210km2oftherapidlyrainfallandriverleveldatareceivedfromstationsdevelopingurbanareaeastofHuangpuRiver.ThealloverthePudongNewDistrict,rapidforecastingcoastalmetropolisShanghaiissusceptibletofloodingtechnologyallowsonlinemonitoringandsimulationduetoitslow-lyingterrainandmassiveurbanization,offloodevents,providingapredictionofthescale,andthelocationdownstreamofthelargeTaihuBasin.timingandlocationofimpendingfloods.TheearlyAlthoughlocalwaterauthoritieswerecollectingwarningsystemimprovesresponsemanagementofweatherandhydrologicaldata,moreintelligentdatawatershedandfloodmanagementagencies,allowingtechnologieswereneededtohelpmaketherightPudongtooptimizeutilizationoffloodmanagementdecisionsforfloodpreventionandmanagement.infrastructure,especiallywherethereislimitedfloodcarryingservicecapabilitiesofexistinginfrastructure.AdigitalurbanfloodforecastingandearlywarningsystemwasbuilttointegrateallofthedataandSource:ADB(2021).supportwatermanagement,enablingfloodrisk73CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter03NationalandlocalgovernmentsneedtoaligntheirYoungpeople,whoareconsideredtobedigitalcommitmentswithinclusivedigitalinnovationinordertonatives,arecommonlyexpectedtobenefitfromdigitaltakesubstantialstepstoscaleupthedigitalavailabilitytransformationmorethananyotheragegroup.Cities,tobillionsofurbandwellers.Infact,focusingonthesuchasHanoi,JakartaandManila,haveunderscoredgovernmentaldimensionofdigitalurbantransformationthecriticalbutuntappedpotentialinwhichthepresencerevealssubstantialneedsforlegal,regulatoryandofaveryhighproportionofyoungworkersinurbandataprivacyreforms.Intheseareas,capacityisoftenareascouldallowforsignificantstepchangesintheinadequateandraisesissuesofeffectiveness,fairnessdigitalizationofurbaninnovationifpairedwithaveryclearandaccessibilityacrosstheregion.inclusionandyouth-ledviewpoint.Forexample,theUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)NationalandlocalgovernmentscanalsobenefitfromfirstPacificeditionofitsregularDigitalEconomyReportaligningtheiraction-orientedmultilateralglobalandhasstressedthisopportunitywithafocusonthePacificregionalcommitmentsandnetworkstoimplementansubregion.ThePacificDigitalEconomyProgramme,effectiveandinclusivedigitalchange.Forexample,thehasunderlinedthecentralityofurbandevelopment,theG20GlobalSmartCitiesAllianceisestablishingglobaldevelopmentofgreaterdigitalcapacityinyoungpeoplepolicynormsfordatacollectionanduse,transparency,andtheneedtoadvanceinclusivedigitalinnovation.andpublictrustwithchampionsacrosstheESCAPOverall,thisspeakstothecross-regionalneedforamoremembership,includingGaziantepinTürkiye,Hyderabadstrategic,systemic,andnetworkedroleofkeyurbaninIndiaandKakogawainJapan.AtthesecondsessionofstakeholdersinsettingthedirectionofdigitalaspirationstheUN-HabitatAssembly,heldinNairobifrom5to9Juneandinnovationsatthecountrylevelandembeddingthese2023,memberStatesagreedtosetoffaglobal,inclusiveinnationalurbanpolicies.processtoformulateguidelinesonpeople-centredsmartcities.ESCAPisalsosupportingthedevelopmentofOverall,thisspeakstothecross-regionalneedforaregionalandnationalsmartcityguidelinestopromotemorestrategic,systemicandnetworkedroleofkeygreaterintegrationandleveragebestpracticesacrosstheurbanstakeholdersinsettingthedirectionofdigitalregion.Thisverticalalignmentcancomplementimportantaspirationsandinnovationsatthecountrylevelandadvancementsmadeintheregionbylocalinnovatorsembeddingtheseinnationalurbanpolicies.andtheincreasingdegreeofurbanentrepreneurshipandbottom-upchangeabreastintheregion.AsstatedbyADB,digitalentrepreneurshipbysmallandmedium-sizedurbanenterprisesacrosstheregion,evenInthe2019CitiesasEpicentersofDigitalization(Pederseninitspoorestandmostdisadvantagedurbanareashelpedandothers,2019),itwasstressedthattheAsiancitieskeepeconomiesafloatduringCOVID-19andhasproventhathavemadethegreatestandmostsustainabletobeamajorengineofgrowthinthepost-pandemiceraprogresshavedonesobydevelopingwell-coordinated(Parkandothers,2022).public-privatepartnerships.TheyhavefocusedondevelopinginnovativeecosystemsthatunderpindigitalThediversityofeconomiesindevelopingcountriesacrosstransformations,notjusttheirrelativesuccess.FortheAsia-Pacificregionhasreachedadevelopmentexample,thefintechsectorofHangzhouisbenefitingstageunderwhichtheprivatesectortypicallyassumesfromthepresenceofAlibabainattractingtoptalenttoalargerroleineconomicgrowth(ADB,2021c).Yet,thecity.TheAlibabaGlobalLeadershipAcademyexpandsthegovernment’sroleremainsvitalinprovidingantheknowledgepoolandinternationalconnectivitywithinenablingenvironmentforprivateenterprise.RapidtheHangzhouworkforce.Thecitygovernmentfurthergrowthhastransformedtheregionintobeingcomprisedsupportstheexpansionoffintechbypartneringwithpredominantlyofmiddle-incomecountriesinwhichlocalresearchinstitutions,suchasZhejiangUniversity,sustainingrapidgrowthbecomesharderthanforlow-andby“establishingastronginternationalpresence”incomecountries.Recognitionofthispotentialhasbeenthroughevents,suchastheG20Summit.HangzhouinplaceforquitesometimeinSeoul,Singapore,TokyoisamongmanyChinesecitiesofferingincentivestoandShenzhen,withtheestablishmentofawidenumberattractandretaintalent,includinghousingsubsidiesforofexperimentaldigitalinnovationhubsinvolvingmajorforeigngraduatesandattractiveloansforindividualsandprivatesectoractorsandknowledgeinstitutionsemergingbusinesses(Pedersenandothers,2019).fromgrassroots.UrbaninnovationhasacriticalroleinexpandingthedegreeofdigitalcapacityacrosstheAsia-Pacificregion.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities74Box3.3.FromtheCityDataHubtotheCOVID-19DataHub:theresponseoftheRepublicofKoreatotheCOVID-19PandemicDespitethesurgeinnewCOVID-19casesrecordsofnetizens’locationsviacreditcardconcentratedindiversepartsoftheworld,thetransactions,mobilephonesandCCTVswereRepublicofKoreadidnotoptforcompulsoryprovidedbyserviceprovidersandusedforthelockdownmeasures.Instead,theGovernmentusedpurposeofspatio-temporalmappingofconfirmeditsexisting,andexplicitly“smartcity”badged,patients(SonandLee,2020).Bigdataanalysistechnologiestogatherdataontheoutbreakandprovidedreal-timedatafeedsonCOVID-19patients,respondinatimelyandtransparentmanner,andincludingtheirlocationsandtrafficinformation;thus,gainedpublictrust.detectingclusterinfectionsandmappingthevirustransmissionrouteatanearlystageofthepandemicShortlyaftertheannouncementofthefirst(SmartCityKorea,2020).coronaviruscontractedcaseon20January2020,theGovernmentoftheRepublicofKorea,ledbytheDespitebeingformallydevelopedasatoolbytheMinistryofLand,InfrastructureandTransport,inMinistryofLand,InfrastructureandTransportforcollaborationwiththeMinistryofScienceandICTsmartcities’efficienturbanplanning,theCOVID-19andtheKoreanCDC,launchedtheCOVID-19DataPlatformrepresentedanovelapproachforhandlingPlatformtotrackcases.TheplatformisadescendantinfectiousdiseasesbyenablingautomatedandswiftoftheSmartCityDataHub,aplatformoriginallytracing(10minutespercase).ComparedtomanualdevelopedbytheMinistryofLand,Infrastructuretrackingbyhealthworkers,automatedtrackingandTransportunderitssmartanddigitalinnovationoflog-inrecordsandcentralizedcoordinationofresearchanddevelopmentprogrammesformoremultipleagenciesreducedthetimeneededtotraceefficientmanagementoftraffic,energyuse,safetyeachconfirmedcasefromonedaytolessthantenandtheenvironment,poweredbyhigh-capacityminutes,furtherenablinghealthofficialstoadaptconvergenceofreal-timedata.Since2018,theSmartandmanagethepandemicmoreefficientlyinlieuofCityDataHubhasbeenemployedbythecitiesofasuddenlyincreasingworkload(RepublicofKorea,DaeguandSiheungundertheMinistryofLand,MinistryofLand,InfrastructureandTransport,2020).InfrastructureandTransportsmartcityprogrammestoenhancedesignandprovideurbanservicesWithafatalityrateof0.10percent(CDC,2023)of(RepublicofKorea,MinistryofLand,Infrastructurethenationwideconfirmedcases,theGovernmentandTransport,2020).declaredtheendofCOVID-19asahealthemergencyon11May2023(KIM,2023).TheGovernment’sAdministeredbytheKoreanCDC,thecollaborativeresponsetotheCOVID-19globalpandemicservedeffortsoftheNationalPoliceAgency,CreditFinanceasanexampleofthejointeffortsofseveralAssociationofKorea,threetelecommunicationgovernmentalagencies,butalsotheuseofdigitalcompaniesandtwenty-twocreditcardcompanies,technologyincontainingthenationalcrisis.IntheallowedhealthauthoritiestomergedataonthewordsoftheMinistryofLand,InfrastructureanddigitalplatformtotraceconfirmedpatientsandTransport,“smartcitytechnologiescanbeutilizedcomparemedicalconsultationreports.Anonymoustomeetpublicneeds”(RepublicofKorea,MinistryofLand,InfrastructureandTransport,2020).75CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter03Figure3.2.COVID-19EpidemiologyInvestigationSystem,RepublicofKoreaConfirmedcaseDetailsofEpidemiologicalEpidemiologyNPAAuthorizerConfirmedCaseNetworkInvestigationTriageManagementNPARoom1ConfirmedCaseApprovalRequest3OccurrenceApproval42DetailsRequestCREFIAKCDC/LocalGovernmentDataRequesterLegacySecurityandPrivacyApplicationCREFIAAuthorizerPlatformBlockchainDataProtectionAuthenticationIdentitySecurityAPISmartOpenandPrivacyAuthorizationManagementMobilityDataDetailsPortalHubConnectivityDataHubCoreSemanticsSmartVerificationDataMapParking7oneM2MAdapterDataMapCommonKnowledgeNationalMobile-PlatformManagerManagerDataLakeSemanticDataMgmt.SmartserviceCompanybasedonSemanticDBSemanticAnalysis&MLSafetyContextAnalysisDBMobile-serviceInterviewBrokerOperationDBAnalyticsCompanyOfficerPrimitiveDBVisualization/Dashboard8PrimitiveDetailsU-CityLODHarvestingSandLibrariesSemanticsAPIMobile-servicePlatformRealtimeDataStreamboxCompanyPreprocessingDynamicDataMovementProcessingLoRa,CKANHarvestingCoreSouthboundAPIAnalytics/MLCityHubGatewayNB-loT,ETLDataQualityMgmt.&ServiceKCDC/5GGWCoreNorthboundAPILifeCycleMgmt.DataPortalCityHubAPIsCityLocalGovernmentAdmini-LegacyDataUsageLoggingDataAccessAPI/strationPlatformoneM2MAdapterSDKRequest5Environ-NotificationMassiveFIWARECBData/SWMarketmentloTAdapterPlace(SMS)EnergyEpidemiologyEdgeU-CityPlatformAccountingDataServiceAPIManage-6PrimitiveInvestigatorServerHarvestingDetailsDataReputationment9•••LegacyAdapterCreditCardCompanyFinalizedDeviceDetailsManagementAdminAPI10EpidemiologicalNetworkInvestigation11DetailsMonitoringAdministration&DataGovernanceData&HCuibtyMInodneitxoringLivingCreditCardVerificationandConfigurationWelfareCompanyOfficerManagementbasedon•••NationalCreditCardCompanyInterviewDataMarketMediaCIniftryaHsutrbuctureHybridCloudMgmt.Multi-tenantInfraMetering&StreamsSchedulingMonitoringAPI=applicationprograminterface,CKAN=ComprehensiveKnowledgeArchiveNetwork,COVID-19=coronavirusdisease,CREFIA=theCreditFinanceAssociation,DB=database,GW=gigawatt,IoT=InternetofThings,KCDC=KoreaCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,LOD=linkedopendata,ML=machinelearning,NPA=NationalPolicyAgency,SDK=softwaredevelopmentkit,SMS=SmartManagementSystem,SW=software.Source:MinistryofLand,InfrastructureandTransport(2020).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities76FosteringurbandigitalopportunitiesDigitaltransformationrequiresacomprehensiveandKeypeople-centredapproachthatensurescoverageandRecommendationsaccesstoall,complementedbyanincreaseinskillsandcapacities,andclearlydefinedobjectivesinthedeploymentoftechnologies.Assuch,relatedkeyrecommendationsareasfollows.Developpeople-centrednationalsmart-citypoliciesasanenablerofinclusiveandsustainableurbandevelopmentTodeveloppeople-centrednationalsmart-cityproductivitythrough“smart”interventionsthatpoliciesasanenablerofinclusivesustainablescalessustainableurbandevelopment.Thisisdevelopment,collaboration,andpartnershipssuperimposedonanopportunitytoscalenotjustamongcities,governments,countries,the“up”(tocountriesandmultilateralprocesses)butprivatesectorandcivilsocietyareessential.also“down”(tolocal,precinctandneighbourhoodNationalsmart-citypoliciesshouldbeapriorityscale)and“out”(toothercities)tomanyofgovernments.Thesepolicieswillenablethemdigitallymindedcities.Thisincludesscalingthetosignificantlyimproveurbanservices,enhancecommitmentsacrosstheregioninSustainablesustainabilityandpromoteeconomicgrowthinDevelopmentGoals-focusedinitiatives,suchamorecoordinatedandinclusivemanner,andastheDigitalPublicGoodsCharterbytheestablishastrongnationalvisionandanenablingDigitalImpactAllianceandtheUnitedNationsframeworkforurbandigitaltransformations,DevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)(UNDP,2023).includingfordigitalpublictechnologies.Asproposedinthischapter,networkedcityinitiativeswithclearbuy-infromgovernmentasSeveralrecentanalysespointedtothegreatwellasengagementwiththeprivatesectorcanpotentialtoleveragedigitalpublictechnologieshavepowerfultransformativeeffects.Yet,these(Ingram,McArthurandVora,2022)toaccelerateinitiativesneedtobetterconnecttorecognizeeffortsaimedatrealizingtheSustainablethevalueofbottom-upnon-governmentalDevelopmentGoals.Thisrequiresproactivedigitalinitiatives,andthepotentialthatcity-universityinnovationcombinedwithmonitoringprogresscollaborationshaveinadvancinginclusiveandtowardsachievingtheSustainableDevelopmenttransferrabledigitalurbaninnovation(Acuto,GoalsbyAsiaandthePacificcities.Eastand2018).South-EastAsiahasdemonstratedincreased77CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter03EnhancecapacitiesofgovernmentsatalllevelstodesignandimplementinclusivedigitalstrategieswithaclearresiliencemindsetToleverageinclusivedigitalinnovationstrategiesofsmallandmedium-sizedcitiesundergoingforimprovedresilienceatthecitylevelrequiresdigitaltransformationinChina,Japan,Brazilandresourcesandcapacity-building.EffectiveSingaporewerecomparedlistedthefollowingprovisionofcapacity-buildingcanalignlocalascriticalcapacitygapsforintermediaryurbanstrategieswithnationalpolicyandenableareas:lackofdigitaltalent;insufficientfundsandtechnicalassistancefortheapplicationofpeople-resources;lackofunderstandingandapplicationcentreddigitalurbaninnovation“solutions”’andofdigitaltechnologies;andlackofintercityprogrammesthatarefocusedonimprovingtheinteractionandcooperationmechanisms.Inthequalityoflifeofresidents.Digitalsolutionsarereport,however,itwasalsostressedthattownsenablingtoolsintheoverallpackage.andperi-urbanareaswerecomparativelybetterabletoleapfrogdigitalinnovationifcarefullyArecentWorldEconomicForumreport(Xuandplannedforandsupportedadequatelybyothers,2022)inwhichthechallengesandneedsinvestment,especiallyatthenationallevel.Promotecitizenengagementandmulti-stakeholderpartnershipsfordigitaltransformationsincitiesToachievedigitaltransformationincitiesthatTothisend,akeydimensionofpositiveandcross-contributetosustainableurbandevelopment,regionalchangealsocomeswithhoweffectivelygreaterefficienciesandqualityoflife,digitalthe“smartcities”conceptandpositioninghaspoliciesandsolutionsmustengagecitizensprogressivelyshiftedintoamorecollaborativeandrelevantpublicandprivateactorsacrossviewpointonshareddigitalinnovationpathwaystheinnovationecosystem,fromstartupstoandbenefits.Thisisanessentialissueinlargetechnologyfirms.TheAsia-Pacificregionreframingthedigitalopportunity.Whilenumerouspresentsavastfieldofdiversedigitalcapacity,discussionsaboutsmartinnovationhaveinfrastructureandresilienceconditions.However,competitivedynamics,asa“digitalraceforthecourtesyofwidespreadnationalgovernmentfuture”(Huawei,2022;2023),progressivecallsforbuy-in,athrivingprivatesector,ground-updigitalpan-regionalandcross-countrydigitalinnovationentrepreneurshipsceneandincreasinglywell-collaborationandsubregionalpartnershipsforestablishedknowledgeinstitutions,theregionurbandigitaltransformationhaveemergedandalsopresentsafertilegroundtodevelopeffectiveperhapspresentthebestavenuetoachievinganinnovationswithaninclusionmindset.inclusivedigitaltransformationandensuring“nocityisleftbehind”.Inconclusion,ascitiesintheAsia-Pacificregionembracethefinancingneedsbecomesacriticalfactorinenablingdigitaltechnologiesandsmartinfrastructure,significantsustainableandinclusivedevelopmentacrossAsia-Pacificinvestmentstobuildthenecessarydigitalinfrastructurecities,whichisthesubjectofthenextchapter.andupgradeexistingsystemsareneeded.AddressingTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities7804Chapter04Urbanfinanceduringturbulenttimes79CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter04TheCOVID-19pandemichashadaprofoundimpactonurbanfinanceinAsiaandthePacific.Theregion’scities,knownfortheirbustlingandtaxrevenue,whichinturn,affectedeconomiesandvibrantfinancialsectors,urbanfinance.Tomitigatethespreadweresignificantlydisruptedaslockdownsofthevirus,therewasanincreasedandtravelrestrictionsbroughteconomicemphasisoncontactlesspaymentsandactivitiestoastandstill.Theclosureofdigitaltransactions.Thisshifthasaffectedbusinesses,reducedconsumerspendingtraditionalcash-basedbusinessesandanddisruptionofglobalsupplychainsrevenuecollectionmethods,requiringledtoasharpdeclineinrevenueforlocaladjustmentsinurbanfinancialsystems.governmentsandariseinunemploymentrates.ThelossoftaxrevenueandThepost-pandemicurbantransformationincreasedexpenditureonhealthcareandintheAsia-Pacificregionisintendedtosocialsupportfurtherstrainedthefinancialmakecitiesaffordableandliveable,andresourcesofcities,exacerbatingbudgetalsoclimateresilient.Howcanurbandeficits.Governmentsimplementedfinancesupportthistransformation?Thevariousmeasurestomitigatetheeconomicurbaninfrastructureinvestmentneedsinfallout,includingstimuluspackages,AsiaandthePacificarelargeandcannotfinancialaidtobusinessesandtaxbreaks.bemetbyanysinglesource.AsperAdditionally,citieshadtoreassesstheirtheclimate-adjustedestimatesofADB,long-termfinancialstrategies,includingcountriesintheAsia-Pacificregionneedurbandevelopmentplans,infrastructure$26trillionfortheperiod2016−2030.investmentsanddebtmanagement.CitiesBrokendownbysector,investmentisintheAsia-Pacificregionarenavigatingneededforthepowersector($14.7thechallengesofeconomicrecoveryandtrillion),transportsector($8.3trillion),financialmodelstobuildresilienceforthetelecommunicationssector($2.3trillion),future.andwaterandsanitationsector($802billion).Inaddition,$41billionisneededCitiesintheAsia-Pacificregionforclimateadaptationand$200billionarenavigatingthechallengesofformitigationannually(ADB,2017).Thiseconomicrecoveryandfinancialdoesnotincludesocialsector-relatedmodelstobuildresiliencefortheinvestmentsineducation,healthcarefuture.andhousing,orareaswheretherearesubstantialunmetneeds,especiallyinManygovernmentsresortedtoborrowingtermsofprovidingthesesocialservicesandincreasedpublicdebttofinanceattherequisitequality.Theestimatedreliefmeasures,whichwillhavelong-annualgapinmajorphysicalinfrastructuretermimplicationsforcities.Thepandemicsectorsis$459billionor2.4percentofalsoalteredconsumerbehaviourastheirtheregion’sGDP.Theinfrastructuregapinhabitantsreducedspendingonnon-ofChinais$151billion,followedbyIndiaessentialitemsandinstead,focusedonat$144billionandIndonesiaat$51billionessentialgoodsandservices.Thischange(ADB,2017).Thisimpliesthatcountriesinspendingpatternsaffectedbusinesseswillneedtoincreaseinvestmentsininfrastructurebyatleast50percent.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities80CreativeactionisessentialifthisinvestmentistooccurinThefocusofthischapterisontimetomeettheSustainableDevelopmentGoalstimeline,identifyingfinancialstrategiesespeciallyinthepost-pandemicperiodwherethereisthatcouldbeeffectivelyapplieddecreasingavailabilityofdomesticandinternationalbylocalgovernmentstofundingforinvestment.InSouthAsia,highdebtlevels,enhanceservicedeliveryandlowerforeignreservesandweakenedcurrenciesmakeinfrastructuredevelopmentitdifficultforcountriestoaccessinternationalcapital.thatimprovesqualityoflifeandAdditionally,stringentglobalfinancialconditions,complexensurestheeconomicviabilityaccessmodalitiesandhightransactioncostsincreaseofcities.debtservicecosts(WorldBank,2023).OthercountriesintheAsia-Pacificregionarelikelytofacesimilarchallenges.Thefocusofthischapterisonidentifyingfinancialstrategiesthatcouldbeeffectivelyappliedbylocalgovernmentstoenhanceservicedeliveryandinfrastructuredevelopmentthatimprovesqualityoflifeandensurestheeconomicviabilityofcities.Thesestrategiesmustalsobesensitivetothefactthatthelargeinformalsectorcontinuestobeadominantcharacteristicoftheregion,andhousingneedstoremainaffordableandbecomeclimateresilientsimultaneously.Leveragingurbanfinanceforapost-pandemicrecoveryWhilecitiesvaryintheirfunctionalresponsibilityandfiscalhousing(OECD,2020a).Asindividualsandfamiliesfaceenvelope,mostlocalgovernmentsacrosstheAsia-Pacificfinancialhardships,thedemandforaffordablehousingregionareresponsibleforprovidingbasicservices,suchhasincreasedsignificantly.However,thepandemichasaswaterandsanitation,wastemanagement,stormwaterstrainedthefinancialresourcesofgovernmentsanddrainage,educationandhealth,anddevelopingandorganizationsthatsupportaffordablehousinginitiatives.maintainingpublicassets,suchasroadsandfootpaths,Budgetconstraints,shiftingprioritiesandreducedplaygrounds,parksandgreenareas.revenuestreamshavemadeitmorechallengingtoallocatesufficientfundsforaffordablehousingprojectsTheeconomicdisruptionscausedbyandprogrammes.Additionally,uncertaintyandvolatilitythecrisis,includingwidespreadjobinfinancialmarketsduringthepandemichavemadeitlossesandreducedincomes,havemoredifficultfordevelopersandinvestorstosecurefurtherexacerbatedthechallengesfinancingforaffordablehousingprojects.Asaresult,inaccessingaffordablehousing.therehasbeenaslowdownintheconstructionandexpansionofaffordablehousingunits,exacerbatingtheTheeconomicdisruptionscausedbythecrisis,includingexistingshortageofaffordablehousingoptions(Debwidespreadjoblossesandreducedincomes,havefurtherandothers,2022).Thepandemichasunderscoredexacerbatedthechallengesinaccessingaffordabletheneedforincreasedinvestmentandinnovativefinancingmechanismstoaddressthegrowingdemandforaffordablehousingandensurehousingstabilityforvulnerablepopulations.81CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter04Municipalfinanceandurbanfinancearerelated,buthavestreamsneedtosupportinvestmentandfinancedifferentfocusareas.Municipalfinanceisrequiredfortheborrowingagainstfuturecashflows.Thisistypicallyfinancialmanagementandactivitiesoflocalgovernmentdividedintotwotypes:generalobligationbonds,whichbasedontheareaofjurisdictionandinvolvesmunicipalhaveaclaimonalltypesofrevenue;andrevenuebonds,revenue,expenditures,liabilitiesandassets.Urbanfinancewhichareusuallytiedtoaspecificsource,suchasuserisbroaderinscope.Itcomprisesfinancingmechanismsfeesforwatersupply.usedtosupportlargerinfrastructure,transportationandhousingprojectsaswellasotherurbanamenities,Municipalbondsareakeypathwayforcitiestoraiseallofwhichtypicallyincludebothpublicandprivatefundingforinfrastructure.Toaccesslocalcapitalmarkets,financing.Giventhemulti-crisesthatcitiesareoperatingapoolingapproachissometimesused,suchasthein,implementingsolutionstodealwiththeimpactsofBangladeshMunicipalDevelopmentFund(2004),theurbanization,climatechangeandothershocksandRegionalInfrastructureDevelopmentFundinIndonesiastressesrequiremunicipalandurbanfinancesolutionsto(2016)andtheTamilNaduWaterandSanitationPooledaddresstheuniquefinancialopportunitiesandchallengesFunds(2003).Thesefundspooltogethergrants,debtthatariseinurbanareas.andequity,andofferittolocalgovernments,cityplanninganddevelopmentauthorities,housingboardsCitiesgeneraterevenuethroughmanystreams.Theandserviceutilitiesonconcessionalterms,whichcannotrevenuestreamsthatsupportexpenditureonurbanbeobtaineddirectlyfromthemarketduetolackoflocalinfrastructurecanbegroupedintofourbroadcategories:governmentcapacityandmarketappetite.Pooledfundsuserfeesandcharges;taxrevenue;transfers,grantsandcan,accordingly,playanimportantroleinmakingcapitalsubsidies;andpublic-privatepartnerships.Themixofavailabletosmallercitiesthataretypicallyunabletothesesourcesvarieswidelyacrosscountriesandcities.accessthemdirectlyfromthemarket.Inadditiontooperatingexpenditure,theserevenueBox4.1.AlongroadtomunicipalbondsLocalgovernments,particularlyintheAsia-PacificInIndonesia,althoughsubnationalgovernmentshaveregion,facechallengesinaccessingcapitalmarkets,beenlegallypermittedtoissueproject-linkedbondsespeciallyfromforeignsources.Amongthereasonssince2014,nosuchbondswereissueduntil2017,behindthisarelimitedcreditworthiness,lackoflocalasreportedbyADBin2020.Similarly,inIndia,onlyfinancialtransparency,insufficientlocalrevenue,afewlargecities,suchasBengaluru,Ahmedabad,inadequatelocalregulatoryframeworks,lackofPuneandHyderabad,haveissuedbondssince1997.localgovernmentfamiliaritywithcapitalmarketsAccordingtoMoneycontrol,municipalbondsinIndiaandperceptionofhigherrisk.Concernsabouthaveraisedapproximately$500millionbetweengovernance,stabilityandtheabilitytohonour2017and2022(Moneycontrol,2023).However,thisfinancialobligationscanmakeitdifficultforlocalamountrepresentsasmallfractionoftheoverallgovernmentstoattractinvestorswhoprioritizeriskrevenue.mitigation.ThereisagrowingfocusonclimatefinanceDomesticbondissuancebylocalgovernmentsintheandcarboncreditsaimedataddressingurbanAsia-Pacificregionisstillinitsearlystages.Thiscaninfrastructure,suchaswaterandtransport.Greenbeattributedtofactors,suchasinsufficientlocalbondsalsoplayanimportantrole,especiallyintherevenueandinadequateregulatoryframeworks.FromAsia-Pacificregion(Tolliverandothers,2021).This2015to2018,bondsaccountedforonly10.8percentemphasismaybringaboutchangesinthefuture,ofthefundsraised,whilebankloansconstituted50.1potentiallyopeningupavenuesforlocalgovernmentspercent,andequityfinancingwasat25.9percenttotapintocapitalmarkets.(ESCAP,2019a).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities82Inaddition,foreignfundingcanberaisedfrommultilateralThereisnascentgrowthofprivatefinance,whichbanksbynationalgovernmentsandthenlenttolocalinvolvesthecapitalizationofthesamerevenuestreams,12governments.Apartfromtraditionallending,multilateralespeciallyuserfees(Hahm,2019).However,itmaybebanksalsoserveascoordinatorsoffinancefrommultiplepossibletoraisemorefinanceifprivateinvestmentledtosourcesandincreasinglyforgreenfinance.Anexampleofimprovedrevenuecollectionoroperationalefficiency.ForthisistheASEANCatalyticGreenFinanceFacility,whichexample,ifcollectionofwaterbillsimprovedorifnon-providessupportto“prepareandfinanceinfrastructurerevenuewaterwerereduced,lenderswouldbewillingtoprojectsthatpromoteenvironmentalsustainabilityandextendlargerloans,giventhegreatercashflows.Thiscontributetoclimatechangegoals”(ADB,2023).Thiscouldfreeuppublicfinanceresourcestoinvestinnon-coordinationrolehasledtoharmonizedprinciples,revenuegeneratingactivities,forexample,protectionsuchastheJointMethodologyforTrackingAdaptationagainstfloodingriskorsea-levelrise.13FinanceandtheCommonPrinciplesforClimateChangeAdaptationFinanceTracking.12Outof1,072privatelyfinancedwaterandsanitationprojects(partlyorwholly)undertakenbetween1993and2017globally,654projectswereinPrivatecapitalcanplayaroleinfinancingurbantheAsia-Pacificregion,ofwhich499wereinChina.infrastructure.Thepublicsectoraccountsfor90percent13TheelectricitydistributioncompaniesinMumbaiandDelhiareprivatelyofinfrastructureinvestmentintheregion(ESCAP,2018).owned,asiswatersupplyinManila;manyutilitiesarecorporatized,asinPhnomPenh.Smallerinfrastructure,suchasmultilevelparking,canalsobeconcessioned,andsomecitiescanuseitasarevenuesource.Box4.2.Fromsavingstoskylines:howdomesticpensionfundscandriveurbaninfrastructureDomesticpensionfundsplayacrucialroleinCorporationofIndiaandtheEmployees’Providentfinancingurbaninfrastructureprojects.Thesefunds,FundOrganisation,whichhavecombinedassetsofwhichmanageretirementsavingsofindividuals$604.87billion,toinvest1percentoftheirpensionandinstitutionalinvestorswithinacountry,possessfundinbondsissuedbyState-runpowerlendingsubstantialfinancialresourcesthatcanbechanneledfirmstofinancegreenprojects(Reuters,2023).towardslong-terminfrastructureinvestments.ThestableandpredictablenatureofpensionfundByinvestinginurbaninfrastructure,pensionfundscontributionsalignswellwiththelong-termfinancingcangeneratesteadyreturnsanddiversifytheirneedsofurbaninfrastructureprojects,whichoftenportfolios,enhancingtheirabilitytomeetfuturehaveextendedlifecycles.pensionobligations.Additionally,theseinvestmentscontributetothedevelopmentandmodernizationIntheAsia-Pacificregion,theNationalPensionandofurbanareas,improvingthequalityoflifeforProvidentFundofBhutanhasinvestedinthe126residentsandfosteringeconomicgrowth.TheMWDagachhuHydroelectricProject,takinga15perparticipationofdomesticpensionfundsinfinancingcentequitystake,DrukGreen(thenationaloperatorurbaninfrastructurecanmobilizedomesticsavingsofhydropowerstationsinBhutan),takinga59perandreducerelianceonexternalsources,therebycentstake,andTataPowerCompanyofIndia(theenhancingacountry’sfinancialstabilityandmakingpowerpurchaser),takinga26percentstake(ESCAP,themself-sufficient.Collaborationinvolvingpension2019).Toincreasethesupplyoffundsformunicipalfunds,governmentsandotherstakeholdersisbonds,somecountriesaremandatinginvestmentsessentialtocreateanenablingenvironmentthatbydomesticpensionfunds.PensionfundsinPolandfacilitatesinvestmentsandmaximizesthepositiveareobligatedtoinvestapartoftheircorpusinimpactofdomesticpensionfundsinfundingurbanmunicipalbonds(OECD,2002).India,forexample,isinfrastructure.contemplatingmakingitincumbentfortheLife83CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter04ReimaginingmunicipalfinanceforasustainablefutureBecauseoftheCOVID-19pandemic,governmentshadtogovernmentsinruralandurbanareas.Thesetransfersreallocatefundstoaddresstheimmediateneedsofpubliccanbeuntiedorearmarked.Forexample,themostrecenthealth,resultinginbudgetdeficitsandlimitedresources(15th)federalFinanceCommissionearmarkedtransferstoforongoingprojectsandservices.Manymunicipalitieslocalbodies,conditionaloncertainenvironmentalcriteriawereforcedtocutspending,delayorcancelinfrastructureonambientairquality,whichisaninterestingexampleprojectsandimplementausteritymeasurestomanageofdomesticgreenfinance(India,MinistryofFinance,theirfinances.Thepandemichighlightedthevulnerability2021).IntergovernmentaltransfersinChina,whilemuchofmunicipalfinancesystemsandtheneedforincreasedmoreextensive,withamuchhighersharegoingtothefinancialresilienceandsupportmechanismstomitigatesubnationalgovernments,arenotmediatedthroughsuchtheimpactoffuturecrises.aninstitutionalprocess(Wingender,2018).GrantsandintergovernmentalBox4.3.ThefundingandprovisionofeducationandantransfersequitableurbanfutureTheCOVID-19pandemicledtoareductioninWhoshouldberesponsibleforthefundingoftheintergovernmentalgrantsandtransfersforurbanprovisionofeducation?Currently,countriesvarydevelopment.Insomecases,governmentsatvariousintheirallocationofresponsibilitiesandfunding.levelshadtodivertresourcesandfundstowardsIntheUnitedStates,localpropertytaxesfundimmediatepublichealthmeasuresandemergencytheneighbourhoodpublicschools,withawideresponse,reducingtheallocationofgrantsandtransfersvariationinthespendingperstudent(affluentforurbandevelopment.InJapan,prefecturalspendingtoareasspendingmore,thusexacerbatingthecontainthenovelcoronavirus,amountingto$9.5billioninequalityinqualityofeducation).14InChina,inJuly2020,drainedthereservefundsofmostofthetherearelargedifferencesinschoolqualityprefecturalgovernmentsbymorethanhalf.Accordingacrossruralandurbanareas(Yang,Huangandtoonesurvey,all47regionshadalreadyused58perLiu,2014).InIndia,thepoorqualityofpubliccentoftheirreservesatthattime(Shimbun,2020).educationhasledtothegrowthofprivateConsequently,manyurbanareashaveexperienceddelaysschoolsacrossthefeespectrum(forexample,orcancellationsofcrucialdevelopmentprojects,hinderingthereareofferingsateachprice-qualityprogressinaddressinginfrastructureneedsandimprovingcombination).Separately,thereishouseholdthequalityoflifeincities(OECD,2020b).investmentinafter-schooltutoringandsupport,commontobothIndiaandChina.HowshouldToresourceapostCOVID-19recovery,federalfinanceiseducationbefunded–withwhatmixoflocal,akeypartofthepicturewhenevertherevenue-raisingnationalandprovincialfunds–andwhoshouldpowersareconcentrated,butexpenditureresponsibilitiesprovideit?Thereislittleconsensusonthisyet,aremoredispersed.InIndia,thedisbursementoffundsbutitmaybethemostcriticaldeterminantoffromthefederalgovernment’sdivisiblepool,includingequityintheurbanfuture.ashareintaxesandgrants,takesplacethroughsystemicandprogrammatictransferstolowertiersof14TheUnitedStatesprovidesequalizingfundingacrossgovernmentsandspecializedparastatalbodies,whichschooldistricts.Limitedfederalfunding(TitleI)isalsoprovid-implementlargeurbaninfrastructureprojects,suchasedforlow-incomestudents.Moreinformationisavailableatwaterandpowerutilities.Tomakeintergovernmentalhttps://www.edworkingpapers.com/ai21-443.fiscaltransferseffective,atransparentframeworktoensurethattheseareadequate,justandfreeofpoliticalbiasesisfundamental.Forexample,theNationalFinanceCommissioninIndiaallocatesrevenuestostateseveryfiveyearsandrespectivestatefinancecommissionsaresupposedtosimilarlyallocaterevenuetolocalTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities84Own-sourcerevenuefaceddifficultiesinpayingtheirtaxesorsoughtreliefmeasures.Furthermore,feesandchargesassociatedOwn-sourcerevenuehadwithservices,suchasparking,permitsandlicenses,weredeclinedduetotheeconomicnegativelyaffected,aseconomicactivityslowed.Thishasdisruptionscausedbythehighlightedtheneedforcitiestodiversifytheirrevenuepandemicandconstrainedthesources,enhancefinancialresilienceandseekadditionalabilityoflocalgovernmentssupportfromhigherlevelsofgovernmentandinternationaltofundurbandevelopmentinstitutionstosustainurbandevelopmentinitiativesintheprojectsandprovideessentialfaceoffuturecrises.services.LocalgovernmentsusearangeofinstrumentstoraiseOwnsourcerevenueshaddeclinedduetotheeconomicown-sourcerevenue,includingtaxes,fees,usercharges,disruptionscausedbythepandemicandconstrainedthepenalties,planningandbuilding-relatedcharges,andabilityoflocalgovernmentstofundurbandevelopmentland-useconversioncharges.Propertytaxistraditionallyprojectsandprovideessentialservices.Businessseenasanappropriatetaxbasetofundactionswithclosures,reducedconsumerspendingandwidespreadlocalbenefitsandisthemostbuoyantoftheinstrumentsjoblossesresultedinlowertaxrevenues,particularlyfromthatcouldhelplocalgovernmentsgenerateasubstantialsectors,suchashospitality,tourismandretail.Propertyshareoflocaltaxrevenue.However,notallcountriestaxcollectionswerealsoaffected,assomeindividualsuseitextensively.Forexample,Thailanddoesnothavegeneralizedpropertytaxforown-use,whilesomelocalgovernmentsinJapanandtheRepublicofKoreaalsohaveincometaxschemes.©mariusltu-Aerial.Colombo-commercialcapitalandlargestcityofSriLanka85CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter04Figures4.1aand4.1bshowtheshareoflocalgovernment13to0.45percentin2017-18andown-sourcerevenuerevenueingeneralgovernmentrevenueandthesharehasdroppedfrom0.33percentofGDPin2012-13to0.23ofpropertytaxesinlocalgovernmentrevenueforselectpercentin2017-18(Ahluwaliaandothers,2019).ThiscountriesintheAsia-Pacificregion.Iflocalgovernmentneedstobetakenintoconsiderationinintergovernmentalunitscanlevyothertaxes,propertytaxconstitutesalowertransferaswellasreassignmentofnewtaxestothelocalshareoflocalrevenue.Insomecountries,theintroductionlevel.Inaddition,in2018,theshareofpropertytaxinGDPofagoodsandservicestax(GST)hassubsumedlocalwasmuchlowerforcountriesintheAsia-Pacificregiontaxesandmunicipalrevenueshavedeclinedincities.Forcomparedtootherregions,implyingthereissignificantinstance,in37municipalcorporationsofIndia,municipalpotentialtoenhancethecollectionofpropertytaxintherevenuehasdeclinedfrom0.49percentofGDPin2012-Asia-Pacificcountries.90%79.4%Figure4.1a.80%Localshareoftotal70%Chinagovernmentrevenue60%50%47.3%43%41.7%40%30%RepublicofJapanNepal20%Korea10%30.5%0%Mongolia19.4%19.1%PhilippinesThailand15.7%11.3%CambodiaNewZealand7.2%Australia50%46.3%Figure4.1b.Share45%ofpropertytaxesin40%NewZealandlocalrevenue35%30%39.5%25%20%Australia15%10%12.5%10.1%9.9%5%JapanCambodiaChina0%8.2%Philippines4.9%Republicof3.3%2.9%KoreaMongolia1%NepalThailandSource:OECD-UCLGWorldObservatoryonSubnationalGovernmentFinanceandInvestment.Availableathttps://stats.oecd.org/viewhtml.aspx?datasetcode=SNGF_WO&vh=0000&vf=00&l&il=blank&lang=en&vcq=1111#.Note:Financialrevenuedataarefor2019−2020formostcountries.OthersourcesareOECD(2020)SubnationalgovernmentsinOECDcountries(2020)andIMFGovernmentFinanceStatistics(n.d.).TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities86Table4.1.PropertytaxesEuropeanUnion(27)20142015201620172018asapercentageofgrossOECDcountries(37)2.22.32.32.32.4domesticproductin1.91.92.31.91.9differentregionsAfrica(30)0.40.40.40.30.3AsiaandthePacific(24)0.70.70.70.70.7Sources:OrganisationforEconomic0.90.90.80.90.8Co-operationandDevelopmentLatinAmerica(26)GlobalRevenueStatisticsDatabase,2021(accessed27October2021)quotedinMcCluskey,BahlandFranzsen(2022).DigitalizationandtaxrevenueThepandemicacceleratedtheadoptionofdigitalservicequality,reducedindividualdiscretionandenabledplatformsfordeliveringservices,facilitatingpaymentsandrevenuecollectiontobemonitoredinrealtime.Usingtrackingdigitaltransactions.Withlockdownsandsocialthiscomputerizedinformation,thecitycross-checkeddistancingmeasuresinplace,localgovernmentshadtopropertytransfertaxpaymentswiththeLandRegistrationquicklyadapttodigitalplatformsandtechnologiestoAuthority.16AGIS-basedinventoryoftaxablepropertiescontinuedeliveringservicesandmaintainingoperations.wasprepared,andcoordinationoflandandbuildingThisacceleratedtheadoptionofdigitaltoolsforinformationacrossdepartmentswasimproved.Similarremotework,onlinecommunication,e-governanceandstoriesoccurredinPunjabprovinceinPakistanandthevirtualservicedelivery,transformingtraditionalurbancityofSuratinIndia,whereusingGISmapswereusedtodevelopmentpractices.Theshifttoe-commerceandimprovethecollectionofpropertytaxes,indicatingthatonlinetransactionsduringthepandemicalsogeneratedthismethodcanbeadoptedinmultiplecontexts.newrevenuestreamsforgovernments.Asmoreeconomicactivitiesmovedonline,governmentshadtoadapttaxIn2019,(whenFernandoBelmonte’sdaughter,Joy,tookpoliciesandregulationstocapturedigitaltransactionsandofficeasmayor),QuezonCitycollectedPt7.4billionensurefairtaxation.inlocaltaxrevenue,whichincludedPt3.8billionfrompropertytaxesandPt12.7billionfrombusinesstaxesThebuildingupofapropertytaxbaseinparticular,(GonzalesandCalugay,2018),whichwerealsoreformedrequiresinvestmentinlandandpropertycadastres,inasimilarmanner(theshareofpropertytaxinlocalwhichisevenmorecriticalwhenthedevelopmentofrevenueactuallydeclinedovertheperiod2001−2019,fromcitieshaslargelybeeninformal(inthisrespect,Central52to22percent).ThecityalsosignificantlyimprovedAsiancountrieswithmoreformalState-leddevelopmentwastemanagementandinitiatedamicroenterpriselendinghavebettercadastres).However,newtechnologiesareprogramme,which,by2010,hadextendedloansworthfacilitatingthisprocessconsiderably.QuezonCitywasthePt2.47billionto179,743clients,testifyinghowimprovedfirstlocalgovernmentinthePhilippinestocomputerizeeffortstoattainrevenuecanhelptobuildamoreinclusivepropertyandbusinesstaxassessmentandcollection.city(GonzalesandCalugay,2018).WhenFernandoFelicianoRacimoBelmonteJr.took15Otheractionsincludeddiscountsforearlypayment,makingitmorecon-officeastheninthmayorofQuezonCityin2001,thecityvenienttomakeapayment(startingin2013,taxescanbepaidwithmobilefacedfinancialdistress,withabudgetdeficit,1.4billionmoney)andstrongerenforcement,withauctionsofdelinquentproperties.PhilippinesPeso(Pt)($25.2million)instatutoryclaimsand16Onestudyfoundthat58percentoftheofficialreceiptsrecordedattheasimilaramountinloans(GonzalesandCalugay,2018).LandRegistrationAuthoritywerecounterfeitandthatonly42percentofHowever,by2006,totalown-sourcetaxeshadmorethanthetransfertaxpaymentswereaccurate.SeeAmatong(2005).doubled,fromPt2.7billiontoPt5.7billionandpropertytaxeshadrisenby75.1percent(GonzalesandCalugay,2018).Digitizationplayedakeyrole.15Ithelpedimprove87CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter04UserfeesandchargesfamiliespayTk37.50(NewAge:Bangladesh,2022).InKualaLumpurandPutraJaya,thefirst20cubicmetresLockdownmeasuresandreduced(1,000litres)are0.57Malaysianringgit(RM)($0.12)pereconomicactivityledtoacubicmetre,thenext15areRM1.03percubicmetre,anddecreaseindemandforservices,afterthat,thepricerisestoRM2($0.43)percubicmetresuchaspublictransportation,(RinggitPlus,2019).InHanoi,domesticuserspay5,973parking,recreationalfacilitiesVietnamesedong(₫)($0.25)percubicmeterforthefirstandotheramenities,resultingin10cubicmeterspermonth,and15,929₫foreachunitinadropincorrespondinguserfeeexcessof30cubicmetres(Hai,2023).However,someofcollections.theurbanpoorarenotabletoaccessthepublicprovisionofwaterevenwithdifferentialpricing.TheyrelyonanLockdownmeasuresandreducedeconomicactivityledinformalmarket-basedsourceofwatersupply,oftenattoadecreaseindemandforservices,suchaspublicahigherprice.ForInstance,inKathmandu,manyslumtransportation,parking,recreationalfacilitiesandotherhouseholdsbuy20-litreplasticwaterjarsthatcost$0.35amenities,resultinginadropincorrespondinguserfeeeach(Priyam,SherpaandDas,2022).collections.Moreover,businessesandindividualsfacingfinancialhardshipshadlessfinancialflexibilitytoaffordKualaLumpurisalsousinguserfeestoincreasetheuseoraccesscertainservices,furtheraffectinguserfeeofpublictransport.ItsMy50travelpass,whichoffers30revenue.LocalgovernmentshadtograpplewiththedaysunlimitedridesonRapidKLLRT,MRT,Monorail,BRT,challengeofbalancingtheneedtocontinuetoprovideRapidKLbusandMRTfeederbusservicesinKlangValley,essentialservicesamidareductioninrevenuefromisverypopular(Bernama,2023).InDelhi,from2019,auserfeesandcharges.Thissituationhighlightedthepinkticketallowswomentorideforfreeonbuses.Sinceimportanceofdiversifyingrevenuestreams,developingtheinceptionofthescheme,morethanonebilliontripsinnovativefinancingmechanismsandensuringfinancialhavebeenmadeusingthisticket.Arguably,ithashelpedsustainabilityinurbandevelopmentplanningtomitigatetomakethecityanditslabourmarketmoreaccessiblethevulnerabilityofcitiesduringtimesofcrisis.towomen.Inbothcases,userfeeswereusedtomakethecitymoreclimateresilient,bydisincentivizingwaterUserfeesarealsoatooltosupporthouseholdsinconsumptionandbyincentivizingtheuseofpublictransit.addressingthecost-of-livingcrisisandtoincentivizeclimate-resilientbehaviour.Manycountriesapplydifferentialpricingstructuresforwater.Forexample,ablockof10,000to20,000litresisoftenfreeorpricedatamuchlowerratetoenablelow-incomefamiliestogetaccesstothisessentialservice.InDelhi,20,000litresofwaterissuppliedfreeofchargeforresidentialuse.InDhaka,low-incomefamiliespay12.50Bangladeshitaka(TK)($0.11)per1,000litres,whilethehigh-incomeTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities88Land-basedfinancingMunicipallandscanbeamajorsourceoflocalgovernmentbenefitsagreementsandtheincorporationofgreenandincome,eitherthroughleasing,outrightsaleorothersustainableinfrastructureindevelopmentprojects.Thevariousmeansoflandvaluecapture,suchasbettermentlong-termeffectsofthepandemiconlandassetsalesleviesandtaxincrementfinancing.Asthepandemicandlandvaluecapturearestillunfolding,anditislikelytodisruptedeconomicactivitiesandledtomarketreshapeurbandevelopmentstrategiesandpracticesinuncertainties,landtransactionsandsaleshaveslowed.thepost-pandemicera.AsthepandemicdisruptedeconomicAssetscanalsobecreatedthroughregulatoryaction,activitiesandledtomarketsuchastheadditionalfloorarearatio,whichacquiresuncertainties,landtransactionsandvaluebecausespaceisscarceinspecificlocations.Landsaleshaveslowed.saleshadbeenamajorsourceofurbanfinanceinChina,withamulti-trilliondebtraisedbylocalgovernments,Investorsanddevelopersbecamecautiousaboutmakingsecuredwithland,usinglocalgovernmentfinancinglong-terminvestments,includinglandacquisitions,duevehicles,whicharespecialpurposeentitiesthatallowedtotheuncertaineconomicclimateandpotentialrisksthemtomonetizelandvaluetoinvestininfrastructureassociatedwithurbandevelopmentprojects.Reduced(Shepherd,2023).But,asgrowthslowedandthepropertydemandforcommercialrealestate,suchasretailandsectorwashitbydefaults,thisstrategyseemstohaveofficespaces,alsoaffectedlandsalesandvaluecapture.reacheditsfinanciallimits,asweaklocalgovernmentAdditionally,thepandemichasbroughtattentiontothefinancingvehiclesfacerefinancingrisk(Li,2023).Anotherneedforequitableandsustainableurbandevelopment,riskisthatthisstrategycanalsoleadtourbansprawl,withagreaterfocusonaffordablehousing,publicspacesunlesscareistakentoensurethattheplannedurbanandresilientinfrastructure.Asaresult,theremaybeexpansioniscompact.Forexample,intheRepublicofshiftsinlandvaluecapturemechanismstoprioritizesocialKorea,landvaluecapturewasusedtofinancemorethanandenvironmentalconsiderations,suchascommunity20percentofthecostsinvolvedinbuildingfivenewtownsascompactmixeddevelopmentsaroundSeoul(LeeandAhn,2005).Box4.4.LandvaluecapturefinancestheMassTransitRailway(MTR)ofHongKong,ChinaLandcangenerateadequateresourcestofundcontributingsubstantiallytothecapitalandinvestment-intensiveinfrastructure,suchastheoperatingexpenses.RevenuesarederivedfromrealuniquecaseoftheMassTransitSysteminHongestatesalesandfromrentingMassTransitRailwayKong,ChinadevelopedbytheMassTransitRailwayCorporation-ownedproperties,especiallycommercialCorporation.HongKong,China,withapopulationandofficespaces.ThestrategyoftheMassofabout7million,and11milliondailypassengerTransitRailwayCorporationistoallocatepropertyjourneysbyrailways,trams,buses,minibuses,taxisdevelopmentrightstoprivatedeveloperswhopayandferries,neededtoinvestinexpandingandalldevelopmentcosts,includingthelandpremium,sustainingthepublictransportsystem.TheMassforacquiringexclusivedevelopmentrightsfromtheTransitRailwayCorporation,establishedin1975toMassTransitRailwayCorporation.Privatedevelopersprovidemetroservices,stretches218.2kmandhasalsobeartheconstructionandcommercialization84stationsand68lightrailstops.risksandcostsrelatedtotheresidentialandcommercialdevelopment.Between1998and2013,property-relatedoperationshavegeneratedmorethan88billionHongKongSource:Wing-tatHung(2014).dollars(HK$),orapproximatelyUS$11billion,89CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter04OtherstrategiesusedbycitiesinsomecountriesaretoItisnecessarythatrevenuegenerationfromsuchassetschargealevyofhighertaxesonpropertiesinareasnearasadditionalfloorarearatio(createdviaregulation)betransitcorridors(bettermentcharges)orpermittingaintegratedintotheplanningprocesstoensurethatthehigherthannormalfloorspaceperunitarea(floorareacityremainssustainable.Thepricingoftheassetsisalsoratio)forspecificprojects,suchasinformalsettlementanissue.TheRepublicofKoreaenactedalawin1997thatrehabilitation,withtheprovisionthatitcanbeusedatstipulatedthatappropriatelandvaluesmustbecapturedothersites(transferabledevelopmentrights)(Groverandfromnewdevelopmentsfortransportinfrastructure.Fromothers,n.d.).However,thesestrategiesmakeitmore2001to2008,atotalof38projectsinGyeonggihadexpensivetoliveneartransitpoints,whentheeffortssignificantlandcapturefinance.Theaveragelandvalueshouldbetodensifytransitcorridorsforclimateresilience.capturedperprojectwasapproximately$559million,21.5Abetterstrategywouldbetoincreasethefararearatioinpercentoftheaverage$2.6billionprojectcost(Leeandthesecorridors,asdoneinthecitiesofAhmedabadandAhn,2005).Pimpri-ChinchwadinIndia,whereithasbeenincreasedby80percent.Asfortransferabledevelopmentrights,Landandvariousincentivescanbeusedtoattractiftheyareofferedinareasthatdonothaveadequateinvestorstobuildnewcities.Thisisbeingattemptedforinfrastructure,itcanleadtotrafficcongestionorwaterthenewcapitalofIndonesia,Nusantara(Medina,2023),scarcity.describedinbox1.3.Thecapitalisbeingmovedasaconsequenceoftheclimatecrisis,withthecurrentcapital,Jakarta,sinkingattherateof25cmperyear(SoutheastAsiaDevelopmentSolution,2022).TheGovernmentofIndonesiawillinvest20percentoftheprojectcostandtherestisexpectedtocomefromforeigninvestors,whoarebeingoffered95-yearland-usepermits,corporateincometaxexemptions,taxholidaysandpersonalincometaxexemptionsforinvestmentsinpriorityprojects(Xinhua,2023).©HanoiPhotography-AerialviewofHanoiskylinecityscapeatLeVanLuongstreet,ThanhXuandistrictTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities90PrivateparticipationAccesstoprivatefinanceandthemarketforborrowingisevenmoreconstrainedinnon-metropolitanandsecondaryTheeconomicdisruptionsandcities,althoughthetransportsectorisanoteworthyuncertaintiescausedbytheexception.Inthetransportsector,momentumhasbeenpandemiccrisisledtoadeclinegainedinimplementingambitiousinfrastructureprojects,inprivatesectorinvestmentsinsuchasinKhonKaen,Thailand.NewDelhihasusedurbandevelopmentprojects.public-privatepartnershipstoimproveitsbussystemsbyincreasingefficiency.In2007,thecityinitiatedabusTheeconomicdisruptionsanduncertaintiescausedbysystemthatwasprivatelyownedandoperatedunderathepandemiccrisisledtoadeclineinprivatesectorgrosscostcontractthatpaidbusoperatorsforadheringinvestmentsinurbandevelopmentprojects.Investorshadtoapre-setschedule,withticketrevenueandusageriskbecomemorerisk-averseandcautious,divertingtheirremainingwiththegovernment(Sahai,2009).fundstowardssaferassetsorholdingbackinvestmentsaltogether.Thepandemic-inducedlockdownmeasures,The457busroutesofNewDelhiweregroupedintosupplychaindisruptionsandreducedconsumerspending17distinctclustersandeachclusterwasawardedtoafurtherhamperedprivatesectoractivity,affectingconcessionaire.Thepublicoperator,DTC,alsooperatesindustriesthatcontributetourbandevelopment,suchontheseroutes.Currently,thereareabout3,300asconstruction,realestateandhospitality.Moreover,clusterbusesand4,000DTCbuses(ETAuto,2023).financialinstitutionstightenedtheirlendingcriteria,ItisestimatedthattheclusterbusschemesavesthemakingitmorechallengingfordevelopersandbusinessesNewDelhigovernmentmorethan$100millionannually.toaccessfinancingforurbandevelopmentprojects.TheThisgrosscostmodelhasbeenusedbythefederaldeclineinprivatesectorfinancingforurbandevelopmentGovernmenttoawardcontractsundertheNationalprojectshadrepercussionsonemployment,economicElectricBusProgramme,whichhasatargetof50,000growthandtheoverallpaceofurbantransformation.buses.Thefirstprocurementofmorethan5,000busesundertheFAME-2scheme,resultedinprices(beforesubsidy)oflessthan$70centsperkm,includingcapitalandoperatingcosts,alreadylessthanthecurrentcostofdiesel/CNGbuses(India,MinistryofPower,2022).Theschemeisbeingexpanded.Box4.5.Entrepreneurialurbanism:anewprivateurbanrailnetworkinThailandKhonKaenisasecondarycitylocatedintheIsanprovincewithapproximately18stationsandlandregioninnorth-easternThailand.Itspopulationisdevelopmentaroundthesenodestogiveaboostto120,857(all-populations.com,2023).In2015,twentythefuturegrowthoftheregion.This26km,21billionofthecity’smajorbusinessleaderscameforwardThaibaht(B)($600million)privatesectorinitiativeandsetuptheKhonKaenThinkTank,anon-profitisscheduledtobeginconstructionin2024,astheorganization,toaddressmultipledevelopmentfirsturbanrailnetworkinThailandoutsideBangkokchallengesfacedbythecity,particularlyeconomic(TheStraitsTimes,2023).Ifsuccessful,itwillbestagnation,inadequateinfrastructureandclimateaninnovativemodelinwhichpublicinfrastructurechange.In2018,theKhonKaenTransitSystemissolelyfundedbytheprivatesector.ItwillalsoCompanyLtd.wasestablished,asamulti-beanexampleoflocalself-determinationandstakeholderpartnership,withseedmoneyfromtheentrepreneurialurbanism,whichcanbefollowedbyKhonKaenThinkTank.Thecompanyhasformulatedothercitiesthathavesimilarinfrastructurecrisesanambitiousplantodevelopalightrailtransitsystem(ASEAN,2021;WayMagazine,2021).thatwilllinkfivemunicipalitiesintheKhonKaen91CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesImprovingChapter04urbanfinanceKeyRecommendationsIncreasingthesourcesofurbanfinance,especiallyinthedevelopingcountriesoftheAsia-Pacificregion,isrequiredaspartofsustainablelong-termrecoveryfrommultiplecrises.Assuch,keyrecommendationsareasfollows.Expand,diversifyandincreasemunicipalrevenuecollectiontostimulatealocaleconomicrecoveryTooperateinapost-recoverycontext,expanding,Municipalitiescanexplorevariousstrategies,diversifyingandincreasingmunicipalrevenueincluding,amongothers,optimizingpropertytaxcollectionisacriticalrequirementforallcountriescollection,implementingfairandefficientlocaltaxacrosstheregion.Theuseofdigitaltoolsmakesitsystems,promotinglocaleconomicdevelopmenttomuchmorefeasibletocollectproperty-basedtaxesattractbusinessesandincreasetaxrevenue,andandtailorthemappropriatelysothatvulnerableexploringinnovativefinancingmechanisms,suchasgroupsareprotected.However,manysecondarypublic-privatepartnerships.Citiesmustalsobeablecitieslackthecapacitytoimplementthiseffort.toborrow,thoughcautionisnecessarytopreventirresponsibleborrowingpractices.ThisneedsmoreBydiversifyingandexpandingrevenuesources,transparentandaccountablemunicipalaccountingmunicipalitiescangenerateadditionalfundstopractices.Strengtheningrevenuecollectionnotonlyinvestincriticalareas,suchashousing,healthcare,helpsaddressimmediaterecoveryneeds,butitalsoinfrastructure,educationandsocialservices.This,enhancesthelong-termfinancialsustainabilityofinturn,stimulateseconomicactivity,createsjobscities,ensuringtheirresilienceinthefaceoffutureandimprovestheoverallqualityoflifeforresidents.crises.EstablishatransparentframeworkforintergovernmentaltransfersforgreatereconomicresilienceagainstfutureshocksBolsteringeconomicresilienceagainstfutureenhancedandtheriskoffavoritismorpoliticalshocksrequiresatransparentframeworkforbiasesisreduced.Thistransparencypromotesintergovernmentaltransfers.Thelimitationsoftrustandconfidenceamongalllevelsofconventionalinstrumentsofmunicipalfinancegovernment,fosteringcollaborationandeffectivewillimpedecitiesfromtakingonemergingcoordinationinaddressingpost-pandemicresponsibilities,suchaslocallevelclimatechallenges.action,andrespondtodisasters,suchasfloods,earthquakesandpandemics.Furthermore,atransparentframeworkallowscitiestobetterplanandallocateresources,enablingTheCOVID-19crisishasunderscoredthethemtoprioritizecriticalsectors,suchashousing,importanceofefficientandequitableresourcehealthcare,infrastructureandsocialservices.Itallocationtoaddresstheurgentneedsofurbanhelpsensurethatresourcesreachcitiesinatimelyareas.Atransparentframeworkensuresthatmanner,enablingthemtorecover,rebuildandintergovernmentaltransfersarebasedonastimulateeconomicgrowth.Overall,empoweringclearcriterion,suchaspopulationsize,revenuecitieswithfinancialresourcesisneededtocapacityandservicedemands.Byhavingafacilitatearobustandinclusiverecoveryfromthetransparentallocationprocess,accountabilityisimpactsofthepandemic.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities92Ensurethatland-basedfinancinginstrumentsarealignedwiththedevelopmentofcompactpolycentricurbanareasPolycentricurbanareasrefertourbanregionsthatimpactfees,cangenerateadditionalrevenuehavemultiplecentresornodesofdevelopmentstreamsformunicipalities,enablingthemtofundandactivity,ratherthanbeingdominatedbyacriticalprojectsandservices.singleprimarycitycentre.Inpolycentricurbanareas,severalurbancoresorsubcentresemerge,Furthermore,theseinstrumentscanincentivizeeachwithitsowneconomic,socialandculturalsustainableandinclusiveurbandevelopmentandsignificance.Todevelopcompactpolycentricfostereconomicgrowth,jobcreationandsocialurbanareasthatplayapivotalroleinsupportingwell-being.Suchplanningalsoneedstotakeapost-pandemicrecoveryincitiesrequiresintoconsiderationthelimitsimposedbyclimateinnovativeland-basedfinancinginstruments.change,suchasbalancingthehighvaluerealThesefinancingmechanismsarecentredaroundestatedevelopmentalongthecoastwiththecapturingthevaluecreatedbyurbandevelopmentincreasedriskofflooding.Simultaneously,creatingandusingittofundinfrastructure,servicesandandconservingurbanforestsandpublicspacespublicamenities.Bypromotingcompactandnotonlyhelpsmitigation,butitalsosupportspolycentricmetropolises,citiescanoptimizeadaptationbyreducingheatislandeffectsandlanduse,reducesprawlandenhanceefficiencyincreasingwaterabsorption.Byleveragingintransportationandinfrastructuresystems.landvalueandadoptingacompactpolycentricThisapproachcanattractinvestmentsandapproach,citiescanemergefromthepandemiccreatevibrant,livableurbanspaces.Land-basedwithastrongerfinancialfoundationandamorefinancinginstruments,suchasvaluecaptureresilienturbanenvironment.mechanisms,landvaluetaxesanddevelopmentCreatemorestableandpredictablepolicy,regulatoryandincentiveframeworkstoenhanceprivatesectorinvestmentforanurbaneconomicrecoveryTocreatemorerobustpolicy,regulatoryandfacilitatepublic-privatepartnershipstoleverageincentiveframeworksthatenhanceprivatesectorprivatesectorexpertise,resourcesandinnovativeinvestmentincitiesandsupportapost-pandemicsolutionsforurbandevelopmentprojects.recovery,severalmeasurescanbeconsidered.ImprovingaccesstofinancingandreducingFirst,governmentsshouldprioritizestabilityandinvestmentriskscanbeachievedthroughthepredictabilitybyprovidingclearandconsistentestablishmentofdedicatedinvestmentfunds,policyframeworksthatfosterinvestorconfidence.creditguaranteemechanismsorrisk-sharingThisinvolvestransparentregulations,streamlinedarrangements.approvalprocessesandareliablelegalsystem.Additionally,governmentscanintroducetargetedMoreover,governmentsshouldactivelyengageincentives,suchastaxbreaks,grantsorsubsidies,withinvestorsandindustrystakeholderstotoencourageprivatesectorinvestmentsincriticalunderstandtheirneeds,identifybarriersandadaptsectors,suchashealthcare,digitalinfrastructure,policiesaccordingly.Byfosteringaconduciverenewableenergyandsustainableurbanenvironmentforprivatesectorinvestment,citiesdevelopment.Collaborationbetweenpublicandcanattractcapital,driveeconomicgrowth,createprivatesectorsiscrucial,andgovernmentscanjobopportunitiesandensurearesilientandsustainablepost-pandemicrecovery.93CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesChapter04Promoteenablingenvironmentstofacilitateclimate-responsiveurbanfinanceandmunicipalfinanceinstrumentsinsupportoflocalclimateactionMakingurbanfinancemoreclimate-responsiveinstitutionalandprivateinvestmentsinclimateisvitaltosupportthepost-pandemicrecoveryfinance.incities.Ascitiesrebuildandrevivetheireconomies,integratingclimateresilienceintoClimate-responsiveurbanfinancealsoensuresfinancialstrategiescanhelpfostersustainablethatcitiesarebetterpreparedforfutureclimate-andinclusivedevelopment.Bydirectingfinancialrelatedrisksandshocks,reducingvulnerabilityresourcestowardsclimate-friendlyprojectsandtoextremeweathereventsandenvironmentalinitiatives,citiescansimultaneouslyaddressdegradation.Byadoptinginnovativefinancingclimatechangeandstimulateeconomicgrowth.mechanisms,suchasgreenbonds,climatefundsInvestmentsinrenewableenergy,energy-efficientandpublic-privatepartnerships,citiescanmobilizeinfrastructure,greentransportationandcompactcapitalforclimate-friendlyinitiativesandleverageurbanplanningcancreatejobs,attractprivateprivatesectorexpertise.Moreover,integratingsectorinvestmentsandenhancetheoverallqualityclimateconsiderationsintofinancialplanningofurbanenvironments.enablescitiestoaligntheirinvestmentswithlong-termsustainabilitygoals,fosteringamoreresilientCreatinganenablingenvironmentfortheflowandprosperousfutureforurbancommunities.ofclimatefinancetocitiesisfundamentaltotakeactionstoscale.ThiscanbeaccomplishedImprovingacity’sreadinessforclimate-throughmechanismsforcitiestodirectlyaccessresponsiveprojectdesigninthisprocessincludesclimatefinancethatarecomplementedbyanstrengtheningtechnicalassistancefacilitiestoaccessibleclimateinformationarchitecturehelpthemdesignprojectsandidentifyclimateformeasuringclimateimpactsanddisclosurefinancingoptions.Thissupportscomprehensivestandards.Thisneedstobeenabledbyanplanningofcitiestoidentifyandbuildapipelineappropriatelegal,regulatoryandpolicyframeworkofprojectsthatcanattractclimatefinancingatthenationallevelforstrengtheningfiscalandadoptmechanismsforimprovingtheirownautonomy,de-riskingclimateinvestments,revenuestreamstoattractandscaleupinclusivefinancingjusttransitions,andfacilitatingclimateinvestments.Inconclusion,advancingurbanfinanceforapost-inclusivefinancialmechanismsisessential.Bypandemicrecoveryrequirestheestablishmentadoptingthesestrategies,urbanfinancecanplayofasolidfoundationthatprioritizeslong-termapivotalroleindrivingaprosperousandinclusiveresilience.Acombinationofleveragingfinancialpost-pandemicrecoveryforcitiesandtoenhanceresources,fosteringcollaborationamongtheirresiliencetofutureshocks.stakeholdersandimplementingsustainableandTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities94©昊周-AncientbuildingsbytheriverinDangkouAncientTown,Wuxi,Jiangsu,ChinaConclusionSeizingtheurbanopportunity95CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesConclusionThechallengesposedbymultiplecrises,includingtheCOVID-19pandemic,theclimateemergency,affordablehousingshortagesandthedigitaldivide,demandacomprehensiveandcoordinatedresponsefromcitiesinAsiaandthePacific.Inthisreport,fourkeythemestomoveTheimportanceofstrengtheningurbancitiestoamoreresilientandsustainableandterritorialplanningasthefoundationfuturehavebeenexplored–strengtheningforsustainabledevelopmentandresilienceurbanandterritorialplanning,advancingcannotbeoveremphasized.Toachievemultilevelactionsforlow-carbonandthis,anenablingpolicyenvironmentclimate-resilientcities,promotingurbanresponsivetomultiplecrisesiscrucial.digitaltransformationandenhancingTheintegrationofspatial,environmental,urbanfinance.ToachievetheSustainablesocialandeconomicconsiderationsintoDevelopmentGoalsacrossAsia-Pacificnationalurbanpolicies,coupledwithcities,recommendationshighlighttheagilesubnationalplanningframeworks,needforcollaborative,innovativesolutionswillsupportcitiestoalignwithglobalthatbuildonregionalcooperationandtakecommitmentsandovercomecrises.apeople-centredapproach.Continuingtosupportthedevelopmentofcompactlow-carbonneighbourhoodsToachievetheandcitiesthroughappropriatepolicyandSustainableDevelopmentplanningregulationswilllaythefoundationGoalsacrossAsia-Pacificforimprovedresilience,sustainabilitycities,recommendationsandsocialcohesionofurbanareas.highlighttheneedforCapacity-buildingandcoordinationcollaborative,innovativeacrossalllevelsofgovernmentandsolutionsthatbuildonstakeholders–andjustasimportantly,regionalcooperationandbetweencities–areessentialtoensuretakeapeople-centredeffectiveimplementationandinclusiveapproach.planningprocesses.Addressingtheaffordablehousingcrisisandupgradinginformalsettlementsthroughintegratedhousing,urbanplanningandrisk-disastermanagementpolicieswillenhancelivingconditionsandpromotesocialequity,contributingtotheregion’soverallwell-being.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities96Astheworldfacesrecord-breakingToclosethedigitaldivideandtapthefullpotentialofclimaticconditions,advancingurbandigitaltransformation,theneedforcomprehensivemultilevelactionsforlow-carbonandpeople-centredapproachesishighlightedinandclimate-resilientcitiesisthisreport.Thestartingpointisforcitiestodevelopurgent.comprehensivesmart-citypoliciesandstrategiesthatimproveaccessandaccelerateinnovation.CollaborationAstheworldfacesrecord-breakingclimaticconditions,andpartnershipsbetweendiversestakeholderscanadvancingmultilevelactionsforlow-carbonandclimate-enablecitiestoscaleupdigitaltechnologieseffectivelyresilientcitiesisurgent.Citiesmustrecognizeandactandinclusively.Enhancinggovernmentcapacitiestoontheintertwinednatureoftheclimateandbiodiversitydesignandimplementinclusivesmart-citystrategiescrises.Theymustincorporateinnovativeadaptationisinstrumentalindrivingurbantransformation.Citizeninitiativesthatsimultaneouslyaddressclimaterisk,airengagementandmulti-stakeholderpartnershipscanquality,biodiversityandlivabilityintotheirshort-andlong-supportadigitaltransformationthatalignswiththetermdevelopmentstrategies,supportedbyanenablingSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandleavesnocitybehind.nationalenvironment.Tostrengthenurbanclimateaction,itisimperativetointegrateurbancommunitiesInthepost-pandemiccontext,novelsolutionstoadvanceaskeyactors,recognizingthecriticalroleofhouseholdsurbanfinanceareneededtoenablealong-termrecovery.andcommunitiesinfosteringresilience.EnhanceddataInnovativeexpansionandthoughtfuldiversificationofcollectionandlocalevidenceshouldinformplatformsformunicipalrevenuecollectionmodalitiescansupportmonitoring,reporting,verifyingandintegratingmultilevellocaleconomicrecoveryandfundinvestmentsincriticalclimateaction,includinginstruments,suchaslocallyservicesandinfrastructure.TransparentintergovernmentaldeterminedcontributionsandmorelocalizedNDCs.transferswillenhanceeconomicresilienceandhelpbuildFurtherharnessingthepowerofpublic,privateandciviltrustatalllevelsofgovernment.Land-basedfinancingsocietystakeholderstoeffectivelytransitioncitiestolow-instrumentsalignedwithcompactpolycentricurbanareascarbonenergyiscriticaltoovercomeurbanenergyandwilloptimizelanduseandfosterinclusivedevelopment.climatecrises.Creatingstableandpredictablepolicyframeworksandincentivizingprivatesectorinvestmentwillfurtherdriveeconomicrecovery.Climate-proofingurbanfinanceiscrucialtosupportingthesustainabilityandresilienceofcities.97CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesConclusionUnitedurbanfutures:buildingsustainablecitiestogetherthroughregionalcooperationTomovefromrecommendationssalientregardingclimateresilienceandtheurbandigitaltoaction,thereisampletransformationfromwhichthereisaneedtodevelopopportunitytoenhanceregionalregionalandsubregionalplatformstofostercollaborationcooperationacrossallfourthemes.andlearnfrombestpracticesrelatedtodigitalinnovationClearlyarticulatingtheproblemscollaborationandclimateandadaptation.andproposedsolutionscreatesacommonvisionforjointaction.In2023,ESCAPmemberStatesadoptedanambitiousresolutionatitsseventy-ninthsessionoftheTomovefromrecommendationstoaction,thereisCommissiontoadvanceregionalcooperationforampleopportunitytoenhanceregionalcooperationsustainableurbandevelopmentandlocalizationofacrossallfourthemes.ClearlyarticulatingtheproblemstheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsinAsiaandtheandproposedsolutionscreatesacommonvisionforPacific.jointaction.Networking,regionalcollaborationandexperience-sharingcanaccelerateknowledgecreation,Undertheresolution,voluntarylocalandsubnationalcapacity-buildingandtechnicalexpertiseacrossthereviews(VLRsandVSRs),SustainableDevelopmentGoalAsia-Pacificregion.Theseopportunitiesareparticularly11nationalroadmaps,andintermunicipalcooperationtoenhanceinclusivemultilateralismandregionalcooperationwerepromotedtoacceleratelocalactiontodeliverrisk-informedurbanfutures.©VeniaminKraskov-PanoramicviewofAlmatycity,KazakhstanTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities98Box5.1.ShapingtheAsia-Pacificurbanfuture:theevolutionofvoluntarylocalandsubregionalreviewsThroughthePenangPlatformforSustainableVLRsandVSRsalsohelptobridgethegapthatUrbanization,launchedattheseventhsessionoftheoftenexistsbetweennationallevelpoliciesandlocalAsia-PacificUrbanForum(APUF-7),Asia-Pacificwasimplementation.thefirstregionregionintheworldtodevelopregionalguidelinesonVLRsinlinewithglobalguidance.Inthefuture,integratingforesightthinkingintoVLRAtthetimeofthisreport,theseguidelineshaveandVSRreportsandprocessescansignificantlybeenappliedinmorethantencitiesandprovinces,enhancetheeffectivenessofthesereportsinguidingwhichhaveproducedVLRsandVSRssincetheirsustainabledevelopmenteffortsincitiesthroughreleasein2020.VLRsandVSRsfostercollaboration,thesetroubledtimesinwhichcitiesneedtobeagileknowledge-sharing,andthealignmentofstrategiesintheirresponsesandnotonlyrelyonreviewsthatamongcitiesandgovernmentsacrosstheregion,giveapictureoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalswhichisessentialtoaddressthechallengesposedinonepointoftime.Foresightinvolvesanticipatingbymultiplecrisesandpromotesustainableurbanandpreparingforfuturechallengesandopportunities,developmentacrossallfourthematicareasofandincludesriskassessmentstoidentifypotentialthisreport.VLRsandVSRsarepowerfultoolsforvulnerabilitiesandhazardsthatcouldaffectacity’scitiestoassesstheirprogresstowardsachievingsustainabledevelopmentjourney.IntegratingsuchtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandprovidearisk-informedplanningcanstrengthenacity’sagilityvaluableopportunityforaccountability,inclusivetobouncebackfromshocksandadapttochangingevidence-baseddecision-makingandimprovedpolicycircumstances.Toolstoforecasturbanizationdevelopment.Byvoluntarilysharingtheirexperiencescanprovidearesourceforcitestobetterunderstandandlessonslearned,citiescaninspireandlearnfromcurrentandfutureresourcedemands,andwillallowoneanother,creatingavirtuouscycleofknowledgeformoreeffectivemanagementofurbangrowth.exchangeandbestpractices.ByembeddingforesightandurbanfuturesthinkingInthecontextofclimateresilienceandsustainability,intoVLRandVSRreports,whicharebackedupbyVLRsandVSRscanfacilitatetheidentificationoflong-termhumanandfinancialinvestmentsinpeople,urbanplanninginitiatives,climateadaptationandcitiescanproactivelyplanforthefuture,anticipatemitigationstrategiesthathaveproventobeeffectivechallengesandseizeopportunitiesforsustainableindifferentcontexts.Thisinformation-sharingfostersdevelopment.Theseforward-lookingapproacheswillcollectivelearningandenablescitiestoadoptnotonlyenhancetheeffectivenessoftheVLRandtailoredapproachesbasedonthesuccessesandVSRprocessbutalsocontributetothecreationofchallengesofothers,acceleratingprogresstowardsresilientandfuture-proofedcitiesforgenerationstoclimate-resilientandsustainableurbanfutures.come.SustainableDevelopmentGoal11specificallyfocusesonthePacific.Thediversionoflocalgovernmentresourcesmakingcitiesinclusive,safe,resilientandsustainable.anddepletionofmunicipalincome(duetoimpacts,suchMultipleglobalcriseshavedisruptedtheprocesstoasbusinessearningsshortfallsandclosures)hasalsorealizetheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsintandemwithdirectlyaffectedtheabilityofcitiestoinvestinmeaningfultheongoingCOVID-19pandemic.The2023SustainableactivitiesthataddressotherSustainableDevelopmentDevelopmentGoal11profileforAsiaandthePacificGoaltargets,suchasurbangreenspaceandcanopycoveranalysedhowtheseshocksandstresseshavefurther(11.7),investmentinwastemanagement(11.6),andthedestabilizedprogressinachievingtheGoalinAsiaandconservationandprotectionofnaturalheritage(11.4).99CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesConclusionUrbanandregionalpolicies(11.a)andotherplanningtobenefittheentireregion.Throughintermunicipalframeworksinareas,suchasdisastermanagementandcooperation,citiescanpoolresourcestoinvestinurbanresilience(11.b),alsoneedtobereconsidereddueregionalclimateactionprojects,suchassharedtothedeepdisruptionstourbansystemsthathavebeenrenewableenergyinfrastructureorclimateadaptationbroughtaboutbytheseinterlinkedcrises.Evencollectionmeasures.Cooperationalsofacilitatesjointplanningandofofficialstatistics–criticaltothemeasurementofcoordination,ensuringthatregionaldevelopmentalignsprogressinrealizingalloftheGoals,aswellasurbanwithsustainabilitygoalsandavoidsduplicativeefforts.decision-makingandpolicydevelopmentmorebroadlyTheregionfacilitatesseveralintermunicipalcooperationhasbeensignificantlydisruptedbythepandemic.forumssponsoredbytransnationallocalgovernmentassociations,suchasUCLGASPAC,ICLEI,CityNet,NationalroadmapsforSustainableC40,theASEANSmartCitiesNetworkandtheGlobalDevelopmentGoal11canprovideCovenantofMayors.ESCAPsupportsintermunicipalacomprehensiveframeworkcooperationthroughstrategicinitiatives,suchastheforcountriestoguideurbanSmartCitiesInnovationLab(SCIL),underwhichcitiesdevelopmentandaddressmultipleareworkingtogethertodesignandimplementsmart-cityinterlinkedcrises.solutionstoaddresstheirurbanprioritiesandchallengesincollaborationwithdevelopmentpartners,theprivateNationalroadmapsforSustainableDevelopmentGoal11sector,academiaandcivilsociety.ThejointUnitedcanprovideacomprehensiveframeworkforcountriestoNationsproject,whichinvolvesbothintermunicipalandguideurbandevelopmentandaddressmultipleinterlinkedinterregionalcooperation,aimedtobuildthecapacitiescrises.AsthisSustainableDevelopmentGoal11isoneofoflocalgovernmentsin16citiesgloballytodesign,themostmulti-facetedoneswithinthe2030Agenda,theimplementandmonitorsustainable,resilientandinclusiveprocessfordevelopinganationalroadmapthataddressesCOVID-19economicandfinancialresponses,recoveryandallofitstargetseffectivelyisdifferenttotheotherGoals,rebuildingplans.whichmostlyhaveclearertopicalalignmentofthetargetscontainedwithinthem.SustainableDevelopmentGoal11Technicalcapacity-building,toolsandexchangesnationalroadmapsmayincludestrategiesforengagingsupportingcityclimateaction,suchasthoseprovidedbywithdataavailabilitylimitationsandapproachestoidentifythemultipartnerUrban-Actprojectacrossfivecountriesordevelopproxyindicatorsthatmaximizeglobal,regionalinAsia,aswellastheuseofspecificclimate-reportingandnationalcomparability,aswellasalternativebestinstruments,suchasRLDCsandlocalizationofNDCs,practicemethodologiesforsamplingurbancharacteristicssupportmulti-leveleffectivegovernance.TheAsiaPacificincomplexcountryenvironments.TheyalsohighlightMayorsAcademywaslaunchedin2019byESCAP,processesandguidelinesforprioritizingtargetsandUN-HabitatandUnitedCitiesandLocalGovernmentsapproachesforembeddingimplementationactions,withAsia-Pacific,incooperationwiththeUnitedNationstheaimto“shiftthedial”onprogresstowardsrealizingUniversity,theInstitutefortheAdvancedStudyofSustainableDevelopmentGoal11.ThisincludesmonitoringSustainability,theAssociationofPacificRimUniversities,andevaluationlookingtowardsandbeyond2030,aswellandtheInstituteforGlobalEnvironmentalStrategies.astheneedtoembedanyroadmapwithinpartnershipsatTheAcademytrainsnewlyelectedorappointedmayorsvariousscales,andconsiderationofwiderlinkagesacrosstoimplementsustainableurbanpoliciesandsolutionsthe2030Agenda.asanexampleofsuccessfulregionalcapacity-building.Byorganizingworkshops,conferencesandtrainingIntermunicipalcooperationinvolvescollaborationbetweensessions,citiescanlearnaboutthelatestclimate-resilientcitiesandlocalgovernmentswithinaregiontotackletechnologies,urbanplanningstrategiesandsustainablecommonchallengescollectively.Manyissues,suchdevelopmentpractices.Theseinitiativesempowercitiesastransportation,pollution,climateactionandurbanwiththeskillsandexpertiseneededtoimplementclimate-development,transcendindividualmunicipalboundaries,resilientsolutionseffectivelyinpartnershipwithnationalrequiringthatdecisionsmadehaveabroaderperspectivegovernmentsandregionalorganizations.Moreover,regionalplatformsenablecitiestoshareresearch,dataandcasestudies,creatingarepositoryofvaluableinformationthatcitiescanaccesstoinformtheirlocalclimateactionplans.TheFutureofAsian&PacificCities100Regionalcooperationplatforms,suchastheCitiesarewherethecomplexAsia-PacificForumonSustainableDevelopment,theandinterconnectednatureoftheAsia-PacificUrbanForum,thePacificUrbanForumSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandtheASEANMayorsForum,provideaunifiedandthecurrentglobalcontextspaceforcitiestoadvocatetheirsharedinterests,converge.suchasaccesstofunding,policysupportandinternationalcooperation.JointrepresentationallowsCitiesarewherethecomplexandinterconnectedcitiestoamplifytheirvoicesonclimate-relatedissuesnatureoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandtheandinfluenceregionalandglobalagendas.Byunitingcurrentglobalcontextconverge.Ashostoftheeighththeirefforts,citiescanbuildstrongerallianceswithsessionoftheAsia-PacificUrbanForum(APUF-8),nationalgovernments,internationalorganizationsandSuwonCityisshowingthatthroughcomprehensiveclimatefinanceinstitutions,increasingtheiraccesslocalizedpolicies,inclusivegovernanceandinnovativetoresourcesandsupportforclimate-resilientandapproaches,citiescanbeapowerfulvehicleforsustainableprojects.changeandsupporteffortstorealizetheSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Box5.2.SuwonCityempowersaII.PromotinginclusiveurbangrowththroughsustainableurbanfuturefinanceTheSuwonSDGsActionReporthasadopted10Toencouragecitizenstoparticipateintheprioritiesthroughlocalizingthe17Sustainablesubmissionofprojectsandallocationoffunds,SuwonDevelopmentGoalsbytakingintoconsiderationsCityenactedtheOrdinanceontheOperationofthethelocalcontextofthecity’seconomic,socialandResidents’ParticipationBudgetSystemin2009.environmentalconditions.The10prioritygoals,Participatorybudgetingpromotestransparencyandarebasedon“participatorygovernance”,ledbyfairnessofthelocalgovernment’sfiscalmanagementtheSuwonCouncilforSustainableDevelopment.Itbyengagingcitizensinthebudgetingprocess.TheincludesindicatorstomeasureprogressinachievingcityformedtheCommitteeonCitizenParticipatoryeachpriority(SumonCouncilforSustainableBudgetSystemandtheRegionalConferencein2011.Development,2011).Asof2021,abudgetof4.9billionRepublicofKoreanwon(₩)wasprovidedfor67projects.Keyelementsacrossthereportare:SuwonCityaimstoguaranteeasteadyincreaseI.Unleashingurbanopportunitiesthroughinemploymentthroughthepromotionofqualityparticipatoryplanningjobsandindustrialinnovation.Itsupportsindustriesthroughpolicy,systemandfinancing,focusingonInlinewithSustainableDevelopmentGoal16urbaninfrastructure,scienceresearchandindustrialonpeace,justiceandstronginstitutions,Suwoninnovation.Thecityhascommittedtofinanciallyencouragescitizenstoparticipateinthecity’surbansupportbusinesses,especiallysmallandmediumandbudgetplanning.Overadecadeago,SuwonCityenterprises(SMEs).InSuwonCity,SMEsaccountforestablishedaplanforcitizen-ledurbanplanningandagreatershareofjobcreationthanlargercompanies.begantoreviewmeasurestoimplementitin2011.AsThecityprioritizesfinancialsupporttoSMEsgivensuch,theCitizens’GroupforUrbanPolicyPlanningtheirrelativelyloweraccesstocapitalandfinancialcollectscitizens’opinionsandholdsforumstoservicescomparedtolargercompanies.Itenhanceddiscusspendingurbanplanningissues.TheresultsoffinancialsupportforthetechnologicaldevelopmentdiscussionsaredocumentedtosetthedirectionsforofSMEs,suchasthroughthelaunchoftheBusinessthebasicplansofSuwonCity,suchasforthe2030SupportCenterforSMEs.ThefundsavailablehaveBasicPlansofSuwon.increasedsignificantly,reaching₩1.17billionin2019.101CrisisResilientUrbanFuturesConclusionIII.RevolutionizingcityclimateactionIV.CreatingasmartercitywhereinnovationthrivesSuwonCityputsapremiumoncombatingclimatechange.ItistheonlylocalgovernmenttomanageSuwonCitysubsidizessmarterurbandesignandgreenhousegasinventoryintheRepublicofKorea.energyefficiencyprojects,whichincreasetheThecitysetsannualreductiontargetstocutnumberofenergy-efficientbuildingsandencouragestotalenergyconsumptionandpercapitacarboncitizenstogetinvolvedinenergy-efficientandemissions.Underthecity’sfirstpriority,Respondingeco-friendlypractices.Furthermore,SuwonCitytoClimateChangewithGoodEnergyforAll,SuwonalsoaimstoreduceareaswithimpervioussurfacesCityisimplementingprojects,suchastheSharedtoimprovethewatercirculationsystem.ItsSmartSunlightPowerPlantconstructionproject,theRainCitySuwonprojectwonthesilverprizeatthesolarenergyhousingproject,thegreenbuildingGreenWorldAwardsincategory“LocalAuthorities”,aconstructionproject,theoldhousingenergy-efficientorganizedbytheGreenOrganizationin2019,renovationprojectandthegreencurtainsproject.andtheinternationallyacclaimedandrenownedInaddition,itisactivelypursuingvariousprojectstoenvironmentalprize,the2018EnergyGlobeAward,fosteracarbon-neutralgreencityinwhichcitizensgivenbytheEnergyGlobeFoundation.bThecityalsoparticipatevoluntarily,andthepublicsectortakeswonaprizeatthenationalCleanWaterCityAwardsthelead.Theseeffortsincludecitizeneducationin2020.programmes,discussionsandcarbon-neutralgreencityprojects.Acrossallthemesofthisreport,theSuwonCityexperienceshowssuccessinmakingprogressSuwonCityisbuildingagreentransportationtowardsachievingtheSustainableDevelopmentsystem.IthasbeenmappingurbanheatislandsGoals.Itdemonstratesthatsustainabledevelopmentandmanagingtheheat-proneareasforclimateincitiesiseffectivewhenbasedonrespectforchangeadaptation.Allofthecity’sclimatepoliciesdiversityandlocalspecificities.arebasedoncivicparticipationandpublic-privategovernance.ThecityhasbeenworkingwithcivilaGreenWorldAwards,GreenWorldAwardsWinners2019.societyorganizationsfortreeplantingprogrammesAvailableathttps://greenworldawards.com/green-world-award-andcreatedpalmgardenstoexpandgreenspaceswinners-2019/.andreducetrafficvolumes.bThelistofwinnersofthe2018EnergyGlobeAwardareavailableathttp://www.ideassonline.org/public/pdf/EnergyGlobeAwardWin-ners2018-ENG.pdf.Thisreporthashighlightedtheneedforcollectiveyettowardssustainabledevelopment,ensuringabrighterlocalizedeffortstoachievecrisis-resilienturbanfuturesandmoreresilientfuturewherenocityisleftbehind.forAsiaandthePacific.ItsambitionistosupporttheESCAPandUN-Habitatalongsideurbandevelopmentdialogue,collaborationandcooperationneededacrosspartnerslocatedacrossAsiaandthePacificaregovernment,stakeholdersandtheregiontoaddressreadytoassistintheimplementationofthesethecomplexchallengescitiesface.Byimplementingrecommendationsandhelpbuildamoresustainabletherecommendationsfromeachchapter,citiesintheandprosperousfutureforcitiesinAsiaandthePacific.Asia-Pacificregioncanforgepost-pandemicpathwaysTheFutureofAsian&PacificCities102ReferencesAAAcchceasrysat,oKarinsdhneaq,uTitiratbhleGdhiismtriribe,uatinodnSoufpCrOaVmIDS-u1b9ravmacacniynae(in20lo2w1)-.Bai,H.(2022).AStudyonpublicperceptiononPradhanMantriAwasYojana.ConFinResearch,vol.10,No.2.incomecountries.Npj/Vaccines,vol.6,No.54.Baijal,Adarsh,andothers(2022).Throughthewaves,towardsaseaAcuto,Michelle(2016).Givecitiesaseatatthetoptable.Nature,vol.ofopportunity.MITTechnologyReviewInsights,e-conomy2022.537,p.611–613.Availableathttps://www.bain.com/insights/e-conomy-sea-2022/.__________(2018).Globalscienceforcitypolicy:itistimeforaglobalBaker,Judy,PeterEllis,andMarkRoberts(2016).Oftigersandreformofscienceadvicetocities.Science,vol.359,No.6372,pp.elephants:TheriseofcitiesinAsia.SustainableCities.World165−166.BankBlogs,3May2016.Availableathttps://blogs.worldbank.org/sustainablecities/tigers-and-elephants-rise-cities-asia.__________,andSusanParnell(2016).Leavenocitybehind.Science,vol.352,No.6288,p.873.Barricelli,Barbara,ElenaCasiraghi,andDanielaFogli(2019).Asurveyondigitaltwin:definitions,characteristics,applications,anddesignAhluwalia,Isher,andothers(2019).Financesofmunicipalimplications.IEEEaccess,vol.7,pp.167653−167671.corporationsinmetropolitancitiesofIndia.IndianCouncilforResearchonInternationalEconomicRelations.Availableathttps://Behnke,Rainer,andothers(2023)Kazakhstan:EnergyEfficiencyicrier.org/publications/finances-of-municipal-corporations-in-TransformationinAstanaandAlmaty:MunicipalEnergyEfficiencymetropolitan-cities-of-india/.PlanfortheCityofAstana.Washington,D.C.:WorldBankGroup.AllPopulations.Com(2023).PopulationofKhonKaen2023.AvailableBernama(2023).CommutershailMy50passforcheapertravelonathttps://all-populations.com/en/th/population-of-khon-kaen.html.publictransport.NewStraitsTimes,22April.Availableathttps://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2023/04/902057/commuters-hail-Allbee,Allison,RebeccaJohnson,andJeffreyLubell(2015).my50-pass-cheaper-travel-public-transportPreserving,Protecting,andExpandingAffordableHousing.ChangeLabSolutions.Availableathttps://kresge.org/sites/default/Berrang-Ford,Lea,andothers(2021).Asystematicglobalstocktakefiles/Preserving-affordable-housing-policy-tools-April-2015.pdf.ofevidenceonhumanadaptationtoclimatechange,NatureClimateChange,vol.11,pp.989–1000.Amatong,Juanita(ed)(2005).Innovatingtaxadministrationmeasures:QuezonCity.InLocalGovernmentFiscalandFinancialBosomworth,Karyn,AlexeiTrundle,andDarrynMcEvoy(2013).Management:BestPractices.Manila:DepartmentofFinance,RespondingtotheUrbanHeatIsland:aPolicyandInstitutionalPhilippines.Analysis.Melbourne,Australia:VictorianCentreforClimateChangeAdaptationResearch.Andrew,Robbie,andGlenPeters(2022).TheGlobalCarbonProject’sfossilCO2emissionsdataset(2022v27)[Dataset].AvailableatButcher,Stephane,Michele,Acuto,andAlexeiTrundle(2021).https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7215364(accessedon6May2023).Leavingnourbancitizensbehind:anurbanequalityframeworkfordeployingthesustainabledevelopmentgoals.Perspective,vol.4,No.AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)(2014).UrbanPovertyinAsia.11,pp.1548–1556.MandaluyongCity.CC40Cities(2019).Genderinclusiveclimateactionincities.Available__________(2017).MeetingAsia’sInfrastructureNeeds.Manila.athttps://www.c40.org/women4climate/wp-content/uploads/__________(2023).ASEANCatalyticGreenFinanceFacility(ACGF)sites/2/2023/05/W4C_REPORT_Gender-Inclusive-Climate-Action-in-(2023).Availableathttps://www.adb.org/what-we-do/funds/asean-catalytic-green-finance-facility/main.Cities_BD.pdf.__________(2021a).100ClimateActionsfromCitiesinAsiaandthe__________(2020).TheGreenBangkok2030Project.December.Pacific.Manila.Availableathttps://www.c40.org/case-studies/the-green-bangkok-2030-project/.__________(2021b).TheImpactoftheCOVID-19PandemiconWomen-LedBusinesses.Availableathttps://openknowledge.worldbank.Cable.co.uk(2022).ThepriceofelectricityperKWhin230org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3d46cd41-4f9a-5377-b396-countries.Availableathttps://www.cable.co.uk/energy/worldwide-bd5fdb78e2e7/contentpricing/#resources.__________(2021c).KeyIndicatorsforAsiaandthePacific.Manila.CarbonDisclosureProject(2021).Citiesontherouteto2030:Availableathttps://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