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Climate

Resilience

Nature-based

Solutions to Build

in Informal

Areas

Strategy Paper

NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS TO BUILD CLIMATE RESILIENCE IN INFORMAL AREAS

STRATEGY PAPER

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat)

P.O. Box 30030 00100 Nairobi GPO KENYA

Tel: 254-020-7623120 (Central Ofce)

www.unhabitat.org

HS NUMBER: HS/032/22E

Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply

the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the secretariat of the United Nations concern-

ing the legal status of any county, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation

of its frontiers or boundaries regarding its economic system or degree of development. Excerpts may

be reproduced without authorization, on condition that the source is indicated. Views expressed in this

publication do not necessarily reflect those of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, the

United Nations and its member states.

Cover photo © Irina Strelnikova / Shutterstock.com

Acknowledgments

Prepared in association with:

With thanks to the participants of the Expert Group Meeting held virtually from 14-16 June 2022 for

their insights shared during the meeting and through communications.

UN-Habitat acknowledges the partnership with the Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy

which made this paper possible.

Authors

Julie Greenwalt, Clara Bütow, Diana Carrillo Silva, Alex Francisco, Jeroen Klooster, Russ Dudley

Contributors

Bernhard Barth, Kim Driesen, Cerin Kizhakkethottam, Andrew Rudd, Fruzsina Straus, Raphaëlle Vignol

Design and layout: Austin Ogola

This material/production has been ﬁnanced by the Swedish

International Development Cooperation Agency, Sida.

Responsibility for the content rests entirely with the creator.

Sida does not necessarily share the expressed views and

interpretations.

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ClimateResilienceNature-basedSolutionstoBuildinInformalAreasStrategyPaper2NATURE-BASEDSOLUTIONSTOBUILDCLIMATERESILIENCEININFORMALAREASSTRATEGYPAPERCopyright©UnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme(UN-Habitat)AllrightsreservedUnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme(UN-Habitat)P.O.Box3003000100NairobiGPOKENYATel:254-020-7623120(CentralOffice)www.unhabitat.orgHSNUMBER:HS/032/22EDisclaimer:ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofthesecretariatoftheUnitedNationsconcern-ingthelegalstatusofanycounty,territory,cityorareaoritsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundariesregardingitseconomicsystemordegreeofdevelopment.Excerptsmaybereproducedwithoutauthorization,onconditionthatthesourceisindicated.ViewsexpressedinthispublicationdonotnecessarilyreflectthoseoftheUnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme,theUnitedNationsanditsmemberstates.Coverphoto©IrinaStrelnikova/Shutterstock.comAcknowledgmentsPreparedinassociationwith:WiththankstotheparticipantsoftheExpertGroupMeetingheldvirtuallyfrom14-16June2022fortheirinsightssharedduringthemeetingandthroughcommunications.UN-HabitatacknowledgesthepartnershipwiththeGlobalCovenantofMayorsforClimateandEnergywhichmadethispaperpossible.AuthorsJulieGreenwalt,ClaraBütow,DianaCarrilloSilva,AlexFrancisco,JeroenKlooster,RussDudleyContributorsBernhardBarth,KimDriesen,CerinKizhakkethottam,AndrewRudd,FruzsinaStraus,RaphaëlleVignolDesignandlayout:AustinOgolaThismaterial/productionhasbeenﬁnancedbytheSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency,Sida.Responsibilityforthecontentrestsentirelywiththecreator.Sidadoesnotnecessarilysharetheexpressedviewsandinterpretations.3Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperTableofContentsIntroduction01CHAPTERPAGE08Nature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateresilienceResearchareasandremaininggapsonnature-basedsolutions,urbaninformalityandclimateresilience02CHAPTERPAGE142.1Nature-basedsolutionsandclimateresilienceincities:Keyfindingsinresearch2.1.1Nature-basedsolutionsandurbandevelopment:Multiplebenefits2.1.2Risksofnature-basedsolutionsforurbanclimateadaptationMaladaptationandtheeffectonvulnerabilitiesColonialism,historicalinequitiesandcontinuouspowerimbalancesTransferabilityofadaptationconceptsacrossgeographiesImpactsofclimatechangeontheeffectivenessofnature-basedsolutions2.2Urbaninformalityandclimateresilienceincities:Trendsandkeyareasinresearch2.2.1Sustainabledevelopmentandpro-poorclimateresiliencegainsthroughnature-basedsolutions2.2.2Compoundvulnerabilitiesandclimate-relatedchallengesoftheurbanpoor2.2.3Climateadaptationstrategiesinurbaninformalsettlements2.2.4Awayforwardforpro-poornature-basedsolutions2.3Nature-basedsolutionsandinformalityincities:ResearchgapsfromtheGlobalResearchandActionAgendaforCitiesandClimateChangeScienceandtheInnovate4Citiesupdate1.1Scaleofthechallenges1.2Thesignificanceofclimateresilienceandadaptation,nature-basedsolutions,andinformality1.3Bringingittogether:Nature-basedsolutionsforclimateresilienceininformalareas1.4Scopeandpurposeofthepaper1591610171217131818181919192021214Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper03CHAPTERPAGE26Learningfrompracticeonnature-basedsolutions,informalityandclimateresilienceRecommendationsanddiscussiontopicsforfurtherresearchandactiononnature-basedsolutions,informalityandclimateresilience04CHAPTERPAGE403.1Nature-basedsolutionsandinformalitypracticalexampleshighlightedatInnovate4Citiessessions3.2UN-Habitatprogrammesandprojectsonnature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateresilience3.3Globalexamplesofnature-basedsolutionsandclimateresilienceincities4.1Bestpractices4.2Specialconsiderationsfornature-basedsolutionsininformalareas4.3Interconnectedchallengesandopportunities274129453246Appendix...........................................................................................................................................................................48A.DefinitionofConcepts.........................................................................................................................................................................................48B.InternationalAgreementspertainingtonature-basedsolutions,informalityandclimateresilience..................................................................512030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment...............................................................................................................................................51ConventiononBiologicalDiversity.............................................................................................................................................................52NewUrbanAgenda.....................................................................................................................................................................................52UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.......................................................................................................................52SendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction2015-2030......................................................................................................................52C.CaseStudies......................................................................................................................................................................................................53References...........................................................................................................................................................................................58FiguresFig1.Innovate4Citiesfigureexpanded...................................................................................................................................................................22TablesTable1.Nature-basedsolutions(NBS),resilienceandinformalityprioritiesandpolicyprocessesidentifiedintheCityResearchandInnovation.Agenda(CRIA)(ModifiedwithpermissionfromOkeetal2022b).............................................................................................................24Table2.UN-Habitatprogrammeswithafocusonclimateresilienceandvulnerablecommunities.......................................................................29Table3.NBSatcommunity,streetsandplotoflandscale.....................................................................................................................................33Table4.BestPractices............................................................................................................................................................................................42Table5.Specialconsiderationsfornature-basedsolutionsininformalareas.......................................................................................................45Table6.Interconnectedchallengesandopportunities............................................................................................................................................44Table7.UN-Habitat’sprojectsonnature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateadaptationfromRISEUP.....................................................51Table8.UN-Habitat’sprojectsonnature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateadaptationfromPSUP.........................................................53Table9.Private-andpublic-sectornature-basedsolutionprojectsandpolicyapproaches..................................................................................53©Raland/Shutterstock.com5Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperAstheworldtacklestheclimateemergency,thesixthmassextinctionofwildlifeonEarthisaccelerating.Thoughoftenaddressedinsilos,theclimatechangeandbiodiversitycrisesareintertwined.Climatechangeisexacerbatingthedeclineofbothhabitatandspecies.Biodiversitylossreducestheresilienceofboththeplanetandpeopleandnarrowsresponseoptionsfordefeatingclimatechange.1IPCC(2022)“Chapter8:Poverty,LivelihoodsandSustainableDevelopment,”inClimatechange2022:Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerability.IPCC.Availableat:https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter08.pdf2UN-Habitat(2020).WorldCitiesReport:theValueofSustainableUrbanization.UN-Habitat.Availableat:https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2020/10/wcr_2020_report.pdf3UNDESA(2018).2018RevisionoftheWorldUrbanizationProspects.Availableat:https://population.un.org/wup/4UNEP&IRP(2013).City-LevelDecoupling:UrbanResourceFlowsandtheGovernanceofInfrastructureTransitions.Availableat:https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/8488Oneofthegreatestchallengesforclimatechangeadaptationisbuildingresilienceforthemostvulnerable.Today,morethanthreebillionpeopleliveinhotspotsthatarehighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange1andmorethanonebillionurbandwellersliveininformalareas2.Suchpopulationsoftenfindthemselvesalreadyimpactedbyothervulnerabilities.Thereisanurgencytoactnow,usingcitiesascatalyststocreatemoresustainable,resilient,andjustsocieties.Today,over50percentoftheworld’spopulationlivesincities,afigureexpectedtorisetoover68percentby20503.Whilemorethan60percentoftheareaprojectedtobeurbanin2050hasyettobebuilt4,citiesshouldplantheirgrowthsustainablyandinamannerthatreducesvulnerabilityandrisk.Moreover,cityplanning,andmanagementshouldbescience-based.Investmentinresearchtoaddressurbansustainabilityandresilienceshouldconsiderknowledgeneedsidentifiedbycitiesthemselves,suchasintheFindingsfromInnovate4Cities2021andUpdatetotheGlobalResearchandActionAgenda(GRAA),andtheGlobalCovenantofMayor(GCoM)’sInnovate4CitiesInitiativeandtheCityResearchandInnovationAgenda(CRIA).Thecurrentrateofcityexpansion,lackofplanning,landmanagement,andhousingstrategiesintheglobalsouth(especiallyinLDCsandSIDS)pushesthemostvulnerableintoinformalareas.Informalsettlersoftenresideonsitesunattractivefordevelopmentduetosusceptibilitytoclimatehazardsanddisasterriskswhilepenetratingtheperipheryofecologicalassetsthatserveasnaturalcarbonsinks.Atthesametime,naturehasmanyoften-unaccounted-forbenefitstoofferinformalareas.Nature-basedsolutions(NBS)andEcosystem-basedAdaptation(EbA),especiallywheninpartnershipwiththemostvulnerablecommunities,canlowerpressurepointsthroughreducedheatislandeffects,improvedfloodretention,andstabilizederosion-proneland,whilestimulatingsocio-economicand,particularly,foodsecurity.Thisbringsthetripledividendofmitigatinggreenhousegasemissions,protectingecologicalassetsandbiodiversity,andeffectivelyadaptingvulnerableurbancommunitiesandthebuiltenvironmenttoclimatechange.ResilientSettlementsfortheUrbanPoor(RISEUP),oneofUN-Habitat’sflagshipprogrammes,aimsatintegratingurbanvulnerabilityandclimatechangeadaptationissuesintocity-wideandnationalframeworks,mobilizing,andcoordinatinglargeinfrastructureinvestmentsinresilienceandcapacitydevelopment.UnderRISEUP’sumbrellaandfundedbytheSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency(Sida),thisstrategypaperdrawsfromexistingresearchandpracticalprojectexperienceapplyingNBSforadaptationandbuildingclimateresilienceininformalareastounderstandthepotentialandchallengesforupscalingimplementation.Ms.MaimunahMohdSharifUnder-Secretary-GeneralandExecutiveDirector,UnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme(UN-Habitat)Foreword6Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper©SMAKBARALIPJ/Shutterstock.com7Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperIntroduction:Nature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateresilienceCHAPTER01Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper8Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper1.1ScaleofthechallengesTheworldiswarmingatanunprecedentedpaceandhuman-inducedclimatechangehasalreadycausedwidespreadadverseimpactsonpeopleandnature(IPCC,2022e).Therearealreadyobservedincreasesinfrequencyandintensityofclimateandweatherextremesineveryinhabitedregionoftheworld,includingheatwaves,heavyprecipitationeventsthatcauseflooding,droughtandfireandthisisexpectedtointensify(IPCC,2022e).ProgressontheSustainableDevelopmentGoalshasbeeninhibitedandthemostvulnerablepeoplearedisproportionatelyaffected(IPCC,2022e).Thisisonlythebeginningasglobaltemperatureswillcontinuetoriseuntilatleastthemiddleofthe21stcenturyinallcurrentlypossibleemissionscenarios.Ifdeepemissioncutsdonotoccur,thetemperaturewillriseatleast2.1°Cto3.5°Corevenupto5.7°Cbytheendofthecentury(IPCC,2021).Over68%oftheworld’spopulationispredictedtoliveincitiesby2050(UNDESA,2018)and95%ofthisgrowthiscenteredinthedevelopingworld(UNFCCC,2020).Asaresult,informality,whetherintheformofinformalsettlementsortheinformaleconomy,ispartofthisgrowingurbanfuture.AlmostabillionpeoplelivingininformalsettlementsintheGlobalSouthdonothaveaccesstowaterandsanitation(IPCC,2022d).Rapidurbanizationalsohasimpactsonhumanandnaturalsystemswhichpotentiallyunderminetheadaptivecapacityofcities(Roberts,2022).Rapidurbanizationcontributesto,butisnottheonlyprocessthathasresultedin,70%ofthelandareaoftheplanetbeingtransformedfromitsnaturalstatewithwidespreadenvironmentaldegradationwhichaffectsanestimated20-40%ofthetotallandarea(UNCCD,2022).Somecriticalecosystemsareinevenmoredirestraitswith85%ofwetlandsdegradedandapproximatelyhalfoflivecoralreefcoverlost,whichisbeingintensifiedbyclimatechange(IPBES,2019).This,ofcourse,takesatollonthebiodiversityofthesehabitatswithanestimatedonemillionspeciesfacingextinction,andimpactsallpeople-whetherurbanorruraldwellers-forwhichnatureisessentialfortheirexistenceandqualityoflife(IPBES,2019).Citiesareimpactedbytheseglobalenvironmentalcriseswitheffectsonqualityoflife,provisionofservicesandinfrastructurefromglobalenvironmentalchangeincities.Theyinfluencetheseurbanactivitiesandcontributetoenvironmentaldegradationthroughenergyandmaterialuse(UN-Habitat,2021).Despitethescaleofthesecrises,thereisamassiveimplementationgapintacklingclimatechangeincities(GCoMandUN-Habitat,2022).Althoughmorethan170countriesandmanycitiesareincorporatingadaptationstrategiesintotheirplansandpolicies,therearesignificantgapsbetweentheadaptationactionimplemented,whathasbeenplannedandwhatisneededonthegroundforthemostvulnerablecommunities.Unfortunately,thegapsarethelargestamongstlow-incomepopulations.Thelackofactiontoaddressclimatechangeandtheunequalcapacitytoadaptamongstcountriesputthosevulnerablecommunities–thatdependdirectlyonnaturalsystemstomeettheirbasicneeds–athighrisk.Additionally,financialresourcesareinsufficient,particularlyintheGlobalSouth(Roberts,2022).Ofallclimatefinance,90%goestoclimatemitigation–andthemajorityofithasbeeninvestedintheGlobalNorth(COP26,2021).Between2010and2014,citiesreceivedlessthan5%ofglobaladaptationfinance(GlobalCommissiononAdaptation,2019).Themajorityofclimateadaptationfundsforcitiesarechanneledthroughnationalgovernments.Thetotalamountdirectedtothesubnationallevelremainsunclearandtheamountgoingtobuildingresilienceininformalsettlementsandmarketsisunknownbutislikelyminimalandsurelynotsufficienttomatchtheneed.©BigRedDesignAgency/Shutterstock.com9Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper1.2Thesignificanceofclimateresilienceandadaptation,nature-basedsolutions,andinformalityResilience,inabroadsense,isunderstoodasthecapacityofasystemtocopewithahazardousevent,trendordisturbance,respondingorreorganizinginwaysthatmaintainitsessentialfunction,identityandstructure(ArcticCouncil,2013;IPCC,2019b).Intheclimatechangecontext,climateresilienceinvolvesthecombinedeffortsofallactors(governments,communitiesandbusinesses)totakeadaptationandmitigationactionstotackletheimpactsofclimatechange(UNFCCC,2020).TheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)identifiessiximportantelementstobuildclimateresilience:awareness-raisingandadvocacy,climateriskassessmentsandasystemsapproach,appropriateimplementation,resourcemobilization,monitoringofprogress,andsharingknowledge,experiencesandsolutions.Climateadaptation,inthispaperdefinedastheprocessofadjustmenttotheactualclimateanditseffects(IPCC,2019a),hasthepotentialtogobeyondtechnicalstrategybasedonclimateriskprojections,andincludemeasurestoaddressintersectionalvulnerabilityandcompoundrisks.Thissystem-wide,transformationalapproachtoadaptationpromotestheneedforrapidchangeatascalethatimprovessocioeconomicdimensionssuchashealthandlivelihoods.Assuch,climateadaptationcanachieveamuchwidersetofsustainabledevelopmenttargets,andbetteraddresstheneeds,especially,ofvulnerablepopulationsthatsufferthebiggestclimate-relatedharmswithoutappropriateadaptationaction.Enhancingadaptivecapacitiesshouldincorporatestrategiestopreventand“dealwiththetraumaofextremeevents”(Roberts,2022)andtocontrolthespreadofdiseasesthatcomeasaconsequence.Providingurban,peri-urbanandruralareaswithbasicserviceslikewater,food,shelter,sanitation,drainage,energyaccess,andmeansoftransportshouldbeincludedintheprocessofadjustmenttoclimatechangeanditsimpacts,whilesimultaneouslyreducingvulnerabilities.Adaptationstrategiesshouldalsoconsiderthebenefitsandvaluesofnaturalecosystems,whichiswhynature-basedsolutionsandecosystem-basedadaptationareamongthemostimportantclimateadaptationstrategiesknowntoday.Nature-basedsolutions(NBS)areactionsthatpromotetherelationshipbetweenbiodiversityandhumanwell-being(Cohen-Shachametal.,2019),inwaysthatbothreflectculturalandsocietalvaluesandchallengesaswellasprotectandenhanceecosystemsfortheircontinuedprovisionofservices(Cohen-Shachametal.,2016).Asclimatesolutions,NBSincludearangeofmeasuresto10Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperprotect,restoreandplantnaturalecosystemsinordertomitigategreenhousegasemissionsorincreaseclimateresilience.NBSforclimateadaptation,oftenalsoreferredtoasecosystem-basedadaptation(EBA)strategies,relyontheuseofnaturetodealwithclimateimpactslikedroughts,heatwavesandfloodswhilesupportingthelivelihoodsofpeople(Roberts,2022).Astheclimatecrisisintensifies,NBSareincreasinglyhighlightedasanapproachforbuildingresilienceincitieswithmultiplebenefitsforclimate,biodiversityanddevelopment.ThereisagrowingexperienceintheapplicationofNBSincitiesacrosstheworld,however,moreexperienceshavebeensharedfromcountriesintheGlobalNorth,whereasthemajorityofgrowth,ascitedabove,isconcentratedincitiesintheGlobalSouth.Therearecurrentlytwobillionpeopleworkingintheinformaleconomyandonebillionresidentsofinformalsettlementsacrosstheworldwhoareimpactedbypoverty,socialexclusion,climatechange,andinadequateurbanandhealthservices(CitiesAlliance,2021).Informaleconomyisunderstoodasbasicactivitiesorenterprisesthatarenotsubjecttoformalregulation.Informalsettlementsareresidentialareasthatfalloutsidetheformalsystemintermsoflandtenureorthatdonotcomplywithregulationsinrelationtoplanning(lackorinadequateroadstoaccess),landuse(needordeficiencyofbasicservices),buildingmaterials(useoftemporarymaterials),safety(overcrowding),andhealth(lackofaccesstopublicand/orgreenspace).Inthispaper,boththeinformaleconomyandinformalsettlementsareincludedinthedefinitionofinformality.Peoplelivingininformalsettlementsand/orworkingintheinformaleconomyareparticularlyvulnerabletomanyoftheimpactsofclimatechangeandarepartoftheestimated3.3to3.6billionpeopleinhotspotsofhighvulnerabilitytoclimatechange(Roberts,2022).Giventheurbangrowthandclimatechangeprojectionsforthefuture,therewillbeanincreaseinpeoplelivingandworkingininformalareasinparallelwiththeintensificationoftheclimatecrisis.Thecurrentrateofcityexpansion,lackofplanning,landmanagementandhousingstrategiesintheGlobalSouth–especiallyinLeastDevelopedCountries(LDCs)andSmallIslandsDevelopingStates(SIDS)–pushesthemostvulnerableurbanpoorintoinformalsettlements.Informalsettlersoftenresideonsitesunattractiveorunsuitedfordevelopmentduetosusceptibilitytoclimatehazardsanddisasterrisksandenvironmentaldegradationwhilerelyingonecologicalassets.NBSinpartnershipwiththeurbanpoorcanthuslowerthepressurepointsforexamplethroughreducedheatislandeffects,improvedfloodretention,stabilizederosion-pronelandorimprovedfoodprovision,whichstimulatessocio-economicsecurity,healthandwellbeingfortheurbanpoor.Thisbringsthetripledividendofmitigatinggreenhousegasemissions,protectingecologicalassetsandbiodiversity,andeffectivelyadaptingurbanpoorcommunitiesandthebuiltenvironmenttoclimatechange.AlzohourtriangleinAmman,Jordan(2022)11Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper1.3Bringingittogether:Nature-basedsolutionsforclimateresilienceininformalareasInformalsettlementsandeconomiesareintegralpartsofmanycitiesacrosstheworld.Theyarecriticalplacesforsustainabledevelopmentandareoftenattherootofmanyintersectionalvulnerabilities.NBScanofferapromisingstrategytoprotectecosystems,addresssocietalchallengesanddealwiththecausesandimpactsofclimatechangesimultaneously.TheexplorationofNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareasrespondsinparttotheneedforasystemicapproachtoadaptationforclimate-resilientdevelopmentincitieswhichcanenablepositivetransformations(GCoMandUN-Habitat,2022).Providingbasicservicestoinformalcommunitiesincreasestheiradaptivecapacitywhilegreenspacesinthecitycontributetohumanwell-being.Greenspacegeneratesaccesstolandthatinturnimprovesthequalityoflifewhilerestoringtheecosystemsthathelpprotectlifeonlandandbelowwater(Roberts,2022).AdvancingNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareasisparticularlyinterestingtoexploregiventhepotentialsynergiesaswellasthepossibilityofbreakingnewground.Followingareafewofthepotentialbenefitsofbringingtheseareastogether:Innovation:AlthoughthereareagrowingnumberofexamplesoftheapplicationofNBSforclimateresilience,thishasbeenlimitedininformalareassothereisalargepotentialtotestandscaleinnovativesolutions.Anintegratedapproach,breakingoutofsilos:ThereisanopportunitytobringtogethercommunitieswhohaveworkedonNBSandinformalityseparatelyforintegratedsolutionsthataddressmultipleproblems.Increasedbenefitsfornatureandpeople:Byconsideringtheseintegratedsolutions,thereisapotentialtomaximizeenvironmentalandsocialbenefits.Addressinterconnectedproblems:NBS-ifwellimplementedwithstrongcommunityengagement-havethepotentialtoaddressmultipleproblemsthataresimultaneouslyfacinginformalsettlementsandcities,includingthelackofurbanservices,lossofbiodiversityandincreasingvulnerabilitytoclimatechange.DespiteencouragingprospectsofimplementingNBSininformalareas,therearealsomanyunknownswhichrequiremoreexplorationandbetterunderstanding.TheremayalsobelimitationsinhowfeasibleNBSareinsomecontexts,andhoweffectivetheywillbeinbuildingclimateservicesandimprovingthewellbeingofinformalworkersandresidentsofinformalsettlements.Finally,theremaybeinstanceswheretradeoffsinsteadofsynergiesneedtobeconsideredintermsofwhichproblemstoprioritizeandhowtheremaybeunintendedoradverseconsequencesinsomecases.MangroveplantinginLovobe,Madagascar(2022)12Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper1.4ScopeandpurposeofthepaperThisstrategypaperaimstodrawfrombothexistingresearchandpracticalprojectexperienceapplyingNBSforadaptationandbuildingclimateresilienceininformalareas.Theresearchsectionofthepaperfocusesonthefindingssummarizedintherecentlypublished6thAssessmentReport(AR6)oftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)relatedtoNBSincitiesandbuildingresilienceininformalareastoidentifywhatcanbedrawnfromtheliterature.ThissectionalsoincludesananalysisofresearchgapsthatpertaintoNBSandinformalityidentifiedintheGlobalResearchandActionAgendaonCitiesandClimateChange(GRAA)fromtheCitiesandClimateChangeScienceconferencein2018(IPCC,2018),thesubsequentfindingsfromtheInnovate4Citiesconferencein2021thatprovidedanupdatetotheGRAA(GCoMandUN-Habitat,2022),andtheCityResearchandInnovationAgenda(CRIA)(GCoM2022).Thesectiononpracticeisbasedonthreemainsourcesofpracticalexperiencesfrom:(1)projectsonNBSandinformalitysharedattheInnovate4Citiesconferenceand(2)UN-Habitatprojectsonnature-basedsolutionsininformalsettlementsandinternationalbestpracticeanalysisbyArcadisShelterProgram.Drawingfrombothresearchandpractice,thepaperthenidentifies(a)whataresomeoftheinterconnectedopportunitiesandchallengesofworkingonNBStobuildclimateresilienceininformalareas,(b)whataresomeofthespecialconsiderationsthatmayneedtobetakenintoaccountwhenplanningorimplementingNBSforadaptationininformalareasandfinally(c)whataresomeofthebestpracticesthatcanbeidentifiedtodate.Theanalysisprimarilyfocusesoninformalsettlementsasthisisthetopicofthemajorityofresearchandpracticeoninformalityandclimateresilience,however,wherepossible,linkagesaremadetotheinformaleconomy.Thereisaglossaryintheannexwhichdefinesthesetermsaswellasonesrelatedtonature-basedsolutionsandclimateresilience.ItisintendedthatthisstrategypaperwillsupportstrategicdiscussionsandprogrammingandhelptocatalyzeresearchandactiononNBSininformalareasthatreducevulnerability,addressclimateriskandultimatelycontributetosustainabledevelopmentfortheurbanpoorandthenaturalenvironment.Asaresult,theintendedaudienceforthisstrategypaperincludes(1)researchers-tocatalyzemoreresearchonareaswhichareunknownabouttheapplicationofNBSininformalareasorcouldimprovethatapplicationinformalcontexts(2)practitionersandorganizationsengagedintheimplementationofNBSincitiesandsustainableurbandevelopmentininformalareasand(3)policymakerstoconsiderhowenablingenvironmentscouldbeimprovedtocatalyzethenecessaryactionandresearch.13Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperResearchareasandremaininggapsonnature-basedsolutions,urbaninformalityandclimateresilienceCHAPTER0214Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperResearchonnature-basedsolutions(NBS),urbaninformalityandclimateresiliencehasbeenvitalforidentifyingchallengesanddevelopingscience-basedambitionsandapproachesineachoftheareas.ResearchlinkingclimateresiliencewitheitherNBSorinformalityisplentifulandhelpstodrawoutsynergiesintheapproachesaswellaspracticalsolutionsfrommanycitiesandcountries.Researchlinkingallthreeislimited;however,asthefollowingreviewshows,therearecommonalitiesintermsofinterconnectedissuesandbestpracticessuchasvulnerability,equityandjustice,andparticipationandengagement.TheexistingscientificliteraturealsopointstoareaswhereresearchgapsremainandcouldhelptoidentifyfurtherconsiderationsintheapplicationsofNBSininformalareas.ThefollowingsectionstartswithareviewoftherecentIPCC6thAssessmentWorkingGroupII:Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerabilityreportasabasisforkeyfindingslinkingthethreemaininterconnectingresearchagendas.ThelastsectiononresearchisderivedfromtheGlobalResearchandActionAgendaonCitiesandClimateChangeScience(GRAA)andtheCityResearchandInnovationAgenda(CRIA),bothofwhichemergedfromthe2018CitiesandClimateChangeScienceconferenceandthesubsequentfindingsandupdatestothatresearchagendawhichemergedfromthe2021Innovate4CitiesconferenceasabasisforthediscussiononresearchgapsonNBSincitiesandinformalityandclimatechangegenerallyandspecificareasofoverlap.2.1Nature-basedsolutionsandclimateresilienceincities:KeyfindingsinresearchNBSarewidelyrecognizedaslow-regretmeasuresfordisasterriskreduction,climateadaptationandresilienceincitiesandurbansettlements.Greenandblueinfrastructureinterventionsandnaturalconservationinandaroundcitiescanreducetheimpactofandincreaseresiliencetoongoingclimate-relatedchangeslikesea-levelriseandwarmingtemperatures,aswellasextremeweathereventsandshockslikefloods,storms,heatwavesanddroughts.Inaddition,NBSfrequentlyofferco-benefitsforclimatemitigation,biodiversityconservationandsocialdevelopmenttargetsincludinghealthbenefits,livelihoodprovision,andculturalandrecreationalbenefits(McPhearsonetal.,2018;Anderssonetal.,2019;Frantzeskakietal.,2019;IPCC,2022b).InvestinginNBSandecosystem-basedadaptation(EBA)measurescanreapnetbenefitsofabout1:4timesthemoneyinvested(GlobalCommissiononAdaptation,2019;Seddonetal.,2020;IPCC,2022c).TheIPCChasidentifiedsixcorewaysinwhichnature-basedsolutionsmayprovideclimateadaptivefunctionsforcitiesandurbansettlements(IPCC,2022d):1UrbanNBSlikegreenroofsandwalls,trees,urbanvegetationaswellaslakes,pondsandstreamscanincreaseresiliencetoextremetemperaturesandprovideurbancoolingthroughevapotranspirationandshading(Larondelleetal.,2014;Couttsetal.,2016;Bevilacquaetal.,2017;Gunawardena,WellsandKershaw,2017;Viguiéetal.,2020;IPCC,2022b).2Byabsorbingairpollutants,affectingground-levelozoneconcentrationsandindirectlythroughreducedemissionsfromcoolingandotherfunctions,urbantrees,vegetatedbuildingsandgreenstructureshavethepotentialtoimproveairqualityandreducehealthrisks(Tiwary,ReffandColls,2008;Janhäll,2015;McDonaldetal.,2016;Matosetal.,2019;IPCC,2022b).3Grassandriparianbuffers,forestedwatersheds,freshwaterwetlands,treesandgreenroofsmayhelptomanagestorm-andwastewaterbyreducingthevolumeofrunoffandsurfaceflooding,decreasingcontaminationthroughpollutantrunoff,andprovidingstormwaterretention(Zhou,2014;Mooreetal.,2016;RosenzweigandSolecki,2018;Keeleretal.,2019;Webberetal.,2020;McPhillipsetal.,2021;IPCC,2022b).©AdansijavOfficial/Shutterstock.com15Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper4Coastalecosystemsincludingcoastalforests,coralandoysterreefs,saltmarshesandcoastalwetlands,seagrassdunesandmore,canprovidecoastalfloodprotectionthroughphysicalbarriers,stormwaterabsorptionandareductionofwaveenergy(Zhaoetal.,2014;Bridgesetal.,2015;Yang,KergerandNepf,2015;BoutwellandWestra,2016;GroupandWorldBankGroup,2016;Arkema,ScyphersandShepard,2017;Narayanetal.,2017;Dasguptaetal.,2019;Zhuetal.,2020;IPCC,2022b).5Similarly,NBSalongsideriversandfloodplainsareseenasmeasuresforriverinefloodimpactreductionsincetheycanreducethevolumeoffloodwater,takeawayriverenergyandfloodspeed,increasewaterstorageandstabilizeriverbanks,andminimizethepotentialfordevelopmentforimpermeablesurfaces,therebycreatingspaceforfloodwatertoexpand,improvingurbanwaterqualityandmanagement,droughtprotectionandoverallwatersupplymanagement(Mooreetal.,2016;Pennino,McDonaldandJaffe,2016;Berlandetal.,2017;Gittlemanetal.,2017;Keeleretal.,2019;Webberetal.,2020;IPCC,2022b).6Finally,urbanagriculturecanbeunderstoodasanature-basedfoodsecurityintervention,whichisespeciallyimportantamongpoorercommunities,andcansimultaneouslyadvancecircularityandurbangreening(Orsinietal.,2013;IPCC,2022b).However,thisNBSisoftenpracticallylimitedbylandavailability,especiallyinareasofrapidlandconversion,andinsomecases,landusehistorythatmakesitunsuitedforfoodproduction(Satterthwaite,McGranahanandTacoli,2010;Vermeirenetal.,2013;Martellozzoetal.,2014;BadamiandRamankutty,2015;IPCC,2022b).2.1.1.Nature-basedsolutionsandurbandevelopment:MultiplebenefitsThegrowinginterestinNBSincitiesandurbanareasisalsoduetotheirpotentialdeliveryofclimatemitigation(DelaSotaetal.,2019)anddevelopmentco-benefits,especiallyfortheurbanpoorandmarginalizedgroups(Poulsenetal.,2015;Cederlöf,2016;Poulsen,NeffandWinch,2017;Maughan,PedersenandPitt,2018;Simon-Rojo,2019;IPCC,2022b).Suchco-benefitsincludephysicalandmentalhealthimprovements,(Kabisch,vandenBoschandLafortezza,2017;Sarkar,WebsterandGallacher,2018;Engemannetal.,2019;Rojas-Ruedaetal.,2019;IPCC,2022b),localbiodiversityhabitatprovision(Ziter,2016;Knappetal.,2019;IPCC,2022b)andthesupportofecosystem-basedlivelihoods.Thefunctionsthatnatureprovidestourbansystemsandcitydwellersaredescribedasecosystemservices,whichareprovisioning,supporting,regulatingandculturalbenefitsthatpeoplederivefromnature.Forexample,urbanecosystemservicesinclude(a)theprovisionoffood,rawmaterialsandwater;(b)theregulationoftemperature,decompositionofwasteandcleaningofwater;(c)culturalbenefitslikespiritual,recreational,knowledge-andart-relatedfunctions;and(d)supportingservicessuchasunderlyingnaturalprocesseslikephotosynthesis,nutrientcyclingorthewatercycle(GuptaandDube,2021).Byproviding,improvingorsupportingbasicservicestoandforurbancommunities,NBScanimprovethehealth,foodandwatersecurity,andlivelihoodsoftheurbanpoor,andpotentiallycreatesignificantdevelopmentgains.However,despiteincreasingknowledgeofthepotentialbenefitsofNBSforurbanadaptationandpro-poordevelopment,nature-basedadaptationandresilienceapproachesarestillunder-fundedandunder-recognizedinurbanplanninganddevelopment,particularlyintheGlobalSouth(Matthews,LoandByrne,2015;GenelettiandZardo,2016;Frantzeskakietal.,2019;IPCC,2022b).Furthermore,thedevelopmentofstandardizeddatacollectionandformattingpracticesareneededtoreducehindrancestotrackingbiodiversitybenefitsandimpactsonnaturalsystems(IPCC,2022d).16Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper2.1.2.Risksofnature-basedsolutionsforurbanclimateadaptationAlthoughthepotentialbenefitsofNBSasurbanadaptationmeasuresoutweighpotentialrisks,itisimportanttoincreaseawarenessandpreventionofunintendedconsequencesandmitigatemaladaptationrisksrelatedtonature-basedstrategiesusedinurbanareas.ThefollowingparagraphswilldiscusssomeofthemostcommoncritiquesandrisksassociatedwithNBSinurbancontexts.MaladaptationandtheeffectonvulnerabilitiesAsidefromdesiredoutcomesandplannedvulnerabilityreductions,adaptationinterventionscanreinforce,redistributeandcreatenewsourcesofvulnerability,whichisreferredtoasmaladaptation.Astudyoninternationally-fundedadaptationinterventionsfoundthatmaladaptiveoutcomesmostlyhappenwhenthereare:insufficientconsiderationofthevulnerabilitycontext,alackofequitableandinclusiveparticipationinadaptiveplanningandimplementation,theretrofittingofadaptationintoexistingdevelopmentagendas;andinsufficientcriticalconceptualizationofdesired‘adaptationsuccess’(Eriksenetal.,2021).Someadaptationprojectshaveincreasedexistingvulnerabilityandinequality,exacerbatedtensionsandreinforcedpowerdynamics(Eriksenetal.,2021);othershaveshiftedvulnerabilityfromonecommunitytoanother.Forexample,floodembankmentsprotectingonecommunitycanincreasetheriskandexposureoffloodsforothersettlements(Ferdousetal.,2020),orleadtothedisplacementofpoorresidents(ThomasandWarner,2019).Maladaptiveinterventionscanalsocreatenewrisksorsourcesofvulnerability.Forexample,whenurbanNBSliketreesandparkscriticallyreducewatersupplyforotherusers,whenshallowopenwaterorwetlandsystemsarenotappropriatelymanagedtoresultinanincreaseinvectorsthatmayspreaddisease,orwhenadaptivemeasurescreateafalsesenseofsecuritythatdisincentivizesfurtherrisk-reducingstrategies,alsocalledthe‘safedevelopmentparadox’(Burby,2006;Magnanetal.,2016).Finally,adaptationinterventionsmightalsorebound,causeharmfullock-inorstopworkingovertime.Thiscanincludetemporalrebounds,suchashardseawallinfrastructurethatdecreasesthechoiceoffutureadaptationmeasuresorwatermanagementinterventionsthatcausenegativeimpactsonlong-termcapacityandtheenvironment.Lock-inisasituationwhereadaptationinterventionsputcommunitiesinpotentiallynegativepathwaysofchange,whichhasbeenthecasewithhardinfrastructureadaptationbarriersthatbecomeindispensableand(too)costlytomaintainovertime,butalsowithinterventionsaimedatbuildingclimate-resilienceintheagriculturalsectorandpushoutsmall-scalefarmers(Wilson,2014;Juholaetal.,2016;Eriksenetal.,2021).NBSinurbanareasmaycontributetogentrification(Haaseetal.,2017;Anguelovskietal.,2018;Turkelboometal.,2018;IPCC,2022b);increasewaterdemand(Nouri,BorujeniandHoekstra,2019;IPCC,2022b);leadtoanuptakeofcriminalactivity,e.g.byprovidingvisualshieldingforrobberies,assaultandillegaltrade(CilliersandCilliers,2015;IPCC,2022b);orincreaseallergensthroughpollenemissionfromcertainplantspecies(WillisandPetrokofsky,2017;IPCC,2022b).Comprehensiveandholisticplanningatthecitylevelhelpsmitigatethoserisks.VetivergrassplatinginHoniara,SolomonIslands17Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperColonialism,historicalinequitiesandcontinuouspowerimbalancesTheconceptandapproachestoclimateadaptationweretoalargeextentdevelopedinwestern,capitalistandricheconomiesandthusinherentlyincorporatevalues,worldviews,powerandpoliticaldynamics.Whentransferringsuchconceptstonewlocalcontextsinotherpartsoftheworld,questionsofjustice,inclusionandhistoricalinequitiesbecomecentraltoadaptationplanningandimplementation(Cameron,2012;BassettandFogelman,2013;Eriksen,NightingaleandEakin,2015;Bordner,FergusonandOrtolano,2020).Similarly,criticalclimateadaptationscholarshighlighttheimportanceofadecoloniallenstoclimateadaptation,especiallywhenaddressingmarginalizedcommunitiesintheGlobalSouth.Systemsofcolonialism,oppressionandexploitationhaveplayedamajorroleincreatingandmaintainingpoverty,informalityandinequality(Maldonado-Torres,2017;Bassey,2019),andadaptationprogrammesmustbecarefulnottoreinforceorreplicatesuchdynamics.Thedirectionandinherentpowerdynamicsinadaptationfinance,whichtypicallyflowsfromdonorsintheGlobalNorthtorecipientsintheGlobalSouth,cancreatenewdependenciesandspheresofinfluence,forexamplebyrequiringadaptationinterventionstoalignwiththedonor’sagendaandpriorities(Cameron,2012;Bordner,FergusonandOrtolano,2020).Transportinfrastructureoriginallysetintofacilitatecolonialadministrationandeconomicactivityisanotherexampleofcolonialheritagethathaslockedurbandevelopmentintopath-dependenttrajectoriesshapingcitiesuntilthepresentday(Schwanen,2018).ColonialismandpowerimbalancesalsoaffectaccesstoresourcesandpatternsofspatialdevelopmentrelevanttoNBS.InBengaluru,India,inequalitiesinwateraccessareconnectedtocolonialpoliciesthatdictatedpatternsofspatialdevelopmentthatshapedwaterinfrastructureandprovisionofservices(IPCC;2022b).Further,creatingandconservingnatureaspartofNBSprogrammescanreinforceorexacerbateexistinginequalitiesgiventhedifferentiatedaccessandcontrolovergreenspacethatexistsinmanycities(Tozeretal,2020).TransferabilityofadaptationconceptsacrossgeographiesWhenusingconceptsthatoriginatedinoneplaceandapplyingtheminadifferentlocation,transferability-thepotentialapplicabilityacrosscontexts-becomescentral(BosandBrown,2012;Hintzetal.,2018).Transferabilityreferstotheabilitytoreplicateinterventionsthatinapreviouscasehaveledtodesiredoutcomes,toachievecomparableresultsinadifferentcontext(MacárioandViegas,2006;Hintzetal.,2018).However,manyNBSandadaptationsolutionsaredevelopedincase-specificcontextswithuniquegeographic,infrastructural,political,socialanddemographiccharacteristics.Forbettertransferability,researchersstresstheneedforcarefulresearch,contextanalysisandevaluationofsimilaritiesanddifferencestojudgethepotentialeffectivenessandefficiencyofNBSineachcontext(Hintzetal.,2018).Forexample,greenandblueNBSappliedincitiescanproduceacoolingeffectforurbanheatislandsandhavebeenimplementedacrosscitiesinEurope.However,whenbringingsuchsolutionstoaridregionsordesertcities,theincreasedvegetationmighthaveasignificantimpactonalready-scarcewaterresourcesandnegativelyaffectpoorcommunitiesthroughshortages.Similarly,theremightalsobeissuesoftransferabilityovertime,asaneffectiveadaptationmeasure,todaymightnotreapthesamebenefitsinfiveyears(Roberts,2022).Acknowledgingthatthesameadaptationinterventionmightnotalwaysleadtosimilaranddesiredoutcomes,andincentivizinglocalknowledgeandcontext-specificanalysiscanhelpovercometransferabilitychallenges,especiallyforinformalsettlements,andresultinmoreinnovativeurbanclimateadaptation.Impactsofclimatechangeontheeffectivenessofnature-basedsolutionsFinally,NBSandadaptationinterventionsarethemselvesvulnerabletoclimateimpacts,andtheeffectivenessoftheservicestheyprovideisincreasinglyunderthreatathigherwarminglevels.Despitetheirlargepotentialbenefits,NBScanundernocircumstancesbeunderstoodasanalternativeto,oranexcusetodelay,arapidreductioningreenhousegasemissions(IPCC,2022a).However,humanadaptationactions,includingecosystemprotection,restoration,andtheuseofNBScanincreasetheclimateresilienceofbiodiversityandecosystemfunctioning.UrbanplannersandadaptationpractitionersmustmitigatethepotentialrisksofNBSthroughcarefulsiteandspeciesselection,takingintoaccountthecomplexitiesofinterconnectedurbansystems.18Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper2.2Urbaninformalityandclimateresilienceincities:Trendsandkeyareasinresearch2.2.1Sustainabledevelopmentandpro-poorclimateresiliencegainsthroughnature-basedsolutionsAsidefromwell-knownbenefitsforclimatemitigationandadaptation,thereisgrowingevidenceforalinkbetweennature-basedsolutions,livelihoodprovisionsandpovertyreduction(IPCC,2022c),however,thelong-termsynergiesandtrade-offsarestillinsufficientlyresearched.ThereismoreevidenceforthepotentialofNBStodeliverhealthanddevelopmentbenefits,forexamplebymakingwater,wasteandsanitationsystemsmoreresilienttoclimateimpactandimprovingtheirserviceprovisiontopoorareas.Furthermore,manyNBSinvolvegreeningcities,whichhavepositiveoutcomesforreducingheat,airpollutionandotherhealthrisksforresidents(IPCC,2022b).NBScanalsoplayanimportantroleinprovidingandsupportinglivelihoodsforpoorcommunities,particularlyforgroupsthatdependuponnaturalcapitalfortheirincome(Angelsenetal.,2014;IPCC,2022c).Forexample,mangrovesofferawiderangeofservicesincludingprotectionfromsea-levelriseandstormsurgesandcarbonsequestration,buttheyalsoprovideserviceslikefish,crabs,timberandfuelwoodthat,ifharvestedinregenerativeways,offersustainablelivelihoodopportunitiestopoorcommunities.Additionally,mangrovessupportculturalservicessuchaseducation,recreationandspiritualvaluetolocalcommunities(Quinnetal.,2017;IPCC,2022c).Furthermore,thereisgrowingevidencethatNBScancounteractsomeofthehealthimpactsassociatedwithurbanlivingbybothpromotinghealthylifestylesanddecreasingriskfactors.Particularly,accesstogreenspacesinurbanareascanbringdownstresslevelsandimprovechildren’scognitiveandemotionaldevelopment(Kabisch,vandenBoschandLafortezza,2017).Whentakeninconjunctionwiththereductionofrepetitivestressesduetoclimatechangeimpacts,thementalhealthbenefitsofNBSinurbanareasisanareathatdeservesfurtherresearch.2.2.2Compoundvulnerabilitiesandclimate-relatedchallengesoftheurbanpoorDrivenbydemographicchange,rapidurbanization,socialandeconomicpressuresaswellaspolicyfailures,vulnerabilitytoclimatechangeisgrowinginurbanareas(IPCC,2022d).Asaconsequence,increasingnumbersofpeoplelivingintownsandcitiesareexposedtoheatextremes,flooding,aswellaswater,foodorenergyinsecurity.Withincities,thedifferentcapacitiesofneighborhoodsandindividualstorespondtosuchshocksandstresseswithvulnerability-reducingstrategiesleadtoanadaptationgapbetweentheurbanrichandtheurbanpoor.Climatechangeincreasesthelikelihoodandfrequencyofsuchevents,whichcombinedwiththedescribedvulnerabilitytranslatestoanincreaseinthenumberofurbanhabitatsandassetsatriskfromclimatechange,withthemostsociallyandeconomicallymarginalizedmostaffected(IPCC,2022d).Vulnerabilityforthepooresturbansettlersiscompoundedbymultipleformsofmarginalizationandexclusion,includingthelackofsecuretenure,insufficientandunstableaccesstobasicservices,andlimitedcapacitytocope(IPCC,2022b).Unplanned,inefficientandpoorlylocatedurbanizationisamajorfactorintheexpansionofcitiestoareaswithincreasedclimateriskslikefloodingorlandswithinadequatewatersupplyfortheneedsofgrowingsettlements(Tellmanetal.,2021;IPCC,2022b),howeveroftentheseareasofgrowingclimaterisksaretheonlyareasaffordableandavailableforthepooresturbansettlers.Researchalsoshowsthatclimateimpactsaredisproportionatelyfeltineconomicallyandsociallymarginalizedurbancommunitiesandthatvulnerabilitiesareincreasedbyotherdriversofinequality-includinggender,class,age,ethnicorigin,sexualityandnonconforminggenderorientation(IPCC,2022b).Informalityisonepathwaythroughwhichtheprocessofurbanizationwidenstheadaptationgapandincreasesclimateexposureandvulnerabilityforlow-incomeurbanresidents(Dobson,2017;Dodmanetal.,2017;IPCC,2022b).InformalityplaysadefiningroleincitiesandsettlementsoftheGlobalSouth(UN-Habitat,2016;Banks,LombardandMitlin,2020;Myers,2021;IPCC,2022b)andhasreceivedgrowingattentioninurbanresearch(Prieur-Richardetal.,2019;IPCC,2022b).Informalsettlementsareoftenlocatedinthemostrisk-proneareasofthecityandcanbeaffectedbycompoundhazards(Dawsonetal.,2018;IPCC,2022b).However,theclimatevulnerabilityfacedbyresidentsofinformalsettlementsis19Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperfurtherincreasedbytheirlimitedadaptivecapacity,low-qualityhousingandlackingorinsufficientrisk-reducinginfrastructure(Satterthwaite,McGranahanandTacoli,2010;MeloreandNel,2020;Pateletal.,2021;Twinomuhangietal.,2021;IPCC,2022b).AstheIPCCwrites,“thegreatestgainsinwellbeinginurbanareascanbeachievedbyprioritizinginvestmenttoreduceclimateriskforlow-incomeandmarginalizedresidentsandtargetinginformalsettlements”(IPCC,2022b).Asinformalcommunitiesoftenlieontheboundarybetweenurbanizedandnaturalizedareas,itisimportanttorecognizethevaluesthatsuchnaturalsystemsinherentlyprovideandtheadversesocioeconomiceffectsthatcanresultfromthelossoftheassociatedecosystemservicesifthesesystemsarenotprotected.Forexample,recentstudieshavecorrelateddeforestationwithincreasesinmalariacasesinBrazil,PeruandIndonesia(Vittoretal.,2009;Olsonetal.,2010;Garg,2014).Oftenlinkedtoclimate-riskprotection,theprovisionofbasicservicesaswellaslivelihoodsupport,naturalecosystemscanhaveparticularvalueforpeopleemployedintheinformalsectorandlivingininformalsettlements.Moretargetedactiontowardsinformalsettlements,includingbutnotlimitedtoNBS,cansignificantlyincreaseimpactandsocio-economicresilience.2.2.3ClimateadaptationstrategiesinurbaninformalsettlementsTherearemultiplestrategiesforclimateresilienceandadaptationinterventionsinurbaninformalsettlementsorfortheurbanpoor.Anumberofstrategieshaveprovenparticularlypromisingtotacklebothsocialandenvironmentalchallenges:1Strategiesmainlyaimingatimprovingtheadaptivecapacityofresidentsincludecommunity-basedadaptation(CBA)(Soltesovaetal.,2014;Dobson,NyamweruandDodman,2015;IPCC,2022b)andthestrengtheningoffinancialandsocialinfrastructure(Haque,DodmanandHossain,2014;Ziervogel,CowenandZiniades,2016;IPCC,2022b).2Climate-resilientdevelopment(CRD)bringstogetherphysical,nature-basedandsocialpolicyinterventionsinordertoprovidelong-termbenefitsthatpreventunintendedoutcomes(IPCC,2022b).Asidefromclimateriskreduction,thesestrategiesaresensitivetointersectionalvulnerabilitieswithinlow-incomeandminoritygroups,includingwomen,children,migrants,refugees,internallydisplacedpeoples,andracial/ethnicminoritygroups,amongothers.Thereisalargeacademicconsensusthatforleavingnoonebehindinawarmingworld,thesefactorsneedtobeacknowledged,addressedandprioritized.TheIPCCnotesthatadaptationprogrammesincitieslikeQuito,Lima,ManizalesandSuratarenowstartingtoincludeinformalsettlers,disadvantagedyouthandothervulnerablegroupsinadaptationplanning,needdefinitionandfairadaptiveresourcedistribution(HardoyandVelásquezBarrero,2014;Chu,AnguelovskiandCarmin,2016;Sara,PfefferandBaud,2017;IPCC,2022b).Theseprocesseshelpmitigatetheriskofmaladaptationandleadtomoreinclusiveandfairadaptation(Satterthwaite,McGranahanandTacoli,2010;Soanesetal.,2021).Adaptationinterventionsthatincludetheuseofinfrastructure–includingsocial,ecological,physicalanddigital–canhelptobuildresiliencetoclimatechange(StewartandDeng,2014;Baróetal.,2021;IPCC,2022b),andNBS,whenintegratedwithtraditionallydefinedinfrastructure,canincreasethesuccessofintendedoutcomes.Howeverifnotappliedcarefully,thesesolutionscanalsocontributetoincreasinginequalityincitiesandsettlements(Anguelovskietal.,2016;Chu,AnguelovskiandCarmin,2016;Romero-LankaoandGnatz,2019;IPCC,2022b),forexamplethroughprioritizedupgradingofrichneighborhoods,byfocusingonvalue-addingconstructionortheprotectionofexistinghigh-valueassets(LongandRice,2019;IPCC,2022b),andbyshiftingrisktolower-incomecommunities.Structuralandsystemicformsofmarginalizationneedtobesurfacedinordertocreateinnovative,justandequitableclimateadaptationresponses(Parnell,2016;HenriqueandTschakert,2019;Porteretal.,2020;IPCC,2022b).20Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper2.2.4Awayforwardforpro-poornature-basedsolutionsEnvironmentaldegradationandglobalwarmingcanundermineclimateadaptationandnegativelyaffectalreadymarginalized,resource-dependentgroups(IPCC,2022c).NBSofferthepotentialtosimultaneouslyprotectbiodiversity,addressdevelopmentgoals,andbuildclimateresilience.However,adaptationmeasuresmustbecarefullyplannedandimplementedtopreventmaladaptiveorunintendedoutcomes,andbenefitthosemostinneed.Adaptationinterventionsaremosteffectiveifplannedandconductedjointlywithnationalgovernments,researchinstitutions,andtheprivateandthirdsectors,takinglocalneeds,knowledgeandcontextsintoaccount.Climateactionshouldnotbeconsideredasanadditionalorsideactiontootheractivities,butratherbemainstreamedintoexistingpoliciesanddevelopmentframeworks,forexamplebyusingtheNewUrbanAgendaandtheUNSustainableDevelopmentGoals(IPCC,2022b).Furthermore,thecollectionofrobustanddefensibledataandtransparencyinhowthedataisusedinthedecision-makingprocess,asrecommendedintheNaturalCapitalProtocol(NaturalCapitalProtocol,2016),canprovidevalueincreatingacceptanceofNBSapproacheswhenintegratedintoastakeholderengagementprocess.SuchanapproachsupportsTheCityWeNeed3.0Principles3(Lowcarbonclimatechange)and7(PublicparticipationandDemocraticGovernance)byensuringtechnicallyappropriateapproachestodevelopNBSsolutionsandbyevaluatingthechallengesandbenefitsofproposedapproachesthroughaparticipatoryprocess.Consequently,adaptationfinancemusttargetthepoorandmarginalized,aswellasthelocalgovernancelevel,toovercometheadaptationgapandachieveclimate-compatibledevelopment(IPCC,2022c).2.3Nature-basedsolutionsandinformalityincities:ResearchgapsfromtheGlobalResearchandActionAgendaforCitiesandClimateChangeScienceandtheInnovate4CitiesupdateAtthe43rdSessionoftheIPCCinNairobi,theSouthAfricangovernmentpresentedaproposalforaSpecialReportonClimateChangeandCitiesfortheSixthAssessmentcycle,itwassubsequentlydecidedthatthisSpecialReportwouldbeundertakeninthe7thAssessmentcycle.However,atthe44thSessionoftheIPCCinBangkok,aproposalforaco-sponsoredinternationalconferenceonthetopicwasapproved.The2018CitiesandClimateChangeScienceconferencewasheldinEdmontonbringingtogetherurbanpolicymakers,urbanpractitioners,researchersandothersocietalactorstofocusonresearch,practiceandpolicyneededforaddressinghuman-inducedclimatechangeaspartofsustainableurbantransformations.TheprimaryoutputofthisconferencewastheGlobalResearchandActionAgendaonCitiesandClimateChangeScience(GRAA)(WorldClimateResearchProgramme,2019),whichidentifiedfourcross-cuttingareasandsixtopicalareaswhereresearchandknowledgewereneededandwasrecognizedbytheIPCC.Buildingonthislegacy,theInnovate4Citiesconferencewasheldin2021andfocusedonthenexusbetweenscience,practiceandinnovationvitaltorealizingambitiousclimatechangeactionincitiesacrosstheglobe.Italsohadastrongfocusonlocalandregionalprioritiesandvoicesandactionsfromtheglobaltothelocallevel.Theimplementationgapbetweenwhatisbeingdoneandwhatneedstobedonetoaddressclimatechangeincitieswasstronglyemphasizedthroughouttheconference.Innovate4Cities2021wasalsoanimportantstocktakingofprogressintheknowledgeexchange,andtheproductionofevidence-basedreportsandpeer-reviewedpublicationsoncitiesandclimatechangewhichhasoccurredsincetheCitiesandClimateChangeScienceconferenceandcouldactassupportinginformationintheAR7SpecialReportonClimateChangeandCities.PublicparkinMorondava,Madagascar(2022)21Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperFig1.Innovate4Citiesfigureexpanded.GlobalResearchandActionAgendaonCitiesandClimateChangeScienceillustratingtopicalareas(middlering)whereresearchisneeded,aswellascrosscutting(innerring)areasforactionanddeliveryapproaches(outerring)ThemainoutcomedocumentsfromInnovate4CitiesweretheFindingsfromInnovate4Cities2021andUpdatetotheGlobalResearchandActionAgenda(GRAA)andtheupdatedCityResearchandInnovationAgenda(CRIA)(GCoM2022).TheGRAAincludesnewresearchgapsforeachofthesixtopicalareaspreviouslycovered,complementedbyanewsectiononHistoryandCulturalHeritageaswellassevencross-cuttingareas(threeofwhichwereaddedbeforetheconference)(GCoMandUN-Habitat,2022).TheupdatedCRIAincludesrevisedpolicy,technology,information,dataandsocialinteractionprioritiesfororfromcityresearch,basedontheupdatedGRAA.Forthispaper,twoofthetopicalareasfromtheGRAAandtheupdatearerelevant:(1)Informalityand(2)BuiltandBlue-GreenInfrastructure.Severalofthecross-cuttingareassuchasgovernance,justiceandequity,finance,andhealthalsohaveconnectionstothispaperaswellasprovidesomeinsightintosynergies.22Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperWiththeresearchgapsidentifiedforBuiltandBlue-GreenInfrastructure,themainonefromEdmontonthatisrelatedtonature-basedsolutionsis“Furtherresearchisneededtounderstandtheco-benefitsofblue/greeninfrastructureandecosystem-basedadaptation,andhowmitigationprojectscouldsupportdecision-makingintermsoffutureinfrastructureprioritiestoaddressclimatechangeincities”.Thereisnoexplicitreferencetoinformality,however,theneedtounderstandco-benefitsisrelevantgiventhepotentialfornature-basedsolutionsininformalareastocontributetowidersustainabledevelopmentgoalsandpotentiallyfortheimportanceofdemonstratingtheaddedvalueandfullbenefitsofutilizingNBS.EmergingfromtheupdatefromtheInnovate4Citiesconference,theresearchgapsonNBSagaindidnothaveanexplicitreferencetoinformality,however,severalgapsarerelevantfortheconsiderationofNBSapplicationininformalareas:Researchisneededtobetterunderstandthebenefitsanddiversevaluesofurbannature,includinghealthandwellness,andhowthesevarybysocio-economicgroups,includingIndigenouspeoples,withinandacrosscities.Then,buildingfromthisunderstandingfurtherresearchisneededonhowutilizingnature-basedsolutionscanmaximizebenefitsforclimate,natureandpeopleaswellasimprovingthisunderstandingcanreduceconflictsthatmayarisearoundapproachestoconservationandrestoration.Furtherresearchtodevelopafullcost-benefitanalysisofthebuilt,blueandgreeninfrastructuresolutionstoadaptationandmitigation,thatincludefinancialandeconomicimplicationsandsocial/societalco-benefits,atscaleandacrossdifferenturbanenvironmentsisneeded.Researchisneededonwaysinwhichcommunitiescanbeempoweredtoleadonnature-basedsolutionsforwide-scalepublicparticipationandlong-termsupportandsustainabilityofprojects.(GCoMandUN-Habitat,2022)TheCRIA’sinterpretationoftheGRAAidentifies39researchandinnovationgaps,fromacitypolicyandpracticeperspective.Apolicyguideline(Okeetal2022a)specifiesthekeypolicyprocessesthenewknowledgefromresearchshouldcontribute,tofocusonimplementableoutputs(seeTable1).Again,theemphasisonbenefitsanddiversevalues,especiallyrecognizinghowthesemayvarybysocio-economicgroupsisrelevantfortheconsiderationofNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareas.Thisresearchgapalsoshowstheconnectionstothecross-cuttingissueofJusticeandEquitywhenconsideringNBSininformalareaswhereasthesecondonelistedislinkedtofinancialimplicationsaswellasbenefitswhichrequireattentionintheplanningandimplementationofNBSininformalareas.AmongtheresearchgapsidentifiedforinformalityinboththeGRAAandtheupdate,againtherearenoexplicitreferencestoNBSandtheimplicitreferencesaremoredistant.FromtheGRAA,thereisoneresearchgapfocusedonhowthereneedstobeabetterunderstandingofthevulnerabilityofpeoplelivingininformalsettlements(“Furtherunderstandingandresearchisneededonhowinhabitantsofbothinformalsettlementsandslumsareparticularlyvulnerabletotheeffectsofclimatechange”,(Prieur-Richardetal.,2019;IPCC,2022b))andthiscouldextendtohowthenaturalenvironmentcompoundsorreducesthatvulnerability,andcontributestodecision-makingonNBS.FromtheInnovate4Citiesconference,thereisoneresearchgapfocusedoncommunityparticipationwhichis“Furtherstudyisneededoncasesofeffectivecommunityparticipationandmodelsininformalsettlementplanninginthecontextofclimatechange,especiallyinvolvingyouthandchildrenwhomakeupalargeproportionofpopulationsindevelopingcountrycities”(GCoMandUN-Habitat,2022).AlthoughgenderdoesnotfeatureprominentlyintheGRAAortheupdate,furtherunderstandingofhowwomenandgirlscouldbebetterintegratedintocommunityparticipationmodelsinadaptationplanningforinformalsettlementsandinformaleconomiesgiventheirdifferentiatedvulnerabilitywouldalsobebeneficial.ResearchinthisareawouldberelevanttoempowercommunitiestoleadonNBSashighlightedinthefinalresearchgaplistedaboveunder‘BuiltandBlueGreenInfrastructure’andagainpointstothesynergieswithJusticeandEquityandtheimportanceofgettingthecommunityparticipationmodelsrightforsuccessfulimplementationofNBSininformalareas.23Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperTable1:Nature-basedsolutions(NBS),resilienceandinformalityprioritiesandpolicyprocessesidentifiedintheCityResearchandInnovationAgenda(CRIA)(ModifiedwithpermissionfromOkeetal2022b)LegendofprioritiesCityResearchandInnovationAgenda(CRIA)PrioritiesPolicyProcessesM&E–MonitoringandEvaluationA&C-AdvocacyandCommunicationsS&O–StrategyandObjectivesD&R–DataandResearchP&R-PilotandReplicateRelatedtoM&EA&CS&OD&RP&RNBSorresilienceInformalityPriority1Identifyastrategicapproachtoretrofittingcitybuildingstockbasedonbuildingtypologytoreduceemissions.xPriority4Useofsocialscienceinengagingabroadgroupofstakeholdersinnewinitiativesfromplanningthroughimplementation.xxPriority5Incorporateinformalsettlementsandtheirresidentsinurbanplanningstrategiesthroughactiveconsultationandco-creation.xxPriority6Exploreconnectionsbetweenwater,energy,andmaterialstodevelopsustainablesolutionsinurbanareas.xxPriority7Quantifypotentialandchartimplementationpathwaysforblue/greeninfrastructureandnature-basedsolutionstoreduceemissions,buildadaptivecapacityandresilience,provideco-benefits,andaddressissuesofbiodiversity.xxxPriority8Assessplanningpoliciesandprioritiseactionstohelpmitigateurbanheatislandeffect.xxPriority9Exploreadaptationandresilienceincitiesthroughcultureandhistorytobetterunderstandtheirimpactonclimateactiontoday.xxPriority10Mainstreamclimatechangeactionplanningintocitydecisionmaking,integratingmitigationandadaptationintocomprehensiveplanningandbudgetingprocesses.xPriority11Assesssolutionstoaddresstheurgencyofwater-scarcity,pollution,andallocationincitiesandtheirrelatedecosystems.xxPriority13Furtherunderstandingisneededonpotentialforurbanagricultureintermsofclimatechangemitigationandlocalfoodsecurity.x24Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperPriority17Explorepotentialforcirculareconomyapproachthroughoutcitysystems,andhowthesemaydifferindevelopedanddevelopingcities.xxPriority24Increasefocusonunderstandingthefinanceadaptationgapforcities,includingshort-andlong-termfinancialneedsfornature-basedsolutions.xxPriority25Governancelandscapes(consideringformalandinformalactors)tosupportgreatergenerationofmunicipalrevenueandwhichsupportgroupsmarginalisedduetogender,age,race,ethnicity,religion,Indigenousstatusanddisability.xxPriority27Strategicmethodsforawardingprojectswhichprioritisesustainability,circulareconomy,andresilientlow-emissionroadmapsinurbansolutions.xPriority29Calculationandcommunicateofeconomicandhealtheffectsofactionvs.inaction.xxPriority31Measurestovalueawiderangeofclimateandsocietalco-benefitsofclimatesolutions.xxPriority33Investigateemergingsocialinnovationsincitiesthatcouldbeexportedgloballytoscalesolutions.xxPriority34Exploreeffectivegovernanceframeworkstofacilitatecity-ledresearchandinnovation,includingcreatingspaceforlearning-by-doingandlearning-from-failure.xxPriority35Communicationofuncertaintyandriskofclimatehazardsforcities.xPriority36Understandthemitigationandadaptationpotentialofcityactions,includingimplicationsforsocialequityandjustice.xPriority37Generatecityscaledatafordevelopmentofspecificobservation,models,andscenarios.xPriority38Reducethegapinclimaterelevantdataonvulnerablecommunities.xPriority39Equitabledevelopmentanddisseminationofknowledgeanddatainclusiveofco-designandco-productionthroughcollaborativepartnershipsacrosspublicandprivatesectors,andcivilsectors(includingyouth,Indigenouspopulations,residentsofinformalsettlements,andothermarginalisedindividuals).xxCitation:GCoM2022;Okeetal2022a25Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperLearningfrompracticeonnature-basedsolutions,informalityandclimateresilienceCHAPTER0326Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper3.1Nature-basedsolutionsandinformalitypracticalexampleshighlightedatInnovate4CitiessessionsThefollowingsectiondrawsonlessonslearned,challengesandkeyconsiderationsdrawingfromsessionsfocusedonnature-basedsolutions(NBS)and/orinformalityattheInnovate4CitiesconferenceheldinOctober2021.ExamplesaredrawnfromcasesofNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareasandwhererelevant,casesofNBSimplementedinothercontextsarealsodrawnupontolearnfromthosepracticeswhilerecognizingthatlocalcontextsmaydifferinsomeplaces.Communityparticipation,engagementandownershipTherewereafewsessionsattheInnovate4CitiesconferencethatwereexplicitlyaboutNBSininformalareas.OnesessionwasfocusedonSub-SaharanAfrica:Nature-basedSolutionsApproachestoClimateChangeAdaptationinUrbanInformalSettlementsinSub-SaharanAfrica(2021)andfeaturedpresentationsanddiscussantsfromMalawi,Nigeria,andKenyawhohighlightedtheimportanceofworkingwithcommunitiestoimplementNBSininformalsettlements.TheprojectfromMalawiwasanationaltree-plantingcampaignthatwasinitiallynotsuccessfulbecausethousandsoftreesweredyingannually.Byengagingcommunityleadersandutilizingwalnutandfruittreesthatcommunitymemberscouldplantintheiryards,therehasbeenanuptakeoftheinitiative.TheNairobiRiverRehabilitationInitiativeinKenyafacedasimilarissueofpublicacceptanceandemphasizedtheimportanceofworkingwithcommunities,forthemtounderstandandexperiencethepotentialpositivebenefitsoftheactions.ThesessionCitiesthatConnectPeopleandNature:PostPandemicGreenRecoveryinEurope(2021)whilefocusedontheEuropeancontext-alsohighlightedtheimportanceofstakeholderengagement,especiallysothatgreeninfrastructurecanachievemultiplebenefits.Similarly,thesessionstressedthebenefitofearlyinvolvementofstakeholderstoshareideasandknowledgeaswellasco-producingandco-creatinginthedesignprocess.ThesessionDesigningresilientcities:InnovativeCo-productionandImpactAssessmentApproachesforEvidence-basedandInclusiveNature-basedSolutions(2021)providedanexampleofaninnovativeparticipatoryplanningapproachthatutilizedartandimaginativeandinnovativestorytellinginSarajevotobuildcommunitycoherenceandeco-empathy.Themethoduseddatafromcitizens’memorieswhichhelpedtoclosegenerationgapsanddrawonknowledgeofancestorsandoldergenerations.Itincluded“walkingthecity”exercisesaimedatclearingmentalbarriersandpicturingenvironmentally-friendlyalternatives.IncorporatinglocalknowledgeApresentationinoneofthepotlucksessionshighlightedtheimbalanceofparkandtreecoverbetweenunplannedandplannedresidentialareasinDelhiandtheneedtoincreasegreenspaceinunplannedareastoimprovetheequitabledistributionofgreenspaceincities(Potlucksession6G,2021).Thispresentationalsoemphasizedtheimportanceofcitizen-ledNBSaswellasintegratinglocalandIndigenousknowledgewithexperturbanplanningknowledgetoensuregreenspacesareequitablydistributed,wellmaintainedandguidedbybothlong-termobjectivesanddiversemeasuresofsuccess.Emphasizingmultiplebenefits,includingmitigationAsessiononGreenSpacesforHealthyCitiesdiscussedgreenhousingmodelstobeimplementedininformalsettlements.Amongthefactorshighlightedwastheneedforbiophilicdesignthatisaffordable,adaptable,andmodularthatcanincreaseaccesstoecologicalresourceswhilealsoalleviatingsocio-economicinequalities(GreenSpacesforHealthyCities,2021).ThesessionCitiesthatConnectPeopleandNature:PostPandemicGreenRecoveryinEurope(2021)alsohighlightedaddressingmultipleagendasoroutcomesingreeninfrastructuredevelopment,forexample,integratinggreenspacesintoactivetravelcanhavemultiplebenefitsforairquality,urbanheatisland,biodiversity,mentalhealthandwellbeing.TheregionalMiddleEastandNorthAfricaPlenarysession(2021)attheconferencefeaturedanexampleofanNBSintheformofadykebuiltwithcompactedearthanddolomitestonetoreducethedeclineofthemarshlandecosysteminOldDamascusCity,Syria.Despiteinitialprotestsbythelocalcommunity,eventually,theprojectwasembracedforreconnectingpeoplewithnature.Furthermore,theprojecthasmitigationbenefitsastheplantsinthewetlandsareabsorbingCO2demonstratingthepotentialformitigationandadaptationco-benefitsfromNBS.27Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperJustice,equityandvulnerabilityThesessionHarnessingInformalInnovation:LessonsfromThreeClimateResilientDevelopmentProjectsinPacificIslandCitiesandTowns(2021)emphasizedthaturbanecosystemservicesandthelegitimacyofurbanbiodiversityandbiomassareincreasinglybeingunderstoodaskeyaspectsofaddressingclimatechangeinurbanareaswhilealsopointingoutthatadeeperandmorenuancedunderstandingoftheurbanareasandclimatevulnerabilitiesininformalsettlementsisneeded.Thesessionexploredtheneedforresearchmethodologiestobedecolonizedandthevalueofembeddingcreativeparticipatoryapproachesforcitiesandclimatechangetoovercomejusticeandinequality,includingadaptationdecision-makingwithinajusticeframework.Accesstoservices-waterThesessiononWaterasaResourceforCities(2021)broughtuptheneedformonitoringgroundwater.Giventhatinformaluseofgroundwaterishighinmanycitiesandgroundwaterresourcesaroundtheworldaredepletingquickly,diminishinggroundwaterwouldimpactwateraccessandsecurityformanyresidentsofinformalsettlements.Thequalityofgroundwateralsohasanimpactonhealth.ResilienceofinformalworkersAnotheraspectofwateristheblueeconomy,aswascoveredinthesessionBuildingaSustainableBlueEconomyinCities(2021).Thesessionnotedthatmanyinformalworkersareengagedintheblueeconomy(e.g.fishing)andthereforediscussedpotentialeconomicactivitiesandbusinessmodelsthatwouldfavorbotheconomicprosperityforvulnerable,informalworkersaswellasecosystempreservationandrestoration.Policyandpractice/implementationgapTwosessions,oneonNBS(IncreasingResiliencethroughNature-BasedSolutionsandCollectiveGrassrootsAction(2021)andtheotheronefocusedoninnovationforinclusivecitieswithanemphasisoninformalsettlements(InnovationforInclusive,ResilientandClimate-NeutralCities(2021)highlightedthatthereisadisconnectbetweenpolicyandpractice.Insomecases,theremaybetherightlawsorpoliciesinexistence,howeverthosepolicymeasureshavenotledtosufficientimplementationofNBSand/orclimateadaptationinitiatives.Otherissuesraisedinthesessionsincludealackoftrustandcooperationbetweenlocalcommunities,governmentanddevelopmentactors,aswellaspoliciesthatdonotaddresspracticalrealitiesonthegroundsuchasjobsandlivelihoods.PolicyProcessesidentifiedbytheCRIA:23prioritiesrelatedtoNBS,resilienceand/orinformalitywereidentifiedintheCRIA(seeTable1).ThisnewknowledgewouldcontributetoincludingelementsofMonitoringandEvaluation,AdvocacyandCommunications,StrategyandObjectives,DataandResearch,andPilotandReplicate.ValuationofnatureTwosessionsonNBStackledissuesofthevaluationofNBS:Nature-basedSolutionsforHydro-meteorologicalRiskReduction(2021)andFromNature-basedSolutionstotheNature-BasedEconomy(2021).AlthoughthefocusofthesessionswasontheEuropeancontext,questionsabouttheeconomic,socialandenvironmentalvaluationofNBS,thequantificationoflifetimebenefitsaswellasthesometimeshiddenvaluesofnatureandhowtointegratethoseintothefinancialmarketswereallraised.TheconferencebroughttogethermanyperspectivesandsessionsonNBSaswellasinformalityfromacrosstheglobethatcanhelpinformagrowingunderstandingofbestpractices-suchascommunityparticipationandintegratinglocalknowledge-aswellasareasthatrequiremoreresearch-suchasvaluationofnature-whichwashighlightedabove.Therewasastrongfocusontheimportanceoflocalcontextandknowledgeaswellasengagement,andstrategiesweresharedonhowtousemultiplebenefitstoconnectwithhealth,wellbeingandsocialinequalities.Thislinkswithanothercross-cuttingthemeoftheconference,JusticeandEquity,whichwasalsoakeyfocusinseveralofthesessions.28Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper3.2UN-Habitatprogrammesandprojectsonnature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateresilienceCities,andparticularlyinformalsettlements,arehometoconcentrationsofpopulationsthatarehighlyvulnerabletotheimpactofclimatechange.UnderitsStrategicPlan2020-2023,UN-Habitatisworkingwithpartnerstohelpcitiesandotherhumansettlementstoadapttoclimatechange.Theagencycontinuesitseffortstobaseplanninganddesignonvulnerabilityanalysestoreducetheexposureofpopulationstoclimate-relatedhazardssuchasfloodingandlandslides,aswellastoaddressabroadersetofnaturalandhuman-causedhazards.Italsofollowspro-poorapproachestobuildingclimateresilienceinmarginalizedneighborhoods,slumsandinformalsettlements,whilehelpingcitiestointegratesuchcommunitiesintocity-wideurbansystems.Furthermore,drawingonitslocal-nationalmandateandconveningpower,UN-Habitatpromotesmultilevelgovernanceapproachessothatnationalgovernmentsempowerlocalgovernmentstotakeclimateactionthroughimprovedframeworkswithstronglocal-nationalcollaboration(UN-Habitat,2019).UN-Habitatbelievesthatthespatialdimensionofbiodiversityconservationintersectswiththelocationofinformalsettlements.ThefollowingcasestudiesfromUN-Habitat’sportfolioincludeprojectswherenature-basedsolutionsandotheradaptationmeasureswerethemainimplementedsolutionininformalsettlements.Theadaptationapproachesusedintheseprojectsinvolveagriculture,ecosystemrestorationandrehabilitation,water,andurbanstrategies.Theseprojectsarecommunity-basedandalthoughtheydonotstartessentiallyfromabottom-upapproach,thecommunityisheavilyinvolvedinthedesign,implementation,andmaintenanceoftheadaptationstrategies.Community-basedadaptation,communityparticipationandengagementTheprojectEnhancingurbanresiliencetoclimatechangeimpactsandnaturaldisasters(2016)isbeingimplementedinHoniara,SolomonIslands.Thecitystrugglestocopewithrapidurbanizationandthegrowthofinformalsettlements–includingthelackofbasicservices,issueswithlandtenureandafragilegovernancestructure–whileclimatechangewillfurtheramplifymanyoftheresultingstressesinthefuture.Theprojectaimstoimplementadaptationmeasureswithafocusoncapacitybuildingtostrengthentheclimateresilienceofthecommunities.TheadaptationstrategiesimplementedTable2.UN-HabitatprogrammeswithafocusonclimateresilienceandvulnerablecommunitiesCitiesandClimateChangeInitiative(CCCI)CCCIsupportscitiesinrespondingtothenegativeimpactofclimatechangeandputtinginplaceappropriatemitigationmeasures.CityResilienceGlobalProgrammeRaisingawareness,sharingknowledge,andengagingintechnicalcooperationwithcitiesarethemajorworkareasoftheCityResilienceGlobalProgrammethattouchesallareasofcityplanning,management,andfunctionality.DisasterRiskManagement,SustainabilityandUrbanResilience(DiMSUR)DiMSURisthesub-regionalTechnicalCenterforDisasterRiskManagement,SustainabilityandUrbanResiliencewhichfocusesoninnovationandtechnicalassistance,riskreductionandclimatechangeadaptation,gatheringAfricanstates,academia,people,andNGOs,andtargetingAfricanurbanresilienceandself-governing.ParticipatorySlumUpgradingProgramme(PSUP)PSUPaddressesthelivingconditionsofmillionsofslumdwellersworldwide,focusingonthechallengesinslumsandinformalsettlementsandworkinginpartnershipwiththecommunities.Flagship3ResilientSettlementsfortheUrbanPoor(RISEUP)RISEUPleverageslarge-scaleinvestmentinclimateadaptationandurbanresilienceinurbanvulnerabilityhotspotsglobally.29Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperconsistofcatchmentmanagement,reforestation,land-usecontrols,protectionofwetlandsandsoilconservation,floodmanagementthroughclimate-resilientpublicspace(e.g.usingfloodplainsassportsareas),bushgardens,andtreeplantingtoincreaseshadingincommunityspacesandwalkwayscombatingheatstress(Lucy,J.2022).Duringimplementation,therewasaneedfora“formalgovernancestructureandextensivesupporttosetupcommunitycommitteesthatcanguideprojectimplementationtransparentlyandinclusively.”Climate-resilientsolutionsarecontext-specifictoHoniaraanddifficulttocontextualizeforfutureprogrammes,however,resiliencesolutionsthatareapplicableatalargerscalearebeingidentified.LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicishighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeduetoitsrelianceonnaturalresourcesanditslackofcapacitytoadapt.Thecountryisbeingaffectedbyintensifyingweatherextremes–bothdrierandrainierseasons.TheprojectEnhancingtheclimateanddisasterresilienceofthemostvulnerableruralandemerginghumansettlementshastheaimtoprovideaccesstobasicservicesinareasvulnerabletostorms,floods,droughts,landslidesanddiseaseoutbreaks(AdaptationFundLaos,2021).Theadaptationstrategiesthatwereimplementedincludeforestrehabilitation,watershedmanagement,small-scalecommunity-basedwaterinfrastructure,adamtopreservewaterforusageduringthedryseason,gravityfeedsystems,irrigationsystemsandrainwaterharvestingwitharooforundergroundcatchments,andsmall-scalecommunity-basedwaste-watertreatmentsystemstoreusethetreatedwaterinagriculturalproduction.Incaseswherehybridinfrastructureneedsmaintenance,“communitycapacityisessentialtoguaranteethecontinuedfunctionalityoftheinfrastructure”.Co-designingsolutionsThoughMongoliahasnotbeenasaffectedasothercountriesbyextremeweatherevents,meantemperaturescontinueontherise.Oneoftheimpactsinthemostvulnerableareasisflooding.TheprojectFloodResilienceinUlaanbaatarGer-Areas(FRUGA)Mongolia-ClimateChangeAdaptationthroughcommunity-drivensmall-scaleprotectiveandbasicservicesinterventionsaimstoimprovetheclimateresiliencetofloodingofthesevenmostvulnerablesettlementsinUlaanbaatarCity(2018).Theadaptationmeasuresimplementedinthese“temporary”settlementsincludethereductionoffloodriskthroughresilienturbandevelopmentandlandusemanagement,recyclingandtreatmentofusedwater,andimplementationofcomprehensivefloodpreventionmeasuressuchasafloodretentionwall,drainagechannels,andsuitablelatrines(forrockyormuddyunderground)(FloodResilienceInceptionReport,2019).Theinvolvementofthecommunitieswasessentialinthedesignoftheadaptationmeasures–bringingintheirlifeexperiencestoaddresstheclimateimpactsontheirdailylivessothattheysupporttheimplementationwithasenseofcommitmentandownership.UrbangardentraininginHoniara,theSolomonIslands(2022)30Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperIntegratingcommunity-levelgovernancemodelsFijiishighlyaffectedbyfrequentcyclonestogetherwithextremerainfall,flooding,droughtsandsea-levelrise.Itsgeographyhascausedcitiestodevelopincoastalareas–wheretheyareespeciallysensitivetosomeoftheseclimateimpacts.Moreover,urbandevelopmenthasledtomangrovedeforestationandcoralreefextraction.TheprojectIncreasingtheresilienceofinformalurbansettlementsinFijithatarehighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanddisasterrisks(2016)focusesoncommunitiesestablishednearriverbanksandcoastalareas.Theadaptationstrategiesincludefloodcontrolthroughtheconstructionandimprovementofon-sitedrainagetoimproverunoffandreduceimpactsonaccessways,floodresilientsanitationtoreduceeffluentoverspillintimesoffloodandhealthimpacts,theconstructionoffloodandcycloneresilienthousing(e.g.stiltedsaferooms)awayfromforeshoreareas,riverbanksandfloodplains,anupgradeofwatersupplysourcesanddiversificationofstoragetypes,andhydroponicurbanfarming(FijiResilientInformalSettlements,2020)Duringimplementation,majoreffortswereneededtomaintaintheinteractionandstrengthenthecommunities’ownershipofinfrastructure.InasimilarwaytoHoniara,aformalgovernancestructurewasneededforimplementationaswellassituationalsolutionsforeverysettlement.Insummary,experienceshowsthatthereisaneedforprojectspromotingNBStobecontextspecific.However,throughsynergieswithothersimilarprojects,therecanbeopportunitiestoshareandscaleupthesesolutions.FortheimplementationofNBS,timedelayscouldarisefromseasonalityandweatherconditionswhichcouldresultintheneedtostrengthenresourcesandcapacity.Intermsofgovernance,engagementandcapacitybuildingofcommunitiesareessentialtoguaranteethecontinuousfunctionalityoftheinfrastructure.Finally,thegeneraldocumentationoftheproject,includinglessonslearned,isalongprocesslimitingaccesstotheinformation.SpecifictoNBSimplementedininformalsettlements,projectscommonlyhaveaneedforbasicurbanserviceslikewater,sanitation,andwastedisposal.TheseneedsarenoteasilyintegratedwithadaptationstrategiesorNBS.Thereisaneedtolinkaccesstoserviceissuestoadaptationstrategies.Thelackofintegrationfromtheseareascould,forexample,causeachallengewhendecidingwhichtoimplementfirst,whetherurbanbasicservicesorNBS,whenresourcesortimearelimited.76%oftheresidentsofLilongwearelivingininformalsettlements,whicharesituatedinpoorlydrainedandflood-proneareas.Heavyseasonalrainshaveledtomassivefloodingandhumanactivitysuchasdeforestation,riverbankerosion,developmentofgullies,indiscriminatedisposalofwastealongtheriverbanksanddrainagesystemshavecontributedtothefrequentoccurrenceofflashflooding.UN-Habitat,therefore,issupportingthecommunitiessurroundingthetworiversofLingadziandMchesiwithnature-basedriskreductionmeasuresthatwereproposedbythecommunities.TheprojectsinMalawiandMorondovaarepartoftheRISEUPprogramme,implementedin2022underSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency(SIDA)funding.Theprojectconsideredcommunityagro-forestryalongtheriverswithfruittrees,bananas,bambooandvetivergrasstoprotecttheareafromfloods.However,thisledtoaproblemoftheftofseedlingsasthemembersofthecommunitysawthebenefitoffoodproductionfromthefruittrees,andwantedtoplantthemintheirgardens.Afterthisbehaviorwasnoticed,thefollowingstrategieswereadoptedbythesamecommunity.First,onlyornamentaltreeseedlingslikebambooandvetiverwereplantedalongtherivers.Secondly,thefruittreeseedlingsweredistributedtothehouseholdsandencouragedtoplantthemintheirgardens.This,however,solvedaninitialproblemoftreesthathadbeenplantedalongtheriverbutwithalowsuccessofsurvival.Thecommunitiesconcludedthatthiswasduetoinadequateplantingmethodsbutalsoduetolimitedcareofthetreespossiblycausedbythelackofasenseofownership,asdescribedinotherprojectsbefore.Thestrategyofplantingthetreeseedlingsonthecommunitymembers’landmightguaranteethecareofthetreesforalongerperiod.Animportantnoteontheselectionofthetreespeciesisthattheplantingofdrought-resistantspecieswasprioritizedsuchasgiantbamboos,bananasandvetivergrass.ThisdecisionwastakenastheprojectstartedattheendoftherainyseasoninLilongweandthecommunitiesconcludedthatitwouldbedifficulttosurviveforotherspecies.Box1:ImplementationoftreeplantinginMalawi31Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper3.3Globalexamplesofnature-basedsolutionsandclimateresilienceincitiesThereareawidersetofexperienceswhereNBShavebeenimplementedincitiestobuildclimateresiliencebymunicipalitiesandprivate-sectorcompanies.ThisrichhistoryofimplementationprovidesfurtherlessonslearnedthatcanbedrawnuponandtranslatedtoinformalsettlementstotakeadvantageofsignificanteffortsincraftingsuccessfulNBSprogrammes.However,considerationsregardingchallengesindirectlytransferringprojectapproachesmustbeevaluatedtoselectmethodsthatareappropriatetothelocalcontextespeciallysocially,financiallyandtechnically.ThefollowingprojectswereselectedtoprovideadifferentperspectiveinwhichmunicipalitiesandtheprivatesectorwereleadingonNBS.Thereareofcoursefurtherexamplesthatcanbedrawnfrom,includingseveralusefulcompendiums,suchastheguidancedevelopedbytheUSEnvironmentalProtectionAgencytitled,“BuildingCommunityResiliencewithNature-BasedSolutions”tohelpsharebestpracticesforNBSwithcommunitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates(FEMA,2021).ThissectionprovidesaninitialdiscussionoflessonslearnedandpotentialtransferabilityfromurbanNBSprojectsimplementedinothersettingsforinformalareas.Nature-basedSolutionsatscaleinandaroundinformalsettlementsPlanninganddesigningnature-basedsolutionsatdifferentscalescanleadtoacomplementaryapproach.Interventionscantakeplaceatthebasin,landscape,community,street,andplotoflandscales.Theprioritizationofincreasinggreenareasandadoptingnature-basedsolutionsinurbanareasisnotanisolatedissueofenvironmentalismbutisrelatedtosocial,economic,andurbanimprovementsinanintegratedmanner.Inaddition,asolutioncanbeconsideredasNBSwhenthebenefitsbringresilienceandwhenmultifunctionalityandbiodiversityarebehindthesolution.Belowarepresentedsomesolutionsbyscaleconsideringtheirbenefits,hazardsaddressedandlimitsinapplicationininformalsettlements.Morondavaissurroundedbywaterbodiesandexposedtotropicalcyclones.Thecityishighlypronetofloodingandsuffersfrompoordrainageandweaksolidwastemanagementsystems.Morondavahasanestimatedpopulationof60,000inhabitantsandisurbanizingrapidly–witharelativelyyoungpopulation.Approximately45%ofitsneighborhoodsareconsideredinformaland25%oftheinhabitantslivebelowthenationalpovertyline.UN-Habitatiscollaboratingwithlocalauthoritiesandorganizationstoimplement–throughacommunity-basedapproach–long-termnature-basedsolutionsthatprovidefloodprotection.Theproject’sfirstactivityinvolvedmangroverestoration.ThesitestoberestoredwereidentifiedusingUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID)MikajyandWorldWildlifeFund(WWF)Morondavamaps.Thisallowedforquickidentificationoftheareawithoutpreliminarystudiesandfieldvisits–asrestorationhadtohappenbeforetheendoftherainyseasoninApril.Themobilizationoftheyoungpopulationwasalsokeyforthemangroverestoration.Theincreaseinvolunteersreducedthetimeofimplementation.Theirinvolvementandawareness–andtheengagementofthecommunityingeneral–alsoprovidethemwithasenseofownershipthatpromptsforthecaringandmaintenanceoftherestoredareas.Otheractivitiestobeundertakenincludetheremovalofinvasivespeciesanddesiltingchannelstoincreasethewater-storagecapacityofwetlandsandconvertingflood-proneareasintoacityparkwithgreenwallsandsanitaryunitswithgreenroofs.Box2:MangroverestorationactivitiesinMorondava32Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperTable3.NBSatbasinandlandscapescaleNature-basedSolutionsHazard(s)AddressedBenefits(Environmentalandsocial)LimitsinapplicationininformalsettlementsSedimentationbasin,constructedwetlands,pondsandurbanlakesPluvialFloodingFluvialFloodingHeatCollectrunoffwatertoallowsolidsremovedfromrunoffwaterhelpingcontroltheenvironmentaldegradationRetentionofrunoffwater,protectingfromfloodingandimprovingwaterqualityProvideleisure,habitat,biodiversityandaestheticsReductionofurbanheateffectRequiresspaceforimplementationPeriodicmaintenanceisrequiredRipariancorridormanagementFluvialFloodingProvidesabuffertoprotectfromfloodingNutrient-richsoilsupportssustainableagriculturepracticesProvideleisure,habitat,biodiversityandaestheticsLargeareasoflandconservationrequiredPeriodicmaintenanceisrequiredLivingshorelinesCoastalFloodingReduceswaveactionfromcoastalstormsPreventscoastalerosionSupportsaquacultureProvidehabitat,biodiversityandaestheticsRequiressignificantinvestmentVulnerabletosealevelriseCoastaldunesandwetlandsCoastalFloodingCreatesabarrierthatcanbufferwavesfromcoastalstormsSupportsnativevegetationandspeciesPracticesarehighlysensitivetohumaninterference33Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperNature-basedSolutionsHazard(s)AddressedBenefits(Environmentalandsocial)LimitsinapplicationininformalsettlementsTerracesandslopesPluvialFloodingErosion&LandslidesIncreasespenetrationandfiltrationofwaterinthesoilIncreasesretentionofrunoffwater,protectingfromfloodingProvidesbetter-qualitysoilforfarmingAquiferreplenishmentEnhancingbiodiversityNotconvenientforhigh-densityspacesNotapplicableinallsoiltypesandoccupancyconditionsBioretentionswalesandraingardensPluvialFloodingExtremeHeatErosionPreventsrainfallrunofffromcausingerosionandfloodingdownstreamVegetatedareasreduceheatislandimpactsProvidesmicroscalehabitat,biodiversityandecosystembenefitsAquiferreplenishmentProvideleisureandaestheticsCancollecttrashandfailifnotmaintainedRequiresspaceforimplementationOvergrownvegetationcanprovidehabitatforpestsorcoverforillicitactivitiesBiofiltrationPlanterPluvialFloodingApplicableinareaswhereinfiltrationofstormwaterisnotconducive,whereexistingsoilconditionslimitinfiltration,adjacenttosteepslopes(>4%),orinareaswithcontaminatedsoilsProvidewaterandsoilqualitytreatmentPeakflowratereductionProvidesmicroscalehabitatandecosystembenefitsReductionofurbanheateffectCancollecttrashandfailifnotmaintainedRequiresspaceforimplementationOvergrownvegetationcanprovidehabitatforpestsorcoverforillicitactivitiesInfiltrationbasins/trenchesPluvialFloodingPeakflowratereductionFloodingmanagementAquiferreplenishmentRequiresspaceforimplementationPeriodicmaintenanceisrequiredOvergrownvegetationcanprovidehabitatforpestsorcoverforillicitactivitiesGreenroofsandlivingwallsPluvialFloodingExtremeHeatReducesrainfallrunofffrombuildingsExtendstheusefullifeofbuildingmaterialsbyprovidingprotectionReducesenergyneededtocoolorheatbuildingsReductionofurbanheateffectCansupportlocalizedsustainableagriculture,i.e.rooftopfarmingProvideleisure,habitat,biodiversityandaestheticsRequiresadditionalstructuralsupport;priorityshouldbeonimplementationwhenconstructingnewbuildingsConstructionmaterialsdifficulttoobtainNotconvenientforhigh-densityspaces34Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperTreecanopyexpansionExtremeHeatErosionandLandslidesHighWindsInterceptsrainfallandpromotesadditionalinfiltrationintothesoilShadeandevapotranspirationreduceheatatthegroundlevelRootsystemsreduceerosionandslopestabilityissuesServesasawindbreakImprovedairqualityReductionofurbanheateffectProvidebiodiversityandaestheticsRequiresunimpactedspacebelowgroundtoestablishahealthyrootsystemTreefallscanbeanunintentionalhazardifnotproperlymaintainedNativetreespeciesshouldbeselectedthatcanwithstanddroughtsandthespecificconditionsoftreecanopiesRainwaterharvestingPluvialFloodingDroughtPreventsrainfallrunofffromcausingerosionandfloodingdownstreamCollectedrainwatercanbeusedforirrigationorothernon-potableuses(i.e.fortoiletuseandlaundry)andthereforereducepotablewateruseandrelatedcostsforthelocalpopulationConstructionmaterialsaredifficulttoobtain;priorityshouldbeonimplementationwhenconstructingnewbuildingsRequiresactivemanagementandadditionalsystemsforotherusesUtilizingmappingandecologicalvaluationforprioritizationTheUSArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE)publishedanecologicalmodelingprocessdevelopedtoselectcost-effectivecoastalstormriskmanagementmeasuresinJamaicaBayadjacenttotheboroughsofBrooklynandQueensinNewYorkCity,USA(2018).Thegoalofthestudywastoreducevulnerabilitytomajorstormsinawaythatissustainableoverthelongterm,bothforthenaturalcoastalecosystemandthelocalcommunities.Aspartofthisprocess,ecosystemservicesprovidedbyeachprojectalternativewereevaluatedandeachprojectwasscoredonastandardizedscaleforcomparison.Theprojectscopingstageincludedhabitatclassificationandmappingofallareasadjacenttotheproposedprojectsandmappedestimatedboundariesofdisturbanceassociatedwiththeprojects.Suchmappinghelpedidentifywhatecosystemswerepresentthatcouldberestoredtoprovideadditionalservicesorthatmightbeimpactedbyprojectimplementation.Followingthemappingprocess,quantitativedatawascollectedregardingecologicalstructure,compositionandfunctionusingstandardizedrapidassessmentmethods.Thespecificscoresofeachevaluationmethodwerescaledbetween0(fullyimpactedcondition)and1(referencecondition)toallowforcomparisonandcompilation.Datacollectedservedasabaselineagainstwhichdecreasesorincreasesinecosystemservicescouldbeestimatedbasedonproposedprojectdesigns.Standardizeddatacollectionandevaluationallowedfordecisionmakerstocomparehowprojectswouldincreaseordecreaseecosystemservicesinanunbiasedmanner.UsinganobjectiveapproachallowedtheUSACEtoeffectivelycommunicatetostakeholderstheecosystembenefitsandimpactsassociatedwitheachprojectandallowedforanunbiasedevaluationoftheseaspectswhenselectingbetweenprojectsofdifferentscaleandcosts.Furthermore,standardizationoftheecosystemservicevaluationprocessallowedfortheassessmentofprojectbenefitsandimpactstobetemporallyscaled,therebyaccountingforprojectswithadifferingmagnitudeofeffectsacrossprojecttimelines.AspartoftheSIDA/RISEUPproject,anurbanvulnerabilityatlasmappingtoolisbeingdevelopedanddeployedinHoniara,SolomonIslands;Lilongwe,Malawi;andMorondova,Madagascar.Thecomprehensivebiodiversityandclimatevulnerabilitymappingincludedevelopmentpressuresandecosystemservicevaluationstohelpidentifyareasforprioritizationgivendevelopmentpathways,landsystems,andwatershed/ecospheremanagement.35Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperCo-designingsolutionsandcollaborativeapproachesFollowingmultipleflooddisastersthatimpactedcommunitiesthroughoutNewJersey,thestate’sDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection(NJDEP)createdtheResilientNJprogram(2022)usingfundingthroughtheU.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment’sNationalDisasterResilienceCompetition(NDRC)(2014).TheintentoftheNDRCwastoallocatemorethan$1billionUSDinfederalfundingtosupportdisasterrecoverythatpromotedresiliencetofuturerisks.NJDEPusedaportionofthisfunding(roughly$5millionUSD)toprovidetechnicalassistancetofourmulti-municipalregionsalongtheNewJerseycoasttodevelopandbegintoimplementlong-termresilienceplans(ResilientNJ,2022).Individualmunicipalitiespartneredwithcommunity-basedorganizationswithdirectconnectiontopeoplewholiveinaffectedareastoformregionalsteeringcommitteestoguidetheeffortsoftechnicalconsultantsfundedbythestatethroughtheResilientNJprogram.Localstakeholderswereabletoprovidesignificantinputonthelocationandtypeofresiliencymeasures,emphasizingNBS.Thisfundingprovidedlocalmunicipalitieswithaccesstotechnicalresourcestoidentifyvulnerabilities,advanceplanningandpursuefundingforcapitalprojects,andestablishprogramsfocusedonreducingfuturefloodrisk.Thisframeworkalsoprovidedaplatformforlocalmunicipalitiestoworktogether,aswellasshareavoicetoadvocateforadditionaldecisionmakers,toincreaseregionalresilience,leveragingknowledgeandresourcesfrommoredeveloped,neighboringmunicipalitiestoadvanceinitiativesinmoreenvironmentallyandsociallyvulnerablecommunities.PhiladelphiaWaterDepartment’s(PWD)GreenCity,CleanWatersprogrambeganin2011aspartofa25-yearplantoreduceoverflowsfromthecity’scombinedsewersystem.Thisprogramincludesengineeringsolutionssuchastreatmentplantupgradesaswellastheimplementationofnearly10,000greenedacresthroughoutthecity(Featherstone,J.etal.,2011).Sinceitsinception,PWDhasimplementedmorethan2,800greentools,orgreenstormwaterinfrastructure,whichincludesstormwaterbasins,cisterns,greenroofs,stormwaterplantersandseveralotherdifferenttechniques.Toimplementsomanyindividualgreentoolsdistributedthroughoutthecity,withtheintentionofmeetingthelargergoalofcombinedseweroverflows,PWDdevelopedadetailedGreenStormwaterInfrastructurePlanning&DesignManualandstandarddetailsforgreentoolsandassociatedcomponents(PhiladelphiaWaterDepartment,2018and2021).Withstandardizedguidanceanddetailsinplace,PWDcanengageawiderrangeofstakeholderstoimplementgreentoolswhilemaintainingconfidencethatthesegreentoolscanprovidethedesiredwaterqualityfunctions.ThishasexpandedPWD’sprogramparticipantsthroughincreasedoutreachandincentiveprograms.UrbangardeninHoniara,theSolomonIslands36Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperIntegratedWaterManagementforfloodingandwatersupplyAddressingclimateresilienceimpactsoftenrequiresimplementingsolutionsacrossboundaries.SuchconsiderationsmaybecomeevenmorepronouncedwhenincorporatingNBSprojects,astheseapproachesfollowecologicalboundaries(e.g.,watersheds)thatmaynotalignwithgovernmentalboundaries.Assuch,regionalandlocalgovernmentshaverealizedthebenefitofcombiningNBSapproacheswithmoretraditionalinfrastructureapproachesoveravarietyofscales.Combininggreenandgrayinfrastructureapproachesprovidesflexibilityindesigningsolutionswhenconstraints,suchasexistinglanduseandinfrastructure,areprevalent.TheCityofRotterdamintheNetherlandsprovidesanexampleofimplementingavarietyofNBSandtraditionalinfrastructureapproachesatvaryingscalestoaddressurbanresilience.Withapproximately80%ofthecitylyingbelowsealevel,Rotterdamhasanimmediateneedtoaddressfloodingchallenges.Therefore,thecityhasimplementedsolutionssuchastheinstallationofgreenroofs,redesigningagriculturallandforseveralpurposes(e.g.,agriculture,ecologicalhabitat,recreationandwaterstorage)andcreationofurbanparksthatserveadualwaterstoragepurposetoaddressthechallenge(TristanJ.,2020;BlauweVerbinding,n.d.;WEFStormwater,2014).ThisapproachhasallowedthecitytoaddressitsimmediatefloodingissuesinamannerthataccommodatesexistingconstraintsandprofitsfromthebenefitsofNBSapproaches.Themulti-useurbanwaterparkretainsapproximatelytwomillionlitersofstormwaterandiscoupledwithagreen-roofNBSapproachthatretainsmorethansixmillionlitersacrossthecityandprovidesurbanfarming,ecologicalhabitatandheatislandreductionco-benefits.AprojectundertakenthroughapartnershipbetweenArcadisandUN-Habitat(TheShelterProgram)providesanexampleofregionalplanningofmixedapproachesincorporatingNBSthataffecturbanandperiurbanareasinKenya.TheShelterProgramteamevaluatedavarietyoflow-technologymethodstoincreasewatersupplytosupportanIntegratedUrbanSustainableDevelopmentPlanforMoyale,Kenya.TheteamassessedthefeasibilityofNBSmethodscurrentlyimplementedintheregions(e.g.,pans/detentionbasinsandsanddams)aswellasmoretraditionalgrayinfrastructureapproaches(e.g.,checkdamsandrainwaterharvestingtanks).Feasibilitywasassessedbyaccountingforfactorssuchassoilinfiltrationrates,slope,surroundinglanduseandavailablelandtoselectappropriateapproachesinvariousgeographicareassurroundingMoyale.Whiletheevaluationdidnotconcludethatallwaterdemandscouldbemetthroughtheimplementationoftheevaluationapproaches,ithighlightedtheneedforselectingsolutionsthatincludedNBSmethodsandtraditionalinfrastructuremethodsatavarietyofscales.Suchanapproachwouldhelpalleviatesomeofthewaterstressexperiencedbycommunitiesintheregionandwouldhelpbolsterlocalwaterresourcestocommunitiesintheregionsoutlyingthecityproper.Overthelastdecades,theprivatesectorhasmoreformallyacknowledgedthedependenciesoftheirbusinessoperationsonnaturalcapital.Impactstotheecosystems(e.g.,lossofwetlandsorriparianfloodplainstodevelopment)thatprovidethesebenefitsdisruptinformalsettlements(e.g.,flooddamagetoinfrastructureorunreliablewatersupply)inasimilarmannerastheydobusinessoperations.Therefore,urbanplanningforinformalsettlementscouldbenefitfromtheapproachesthattheprivate-sectorusetoidentifyearlythechallengestheyfacefromdisruptionstonaturalsystemsandtheobjectivestheycanachievethroughtheimplementationofNBSapproaches.TheMicrosoftCorporation’sapproachtowatersupplyprovideslessonslearnedregardingthebenefitsofidentifyingthesedependenciesearlyandhowearlyintegrationofNBSapproachesfacilitatestheiradoption.TheMicrosoftCorporationrecognizesmanyofitsoperationsarepresentinwater-stressedregionsandhascommittedtowater-positiveoperations(Smith,B.,2020).Asaresultofthiscommitment,MicrosoftincorporatedNBSdesignsforitscorporatecampusinSanJose,USAtoachievenetzerowateruse(Kohnstamm,2019).Thecampusincorporatessustainableurbandrainagesystemdesignssuchasraingardensand4-acresoflivingroofstocollectandtreatstormwaterforuseinirrigationbeforedischargetosurroundingwatersheds.Integrationofnaturalhabitatandbiodiversityintothecampusdesigncreatesafoundationforlong-termsustainableoperations,improveswaterqualityinsurroundingwatersheds,increaseslocalbiodiversity,andprovidesmentalandphysicalbenefitsofaccesstonaturalopenareasforitsemployees.EarlyidentificationofthenaturalresourcedependenciesallowedMicrosofttoproactivelymanagewaterscarcitychallenges,andtheincorporationofNBSelementsearlyinthedesignprocessallowedthecompanytorealizetheco-benefitsoftheseapproacheswithouthavingtoimplementmoreexpensivereactiveretrofitstoexistinginfrastructure.WhilethiscasestudyshowsthebenefitsofincludingNBSaspectsearlyinthedesignprocess,theprojectspecificsmustbecarefullyconsideredtoevaluatewhichaspectsaredifficultorinfeasibletoimplementinthecontextofinformalsettlements.Forinstance,theprojectbenefitedfromownershipofalargelandparcelonwhichtheyhadcontroloverprojectaspectsandtheprojectincorporatedsometechnologicalaspectswithhighbarrierstoentrydueto37Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPapercapitalandmaintenancecosts(e.g.,onsitewatertreatmentandredistribution).However,thecoreprincipleofearlyidentificationofthenaturalresourcedependencyandearlyincorporationofNBSelementsintothedesignprocesswerecrucialinmeetingtheprojectobjectivestominimizenetwaterconsumptionandprotectsurroundingwaterquality.Theseprinciplesshouldbeembracedbyspecificallyconsideringtheneedsofinformalcommunitiesintheurbanplanningprocessandengagingcommunitymemberstoidentifythenaturalresourcedependenciesthattheyexperience.EarlyengagementofthesecommunitiesintheurbandesignprocesscanhelpminimizemaladaptiveoutcomesthatmaybeassociatedwithNBSprojects,suchasdisplacementorfailuresduetolackofmaintenance,byidentifyingcommunityneedsandselectingNBSapproachesthatmeettheseneedsandaccountforstructural,culturalorfiscallimitations.Opportunitiesandrisksfortheinvolvementoftheprivatesectorinecosystem-basedadaptationPrivatesectorcompaniescontinuetobeamajorproducerofgreenhousegasemissions,landconversionandnaturalresourceextraction,therebyfuellingclimatechangeandcreatingaswellasintensifyingbiodiversitychallengesandvulnerabilities.Theecologicalandsocialcostofcorporateoperationsisoftennotpricedintoproductsandservicesoffered,therebycausingnegativeexternalitiesforsociety.Publicopinionandpoliticalleadersincreasinglyrecognizetheresponsibilityofcompaniesforthedriversandimpactsofenvironmentalchallenges,puttinggrowingpressureontheprivatesectortooperatemoresustainablyandtocontributeactivelytoclimatemitigationandadaptation.ByMarch2021,aboutone-fifthoftheworld’s1,000largestcorporationshadmadenetzeroemissionpledges(OxfordUniversity,2021).However,in-depthanalysesoftheseclaimsdemonstratethatonaverage,largecompanieshadonlycommittedto40%emissionreductions,oftendelayedbydecadesto2040or2050(Dufrasne,2022).Furthermore,manycompanieshavebeenfoundtousemisleadingaccountingandnetzerodefinitionsthatonlyincorporatepartsoftheiremissionsand–ratherthancausingsystemicchange–seektomaximizetheirgreenimageataminimumfinancialcostandoperationalimpact(Diab,2022).Nature-basedsolutionshavebeenonepathwayforsuchgreenwashingtechniques,forexample,toconcealcontinuedgreenhousegasemissionsbyengaginginoffsetsandnature-basedschemes(Seddon,N.,2022;Ferguson,etal.,2022).Additionally,companiesthatengageinnature-basedsolutionsmight–independentoftheirintention–implementNBSinawaythatleadstomaladaptiveoutcomes,forexamplethroughtop-downapproachesthatdisregardlocalrights,voicesandknowledge,andreinforcepowerimbalances(Seddon,N.2022),orshiftratherthanresolvevulnerabilities.Finally,themisuseofnature-basedsolutionscanevenharmbiodiversity,forexamplewhenplantingisprioritizedoverecosystemprotectionandrestoration(Seddon,N.2022)Usingtherightsafeguardsandprinciples,however,theprivatesectorcanbecomeanimportantvehicletoimplementandfinanceNBSforadaptation.Currently,ofthe21%ofclimatefinancethatischanneledtoadaptation,only10%reachesthelocallevel–andonlyhalfofthelocalfinanceisusedfornature-basedsolutionsandecosystem-basedadaptation(WUF11,2022).Theprivatesectorcouldcontributetoclosingthefinancinggapforecosystem-basedadaptation,forexamplethroughpublic-privatepartnerships.Private-sectorengagementinNBScancontributetocorporateclimateandreputationalriskmanagement,boostproductivityandprofitabilityandleadtoavarietyofco-benefitsforsocietyandnature(WUF11,2022).Furthermore,companiescanindirectlysupportNBSinitiativesbysharingclimateriskdataandassessments,informationandknowledge,andsupportingcapacity-buildingforavarietyofstakeholders.Theprivatesectorisalreadyengagedinclimateaction,howevercurrentlymostcorporateinitiativesfocusonmitigationratherthanadaptation(Chan,S.,etal.,2021).ThroughmainstreamingNBSforadaptationintheiractivities,andbuildingmoreadaptation-relatedproductsandservicesintotheirportfolio–includingthoserelatedtonaturalresourceextraction,housing,infrastructureconstructionandmaintenanceaswellasbasicservicesprovision–companiescouldbecomekeyplayersinfinancingandimplementingecosystem-basedadaptationstrategies.38Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperInordertoincreaseeffectiveandimpactfulprivatesectorinvolvementinNBS,amultitudeofdrivershavebeenidentifiedwhichcanbegroupedintothefollowingstrategies:1PoliciesandregulationstoincentivizeinnovationandengagementofcorporationsinNBS,includingawareness-buildingcampaigns,theintegrationoftheprivatesectorinNDCs,therecognitionofnature-basedsolutionsincomingclimateagreementslikecompingCOPtreaties,andpoliciesthatenabletheengagementofcompaniesinNBS,e.g.byreducingfinancialrisks(Cricketal.,2018;AfricanDevelopmentBank,2021;WUF11,2022;GlobalCenteronAdaptation,2021)2Financialandeconomicinstruments,suchasinsuranceschemestoenableadaptationandresiliencebuilding,particularlyforsmallerandmedium-sizedenterprises.SuchinstrumentscanincreaseconfidenceandriskacceptanceofprivateactorstoentertheNBSspace,andenableprivatecapitalinvestmentthroughco-financingorinsuranceschemesthatincreasethewillingnessofcorporationstoinvestandthustheoverallfinanceflowinginthesector.(Cricketal.,2018;AfricanDevelopmentBank,2021;WUF11,2022;GlobalCenteronAdaptation,2021)3CollaborationandcapacitybuildingthatfocusesonactorswithlimitedresourcesandenablesagrowingnumberofpartnershipsandcoordinatedapproachestoNBS.Thisshouldespeciallyincentivizetheparticipationofsmallandmicroenterprisesthatplayanimportantroleinproductionandemployment,butarefrequentlylessengagedinclimateadaptationduetoalackofawareness,capacityandinternationalattentioninpartnershipsthattraditionallyfocusonlarger,moreknownprivateactorswithestablishedESGplans.(Schaer&DelaniKaruppu,2018;Dougherty-Choux,2015;GlobalCenteronAdaptation,2021)4Informationanddatasharingandprovision,bothfromthegovernmenttocompaniesandhorizontallyandverticallyacrossthesupplychain.Sharingmoreclimate-relatedknowledgecanhelpcompaniesandotherstakeholdersreduceuncertainty,andguideplanninganddecision-makingbybusinesses(GlobalCenteronAdaptation,2021).5NBSframingandawarenessofbusinessopportunitiesinNBScanbeimprovedthroughclearcommunicationthatpromoteslocalentrepreneurshipandaclearvisionoftherolecorporateactorscanplayinadvancingresiliencethroughNBSinprofitableandefficientways(WUF11,2022;GlobalCenteronAdaptation,2021;Haleetal.,2021).NurseryhomeforvetivergrassandbambooinHoniara,theSolomonIslands(2022)39Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperRecommendationsanddiscussiontopicsforfurtherresearchandactiononnature-basedsolutions,informalityandclimateresilienceNature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperCHAPTER0440Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperThroughtheanalysisofresearchandpracticalexamples,threeareasemergedfordiscussionandrecommendationsforfurtheractiononnature-basedsolutions(NBS),informalityandclimateresilience:(1)BestPractices(2)SpecialConsiderationsforNBSininformalareas(3)InterconnectedChallengesandOpportunities.ThissectionbeginswithasummaryofBestPracticesthatemergefromtheliteratureandareviewofpracticalexamplesthatcancontributetorecommendationsforfurtherapplicationofNBSininformalareasaswellasencouragethecollectionofmoreexamplestobroadentheknowledgeandexperiencebase.ThisisfollowedbyreflectionsonSpecialConsiderationswhichareissuesthatmaybeparticulartotheapplicationofNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareasormayneedmoreresearchtohelpunpackandbetterunderstandtheimplicationsofhowtheseissuesmaybedifferentormorecomplex.ThefinalcategoryisInterconnectedChallengesandOpportunities-whichcanhelptoidentifyconnectedproblemsandsolutionsthatwouldpromoteanintegratedapproachaswellasconnecttootherfieldsofresearchandstudy.Inparticular,thesemaybeissuesthatcouldmaketheapplicationofNBSmoredifficult,forexample,landtenureissues,ortheymaybecriticalforensuringpositivedevelopmentoutcomes,suchasaccesstoservices.Thesemaybeareasformoreintegralresearchtoensureprojectsareplannedandimplementedwell.4.1BestpracticesThereareseveralareasforbestpracticesthatemergefromthepracticalexamplesaswellasindicationsfromtheresearch.Thesehavebeengroupedintofourmaincategories:(1)CommunityInvolvement(2)KnowledgeandInformation(3)Benefits(4)Governance.Themajorityofbestpracticesarerelatedtocommunityinvolvementwhichiscriticallyimportant,however,thereiscertainlyaneedtoidentifymorebestpractices,ideallyintheapplicationofNBSininformalareasbutalsorelatedtoNBSincitiesgenerallyandworkininformalareastobuildsustainabilityforbetteroutcomesforpeople,natureandclimateresiliencethatmaynotbeclassifiedasNBS.©JohnChristianFjellestad/Shutterstock.com41Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperTable4.BestpracticesCategoryBestPracticeDrawingfromresearchandpracticeCommunityinvolvementCommunityparticipationandengagementBoththeGRAAResearchGapsandInnovate4CitiesCRIAexampleshighlighttheimportanceofcommunityparticipationandengagement,includinginnovativemethodssuchasthestorytellingapproachutilizedinSarajevo.Co-designingsolutionswithlocalcommunitiesTheUN-HabitatprojectFloodResilienceinUlaanbaatarGer-Areas(FRUGA)Mongolia-ClimateChangeAdaptationthroughcommunity-drivensmall-scaleprotectiveandbasicservicesinterventionsandsessionsfromInnovate4Citieshighlighttheimportanceofco-designingprojectsandsolutionswithaffectedcommunities.TheexamplefromResilientNewJerseyalsodemonstrateshowlocalstakeholderswereinvolvedinregionalsteeringcommitteestoguidedecisionsonlocationandtypeofmeasures-workingcloselywithmunicipalities.Community-basedadaptation(CBA)CBAcomesacrossasaneffectivepracticefrombothSection2.2drawnfromtheIPCCWGIIreportandseveraloftheUN-HabitatprojectsCommunityownershipanddecision-making(governance)TheimportanceofcommunityownershipinaprojectwashighlightedintheNairobiRiverRehabilitationpresentationfromInnovate4CitiesaswellastwoUN-Habitatprojects:IncreasingtheresilienceofinformalurbansettlementsinFijithatarehighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanddisasterrisks&MalawiexperienceaspartofRISEUPprogrammeandfundedbytheSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency(Sida).CommunityinvolvementintheconceptualdesignofNBSprojectsnotonlyensuresthatsuchprojectsaddressconcernsofthecommunitiesmostdirectlyimpacted,butalsoincreasesacceptanceofproposedsolutionsandlong-termbenefittounderservedcommunities(seeexamplesofResilientbyDesignandSanFranciscoBayRestorationAuthority).MaintenancePropermaintenanceofNBSprojectsiscriticaltoensurelong-termfunction.Whilesuchmaintenancemaybeundertakenbygovernmentalentities,fosteringasenseofownershipfromcommunitymemberswillprovideopportunitiestomoreconsistentlyevaluatetheneedforcorrectiveactionsandalsoanopportunityforcitizen-basedsciencetosupplementmonitoringofprojectfunction.42Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperCategoryBestPracticeDrawingfromresearchandpracticeKnowledgeandinformationLocalandIndigenousknowledgeintegrationLocalandIndigenousknowledgecanapplytomanyaspectsincludingthehistoryofplaces,thecurrentcontextandexperienceofpeoplelivingandworkingininformalityaswellaslocalknowledgeonbiodiversityandecosystemsthatareimportantfordesigningthemostappropriatesolutions.ThepresentationonDelhiandtreecoverfromInnovate4Citiesalsoemphasizedtheneedtobringtogetherdifferenttypesofknowledgeandexpertiseforurbanplanning.Theintegrationofsocialscience,physicalscience,research,experience,localobservations,historyandcultureareallrelevanttotheapplicationofNBSininformalareas.Spatialanalysisofrisks,biodiversityandsocio-economicdataAnurbanvulnerabilityatlas,aspatialanalysistool,developedbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniaaspartofthisprojectoverlaysdataonclimaterisks,biodiversityandsocio-economicdatainHoniara,SolomonIslands;Lilongwe,MalawiandMorondava,Madagascar-whichcansupportplanningforwhereinterventionswouldbemostbeneficial.MappingwasalsoutilizedinNewYorktoidentifyecosystemspresentinprojectareastoassessthepotentialecosystemservicesprovidedbyeachprojectalternative.BenefitsEmphasisonmultiplebenefitsItiswidelyrecognizedthatNBShavethepotentialtodelivermultiplebenefits,includingmitigation,healthandecosystemservicesasdescribedinSection2.Howevermanyprojectsmisstheopportunitytoemphasizethesemultiplebenefitsanddoingsocouldencouragefurthercommunitybuy-in,astheexamplefromOldDamascusfromInnovate4Citiesdemonstrated.ClimateResilientDevelopment(CRD)framingCRD,asexplainedinSection2.2incorporatesintersectionalvulnerabilitiesaswellastheemphasisonlong-termsocialandenvironmentalbenefits.GrowingresearchandunderstandingofCRDcouldprovideanopportunitytofurtherunderstandunderlyingvulnerabilitiesaswellastohighlightmultipledevelopmentbenefitsthatwouldbederivedfromprojects.GovernanceMulti-levelgovernanceNBS,climateresilienceandinformalitydonotexistinavacuumbutratherareconnectedtolargerlandscapes,andgeographicalandpoliticalboundaries,consequentlymulti-levelgovernanceandengagingverticallyandhorizontallyonNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareasiscriticalandrelatedtoissuesofscaleandcooperationthathavebeenraised.43Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperTreeplantinginLilongwe,Malawi(2022)44Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper4.2Specialconsiderationsfornature-basedsolutionsininformalareasWiththepotentialforincreasedapplicationofNBStobuildclimateresilienceininformalareas,inadditiontothebestpracticescitedabove,therearealsoareashighlightedthroughthereviewofrelevantresearchandpracticethatindicatespecialconsiderations.Thesemaybeareasthatcouldmakeimplementationdifficult,thatwouldrequireadifferentprojectdesignorthatwouldbenefitfrommorenuancedresearchspecifictoNBSininformalareastobetterunderstandtheissues.Thefollowingtabledescribesthekeyissuesaswellaswhytheseareconsideredimportant,drawingontheprevioussectionsandthenincludesrecommendationsforresearchand/oractionsintheseareas.Table5.Specialconsiderationsfornature-basedsolutionsininformalareasSpecialconsiderationsforNBSininformalareasImportanceRecommendationsRiskofmaladaptationTheriskofincreasingvulnerabilitiesorunintendednegativeconsequencesisanimportantconsiderationininformalareas(basedonsection2.3onresearch;noinformationonpracticefound)Criticalassessmentofwheremaladaptationhasoccurredininformalareas;thoroughandcriticalEnvironmentalandSocialSafeguardscreeningandscopingthroughouttheprojectlifecycletoidentifyandmitigatetheriskofmaladaptationearly;IncreasingawarenessabouttheriskofmaladaptationandmitigationmeasuresScale–neighborhood,city,regional,landscapeMuchoftheworkoninformalityisconcentratedonneighborhoodorpotentiallycityscale,however,NBSbestpracticesgenerallyinvolvealargerscaleoflandscapeorregionallevel.Inaddition,themajorityoftheneighborhoodandcity-levelprojectswithNBShaveinvolvedthecreationofgreenspacesMoreresearchintotheappropriatescaleforimplementationforNBSincorporatinginformalareaswouldbeuseful;BetterintegrationofinformalareasintolargerscaleNBSprojectsatcitywideorlandscapeleveltomaximizebenefits;BetteranticipationofspatialexpansiontrendstriggeringinformalsettlementdevelopmentandadverselyimpactingadjacentbiodiversityTransferabilityManyoftheresearchandpracticeexamplesaredevelopedbasedoncasesandexperiencesintheUSandEuropewhichdonothavehighratesofinformality.Inaddition,thelocalecosystemsandbiodiversityandurbanfabricaredifferentinthosecitiesthanincitiesinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica.TransferabilitybetweencitiesintheseregionscanalsobedifficultgiventhedifferentcontextsforNBSandthevariationoftheurbanfabric.Asaresult,whilesomelessons,toolsandexperiencesmayhaveahighpotentialfortransferability,theymaybelimitedinothercases.Financingandfinancingmechanismscanbeparticularobstacles(reflectionsbasedonthereviewofInnovate4Citiessessionsandexamplesinsection3.3)Developguidelinesand/orcriticalanalysisoftools,bestpracticesandlessonsemergingfromNBSapplicationindevelopedcountriestobetterunderstandtransferabilitytoinformalcontexts;Linkedtolocalandtraditionalknowledgebestpracticerecommendations;FinancemechanismsforNBSintegrationandapplicationintheinformalcontextValuationofnature–bywhom,forwhatHownatureisvalued-botheconomicallyandsocially-aswellashiddenvaluesofnature-andwhovaluesnatureisrelevanttodecisionsonhowNBSareplanned,designedandimplementedincitiesgenerally,aswellasinformalareasspecifically,especiallygivenhistoricalinequitiesandexclusions(basedonSection2.1,Section2.4,Section3.1)AssuggestedbytheGRAA,furtherresearchondiversevaluesofurbannatureandhowthesevarybysocio-economicgroupswithafocusonresidentsofinformalsettlementsandinformalworkerswouldbeextremelyusefulinplanninganddesigningNBSforthesecommunities;intermsofpractice,improvingonconsultationprocesseswithlocalcommunitiesintheseareasthatfocusonhowtheyvaluenaturewouldbenefittheprojectdesignandimplementation45Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaper4.3InterconnectedchallengesandopportunitiesAshighlightedinthefirstsection,therearealotoflinkagesbetweenNBS,informalityandclimateresilienceandthepotentialforthesesynergiestodeliverbenefitsacrossmultipleagendasfordevelopment,climateandbiodiversityispartofthegreatappealofNBSincities.Inadditiontotheconnectionbetweenthesethreeconcepts,therearealsootherinterconnectedissuesthattheapplicationofNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareascouldeithercontributetoaddressingormayhavethepotentialtoexacerbateifapplicationandresearchdonottakeintoaccounttheseconnections.Table6.InterconnectedchallengesandopportunitiesInterconnectedissuesImportanceRecommendationsforresearchandpracticeAccesstoservices-includingwaterAccesstoservicesisofcriticalimportanceandapriorityareatocommunitieslivingininformalsettlements.Inaddition,alotofwateruseisinformalaswasnotedinanInnovate4Citiessession,yetmanyoftheprojectsdonotcenteronserviceprovisionincludingwastecollection,sanitationandwaterresultinginamismatchofimplementationandcommunitypriorities(Sections3.1and3.2);TheexamplesfromKenyaandRotterdam(Section3.3)alsodemonstratehowanintegratedwaterapproachcanaddressmultipleobjectivesExploringhowNBSprojectscouldbecoupledwithservicedeliverythatbenefitsbothpeopleandnaturewhilebuildingclimateresilience;Abetterunderstandingofhowinformalworkersandinformalsettlementresidentsutilizeecosystemservices-water,food,fuel-wouldalsohelptobuildtheselinkages(connectiontoValuationpointabove)JusticeandequityIncreasinglyclimateresiliencediscussionsarerecognizingissuesrelatedtojusticeandequitywhicharelinkedbothtothehistoricalandcurrentsituationininformalareasaswellastothedistributionofnatureandaccesstonaturalenvironmentresources(Section2.2;Section2.4);Justiceandequityisalsoanissuewhenconsideringengagementwiththeprivatesector,especiallylargecorporationswhichhavebeenmaindriversofenvironmentaldegradationandclimatechangewhicharenowundertakingNBSactivities.Abetterunderstandingofhowtheplanning,designandimplementationofNBSininformalareascancontributetoclimateandenvironmentaljusticeaswellasincreasedequityintheseareaswouldhavemultiplebenefits;Safeguards,checksoncorporateresponsibilitiesandothermechanismstoensurethathistoricalpowerdynamicsarenotreplicatedincaseswheretheprivatesectorareengagedHealthManystudieshavedocumentedthehealthbenefitsofNBS,however,theremaybesometransferabilityissues(seesectionabove)basedonwherethesestudieswereundertaken(Section2.1);HealthremainsacriticalissueforcommunitiesofinformalworkersandinformalsettlementresidentssomeaningfulcontributionsofNBStothiswouldhavemultipledevelopmentbenefits.AdditionalNBSprojectsmustbethoughtfullydesignedandmaintainedtoreducethepotentialforresultingadversehealtheffects(e.g.,theproliferationofvector-bornedisease).MoreresearchonthehealthbenefitsofNBSininformalareas;DevelopmentofNBSprojectsininformalareaswithexplicithealthbenefits46Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperInterconnectedissuesImportanceRecommendationsforresearchandpracticeLandtenureLandtenurehashistoricallybeenandcontinuestobeanissueininformalsettlementswhichcanbeexacerbatedbybothclimateimpactsandmeasurestoprotectagainstclimatechangecausingdisplacement.ThecreationofNBScanconfrontissuesofwhoownsthelandandwhocanauthorizethistypeofdevelopmentEnsuringsafeguardsonlandtenureareimplementedinNBSprojects;IncludeananalysisoflandownershipandlandtenureinscopingofNBSprojects;NBSprogrammesmustbecarefultoavoidexpellingpeoplefromunrecordedland,ornegativelyaffectingthem;NBSprojectsandpoliciessensitivetolandrightissuescanpromotetenuresecurityandenableinvestmentinappropriateandpermanentadaptivemeasuresbyresidentsandotheractorsHistoricalinequitiesHistoricalinequitieshaveresultedinimbalancedspatialpatternsincitieswhichresultedininformalsettlementsbeinglocatedinparticularlyvulnerableareas.InmanycitiesintheGlobalSouth,colonialpowershavelocked-incitylayouts,transportsystemsandthedistributionofneighborhoodsamongrichandpoorcommunities,whichoftenprevailuntiltoday.Inaddition,accesstothenaturalenvironmentanddistributionofgreenspacehasalsobeenimbalancedwithwealthierneighborhoodsgenerallybenefittingfrommoregreenspaceandaccess.ConsiderinprojectshowNBScanhelpcorrecthistoricalimbalances;FurtherresearchonthedistributionofgreenspaceandaccesstothenaturalenvironmentandcorrelationwiththewealthofneighborhoodsandriskprofilesTheintentionofthisstrategypaperwastobringtogetherresearchandpracticalexamplesonNBSforclimateresilienceincitiesandinformalsettlementstounderstandwhatareasshouldbeexploredinthepotentialexpansionoftheapplicationofNBSforclimateresilienceininformalareas.ThispaperisintendedasastartingpointtobringtogethercommunitiesworkingonNBS,informality,urbanpovertyandsustainableurbandevelopmenttobridgethesecommunitiesandencouragefurtherdiscussion.InputsandreflectionsfrompartnersattheExpertGroupMeeting(EGM)heldinJune2022havebeenincorporated,howeverthepaperhasalsoonlybeguntounpackmanyoftheintersectionalissuesongovernance,justiceandequity,ecosystemfunctioninganddegradation,andbiologicaldiversitythataffectthedesignandimplementationofNBSwhichareareasforfurtherexplorationandresearch.TheauthorsalsorecognizethatthepaperfocusesmoreoninformalsettlementsthantheinformaleconomywhichisalsoamajorpartofcitiesindevelopingcountriesandwouldhaveadifferentrelationshiptotheapplicationofNBS.Finally,whiletherehavebeensomeattemptstoidentifythattherearedifferentcommunitieswithininformalareasandthatvulnerabilityandmarginalizationaffectgroupsofpeopleandindividualsdifferently,theauthorsalsorecognizethatmuchmoreresearchandanalysiscouldbedoneongenderdisaggregatedsolutions,empowermentofwomenandgirls,andthevulnerabilityandpotentialtobeagentsofchangethatisdifferentfortheelderly,youthandchildren,indigenouspeoples,migrants,andpeoplewithdisabilitieslivingandworkingininformalareas.47AppendixNature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperA.DefinitionofConceptsAdaptation.Inhumansystems,theprocessofadjustmenttoactualorexpectedclimateanditseffects,inordertomoderateharmorexploitbeneficialopportunities.Innaturalsystems,theprocessofadjustmenttoactualclimateanditseffects;humaninterventionmayfacilitateadjustmenttoexpectedclimateanditseffects(IPCC,2019).Reasonforurbanfocus:“Citiesandsettlementsarecrucialbothassitesofpotentialactiononclimatechange,andsitesofincreasedexposuretorisk”(IPCCWGII,p.6-13)Biodiversity.Orbiologicaldiversity—meansthediversityoflifeinallitsforms—thediversityofspecies,ofgeneticvariationswithinonespecies,andofecosystems.Theimportanceofbiologicaldiversitytohumansocietyishardtooverstate.Anestimated40percentoftheglobaleconomyisbasedonbiologicalproductsandprocesses.Poorpeople,especiallythoselivinginareasoflowagriculturalproductivity,dependespeciallyheavilyonthegeneticdiversityoftheenvironment(ConventiononBiologicalDiversity,2008).Blue/Greeninfrastructure.Referstoinfrastructurethataimsatrestoringthenaturallyorientedwatercyclewhilecontributingtoamenitybybringingwatermanagementandgreeninfrastructuretogether,whilegrayinfrastructurereferstohuman-engineeredtraditionalapproachestowatermanagementsuchaspipesandhardsurfaces(Kapetas&Fenner,2020).Urbangreeninfrastructure.Publicandprivategreenspaces,includingremnantnativevegetation,parks,privategardens,golfcourses,streettrees,urbanfarmingandengineeredoptionssuchasgreenroofs,greenwalls,biofiltersandraingardens(Nortonetal.,2015).Degradation.Damagetothechemical,biologicaland/orphysicalstructureofsoil(soildegradation)andtotheforestitself(forestdegradation),asaresultofincorrectuseormanagement,which,ifnotameliorated,willreduceordestroytheproductionpotentialofaforestecosystem(inperpetuity)(UNTERM,n.d.)Landdegradation.Anegativetrendinlandcondition,causedbydirectorindirecthuman-inducedprocessesincludinganthropogenicclimatechange,expressedaslong-termreductionorlossofatleastoneofthefollowing:biologicalproductivity,ecologicalintegrityorvaluetohumans.[Note:Thisdefinitionappliestoforestandnon-forestland.Changesinlandconditionresultingsolelyfromnaturalprocesses(suchasvolcaniceruptions)arenotconsideredtobelanddegradation.Reductionofbiologicalproductivityorecologicalintegrityorvaluetohumanscanconstitutedegradation,butanyoneofthesechangesneednotnecessarilybeconsidereddegradation(IPCC,2019).Developingcountries.Low-andmiddle-incomecountriesinwhichmostpeoplehavealowerstandardoflivingwithaccesstofewergoodsandservicesthandomostpeopleinhigh-incomecountries.Therearecurrentlyabout125developingcountrieswithpopulationsover1million;in1997,theirtotalpopulationwasmorethan4.89billion.Organizationsmayusedifferentstatisticalcriteriatoclassifyhow‘developed’acountryis.Therearemanydifferentindicatorsofdevelopmentthatcanbeusedforsuchclassification(WorldBank,n.d.;UNTERM,n.d.).Thereareadiversityofapproachesforcategorizingcountriesonthebasisoftheirlevelofeconomicdevelopment,andfordefiningtermssuchasindustrialized,developed,ordeveloping.IntheUnitedNationssystem,thereisnoestablishedconventionfordesignatingdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesorareas.TheUnitedNationsStatisticsDivisionspecifiesdevelopedanddevelopingregionsbasedoncommonpractice.Inaddition,specificcountriesaredesignatedasLeastDevelopedCountries(LDC),landlockeddevelopingcountries,smallislanddevelopingstates,andtransitioneconomies.Manycountriesappearinmorethanoneofthesecategories(IPCC,2019).MorerecentpublicationsatUN-Habitatareusingtheterm“GlobalSouth”torefertodevelopingcountries,thoughthereisnoofficialdefinitionprovidedbytheUN.Ecosystem-basedadaptation(EBA).Theuseofbiodiversityandecosystemservicesaspartofanoveralladaptationstrategytohelppeopletoadapttotheadverseeffectsofclimatechange.Theecosystem-basedadaptationusestherangeofopportunitiesforthesustainablemanagement,conservation,andrestorationofecosystemstoprovideservicesthatenablepeopletoadapttotheimpactsofclimatechange.Itaimstomaintainandincreaseresilienceandreducethevulnerabilityofecosystemsandpeopleinthefaceoftheadverseeffectsofclimatechange.Ecosystem-basedadaptationismostappropriatelyintegratedintobroaderadaptationanddevelopmentstrategies(CBD,2009;IPCC,2014).48Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperEcosystemservices.Ecologicalprocessesorfunctionshavingmonetaryornon-monetaryvaluetoindividualsorsocietyatlarge.Thesearefrequentlyclassifiedas(1)supportingservicessuchasproductivityorbiodiversitymaintenance,(2)provisioningservicessuchasfoodorfiber,(3)regulatingservicessuchasclimateregulationorcarbonsequestration,and(4)culturalservicessuchastourismorspiritualandaestheticappreciation(IPCC,2019).GlobalSouth.Theuseoftheterm“South”torefertodevelopingcountriescollectivelyhasbeenpartoftheshorthandofinternationalrelationssincethe1970s.Itrestsonthefactthatalloftheworld’sindustriallydevelopedcountries(withtheexceptionofAustraliaandNewZealand)lietothenorthoftheirdevelopingcountries.Thetermdoesnotimplythatalldevelopingcountriesaresimilarandcanbelumpedtogetherinonecategory.Whatitdoeshighlightisthatalthoughdevelopingcountriesrangeacrossthespectrumineveryeconomic,socialandpoliticalattribute,theyallshareasetofvulnerabilitiesandchallenges(UnitedNations,n.d.)Hazard.Thepotentialoccurrenceofanaturalorhuman-inducedphysicaleventortrendthatmaycauselossoflife,injury,orotherhealthimpacts,aswellasdamageandlosstoproperty,infrastructure,livelihoods,serviceprovision,ecosystemsandenvironmentalresources(IPCC,2019).Informaleconomy.Thepartofaneconomythatescapesregulationbygovernmentauthorities,particularlyintheareasofcontractandcompanylaw,taxationandlaborlaw;hencethebasicactivitiesofenterprisesarenot,ornotconsistently,subjecttoformalregulationandoversight(UNTERM,n.d.).Informalsettlement.Atermgiventosettlementsorresidentialareasthatbyatleastonecriterionfalloutsideofficialrulesandregulations.Mostinformalsettlementshavepoorhousing(withthewidespreaduseoftemporarymaterials)andaredevelopedonlandthatisoccupiedillegallywithhighlevelsofovercrowding.Inmostsuchsettlements,provisionforsafewater,sanitation,drainage,pavedroads,andbasicservicesisinadequateorlacking.Thetermslumisoftenusedforinformalsettlements,althoughitismisleadingasmanyinformalsettlementsdevelopintogood-qualityresidentialareas,especiallywheregovernmentssupportsuchdevelopment(IPCC,2014).“Theterm‘informalsettlement’referstourbansettlementsorneighborhoodsthatdevelopedoutsidetheformalsystemthatismeanttorecordlandownershipandtenureandwithoutmeetingarangeofregulationsrelatingtoplanningandlanduse,builtstructuresandhealthandsafety”(IPCCWGII,p.6-13)Residentialareaswhereinhabitantsaredeemedbytheauthoritiestohavenolegalclaimtothelandtheyoccupyandthesystemofoccupationrangesfromsquattingtoinformalrentalhousing.Inmostcases,thehousingisinsecureandofpoorqualityanddoesnotcomplywithcurrentplanningandbuildingregulations.Informalsettlementsarealsooftensituatedinthemostprecariousurbanareaswherebasicservicesandinfrastructureincludingpublicorgreenspacesarelimited(UN-Habitat,2003).Rehabilitation.Inrelationtotheenvironment,ecosystems,buildingsandotherrelevantareas,“rehabilitation”isunderstoodasarepairthatallowstheproductivity,useorproperfunctioningofanobjectorsystemtoberestored,withoutnecessarilyrestoringthesituationthatexistedbeforethedamage(UNTERM,n.d.)Landrehabilitation.Directorindirectactionsundertakenwiththeaimofreinstatingalevelofecosystemfunctionality,wherethegoalistheprovisionofgoodsandservicesratherthanecologicalrestoration(McDonald,etal.,2016).Maladaptation(orMaladaptiveactions).Actionsthatmayleadtoincreasedriskofadverseclimate-relatedoutcomes,includingincreasedgreenhousegas(GHG)emissions,increasedvulnerabilitytoclimatechange,ordiminishedwelfare,noworinthefuture.Maladaptationisusuallyanunintendedconsequence(IPCC,2019).Nature-basedsolutions(NBS).Actionstoprotect,sustainablymanageandrestorenaturalormodifiedecosystemsthataddresssocietalchallengeseffectivelyandadaptively,simultaneouslyprovidinghumanwell-beingandbiodiversitybenefits(Cohen-Shachametal.,2016).Resilience.Thecapacityofinterconnectedsocial,economicandecologicalsystemstocopewithahazardousevent,trendordisturbance,respondingorreorganizinginwaysthatmaintaintheiressentialfunction,identityandstructure.Resilienceisapositiveattributewhenitmaintainsthecapacityforadaptation,learningand/ortransformation(adaptedfromtheArcticCouncil,2013;IPCC,2019).Restoration.Intheenvironmentalcontext,restorationinvolveshumaninterventionstoassisttherecoveryofanecosystemthathasbeenpreviouslydegraded,damagedordestroyed(IPCC,2019:AnnexI).Landrestoration.Theprocessofassistingtherecoveryoflandfromadegradedstate(IPBES,2018;McDonaldetal.2015).49AppendixNature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperRisk.Thepotentialforadverseconsequencesforhumanorecologicalsystems,recognizingthediversityofvaluesandobjectivesassociatedwithsuchsystems.Inthecontextofclimatechange,riskscanarisefrompotentialimpactsofclimatechangeaswellashumanresponsestoclimatechange.Relevantadverseconsequencesincludethoseonlives,livelihoods,healthandwellbeing,economic,socialandculturalassetsandinvestments,infrastructure,services(includingecosystemservices),ecosystemsandspecies.Inthecontextofclimatechangeimpacts,risksresultfromdynamicinteractionsbetweenclimate-relatedhazardswiththeexposureandvulnerabilityoftheaffectedhumanorecologicalsystemtothehazards.Hazards,exposureandvulnerabilitymayeachbesubjecttouncertaintyintermsofmagnitudeandlikelihoodofoccurrence,andeachmaychangeovertimeandspaceduetosocio-economicchangesandhumandecision-making(seealsoriskmanagement,adaptation,andmitigation).Inthecontextofclimatechangeresponses,risksresultingfromthepotentialforsuchresponsesnotachievingtheintendedobjective(s),orfrompotentialtrade-offswith,ornegativeside-effectson,othersocietalobjectives,suchastheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(seealsorisktrade-off).Riskscanariseforexamplefromuncertaintyinimplementation,effectivenessoroutcomesofclimatepolicy,climate-relatedinvestments,technologydevelopmentoradoption,andsystemtransitions(IPCC,2019).Soilconservation.Themaintenanceofsoilfertilitythroughcontrollingerosion,preservingsoilorganicmatter,ensuringfavorablesoilphysicalproperties,andretainingnutrients(Young,1989).Vulnerability.Thepropensityorpredispositiontobeadverselyaffected.Vulnerabilityencompassesavarietyofconceptsandelementsincludingsensitivityorsusceptibilitytoharmandlackofcapacitytocopeandadapt(IPCC,2019).Transferability(ofsolutions).Transferabilityreferstothepotentialofasolutiontobeapplicabletodifferentcontexts(BosandBrown,2012)withtheaimtoachievecomparableresultswithmeasuresthatwerepreviouslysuccessfullyapplied(MacárioandViegas,2006).Transferabilityofferstheopportunitytolearnfromeffectivecontextualsolutions,extracttheiressentialcharacteristicsandanalyzethemforpossibilitiesofapplicationindifferentcontexts.Thisrequiresresearchtogeneratetheevidencebaseforjudgingtheeffectivenessandefficiencyofthechosensolutions.Evaluationneedstocapturesolutionoutputs(e.g.createdstructures,changedbehaviors,etc.),appraisetheireffectivenessbyanalyzingtheoutcomes(e.g.towhatextentdoesasolutionhelptosolveaproblem),andtracebacktheprocessesforgeneratingresults(e.g.sequenceofaction,collaboration,etc.)andtheinvestedinputs(e.g.financialresources,participants’commitment,etc.)(Luederitzetal.,2016).Generatingsuchknowledgewouldfacilitatetheanalysisofsolutions’applicabilityindifferentcontexts(Hintzetal.,2018).©SMAKBARALIPJ/Shutterstock.com50Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperB.InternationalAgreementspertainingtonature-basedsolutions,informalityandclimateresilienceOutlinedbelowarethekeyrelevantinternationalagreementsrelatedtoNBS,informalityandclimateresilience.2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopmentTheAgendaisaplanadvocatingtheactionofallcountriesforsustainabledevelopmentforpeople,theplanetandprosperity(UN,2015).Aspartofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,theSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)areacallforactionbyallcountriestopromoteprosperitywhileprotectingtheplanet(UN,2018).Around65-70percentoftheSDGtargetsaredirectlyrelatedtocities.Amongthe17SDGs,thefollowingarerelevantforthisstrategypaper:Goal1.Endpovertyinallitsfromeverywhere.Goal11.Makecitiesandhumansettlementsinclusive,safe,resilientandsustainable.Goal2.Endhunger,achievefoodsecurityandimprovednutritionandpromotesustainableagriculture.Goal13.Takeurgentactiontocombatclimatechangeanditsimpacts.Goal3.Ensurehealthylivesandpromotewell-beingforallatallages.Goal14.Conserveandsustainablyusetheoceans,seasandmarineresourcesforsustainabledevelopment.Goal6.Ensureavailabilityandsustainablemanagementofwaterandsanitationforall.Goal15.Protect,restoreandpromotesustainableuseofterrestrialecosystems,sustainablymanageforests,combatdesertification,andhaltandreverselanddegradationandhaltbiodiversityloss.Goal9.Buildresilientinfrastructure,promoteinclusiveandsustainableindustrializationandfosterinnovation.Goal10.Reducedinequalitywithinandamongcountries.Goal17.Strengthenthemeansofimplementationandrevitalizetheglobalpartnershipforsustainabledevelopment.51AppendixNature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperConventiononBiologicalDiversityTheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)isdedicatedtopromotingsustainabledevelopment.Itrecognizesthatbiologicaldiversityisaboutmorethanplants,animalsandmicroorganismsandtheirecosystems–itisaboutpeopleandtheirneedforfoodsecurity,freshair,cleanwater,shelter,andahealthyenvironmentinwhichtolive(2011).TheCBDunderstandsbiologicaldiversity–orbiodiversity–inallitsformsandscales,fromecosystemstogenetics.TheCBDaimstobuildanature-positiveworld,fullyrecoveringitsbiologicaldiversityby2050.Italsoincorporateslocalgovernmentengagementandinclusioninrecentbiodiversitydevelopmentfortransformativeactionafterthe2020globalbiodiversityframework.NewUrbanAgendaTheNewUrbanAgenda(NUA)representsasharedvisionforabetterandmoresustainablefuture.Itcontainsrecommendationsthatcanenablegovernmentsacrosstheworldtofightinequalities,taketransformativeclimateactionandimprovethequalityoflifeforall(UN,2016).TheNUAhasfivemainpillarsforimplementation:nationalurbanpolicies,urbanlegislationandregulations,urbanplanninganddesign,localeconomyandmunicipalfinance,andlocalimplementation–beingthereinforcingdriversoflegislation,planningandfinanceofrelevancetothepaper.Thecommitmentsrelatedtothisdocumentarethefollowing:ProvidebasicservicesforallcitizensEnsurethatallcitizenshaveaccesstoequalopportunitiesandfacenodiscriminationStrengthenresilienceincitiestoreducetheriskandtheimpactofdisastersTakeactiontoaddressclimatechangebyreducingtheirgreenhousegasemissionsImproveconnectivityandsupportinnovativeandgreeninitiativesPromotesafe,accessibleandgreenpublicspacesUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeTheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)aimstostabilizegreenhousegasconcentrationsinternationallytopreventdangerousanthropogenicinterferencewiththeclimatesystem.Underitsprocessandmeetings,theParisAgreementismostrelevantinitseffortstocombatclimatechangeandadapttoitseffects.“Itsgoalistolimitglobalwarmingtowellbelow2,preferablyto1.5degreesCelsius,comparedtopre-industriallevels(UNFCCC,2015).”RelevantcampaignsforclimateactionincludetheMarrakechPartnershipwhichsupportstheimplementationoftheParisAgreementbyenablingcollaborationbetweendifferentstakeholders(UNFCCC,2021a).TheRacetoZerocampaignpromotes“ahealthy,resilient,zero-carbonrecoverythatpreventsfuturethreats,createsdecentjobs,andunlocksinclusive,sustainablegrowth(UNFCCC,2021b).”ItssiblingcampaignRacetoResiliencepursuesaresilientworldbyputtingpeopleandnaturefirst(UNFCCC,2021c).UndertheUNFCCCprocessandmeetingsspecificallyfocusedonadaptation,theCancunAdaptationFramework“seekstoreducevulnerabilityandbuildresilienceindevelopingcountries”(UNFCCC,2011).SendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction2015-2030TheSendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction2015-2030(SendaiFramework)laysoutconcreteactionsforgovernmentstopreventandreducedisasterrisks–whilesharingtheresponsibilitywithotherstakeholders(UNDRR,2015a).Underitssevenglobaltargets,themostrelevanttothepaperare:Reducethenumberofpeopleaffectedglobally.Reducedisasterdamagetocriticalinfrastructureanddisruptionofbasicservices.Increasethenumberofcountrieswithnationalandlocaldisasterriskreductionstrategies.Substantiallyenhanceinternationalcooperationwithdevelopingcountries.Fromitsfourpriorities(UNDRR,2015b),thefollowingarerelatedtothepaper:InvestingindisasterreductionforresilienceEnhancingdisasterpreparednessforeffectiveresponse,andto“BuildBackBetter”inrecovery,rehabilitationandreconstruction.52Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperC.CaseStudiesTable7.UN-Habitat’sprojectsonnature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateadaptationfromRISEUPProjectStatusLocationAdaptationStrategiesBuildingclimateresilienceofurbansystemsthroughEcosystem-basedAdaptation(EBA)intheAsia-PacificregionInProgressBhutan,Cambodia,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicandMyanmar●Urbanreforestation●Urbanagriculture●WetlandrestorationEnhancingtheclimateanddisasterresilienceofthemostvulnerableruralandemerginghumansettlementsInProgressLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic●Forestrehabilitation●Watershedmanagement●Small-scalecommunity-basedwaterinfrastructure●Adamtopreservewaterforusageduringthedryseason●Gravityfeedsystems●Irrigationsystems●Rainwaterharvestingwitharooforundergroundcatchments●Small-scalecommunity-basedwaste-watertreatmentsystemstoreusethetreatedwaterinagriculturalproductionIncreasingtheresilienceofinformalurbansettlementsinFijithatarehighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanddisasterrisksInProgressFiji●Floodcontrolthroughtheconstructionandimprovementofon-sitedrainagetoimproverunoffandreduceimpactsonaccessways●Floodresilientsanitationtoreduceeffluentoverspillintimesoffloodandreducehealthimpacts●Constructionofflood(andcyclone)resilienthousing(e.g.stiltedsaferooms)awayfromforeshoreareas,riverbanksandfloodplains●Upgradeofwatersupplysourcesanddiversificationofstoragetypes●HydroponicurbanfarmingEnhancingurbanresiliencetoclimatechangeimpactsandnaturaldisasters:HoniaraInProgressSolomonIslands●Catchmentmanagement●Reforestation●Land-usecontrols●Protectionofwetlands●Soilconservation●Floodmanagementthroughclimateresilientpublicspace(e.g.usingfloodplainsassportsareas)●Bushgardens●Treeplantingtoincreaseshadingincommunityspacesandwalkwayscombatingheatstress53AppendixNature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperProjectStatusLocationAdaptationStrategiesFloodResilienceinUlaanbaatarGer-Areas(FRUGA)Mongolia-ClimateChangeAdaptationthroughcommunity-drivensmall-scaleprotectiveandbasicservicesinterventionsInProgressUlaanbaatar,Mongolia●Reductionoffloodriskthroughresilienturbandevelopmentandlandusemanagement●Recyclingandtreatmentofusedwater●Implementationofcomprehensivefloodpreventionmeasurementssuchasafloodretentionwall,drainagechannels,andsuitablelatrines(forrockyormuddyunderground)BuildingclimateanddisasterresiliencecapabilitiesofvulnerableandsmalltownsinLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicInProgressLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic●ConstructionofawatertreatmentplantineachtownAdaptationthroughsmall-scaleprotectiveandbasicserviceinterventionsincoastalsettlementsinCambodiaInProgressCambodia●Mangrovesrestoration●Rehabilitationof2canalsandpreventionofsaltwateringress●Bankstrengtheningworktoprovideadditionalwaterretentionandsafety,●Resilienthousingdesignsdevelopedanddemonstrationsconstructed●Green-grayprotectiveinfrastructure●Improveddrainage●RainwaterharvestingIncreasingtheresilienceofdisplacedpersonstoclimatechange-relatedwaterchallengesinurbanhostsettlementsInProgressJordanandLebanon●RooftoprainwaterharvestinginLebanonandJordan●GreywatertreatmentandreuseinJordan●EfficienttreatmentandreuseofwastewaterinLebanonandJordan●Water-use-efficientirrigationoftreatedwastewaterinLebanonandJordan●Permaculturedemonstration–closedloopwatersysteminLebanonandJordanUrbanwaterharvestingandfloodmanagementnexusinNowsheraandRawalpindiInProgressPakistan●Enhancewaterharvestingfacilitiesinpublicbuildings●WaterstorageinpublicgardensThesestrategieswerenotdirectlyimplementedininformalsettlementsbutinpublicbuildingsandspacesinthesurroundingsofthearea.54Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperTable8.UN-Habitat’sprojectsonnature-basedsolutions,informality,andclimateadaptationfromPSUPProjectStatusLocationAdaptationStrategiesMalawi–Mzuzu(Salisburylinesslum):ParticipatorySlumUpgradingforincreasedphysicalresilienceCompletedMzuzu,Malawi●Upgradingofroads●DrainagesimprovementBurkinaFaso–Ouagadougou(Bissighinslum):Participatoryandmulti-stakeholderapproachforupgradinglocalalleysanddrainageagainstfloodingCompletedOuagadougou,BurkinaFaso●Constructionofdrainagestructures,particularlydrainageroadsandsteeproadsGhana–Accra(JamestownandUssherTown):BuildingresiliencebyusinglocallyavailablematerialsCompletedAccra,Ghana●PermeablepavingasanalternativetoconcreteslabstoimprovedrainageandsanitationHaïti–increasingclimateresiliencethroughinternationalpartnershipsandpublicspacesCompletedHaiti●Strengtheningdykes●CoastalprotectionSolomonIslands–Honiara(Haekafo):Data-collectionandhousingdurabilityCompletedHoniara,SolomonIslands●Resettlement●CommunitygardensBenin–Cotonou(ProtectingcoastlinesinBenin)CompletedCotonou,Benin●NineconcreteandrockfillstructurestopartiallyprotectthecoastFiji–DatacollectionandtenuresecurityInProgressFiji●Referto“IncreasingtheresilienceofinformalurbansettlementsinFijithatarehighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanddisasterrisks”inTable2Table9.Private-andpublic-sectornature-basedsolutionprojectsandpolicyapproachesProject/toolboxStatusLocationAdaptationStrategiesEcoshape/BuildingwithNatureCompletedNetherlandsandworldwide●DependingondesignthemeandlandscapeColombia-BeneficialuseofdredgedmaterialCompletedBuenaventura,Colombia●CreationofislandsinthemouthofBuenaventuraBay●Extensionoftheurbanarea●Useforbuildingmaterials55AppendixNature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperProject/toolboxStatusLocationAdaptationStrategiesColombia-NBSforcoastalerosionSanAndrésCompletedSanAndrés,ColombiaCoralreefrestorationBeachreplenishmentSeagrassrestoration●Hardunderwaterprotectivestructures●WindbreakersUSA-StatenIslandBluebeltCompletedNewYork,NY●Riparianrestoration●Detentionpools●Sandfilters●NativerevegetationUSA-LosAngelesCountyWatershedManagementProgramsOngoingLosAngeles,CA●Watershedcoordination●Multi-governancecollaboration●WatersupplyandqualitysolutionsUSA-SanFranciscoBayRestorationAuthorityOngoingSanFranciscoBay,CA●Coastalandfreshwaterwetlandandriparianhabitatrestoration●Floodprotection●Shorelineaccessandrecreationalamenities●Waterquality●Environmentaljusticeandequity●Multi-governancecollaborationEngland-PrincesLake,HeathrowAirportCompletedLondon,England●Waterquality●Biodiversitymanagement●Grassland,forestandwetlandhabitatrestoration●EnvironmentaleducationKenya-IntegratedStrategicUrbanDevelopmentPlanOngoingMoyale,Kenya●Watersupplyevaluation●Regionalandlocalwatercatchmentandharvestingdesign●EconomicopportunitydevelopmentIndia–GroundwaterrechargeandsupplyOngoingManurandPappakudiunions,India●Watersupply●EconomicopportunitydevelopmentGermany-FloodpreventionandhabitatrestorationOngoingDonaumoosRegion,Germany●Floodprevention●Carbonsequestration●Biodiversity●Watermanagement●Fenwetlandrestoration56Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperYouthplantingtreesinLilongwe,Malawi(2022)57ReferencesNature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperAdaptationFundLaos.(2021).Www.arcgis.com.Availableat:https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=2195a7a66b5b4a71a69b51b807e10504AdaptationFundFiji.(2016)IncreasingtheresilienceofinformalurbansettlementsinFijithatarehighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeanddisasterrisks.Availableat:https://www.adaptation-fund.org/project/increasing-resilience-informal-urban-settlements-fiji-highly-vulnerable-climate-change-disaster-risks-2/AfricanDevelopmentBank.(2021,June28).NDCimplementationinAfricathroughgreeninvestmentsbyprivatesector-AScopingStudy.AfricanDevelopmentBank-BuildingToday,aBetterAfricaTomorrow.Availableat:https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/ndc-implementation-africa-through-green-investments-private-sector-scoping-studyAndersson,E.etal.(2019)“EnablingGreenandBlueInfrastructuretoImproveContributionstoHumanWell-BeingandEquityinUrbanSystems,”Bioscience,69(7),pp.566–574.doi:10.1093/biosci/biz058.Angelsen,A.etal.(2014)“EnvironmentalIncomeandRuralLivelihoods:AGlobal-ComparativeAnalysis,”Worlddevelopment,64(1),pp.S12–S28.doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.006.Anguelovski,I.etal.(2016)“EquityImpactsofUrbanLandUsePlanningforClimateAdaptation,”JournalofPlanningEducationandResearch,36(3),pp.333–348.doi:10.1177/0739456x16645166.Anguelovski,I.etal.(2018)“Assessinggreengentrificationinhistoricallydisenfranchisedneighborhoods:alongitudinalandspatialanalysisofBarcelona,”Urbangeography,39(3),pp.458–491.doi:10.1080/02723638.2017.1349987.ArcticCouncil(2013)“Glossaryofterms,”inArcticResilienceInterimReport2013.StockholmEnvironmentInstituteandStockholmResilienceCentre.Stockholm,Sweden,p.viii.Arkema,K.K.,Scyphers,S.B.andShepard,C.(2017)“LivingShorelinesforPeopleandNature,”LivingShorelines,pp.11–30.doi:10.1201/9781315151465-3.Badami,M.G.andRamankutty,N.(2015)“Urbanagricultureandfoodsecurity:Acritiquebasedonanassessmentofurbanlandconstraints,”GlobalFoodSecurity,4,pp.8–15.doi:10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.003.Banks,N.,Lombard,M.andMitlin,D.(2020)“UrbanInformalityasaSiteofCriticalAnalysis,”Thejournalofdevelopmentstudies,56(2),pp.223–238.doi:10.1080/00220388.2019.1577384.Baró,F.etal.(2021)“Advancingurbanecosystemserviceimplementationandassessmentconsideringdifferentdimensionsofenvironmentaljustice,”EnvironmentalScience&Policy,115(Editorialtothespecialissue),pp.43–46.doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2020.10.008.Bassett,T.J.andFogelman,C.(2013)“Déjàvuorsomethingnew?Theadaptationconceptintheclimatechangeliterature,”Geoforum;journalofphysical,human,andregionalgeosciences,48,pp.42–53.doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.04.010.Bassey,S.(2019)“‘Anthropoholism’asanauthentictoolforenvironmentalmanagement,”InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalPollutionandEnvironmentalModelling,2(3),pp.160–168.Availableat:https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijepem/issue/54368/789160(Accessed:May14,2022).Berland,A.etal.(2017)“Theroleoftreesinurbanstormwatermanagement,”Landscapeandurbanplanning,162,pp.167–177.doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.02.017.Bevilacqua,P.etal.(2017)“Surfacetemperatureanalysisofanextensivegreenroofforthemitigationofurbanheatislandinsouthernmediterraneanclimate,”EnergyandBuildings,150,pp.318–327.doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.05.081.BlauweVerbindingRotterdam.nl.(n.d.).GemeenteRotterdam.Availableat:https://www.rotterdam.nl/vrije-tijd/blauwe-verbinding/Bordner,A.S.,Ferguson,C.E.andOrtolano,L.(2020)“ColonialdynamicslimitclimateadaptationinOceania:PerspectivesfromtheMarshallIslands,”Globalenvironmentalchange:humanandpolicydimensions,61,p.102054.doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102054.Bos,J.J.andBrown,R.R.(2012)“Governanceexperimentationandfactorsofsuccessinsocio-technicaltransitionsintheurbanwatersector,”Technologicalforecastingandsocialchange,79(7),pp.1340–1353.doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2012.04.006.Boutwell,J.L.andWestra,J.V.(2016)“Theroleofwetlandsformitigatingeconomicdamagefromhurricanes,”JournaloftheAmericanWaterResourcesAssociation,52(6),pp.1472–1481.doi:10.1111/1752-1688.12473.References58Nature-basedsolutionstobuildclimateresilienceininformalareasStrategyPaperBridges,T.S.etal.(2015)Useofnaturalandnature-basedfeatures(NNBF)forcoastalresilience.USArmyEngineerResearchandDevelopmentCenter,EnvironmentalLaboratory.Availableat:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Burton-Suedel/publication/271763884_Use_of_Natural_and_Nature-Based_Features_NNBF_for_Coastal_Resilience/links/54d0de560cf29ca81103f45e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