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Global Climate

Litigation Report

2023 Status Review

Global Climate

Litigation Report

2023 Status Review

Global Climate Litigation Report: 2023 Status Review

ISBN: 978-92-807-4052-3

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GlobalClimateLitigationReport2023StatusReviewGlobalClimateLitigationReport2023StatusReviewGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReview©2023UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewISBN:978-92-807-4052-3Jobnumber:DEL/2550/NAThispublicationmaybereproducedinwholeorinpartandinanyformforeducationalornon-profitserviceswithoutspecialpermissionfromthecopyrightholder,providedacknowledgementofthesourceismade.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammewouldappreciatereceivingacopyofanypublicationthatusesthispublicationasasource.NouseofthispublicationmaybemadeforresaleoranyothercommercialpurposewhatsoeverwithoutpriorpermissioninwritingfromtheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.Applicationsforsuchpermission,withastatementofthepurposeandextentofthereproduction,shouldbeaddressedtounep-communication-director@un.org.DisclaimersThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofthematerialinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheSecretariatoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territoryorcityorareaoritsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.MentionofacommercialcompanyorproductinthisdocumentdoesnotimplyendorsementbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeortheauthors.Theuseofinformationfromthisdocumentforpublicityoradvertisingisnotpermitted.Trademarknamesandsymbolsareusedinaneditorialfashionwithnointentiononinfringementoftrademarkorcopyrightlaws.TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.Weregretanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenunwittinglymade.©Maps,photosandillustrationsasspecifiedSuggestedcitation:UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(2023).GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReview.Nairobi.Production:LawDivisionUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeP.O.Box30552,00100Nairobi,KenyaTel:+254207623365E-mail:unep-law-director@un.orgwww.unep.orgwww.unep.org/resources/report/global-climate-litigation-report-2023-status-reviewGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewAcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsThispublicationwasdevelopedbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)incooperationwiththeSabinCenterforClimateChangeLawatColumbiaUniversityinNewYorkCity,UnitedStatesofAmerica.ItwasresearchedanddraftedbyMichaelBurger,ExecutiveDirectoroftheSabinCenterforClimateChangeLawandSeniorResearchScholarandLecturer-in-LawatColumbiaLawSchool,andMariaAntoniaTigre,SeniorFellow,GlobalClimateChangeLitigationattheSabinCenterforClimateChangeLaw.AfinalcriticalreviewofthereportwasundertakenbystafffromtheUNEPLawDivision:PatriciaKameri-Mbote,Director;ArnoldKreilhuber,DeputyDirector;MariaSocorroManguiat,HeadoftheNationalEnvironmentalLawUnit;AndrewRaine,HeadoftheInternationalEnvironmentalLawUnit;Soo-YoungHwangandRenéeGift,LegalOfficers;andJacklineWanjiru,ProgrammeManagementOfficer,withsupportfromcolleagues:AphroditeSmagadiandAngelaKariuki,LegalOfficers;BenjaminOjoleck,LaisPaivaSiqueira,CatalinaPizarroandMarinaVenâncio,AssociateLegalOfficers;andTiffanyCollardandErickKhayota,internswiththeUNEPLawDivision.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewListofabbreviationsandacronymsListofabbreviationsandacronymsBNDESBrazilianNationalDevelopmentBankCJEUCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnionCO2CarbondioxideCSPPCorporateSectorPurchaseProgrammeECHREuropeanConventiononHumanRightsECtHREuropeanCourtofHumanRightsEIAEnvironmentalimpactassessmentEPAEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyGHG(s)Greenhousegas(es)HRCUnitedNationsHumanRightsCouncilIACHRInter-AmericanCommissionofHumanRightsIACtHRInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRightsICCInternationalCriminalCourtICSIDInternationalCentreforSettlementofInvestmentDisputesIPCCIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeISDSInvestor-StatedisputesettlementsITLOSInternationalTribunalfortheLawoftheSeaNDCNationallydeterminedcontributionNGONon-governmentalorganizationOECDOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentUNEPUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeUNFCCCUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewContentsPageVIIContentsAcknowledgementsVForewordIXExecutivesummaryXIIntroduction1Part1:Theimportanceofclimatechangelitigation5Part2:Overviewofglobalclimatelitigation9I.Methodology10II.Surveyofclimatechangelitigation13III.Regionalrepresentationofclimatechangelitigation15Part3:Thestateofclimatechangelitigation25I.Theuseof“climaterights”inclimatelitigation26A.Internationalclimaterightscases28i.CasesattheUnitedNations28ii.Regionalcases31a.CasesbeforetheInter-AmericanSystemofHumanRights31b.CasesbeforetheEastAfricanCourtofJustice32c.CasesbeforeEuropeanregionalcourts33B.Domesticclimaterightscases36i.Humanrights36ii.Therighttoahealthyenvironment38II.Domesticenforcementofinternationalclimatechangecommitments42III.Keepingfossilfuelsandcarbonsinksintheground44A.ConsistencywiththeParisAgreementornet-zerocommitments44B.Environmentalimpactassessmentrequirements47PageVIIIGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewListofabbreviationsandacronymsIV.Corporateliabilityandresponsibility50A.Corporatedutytomitigateemissions50B.Corporateliabilityforadaptation54C.Responsibilityoffinancialinstitutions54V.Climatedisclosuresandgreenwashing55A.Protectionofinvestors:climatedisclosures55B.Protectionofconsumers:greenwashingcomplaints57C.Protectionofconsumers:misrepresentationofproducts59VI.Failuretoadaptandimpactsofadaptation60Part4:Thestateofclimatechangelitigation–futuredirections61I.Updateon2020predictions:climatemigration63II.Updateon2020predictions:pre-andpost-disastercases64IV.Updateon2020predictions:increasedattentiontoclimateattribution65andfairshareassessmentsofmitigationV.Transnationalresponsibility(extraterritorialresponsibility)66VI.Casesbroughtbyvulnerablegroups68VII.Backlashcases70A.Investor-Statedisputesettlements70B.Justtransitioncases72C.Claimsagainstclimateactivists72Conclusion73References75Caselaw(referencedinReport)75Literature87GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewForewordPageIXForewordTheclimatecrisisisgettingworse,notbetter.Everyyear,theimpactsofclimatechangearegettingmoreintense.Everyyear,hundredsofmillionsofpeopleendureincreasinglyregularextremeweatherevents,takingawaylivelihoodsandlives.Everyyear,oureconomies–andinsomecases,entirecountries–begintoseetherealityofanuncertainfuture.AstheUnitedNationsSecretary-GeneralsummarizedtodelegatesgatheredinEgyptatthetwenty-seventhConferenceofthePartiestotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeinNovember2022,“Weareinthefightofourlives,andwearelosing.”Climatelitigationrepresentsafrontiersolutiontochangethedynamicsofthisfight.Asthisreportshows,peopleareincreasinglyturningtothecourtstocombattheclimatecrisis.Governmentsandprivatesectorentitiesarebeingincreasinglychallengedandheldtoaccount.Childrenandyouth,women’sgroups,localcommunitiesandIndigenousPeoples,amongothers,arealsotakingamoreprominentroleinbringingthesecasesanddrivingclimatechangegovernancereforminmoreandmorecountriesaroundtheworld.©Flickr/UNWomenThelegalgroundsforthesecasesarealsowidening.BoththeUnitedNationsHumanRightsCouncilandtheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyhavenowrecognizedtherighttoaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironment.Weareseeingnewclaimscentredaroundtheviolationoflegislationrelatedtonet-zerotargets,environmentalimpactassessments,advertisingstandards,andobligationsundertheParisAgreement.Climatelitigationhassetprecedentsforclimateactionallovertheglobe,goingbeyondthejurisdictionsinwhichtheywerebroughtandempoweringanddrivingsimilaractioninothercountries.Thisreportdemonstratestheimportanceofanenvironmentalruleoflawincombatingthetripleplanetarycrisesofclimatechange,biodiversitylossandpollution.Accesstojusticeenablestheprotectionofenvironmentallawandhumanrightsandpromotesaccountabilityinpublicinstitutions.Itisnotenoughthatwerecognizehumanrights,wemustmakeeveryefforttoprotectandupholdthemandenableindividualstoseekredresswheretheyareviolated.IwouldliketoacknowledgetheoutstandingsupportoftheSabinCenterforClimateChangeLawatColumbiaUniversity.OurcollaborationinproducingtheGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttheirdedicationandcommitment.PatriciaKameri-MboteDirectoroftheLawDivisionUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammePageXGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewForewordExecutivesummaryClimateambitionaroundtheworldremainsinadequatetomeetthechallengeofourclimatecrisis.Despiteimprovementincountries’mitigationandadaptationtargets,anddespitenumerouscorporatepledgestoachievenet-zeroemissionsinthefuture,theinternationalcommunityisstillalongwayfromachievingthegoalsandobjectivesoftheParisAgreement.Inresponse,individuals,childrenandyouth,womenandhumanrightsgroups,communities,Indigenousgroups,non-governmentalorganizations(NGOs),businessentities,andnationalandsubnationalgovernmentshaveturnedtocourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodies,includingspecialproceduresoftheUnitedNationsandarbitrationtribunals,seekingreliefthrough:(i)Theenforcementofexistingclimatelaws(ii)Integrationofclimateactionintoexistingenvironmental,energyandnaturalresourceslaws(iii)Orderstolegislators,policymakersandbusinessenterprisestobemoreambitiousandthoroughintheirapproachestoclimatechange(iv)Establishmentofcleardefinitionsofhumanrightsandobligationsaffectedbyclimatechange(v)CompensationforclimateharmsGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewExecutivesummaryPageXI©Flickr/UNWomenPageXIIGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewExecutivesummaryAsthesecasesbecomemorefrequentandnumerousoverall,thebodyoflegalprecedentgrows,forminganincreasinglywell-definedfieldoflaw.ThisGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReview,whichupdatespreviousUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammereportspublishedin2017and2020,providesanoverviewofthecurrentstateofclimatechangelitigationandanupdateofglobalclimatechangelitigationtrends.Itprovidesjudges,lawyers,advocates,policymakers,researchers,environmentaldefenders,climateactivists,humanrightsactivists(includingwomen’srightsactivists),NGOs,businessesandtheinternationalcommunitywithanessentialresourcetounderstandthecurrentstateofglobalclimatelitigation,includingdescriptionsofthekeyissuesthatcourtshavefacedinthecourseofclimatechangecases.Whilethelegalargumentsandtheadjudicativeforumsinwhichtheyarebroughtvarygreatly,climatechangecaseshavetypicallyaddressedsimilarkeylegalissues.Likethe2017and2020LitigationReports,thisreportsummarizesthoseissues,whichincludechallengestowhetherthecourthasthepowertoresolvethedispute,identifyingthesourceofanenforceableclimate-relatedrightorobligation,craftingaremedythatwilllessentheplaintiffs’injuries,and,importantly,marshallingthescienceofclimateattribution.Overthecourseofreportingontheseissues,itisclearthatpartiesareputtingforwardinnovativeargumentsonconnectionsbetweenaspecificgreenhousegasemitter’sactionsandglobalclimatechange,andhowforeseeableclimate-drivenimpactscanbelinkedtospecificharmssufferedbyplaintiffs..describestheimportanceofclimatechangelitigationthroughanoverviewoftheenvironmental,diplomaticandpoliticalcircumstancesthatmakeclimatechangelitigationeffortsespeciallyimportant.providesasurveyofthestateofclimatechangelitigationandadiscussionofevidentandemergingtrends.describesthetypesofclimatecasesthatsuggestwhereglobalclimatechangelitigationmaybeheadinginthecomingyears.providesanoverviewofglobalclimatelitigationthroughananalysisoftheoverallnumberofgatheredcasesandtheirgeographicdistribution.Asdescribedinmoredetailelsewhereinthisreport,thecasesanalysedherewerecollectedbytheSabinCenterforClimateChangeLawinitsClimateChangeLitigationdatabases.Part1Part3Part4Part2©Unsplash/MathiasRedingPageXIVGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewExecutivesummaryAsat31December2022,theSabinCenter’sClimateChangeLitigationdatabasesincluded2,180casesfiledin65jurisdictionsandinternationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodies,orotheradjudicatorybodies,includingspecialproceduresoftheUnitedNationsandarbitrationtribunals.Thisnumberincludes1,522casesintheUnitedStatesofAmericaand658casesinallotherjurisdictionscombined.Insummary,climatechangelitigationisincreasingandbroadeningingeographicalreach,whiletherangeoflegaltheoriesisexpanding.Ithasbecomeclear–andisnowrecognizedbytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange–thatinclusiveapproachestoclimatelitigationthatalsoaddressthehumanrightsofthemostvulnerablegroupsinsocietycancontributeinmeaningfulwaystocompelgovernmentsandcorporateactorstopursuemoreambitiousclimatechangemitigationandadaptationgoals.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewIntroductionPage1©Unsplash/MikaBaumeisterIntroductionPage2GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewIntroductionIntroductionTheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)publisheditsfirstsurveyofglobalclimatechangelitigationin2017(UNEP2017)1andthesecondinstalmentin2020(UNEP2020).2Thesereportsidentifiedkeydevelopments,profiledsignificantcases,describedthen-currentandemergingtrends,andoutlinedcriticallegalissuesinclimatechangecases.This2023LitigationReportrepresentsthethirdinstalmentoftheglobalsurveyonclimatelitigation.Itupdatesthestatusofcasesthatwerestillpendingwhentheywerefeaturedinthepreviousreports,followsuponkeytrendsthathavecontinuedininterveningyears,andoutlineslegalchanges,newtrendsandemergingissuesinclimatelitigation.1Throughoutthisreport,werefertothispreviousUNEPreportonclimatelitigationasthe“2017LitigationReport”.2Throughoutthisreport,werefertothispreviousUNEPreportonclimatelitigationasthe“2020LitigationReport”.Thereportanalysespendingcases,decisionsandtrendsinthe2020–2022period,aswellascasesaddedtotheClimateChangeLitigationdatabasebsmaintainedbytheSabinCenterforClimateChangeLaw(SabinCenter),aspartoftheSabinCenter’slaunchofthePeerReviewNetworkofGlobalClimateLitigation(“theNetwork”).Thepublicationalsobrieflyhighlightswomen’sroleinclimatechangelitigation.Thisplaceswomennotonlyasvictimsdisproportionatelysufferingtheimpactsofclimatechange,butalsoshowstheircontributionstowardsenvironmentaljusticeforeveryone’sbenefit.TheseinextricablelinkagesareimportanttotheachievementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsby2030,whichcallforgenderequalityandhumanrightsaskeyobjectives.Exceptwhereotherwisenoted,thisreportcontainsinformationcorrectasat31December2022.©Unsplash/VladTchompalovGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewIntroductionPage3Box1:Defining“climatechangelitigation”3ThisdefinitionguidesthecollectionofcasesincludedintheClimateChangeLitigationdatabases,whicharedevelopedandmaintainedbytheSabinCenterforClimateChangeLawatColumbiaLawSchool.SeealsoPart2.II.4PeelandLin(2019)notethatintheGlobalSouth,inparticular,casesarelesslikelytofitintothedefinitionofclimatechangelitigationusedhere.Onpages690and691,theyarguethatanalysesofclimatechangelitigationshouldincludemattersinwhichclimatechangeisaperipheralissuebecausethosecasesstill“makeanimportantcontributiontoclimategovernance”.Ontheotherhand,onpage695,theysimilarlyexcludematterswhereclimatechangeismentionedonlyincidentally.Thisreportfollowsthedefinitionof“climatechangelitigation”usedbytheSabinCenterinthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofitsClimateChangeLitigationdatabases.Underthisdefinition,climatechangelitigationincludescasesthatraisematerialissuesoflaworfactrelatingtoclimatechangemitigation,adaptationorthescienceofclimatechange(SabinCenterforClimateChangeLaw2022a).3Suchcasesarebroughtbeforearangeofadministrative,judicialandotheradjudicatorybodies.ThesecasesaretypicallyidentifiedbytheSabinCenterwithkeywordslike“climatechange”,“globalwarming”,“globalchange”,“greenhousegas”,“GHGs”and“sealevelrise”.Casesthatraiseissuesoflaworfactrelatedtoclimatechangebutdonotusethoseorotherspecifictermsarealsoincluded.Thisreportexcludescaseswherethediscussionofclimatechangeisincidental,orwhereanon-climatelegaltheorywouldguidethesubstantiveoutcomeofthecase.Thus,whenclimatechangekeywordsareonlyusedasapassingreferencetothefactofclimatechangeandthoseissuesarenotrelatedtothelaws,policiesoractionsactuallyatissue,thecaseisexcluded.Similarly,thisreportexcludescasesthatseektoaccomplishgoalsarguablyrelatedtoclimatechangeadaptationormitigation,buttheirresolutiondoesnotdependontheclimatechangedimensionsofthosegoals.Forexample,lawsuitsseekingtousehumanhealthregulationstolimitairpollutionfromcoal-firedpowerplantsmayincidentallycauseacourttocompelthatpowerplanttoemitalowerlevelofgreenhousegases(GHGs).Suchcasesarenotconsidered“climatechangelitigation”forthepurposesofthisstudy(PeelandLin2019).4©Unsplash/RaiSinghUriartePage4GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewIntroductionNotably,boththe2020and2023LitigationReportsconcludethatlitigationiscentraltoeffortstocompelgovernmentsandcorporateactorstoundertakemoreambitiousclimatechangemitigationandadaptationgoalsThisreportproceedsinfiveparts:Part1setsthestagebydescribingthegrowingurgencyoftheclimatecrisisandtherolethatclimatechangelitigationplaysinthedomainsofclimatelawandpolicy.Part2surveysthecurrentstatusofglobalclimatechangelitigation,drawnfromthecasesincludedintheSabinCenter’sClimateChangeLitigationdatabases.Thissectionprovidesabroadoverviewofthedataofglobalclimatelitigation,includingacomprehensiveregionalanalysis.Part3assessescurrenttrendsinclimatelitigation.Thosetrendsreflectcontinuedandincreasingnumbersofcasesfocusedononeormoreofthefollowing:(i)Theuseof“climaterights”inclimatelitigation(ii)Domesticenforcement(iii)Keepingfossilfuelsandcarbonsinksintheground(iv)Corporateliabilityandresponsibility(v)Climatedisclosuresandgreenwashing(vi)FailuretoadaptandtheimpactsofadaptationPart4reflectsthepredictionsforemergingtrends,includingafewupdatesfromthe2020LitigationReportandothersthatarefreshlyobserved.Notably,boththe2020and2023LitigationReportsconcludethatlitigationiscentraltoeffortstocompelgovernmentsandcorporateactorstoundertakemoreambitiousclimatechangemitigationandadaptationgoals,andlitigantsaroundtheworldcontinuetoexpandtherangeoftheoriesunderwhichdefendantsareobligatedtotakeclimate-relatedaction.Lastly,summariesofsignificantcasesappearthroughoutthisreport,providingcontextandexamplesofthoseissuesandthetrendstheycomprise.""GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart1Page5©Unsplash/NatvhanCimaPart1:TheimportanceofclimatechangelitigationPage6GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart1Part1:TheimportanceofclimatechangelitigationWhileGHGemissionstemporarilydroppedinthefirsthalfof2020duetotheCOVID-19pandemic,emissionsreboundedbytheendoftheyear(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange[IPCC]2022).In2021,globalenergy-relatedcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsroseby6percentabove2020levelsto36.3billiontons,theirhighestlevelever(InternationalEnergyAgency2022).Overall,CO2emissionsreboundedby4.8percentin2021,consuming8.7percentoftheremainingcarbonbudget(IPCC2018)5forlimitinganthropogenicwarmingto1.5°C(Liuetal.2022).5TotalcarbonbudgetisdefinedbytheIPCCas:“EstimatedcumulativenetglobalanthropogenicCO2emissionsfromagivenstartdatetothetimethatanthropogenicCO2emissionsreachnetzerothatwouldresult,atsomeprobability,inlimitingglobalwarmingtoagivenlevel,accountingfortheimpactofotheranthropogenicemissions.”6Thephrase“GlobalSouth”refersbroadlytotheregionsofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,Asia,AfricaandOceania,anddenotesregionsthataremostlylow-incomeandoftenpoliticallyorculturallymarginalized.However,itmustbenotedthattheGlobalSouthisnotahomogeneousgroupofcountries,andthatlegaldevelopmentandlegalcapacityvarybycountry.At1.1°C,globalwarmingisalreadycausingwidespreaddisruptionworldwide,includingdroughts,extremeheat,recordfloodsandstorms,foodinsecurity,wildfires,theharmingofspeciesandecosystemsaswellastheenablingofvector-bornediseasetransmission(IPCC2022).Scientistshavewarnedthateverytenthofadegreeofadditionalwarmingwillescalatethreatstopeople,speciesandecosystems(IPCC2022).Furthermore,theeffectsofclimatechangearedisproportionatelyfeltacrosstheglobeandbypopulationsinvulnerablesituations,causinggenderandincomeinequalitiesanddevelopmentchallenges,especiallyintheGlobalSouthandinsmallislanddevelopingStates.6IPCChasstatedthatclimatechangeunequivocallyendangersthewell-beingofpeopleandecosystems©Unsplash/LawrenceMakoonaGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart1Page7throughouttheglobe.Delayedclimateactionposesirreversiblerisks,withanarrowwindowofopportunitytorealizeasustainableandliveablefuture.Climatechangelitigationprovidescivilsociety,individualsandotherswithonepossibleavenuetoaddressinadequateresponsesbygovernmentsandtheprivatesectortotheclimatecrisis.Inthelead-uptothetwenty-seventhConferenceofthePartiestotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC),theUNFCCCsecretariatanalysedthenationallydeterminedcontributions(NDCs)of166countries,covering94.9percentofthetotalglobalemissionsin2019(UNFCCC2022a).Tokeepthelong-termtemperaturegoalsetoutinarticle2oftheParisAgreementandlimitglobaltemperatureriseto1.5°C,countriesneedtosignificantlycutglobalemissionsinhalfbytheendofthisdecade.However,theUNFCCCsecretariatestimatedthat,basedonthelatestNDCs,countrieswouldlikelyuseup89percentoftheremainingcarbonbudgetin2020–2030(UNFCCC2022a).Inits2022EmissionsGapReport,UNEPcalculatedthatrecentpledges“makeanegligibledifferencetopredicted2030emissions”andthatcurrentpoliciespointtoa2.8°Cwarmingbytheendofthecentury.Whilethattrajectoryisasignificantimprovementfromthepriorestimateofa4°Cwarmingscenario,itremainsfarbeyondthegoalssetforthundertheParisAgreement(UNEP2022).Atthesametime,inits2021ProductionGapReport,UNEPconcludedthatgovernmentsplantoproducemorethandoubletheamountoffossilfuelsin2030thanwouldbeconsistentwithlimitingglobalwarmingto1.5°C.TheGlasgowClimatePact(Decision1/CMA.3)hascalledoncountriesto“revisitandstrengthen”their2030targetsbytheendof2022toalignthemwiththeParisAgreement’stemperaturegoals(UNFCCC2022b).Italsoasksallcountriesthathavenotyetdonesotosubmitlong-termstrategiesto2050,aimingforajusttransitiontonet-zeroemissionsaroundmid-century.Climatechangelitigationprovidescivilsociety,individualsandotherswithonepossibleavenuetoaddressinadequateresponsesbygovernmentsandtheprivatesectortotheclimatecrisis.Inclimatecases,plaintiffs,petitioners,applicants,complainantsorcommunicants(referredthroughoutasplaintiffs),throughavarietyoflegalstrategiesinawiderangeofnationalandinternationaljurisdictions,oftenseektocompelmoreambitiousmitigationandadaptationgoalsfromthepublicandprivatesectors.However,plaintiffsalsosometimesseektochallengeclimateregulationsandreduceclimateambition.InitsSixthAssessmentReport,IPCCrecognized,forthefirsttime(withmediumconfidence),thatclimatelitigationhasinfluencedtheoutcomeandambitionofclimategovernance(Dubashetal.2022).IPCCalsoidentifiedclimatelitigationasanimportantavenueforactorstoinfluenceclimatepolicyoutsideoftheformalUNFCCCprocesses(Dubashetal.2022).Inaddition,successfulcasesbroughtbyplaintiffshavemotivatedthefilingofsimilarclaimsinotherjurisdictions.Forexample,thedecisioninUrgendaFoundationv.StateoftheNetherlands,thefirsttimeinwhichacourtfoundagovernmenttoberesponsibleformitigatingGHGemissions,hasbroughtawaveofambitioncasesinothercountries,mostofwhichspecificallymentionthedecision""Page8GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart1despiteitnotbeinganauthoritativesourceoflawbeyondtheNetherlands(SupremeCourtoftheNetherlands2019).7Withincreasedscientificresearchonclimatescienceandattribution,andwithnovellegaltheoriesbeingexploredunderinternationalanddomesticclimatelaw,climatelitigationcontinuestoexpandinscope.Additionally,itisworthnotingtheenergycrisisthatresultedfromtheaggressionbytheRussianFederationagainstUkraine.Inafewinstances,governments’planstorearrangetheirenergysuppliesawayfromfossilfuelswereadaptedtothesecircumstances,furtherjeopardizingtheachievementofthegoalsoftheParisAgreement(ClimateActionTracker2022).Withgasproductionandinfrastructureexpansionplannedtorespondtotheenergycrisisworldwide,climatelitigationmayarisetoavoidfurtherdelaysintheenergytransition.7UrgendaFoundationv.StateoftheNetherlands,SupremeCourtoftheNetherlands,CaseNo.19/00135,20December2019(Netherlands).Fortheimportanceofthecase,seethe2020LitigationReport,pages13and15.©Unsplash/MarkusSpiskeGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page9©Flickr/U.S.DepartmentofAgriculturePart2:OverviewofglobalclimatelitigationPage10GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Part2:OverviewofglobalclimatelitigationPart2surveysthecurrentstatusofglobalclimatechangelitigation,drawnfromthecasesincludedintheSabinCenter’sClimateChangeLitigationdatabases.Unlessotherwisenoted,thecasesfeaturedinthis2023LitigationReportwereupdateduntilDecember2022andwerependingdeterminationbytheforumsinwhichtheywerebrought.I.MethodologyThisreportadoptsthenarrowapproachtodefiningclimatechangelitigationusedbytheSabinCenterinidentifyingcasesforinclusioninitsClimateChangeLitigationdatabases(seeBox1:Definingclimatechangelitigation)(SabinCenter2022a).Underthisdefinition,climatechangelitigationincludescasesbeforejudicialandquasi-judicialbodiesthatinvolvematerialissuesofclimatechangescience,policyorlaw.Thus,casesmustsatisfytwokeycriteriaforinclusion.First,casesmustgenerallybebroughtbeforejudicialbodies,thoughinsomeexemplaryinstancesmattersbroughtbeforeadministrativeorinvestigatorybodiesarealsoincluded.Second,climatechangelaw,policyorsciencemustbeamaterialissueoflaworfactinthecase.Casesthatmakeonlyapassingreferencetoclimatechangebutdonotaddressclimate-relevantlaws,policiesoractionsinameaningfulwayareomitted.Ingeneral,casesthatmaydirectlyimpactclimatechangemitigationandadaptationstrategies,butdonotexplicitlyraiseclimateissues,arealsonotincluded.Thedatabasesandthisreportrefertointernationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodiesinadditiontospecificjurisdictions.TheseincludecomplaintssubmittedtospecialproceduresoftheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCouncil(HRC),theUnitedNationsSecretary-General,UNFCCCandotherUnitedNationsbodies©Unsplash/JoelDeVriendGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page11(includingtheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommitteeandtheUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild),arbitrationtribunals(InternationalCentreforSettlementofInvestmentDisputes[ICSID],StockholmChamberofCommerceandthePermanentCourtofArbitration),andcomplaintsbeforetheOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD).AspartofitscontinualefforttoupdateandmaintaintheGlobalClimateChangeLitigationDatabase,theSabinCenterlaunchedtheNetworkinDecember2021.Asat31December2022,theNetworkincludes113practitionersandscholarswhoactas“nationalrapporteurs”for107jurisdictionsorinternationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodies(SabinCenter2022b).Inaddition,severalresearchersandacademicinstitutionshaveestablishednationalorregionalclimatelitigationdatabases,includinginLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(Tigre,OrtúzarandDávalos2022),Brazil(JusClima20302022;JUMA2022),Australia(UniversityofMelbourne2022),andSoutheastAsia(Litigasia2022).Whilethedefinitionsofrelevantlitigationandthemethodologiesforcasecollectiondifferamongthedatabases,theSabin8TheSabinCenterhaspartneredwiththeInteramericanAssociationforEnvironmentalDefenseforrights-basedcasesinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,aswellaswithnationaldatabasesinBrazilandAustralia.CenterhaspartneredwithsomeofthemtoshareinformationaboutcasesusingtheSabinCenter’sdefinitionwhereapplicable.8Unlessotherwisenoted,caseswereupdateduntil31December2022.Thisreportdealswithafast-movingfieldandthesubjectmattermaybecomequicklyoutdated.Readersareadvisedtocheckthemainsourcescitedforupdatesandnewmaterials.However,UNEPconsidersthefundamentalsofclimatechangelitigationasdiscussedinthisreporttobemoredurableandlikelytoremainrelevantintheimmediatefuture.Thisreportadoptsaqualitativeapproachtosurveyingglobalclimatelitigation,informedbyquantitativeinformationwhererelevant.Inidentifyingtrendsandcasesassignificant,thereportconsidersthepotentialimpactofthelitigationwithinajurisdictionandbeyondthecaseitself,thenoveltyandcomplexityofthelegaltheoriesandissuesinvolved,andthelikelihoodofthelitigationinfluencingfuturecasesandclimatepolicy.©Unsplash/LucaNardPage12GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart22,1801,550884TotalnumberofclimatechangecasesNumberofcasesfiledinalljurisdictionsotherthantheUnitedStatesofAmerica24Numberofjurisdictionsrepresented(includinginternationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicialbodies)NumberofcasesfiledintheUnitedStatesofAmerica201765420201,2001,52220222017Legend:6539GrowthofclimatelitigationasrepresentedinUNEP’s2017,2020and2023LitigationReports230350658Coveringcumulativecasesuntil:March201720202022July2020December20229Figure1.9AsaresultoftheNetwork,thenumberofcasesintheSabinCenter’sdatabaseshaveincreasedsubstantially.Theseincludecasesfiledbefore2020aswellasnewcasesfiledin2021and2022.AllcasesaddedtothedatabaseasaresultoftheNetwork’scontributionsareincludedinthisreport,includingthosefiledbeforethepublicationofthe2020LitigationReport.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page13II.Surveyofclimatechangelitigation10Thejurisdictionsinwhichclimatechangecaseswereidentifiedinthedatabaseforthefirsttimesincethepublicationofthe2020LitigationReportare:China,CzechRepublic,Guyana,Estonia,Finland,PapuaNewGuinea,RepublicofKorea,RussianFederation,Türkiye,theEastAfricanCourtofJusticeandtheInternationalTribunalfortheLawoftheSeas.Climatelitigationisagrowingfield,andboththenumberofcasesfiledandthenumberofjurisdictionswithinwhichtheyhavebeenbroughthaveincreasedinrecentyears.The2020LitigationReportidentified1,550casesbroughtin39jurisdictions,includinginternationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodies,suchasspecialproceduresofHRC,arbitrationtribunals,internationaladjudicatorybodiesandtheEuropeanUnion.Theseinclude1,200casesintheUnitedStatesofAmericaand350casesinallotherjurisdictionscombined.Asat31December2022,thecumulativenumberofcasestrackedintheSabinCenter’sdatabaseshasincreased,with2,180climatechangecasesfiledin65jurisdictions.10Thisnumberincludes1,522casesintheUnitedStatesofAmericaand658casesinallotherjurisdictionscombined.Figure1comparesthenumbersofcasesandjurisdictionscoveredinthethreeinstalmentsofthelitigationreports.©Flickr/UNEPPage14GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2AsFigure1shows,theoverallnumberofclimatelitigationcaseshasgrownsince2017,andthecumulativenumberofcasesisnow2.5timeshigherthanfiveyearsago.Figure2providesavisualrepresentationofhowclimatelitigationcasesworldwidearesteadilyincreasing.Theincreaseinthenumberofcasessincethe2020reportrelatesnotonlytocasesfiledintheperiodcoveredinthisreport(July2020toDecember2022)butalso,asdetailedinPart4,oldercasesrecentlyaddedtothedatabasesaspartofthecreationoftheNetwork.11ForthecountrieswheretheSabinCenter’sNetworkdoesnotyethaverapporteurs,theSabinCenterreliesonothersourcesofdata,includingcasesmentionedinthemediaandinscholarship,amongothers.Still,therearecountriesinwhichthereisstilllimitedinformationabouttheextentofclimatelitigation.Therefore,itislikelythatmorecasesinjurisdictionsnotyetrepresentedwillbebroughttolightinthenearfuture.TheresearchconductedbytheSabinCenteronthedatabasesisanongoingprocess.Whilethisresearchhassignificantlyexpandedingeographicalscope,itscoverageofjurisdictionsisnotyetuniversal.11Growthofclimatechangelitigationasrepresentedinthe2017,2020and2023LitigationReportsLegend:05001000150020002500202220202017TotalcasesUSARestoftheworldFigure2.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page15Figure3showstheincreaseinthegeographicrepresentationcoveredinthethreeinstalmentsofthereport.The2017LitigationReportincludedcasesfrom24jurisdictionsandthe2020reportfrom39jurisdictions.This2023reportincludescasesfrom65jurisdictions.Theseincludeinternationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodies.Thisproliferationshowsthatclimatelitigationisexpandingitsregionalreach,withcasesintheGlobalSouthparticularlygainingnewvisibility.III.RegionalrepresentationofclimatechangelitigationAsat31December2022,theSabinCenter’sClimateChangeLitigationdatabasesinclude1,522casesfiledintheUnitedStatesofAmericaand658filedinallotherjurisdictionscombined,includinginternationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodies,suchasspecialproceduresofHRC,arbitrationtribunalsandtheEuropeanUnion.Figure4(overleaf)showsthenumberofcasesperjurisdiction.Numberofjurisdictionscoveredinthedatabasesasrepresentedinthe2017,2020and2023LitigationReports65in202239in202024in2017Legend:202220202017Figure3.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page17Page16GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2127casesinAustralia22casesinFrance18casesinMexico17casesinSpain12casesinIndonesia79casesintheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland38casesinGermany62casesintheEuropeanUnion34casesinCanada30casesinBrazil26casesinNewZealand12casesintheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightscasesinIndia11casesintheUNFCCC1199910casesinArgentinacasesinColombiacasesinPolandcasesinSouthAfricacasesinICSID9casesinChile72casesinChina2casesinDenmark2casesinKenya2casesinNigeria2casesinNorway2casesinSweden2casesinTürkiye2casesinUganda2casesintheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommittee2casesintheInternationalCourtofJustice2casesinUkraine1caseintheEastAfricanCourtofJustice1caseintheEuropeanCommitteeofSocialRights1caseintheInternationalCriminalCourt1caseintheInternationalTribunalfortheLawoftheSea1caseintheUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild1casesubmittedtothespecialproceduresoftheUnitedNationsSecretary-General1caseinEstonia1caseinFinland1caseinLuxembourg1caseinNepal1caseinPapuaNewGuinea1caseinPeru1caseintheRussianFederation1caseinThailand1caseinSloveniacasesinPakistancasesinBelgiumcasesinJapancasesintheInter-AmericanSystemofHumanRightscasesinIrelandcasesinItalycasesintheNetherlands7665554Cumulativenumberofcasesbyjurisdiction(includingallcasesintheSabinCenter'sdatabasesasat31December2022)Figure4.1,522casesintheUnitedStatesofAmerica(~70%)3casesinEcuador3casesinAustria3casesintheCzechRepublic3casesinGuyana3casesinthePhilippines3casesintheRepublicofKorea3casesinSwitzerland3casesintheStockholmChamberofCommerce3casessubmittedtotheUnitedNationsspecialprocedures(SpecialRapporteurs)3casesintheWorldTradeOrganizationDisputeSettlementBodyNote:UNFCCCcasesrefertonon-complianceproceduresunderUNFCCC.1caseinthePermanentCourtofArbitrationPage18GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Figure5showsthe10jurisdictions,excludingtheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheEuropeanUnion,withthehighestnumberofcases,whichare(indescendingorder)Australia,theUnitedKingdom,Canada,Brazil,NewZealand,Germany,France,Spain,MexicoandIndia.12WhilecasesintheUnitedStatesofAmericastillrepresentanoverwhelmingmajorityofcasesglobally,theoverallpercentageofcasesoutsidetheUnitedStatesofAmericaisincreasing.Inthe2017Litigation12Thelikelihoodthatclimatelitigationwillbefiledinaparticularcountrydependsonarangeoffactorsthatincludethecountry’slegalculture,whetherunsuccessfulplaintiffsmustpaythedefendants’costs,thedegreeoffrustrationovergovernments’actionsorinactionsonclimatechange,howfrequent,extensive,anddamagingclimate-drivenphysicallossesarebecoming,andtheexistenceofregulatoryframeworksandjudicialprecedentthatestablishenforceableclimate-relatedrightsandobligations.Report,casesintheUnitedStatesofAmericarepresented74percentofthetotal.In2020,itwas77percentandin2022,itwas70percent.Figure6illustratesthat,excludingcasesintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,Europeasaregionhasthehighestpercentageofcaseswith31.2percent.Oceaniarepresents23.2percentofthecases.Internationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodiesrepresent19.2percentoftheglobalcases.SouthAmericahas9.5percentTop10jurisdictionswiththehighestnumberofcumulativecases(excludingtheUnitedStatesofAmericaandEuropeanUnion)0306090150120MexicoSpainIndonesiaFranceNewZealandBrazilCanadaGermanyUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandAustraliaFigure5.127793834302622181712GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page19Globaldistributionofallcasesaccordingtogeographicalrepresentation(excludingcasesintheUnitedStatesofAmerica)through31December2022Internationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodiesAfricaAsiaNorthAmericaInternationalandregionalSouthAmericaOceaniaEurope2.3%31.2%23.2%19.2%9.5%7.9%6.6%Figure6.(GlobalChangeDataLab2015)Note:ThisfigurehasbeendevelopedusingtheregionaldefinitionsascontainedinOurWorldinData.Thecategory“Internationalandregional”,asnotedelsewhereinthisreport,referstocasesbroughtbeforeinternationalorregionalcourts,tribunals,quasi-judicialbodiesorotheradjudicatorybodies.Page20GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2ofthecaseswhileNorthAmericahas7.9percent.ThereiscurrentlynodomesticclimatelitigationintheCaribbean.AsiaandAfricastillhavethelowestrepresentationwith6.6percentand2.3percentrespectively.Asnotedintheintroduction,someregionsremainunderrepresentedduetogapsinthecurrentresearch.AstheSabinCenter’sNetworkdevelops,itislikelythatthesenumberswillchange.LitigationintheGlobalSouthrepresentsasmallbutgrowingpercentageofglobalclimatelitigation,andthesecasesareanalysedherealongwithcasesfromtheGlobalNorth.WhilethedefinitionofGlobalSouthremainscontested,thetermiswidelyusedinthecontextofmultilateraldebateaboutthetransformationoftheglobalorder,especiallyinreferencetoemergingeconomies(GrayandGills2016).AccordingtotheClimateChangeLitigationdatabases,therehavebeen114casesintheGlobalSouth,421intheGlobalNorth(or1,943casesincludingtheUnitedStatesofAmerica)and127ininternationalandregionalcourts,tribunalsandadjudicatorybodies(whichcanincludeplaintiffsfromtheGlobalNorthandGlobalSouth).AsdepictedinFigure7,ifconsideringthecasesintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,casesintheGlobalNorthrepresent89percentofthetotalnumberofclimatelitigationcases.CasesintheGlobalSouthamountto5.2percentwhileinternationalandregionalcasesamountto5.8percent.AsshowninFigure8,excludingtheUnitedStatescasesfromthenumberofcasesintheGlobalNorth,thepercentageshareofcasesintheGlobalSouthaccountsfor17.2percentofcases.©Pexels/BrettSaylesGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page21Cumulativepercentageofcasesaccordingtogeographicalrepresentation(casesintheGlobalSouthversuscasesintheGlobalNorthincludingcasesfromtheUnitedStatesofAmerica)through31December2022Cumulativepercentageofcasesaccordingtogeographicalrepresentation(casesintheGlobalSouthversuscasesintheGlobalNorthexcludingtheUnitedStatesofAmerica)through31December202289%5.8%5.2%19.2%17.2%63.6%Legend:InternationalandregionaljurisdictionsGlobalSouthGlobalNorthFigure7.Figure8.Page22GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Box2:ChangesinthedatasetsincethelaunchofthePeerReviewNetworkofGlobalClimateLitigationSincethelaunchoftheNetworkin2021,theSabinCenterhasadded58casestothedatabasewhichwerefiledpriortothepublicationofthe2020statusreport.Asthesecaseswereaddedtothedatabaseafterthe2020LitigationReportwaspublished,theywerenotanalysedinthatreport.Thesecasesareincludedintheanalysisofthepresentreportandrepresentanongoingefforttofillthegapsinthegeographicrepresentationinthedatabase.Ofthese,asFigure9shows,18casescomefromAsia,13fromEurope,12fromSouthAmerica,6fromNorthAmerica,2fromAfrica,2fromOceania,and5frominternationalandregionalcourts,tribunalsandadjudicatorybodies.Regionaldistributionofpre-2020backlogcases138.6%InternationalandRegional3.4%Africa31.0%Asia3.4%Oceania22.4%Europe20.7%SouthAmerica10.3%NorthAmericaFigure9.Casesidentifiedherehavebeenfiledbetween2009and1July2020,thecut-offdateforcasesexaminedinthe2020LitigationReport.Thisboxsummarizessomehighlightsthatrelatetothisdatasetspecifically.Theanalysisisdividedbygeographicalregionratherthanbytopic,asistherestofthereport,toshowtheexpansioninthedatabase’sgeographicalcoverage.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Page23Asignificantproportionofpre-2020casesfromAsiawerechallengesbroughtbytheGovernmentofIndonesiaagainstpalmoil,miningandloggingcompaniesforthedestructionofpeatlandecosystems.Inparticular,sixcasesfiledbetween2012to2019establishtheIndonesianGovernment’srighttosuepalmoilproducersforGHGemissionsandlossofcarbonsinksfrompeatlanddestruction,aswellastheactualcosttorestoretheecosystemtoitsoriginalstate(MinisterofEnvironmentv.PTKalistaAlam2017;MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTJatimJayaPerkasa2018;MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTPalminaUtama2018;MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTArjunaUtamaSawit2020;MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTAsiaPalemLestari2021;MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTRambangAgroJaya2021).13Inthesecases,climatedamagesarisingfromGHGemissionswerecalculatedbyassigninganumericalvaluetothecostofemittingaunitofcarbon,thencalculatingtheunitsofcarbonemittedbyacorporation'sactions.InShresthav.OfficeofthePrimeMinisteretal.(2018)Nepal’sSupremeCourtruledthatclimatechangeimpairedthepetitioner’sconstitutionalrightstoacleanandhealthyenvironmentandadignifiedlifeandorderedtheGovernmenttoenactanewclimatelaw.14Pre-2020casesfromSouthAmericafocusedlargelyontheglobalandlocalcostsofresourceextraction.InEcuador,in2020,gasflaringwasdeclaredunlawfulbecauseitviolatesEcuadorians’rightstoahealthyenvironmentandhealthaswellasEcuador’sinternationalclimatecommitments(HerreraCarrionetal.v.MinistryoftheEnvironmentetal.[CasoMecheros]2021).15InColombia,in2016,theConstitutionalCourtruledthat:(i)TheColombianGovernment’sfailuretoprotectIndigenousandAfro-descendentcommunitiesfromriverpollutionfromminingviolatedtheirfundamentalrights(ii)Theriverinquestionhadlegalpersonhood(iii)TheGovernmentneededtoconsiderclimatechangeinfutureminingandenergypolicydecisions(AtratoRiverDecisionT-622/162016)16In2017,thatsamecourtruledthatdivertingariverforminingviolatedtheWayúuIndigenouscommunity’srighttowater,healthandfoodsovereignty,inpartbecauseclimatechangehadalreadyimpactedtheriver’swatersupply,andconductingminingactivitiesinaclimate-vulnerableregionwaslikelytocausesignificantharm.Thecourtorderedtheminingcompanytopaycompensationandbeginmitigationandcorrectionefforts(DecisionSU-698/172017).17In2020,theColombianGovernment’sissuingofminingpermitswasdeclaredimpermissiblewhenclimatechangealreadythreatenedecosystemhealthandwatersecurity.TheConstitutionalCourtorderedtheminingactivitiestobehaltedimmediately(CombeimaRiverCase2020).1813MinisterofEnvironmentv.PTKalistaAlam,SupremeCourtoftheRepublicofIndonesia,DecisionNo.12/PDT.G/2012/PN.MBO,18April2017(Indonesia).MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTJatimJayaPerkasa,SupremeCourtoftheRepublicofIndonesia,DecisionNo.108/Pdt.G/2015/PN.Jkt.Utr.,28June2018(Indonesia).MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTPalminaUtama,BanjarmasinCourtofAppeal,DecisionNo.48/PDT/2018/PT.BJM,15August2018(Indonesia).MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTArjunaUtamaSawit,SupremeCourtoftheRepublicofIndonesia,DecisionNo.213/Pdt.G/LH/2018/PN.Plk,10December2020(Indonesia).MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTAsiaPalemLestari,DistrictCourtofNorthJakarta,DecisionNo.607/Pdt.G-LH/2019/PN.Jkt.Utr,5January2021(Indonesia).MinistryofEnvironmentandForestryv.PTRambangAgroJaya,DistrictCourtofCentralJakarta,DecisionNo.445/Pdt.G/2019/PN.Jkt.Pst,11January2021(Indonesia).14Shresthav.OfficeofthePrimeMinisteretal.,SupremeCourtofNepal,Order074-WO-0283,25December2018(Nepal).15HerreraCarrionetal.v.MinistryoftheEnvironmentetal.(CasoMecheros),ProvincialCourtofJusticeofSucumbío,JuicioNo.21201202000170,29July2021(Ecuador).16AtratoRiverDecisionT-622/16,ConstitutionalCourtofColombia,10November2016(Colombia).17DecisionSU-698/17,ConstitutionalCourtofColombia,28November2017(Colombia).18CombeimaRiverCase,AdministrativeTribunalsofColombia,73001-2331-000-2011-00611-03,14September2020.Page24GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart2Casespre-2020fromNorthAmericafocusedlargelyonthenationalenergysectorandclimatechangepolicy.InCanada,anNGOchallengedtheCanadianGovernment’sapprovalofanewliquefiednaturalgasfacilitybecause(amongotherthings)theinitialenvironmentalimpactassessment(EIA)didnotconsiderGHGemissionsfortheentirelifetimeofthefacility(SkeenaWildConservationTrustv.GovernmentofCanada2019).19Thatcasewaswithdrawnaftertheprojectinvestorwalkedawayfromtheproject.Casespre-2020fromEuropeincludedcitizenandNGOchallengestoinactiononParisAgreementcommitments.InFranceandtheUnitedKingdom,climateactivistsfacedcriminalchargesforactionstakenduringclimateprotests(R.v.Brown[ExtinctionRebellionprotest,LondonCityAirport]2022).20InADPGroup(ParisAirports)v.ClimateActivists(2021),activistswhoillegallyenteredthetarmacatParisCharlesdeGaulleAirportandhaltedairportoperationswereacquittedbecausetheiractionsweretakenina“stateofnecessity”towarnoffuturedanger,namelyclimatechange.21CasesfrominternationalandregionalbodiesincludedchallengestotheEuropeanUnion’senvironmentallegislationbyimpactedpartiesinSoutheastAsia.Twopre-2020casescurrentlybeforetheWorldTradeOrganizationDisputeSettlementBodyhavechallengedEuropeanUnionregulationson“high-risk”biofuelsonthebasisthattheyunnecessarilyadvantageintra-EuropeanUnionproducersanddisadvantageIndonesianandMalaysianpalmoilproducers,inviolationofinternationaltradeagreements(DS-593:EuropeanUnion–CertainMeasuresConcerningPalmOilandOilPalmCrop-basedBiofuels2019;DS-600:EuropeanUnionandCertainMemberStates–CertainMeasuresConcerningPalmOilandOilPalmCrop-BasedBiofuels2021).22ThemeasurestakenbytheEuropeanUnionwereimplementedtopursuepolicyobjectivesofclimatechangemitigation,environmentalprotection,preservingbiodiversityandensuringenergysecurityandsustainability.ThetwocasesfromOceaniabothoriginatedinNewZealand.Onecasedidnotallowtheurgencyoftheclimatecrisisasadefencetocriminalliabilitywhenlawfulprotestactivitieswereavailabletoclimateactivists(Policev.Hanafin2020).23Anothercasechallengedalocalgovernment’sdecisionnottosigna“LocalLeadersClimateChangeDeclaration”,anagreementtotakeaggressiveclimatechangeactionandcompelthenationalGovernmenttodothesame.TheHighCourtofNewZealandruledthatthelocalgovernment’sdecisionnottosignthepledgewasunreasonableinlightofthelocalimpactsofclimatechangeandorderedthegovernmenttoreconsideritsdecision(HaurakiCoromandelClimateActionIncorporatedv.Thames-CoromandelDistrictCouncil2020).24InSouthAfrica,theHighCourtrejectedacasebytheCityofCapeTownseekingauthorizationtopurchaserenewableelectricityfromindependentpowerproducerswithoutobtainingapprovalfromtheMinisterofMineralResourcesandEnergy.Thatcasewasrejectedbecauseitwasdeterminedtobeanintergovernmentaldisputethatshouldbesettledoutsideofcourt(TheCityofCapeTownv.NationalEnergyRegulatorofSouthAfricaandMinisterofEnergy2020).2519SkeenaWildConservationTrustv.GovernmentofCanada,FederalCourtofCanada,ApplicationNo.T-1836-16,27October2016(Canada).20R.v.Brown(ExtinctionRebellionprotest,LondonCityAirport),CourtofAppeal(CriminalDivision)ofEnglandandWales,CaseNo.[2022]EWCACrim6,14January2022(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).21ADPGroup(ParisAirports)v.ClimateActivists,CourtofFirstInstanceofBobigny,TribunalCorrectional,12November2021(France).22DS-593:EuropeanUnion–CertainMeasuresConcerningPalmOilandOilPalmCrop-basedBiofuels,WorldTradeOrganizationDisputeSettlementBody,Doc.No.WT/DS593/1,9December2019(WorldTradeOrganization).DS-600:EuropeanUnionandCertainMemberStates–CertainMeasuresConcerningPalmOilandOilPalmCrop-BasedBiofuels,WorldTradeOrganizationDisputeSettlementBody,Doc.No.WT/DS600/1,15January2021(WorldTradeOrganization).23Policev.Hanafin,DistrictCourtofNewZealand,DecisionNo.CRI-2019-076-001503,13November2020(NewZealand).24HaurakiCoromandelClimateActionIncorporatedv.Thames-CoromandelDistrictCouncil,HighCourtofNewZealand,CaseNo.CIV-2019-419-173,NZHC3228,8December2020(NewZealand).25TheCityofCapeTownv.NationalEnergyRegulatorofSouthAfricaandMinisterofEnergy,HighCourtofSouthAfrica,CaseNo.51765/17,11August2020(SouthAfrica).GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page25©Flickr/UNEPPart3:ThestateofclimatechangelitigationPage26GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Part3:Thestateofclimatechangelitigation1AstheanalysisinthisPart3indicates,severalcasesdemonstratefeaturesofmorethanonetrendandthusappearinmultiplesections.Thissectiondescribesandsummarizesthestatusofclimatechangelitigationthroughouttheworld.Itdiscusseskeycasesandhowtheyarethematicallylinkedtolargercategoriesofclimatecases.Itidentifiessiximportantcategoriesintowhichmostcasescanbeplacedanddiscussesissuesthatbothariseinandrunthroughthesecases.Climatecasestodateoftenfallintooneormoreofsixcategories:(i)Theuseof“climaterights”inclimatelitigation(ii)Domesticenforcement(iii)Keepingfossilfuelsandcarbonsinksintheground(iv)Corporateliabilityandresponsibility(v)Climatedisclosuresandgreenwashing(vi)Failuretoadaptandtheimpactsofadaptation1I.Theuseof“climaterights”inclimatelitigationOneofthemostvisiblecategoriesofclimatecasesincludesactionsassertingthatinsufficientclimatemitigationoradaptationviolatesplaintiffs’rights,includingtherightstolife,health,food,water,liberty,familylife,ahealthyenvironment,asafeclimateandmore.Here,thiscategoryisreferredtoas“climaterights”.Climaterightsencompassthewaysinwhichnationalconstitution,humanrightslawandotherlawsingeneral,imbueindividualsandcommunitieswithrightstoclimatemitigationandadaptationaction.Itreferstobothinternationalanddomesticcommitmentsmadetoensurethatpeoplewillenjoy©Flickr/RooseveltSkerritGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page27asafeandstableclimateaswellasotherrightsthatdonotexplicitlyfocusonclimatebuthaveanimpactinaddressingclimatechange.Theserightsarevariouslyknownashumanrights,environmentalrightsandhumanrightsobligationsrelatedtotheenvironment.Aswomenaredisproportionatelyimpactedbyclimatechange,women’srightsremainakeycategoryofhumanrightsthatdirectlyfulfilsSustainableDevelopmentGoal5ongenderequalityandtheempowermentofwomen.Obligationspertainingtoclimaterightsfallintothreemaincategories:substantiveobligations,proceduralobligations,andobligationsrelatingtopersonsandgroupsinvulnerablesituations(UnitedNations2022).Casesbroughtindomesticforumshavearguedthatclimaterightsemergefromexistingconstitutionalandfundamentalrightsunderdomesticlaw,andoftenrelatetointernationalobligationsundertheParisAgreement.Casesbroughtindomesticforumshavearguedthatclimaterightsemergefromexistingconstitutionalandfundamentalrightsunderdomesticlaw,andoftenrelatetointernationalobligationsundertheParisAgreement.The2017and2020LitigationReportshighlightedclimaterightscasesinAustria,Australia,Brazil,Canada,Colombia,India,Netherlands,Norway,Pakistan,Peru,Philippines,theRepublicofKorea,SwitzerlandandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Severalofthesecasesarestillpendingasat31December2022.However,manycasesarestillnotbroughttotheforefrontasfinancialchallenges,intimidation,lackofknow-howandotherbarriersremaininplace.ThesebarriersareespeciallyharmfulforvulnerablegroupsincludingIndigenousPeoples,womenandthosefromalowersocioeconomicstatus,themajorityofwhomarewomen.The2020LitigationReportalsohighlightedagroupofcasesininternationalforumsassertingthatclimatechangeviolatesinternationalhumanrights.Since2020,moreclaimshavebeenbroughtanddecisionshavebeenreachedinseveralinstances.Thissectionisdividedbetweeninternationalanddomesticclimaterightscases.""©Unsplash/AdityaJoshiPage28GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3A.InternationalclimaterightscasesThenumberofclimaterightsclaimsbeforeanddecisionsbyinternationaladjudicativebodieshasbeengrowing.Whilestillasmallpercentageofcases,theseclaimsbuildonabodyofsoftlaw,includingstatementsfromtheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights(IACtHR),HRCandtheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.InOctober2021,HRCadoptedahistoricresolution(A/HRC/RES/48/13)recognizingthehumanrighttoaclean,healthyandsustainableenvironment.HRCrecognizedthatclimatechange,theenvironmentalcrisisandbiodiversitylosshavenegativeimpactsontheenjoymentofallhumanrights,“includingtherightstolife,totheenjoymentofthehighestattainablestandardofphysicalandmentalhealth,toanadequatestandardofliving,toadequatefood,tohousing,tosafedrinkingwaterandsanitationandtoparticipationinculturallife,forpresentandfuturegenerations”.InJuly2022,MemberStatesoftheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyadoptedalandmarkresolution(A/RES/76/300)thatrecognizesthataclean,healthyandsustainableenvironmentisahumanright.Whiletheresolutionisnotlegallybinding,itcangiverisetoconstitutionalandlegalchangesthatcouldpositivelyimpacttheenvironmentandhumanwell-being.Recognizingtherighttoahealthyenvironmentattheinternationallevelislikelytoreinforcerights-basedclaimsbeforeadjudicatorybodies.Similardevelopmentsontherecognitionofarighttoahealthyenvironmentarealsotakingplaceattheregionallevel.Forexample,theParliamentaryAssemblyoftheCouncilofEuropehaspresentedadraftofanadditionalprotocoltotheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights(ECHR)whichwouldanchortherighttoasafe,clean,healthyandsustainableenvironmentandmakesucharightenforceableinlawinallcountrieswhichratifiedit(UnitedNations2021).2Sacchi,etal.v.Argentina,etal.,UnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,CommunicationNo.104/2019(Argentina),CommunicationNo.105/2019(Brazil),CommunicationNo.106/2019(France),CommunicationNo.107/2019(Germany),CommunicationNo.108/2019(Türkiye),12October2021(UnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild).i.CasesattheUnitedNationsTodate,therehavebeenseveralpetitionsfiledwithvariousUnitedNationsbodies.InOctober2021,theUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildrejectedapetitionfiledby16childreninSacchi,etal.v.Argentina,etal.(2021),whichallegedthatArgentina,Brazil,France,GermanyandTürkiyeviolatedtheirrightsundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChildbymakinginsufficientcutstoGHGemissions.2Thepetitionsweredismissedduetoafailuretoexhaustdomesticremedies.Nonetheless,thefindingsandlegalreasoningoftheUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildprovidevaluableguidanceonchildren’srightsinthecontextofclimatechange.First,theUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildfoundthatthepotentialharmoftheStates’actsoromissionsregardingtheircarbonemissionswasreasonablyforeseeabletotheStates.Second,itaffirmedthattheStates’carbonemissionsactivelycontributetotheharmfuleffectsofclimatechangeandthatthesearenotlimitedtoemissionswithintheseStates’boundaries.Third,itconcludedthatthepetitionershadpleadedsufficientfactstoestablishthattheviolationoftheirrightsundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChildasaresultoftheStates’carbonemissionswasreasonablyforeseeableandthattheyhavepersonallyexperiencedsignificantharm(TigreandLichet2021).Afterthedismissalofthepetition,thesamechildrensubmittedapetitiontotheUnitedNationsSecretary-Generalaskinghimtodeclareaclimateemergency,whichwouldmobilizeaUnitedNationscomprehensiveresponsetotheclimateemergencyandactivateacrisismanagementteamtooverseeimmediateandcomprehensiveglobalactiononclimatechange(Sacchietal.2021).Thepetitionisstillpendingasat31December2022.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page29Box3:DecisionbytheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommitteeontheTorresStraitIslandersPetition3DanielBillyandothersv.Australia(TorresStraitIslandersPetition),UnitedNationsHumanRightsCommittee,CCPR/C/135/D/3624/2019,23September2022(UnitedNationsHumanRightsCommittee).4RightsofIndigenousPeopleinAddressingClimate-ForcedDisplacement,UnitedNationsSpecialRapporteurs,Ref.ALUSA16/2020,15September2020(UnitedNations).5EnvironmentalJusticeAustralia(EJA)v.Australia,UnitedNationsSpecialRapporteurs,25October2021(UnitedNations).InSeptember2022,theUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommitteedeliveredalandmarkdecisioninDanielBillyandothersv.Australia(TorresStraitIslandersPetition)(2022),findingthattheAustralianGovernmentwasviolatingitshumanrightsobligationstotheIndigenousTorresStraitIslandersthroughclimatechangeinaction.3TheCommitteefoundthatAustralia’sfailuretoadequatelyprotectIndigenousTorresStraitIslandersagainstadverseimpactsofclimatechangeviolatedtheirrightstoenjoytheircultureandbefreefromarbitraryinterferenceswiththeirprivatelife,familyandhome.Forthefirsttime,aUnitedNationsbodyhadfoundthatacountryviolatedinternationalhumanrightslawthroughinadequateclimatepolicy.ThedecisionalsorepresentsthefirsttimethatIndigenousPeoples’righttoculturewasfoundtobeatriskfromclimateimpacts.TheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommitteerecognizedthatclimatechangewascurrentlyimpactingtheclaimants’dailylivesandthat,totheextentthattheirrightsarebeingviolated,Australia’spoorclimaterecordwasaviolationoftheirrighttofamilylifeandrighttoculture.ThedecisionalsospecificallycalledonAustraliatoadoptsignificantclimateadaptationmeasures.PetitionstoUnitedNationsbodiesdonotrequireanofficialresponse.However,theycanleadtostatementsfromtheUnitedNationsspecialproceduresthatarerelevantforclimatelitigation.Todate,therehasnotbeenanyformalactioninresponsetoapetitionthatwasbroughttotheUnitedNationsspecialproceduresbyfivetribesinLouisianaandAlaska,UnitedStatesofAmerica.ThepetitionhashighlightedthenegativeimpactsofclimatechangeandclaimedthattheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericahasviolatedtheirhumanrightsinfailingtoaddressclimatedisplacement(RightsofIndigenousPeopleinAddressingClimate-ForcedDisplacement2020).4InOctober2021,apetitionwassubmittedtotheUnitedNationsspecialproceduresbyEnvironmentalJusticeAustraliaonbehalfofseveralyoungAustralians.Thepetitionreliedontheclimatevulnerabilityofyoungpeople,FirstNationspeopleandpeoplewithdisabilities,andarguedthatclimatechangeexacerbatesexistinginequalitiesanddirectlyunderminestheirhealthandculturalrights(EnvironmentalJusticeAustralia(EJA)v.Australia2021).5ItaskedtheSpecialRapporteurstoseekanexplanationfromAustraliaonhow:(i)TheState’sclimateinactionisconsistentwithitshumanrightsobligations(ii)ThecurrentconductiscompatiblewiththehumanrightsofyoungAustraliansandapathwaytowardslimitingthetemperatureincreaseto1.5°Cabovepre-industriallevels(iii)ItscurrentNDChasinvolvedyoungpeopleinAustraliaintheprocessofdevelopingNDCandwhethertheStatewillestablishapermanentforumtoincludetheparticipationofyoungpeoplefromimpactedcommunitiesInaddition,thecomplaintcalledontheSpecialRapporteurstourgeAustraliatoseta2030emissionsreductiontargetconsistentwithitshumanrightsobligations.Page30GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3InThePlanetv.Bolsonaro(2021),acommunicationwasfiledtotheOfficeoftheProsecutoroftheInternationalCriminalCourt(ICC)in2021requestinganinvestigationintoformerBrazilianPresidentJairBolsonaroforhisroleincrimesagainsthumanityresultingfromongoingdeforestationandrelatedactivitiesintheAmazonrainforest.6ThecommunicationallegedthatformerPresidentBolsonarohaspromotedandfacilitatedawidespreadattackontheAmazonbiomeandthosewhodefendanddependuponit,whichrepresentsaclearandextantthreattohumanityitself.ThecomplaintarguedthatglobalclimatesecurityisdependentontheAmazonanditskeyroleinregulatingglobal6ThePlanetv.Bolsonaro,ICC,12October2021(ICC).temperaturesandweatherpatterns,andthattheseveredamagetothefunctionsoftheAmazonbiomecausedbydeforestation,conversionofdeforestedlandtocattleranchingandvastintentionalforestfireshasdisruptedthiscriticalecosystem,turningitfromacarbonsinktoacarbonsource.TheOfficeoftheProsecutormustfirstconductananalysisofinformationtodeterminewhetherthestatutorythresholdof“areasonablebasistoproceed”tostartaninvestigationismet,accordingtoICCrules(ICC2016).Ifthereisaninvestigation,itwouldbethefirsttimethataninvestigationrelatingtocrimesagainsthumanitywouldbebasedonallegedenvironmentalandclimateharm.Box4:InitiativestoseekadvisoryopinionsonclimatechangefrominternationalcourtsInternationaladjudicatingbodiesarenotonlymandatedtosettledisputes,butalsotoissueadvisoryopinions,whichmaybeofgreatvalueinthedevelopmentofinternationallaw.Tworequestsforadvisoryopinionsofinternationalcourtsarecurrentlyinprogress.In2022,theRepublicofVanuatuinitiatedaninternationalcampaigntoseekanadvisoryopiniononclimatechangefromtheInternationalCourtofJustice.Thedraftzerooftherequestforadvisoryopinion(A/77/L.58),whichiscurrentlyundernegotiationandmaybesubjecttochanges,includesthefollowingquestions:(a)WhataretheobligationsofStatesunderinternationallawtoensuretheprotectionoftheclimatesystemandotherpartsoftheenvironmentforpresentandfuturegenerations(b)WhatarethelegalconsequencesundertheseobligationsforStateswherethey,bytheiractsandomissions,havecausedsignificantharmtotheclimatesystemandotherpartsoftheenvironment,withrespectto:(i)States,including,inparticular,smallislanddevelopingStates,whichduetotheirgeographicalcircumstancesandlevelofdevelopment,areinjuredorspeciallyaffectedbyorareparticularlyvulnerabletotheadverseeffectsofclimatechange?(ii)Peoplesandindividualsofthepresentandfuturegenerationsaffectedbytheadverseeffectsofclimatechange?AnInternationalCourtofJusticeadvisoryopinionmaybeissuedattherequestoftheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,theSecurityCouncilorbyotherUnitedNationsorgansandspecializedagencies.TheVanuatucampaignispursuingtheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyroute,whichrequiressupportfromthemajorityofUnitedNationsmemberspresentandvoting(Savaresi,KulovesiandvanAsselt2021).GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page31Inaddition,AntiguaandBarbudaandTuvalusignedanagreementfortheestablishmentoftheCommissionofSmallIslandStatesonClimateChangeandInternationalLaw,toseekanadvisoryopinionfromtheInternationalTribunalfortheLawoftheSea(ITLOS)(DeShong2021).TheClimateCommissionAgreementisopentoaccessionbyanyothermembersoftheAllianceofSmallIslandStates(Freestone,BarnesandAkhavan2021).ITLOScangiveanadvisoryopiniononalegalquestionontheinterpretationandapplicationoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeatoclimatechange,whichcouldinclude,forexample,questionsonsealevelriseandoceanacidificationanddeoxygenation(CruzCarrillo2021).TheadvisoryjurisdictionofITLOScanbetriggeredbythreeelements:1.AninternationalagreementrelatedtothepurposesofUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaclearlyprovidingforthesubmissiontothetribunalofarequestforanadvisoryopinion2.TherequestmustbetransmittedtoITLOSbyanauthorizedbodyorperthatagreement3.TherequestmustbepremisedonalegalquestionInDecember2022,theco-chairsoftheCommissionofSmallIslandStatesonClimateChangeandInternationalLawsubmittedarequestforanadvisoryopinionfromITLOS(RequestforanAdvisoryOpinionsubmittedbytheCommissionofSmallIslandStatesonClimateChangeandInternationalLaw2022).7TheCommissionreferredthefollowinglegalquestionstoITLOS:“WhatarethespecificobligationsofStatePartiestotheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(the‘UNCLOS’),includingunderPartXII:(a)toprevent,reduceandcontrolpollutionofthemarineenvironmentinrelationtothedeleteriouseffectsthatresultorarelikelytoresultfromclimatechange,includingthroughoceanwarmingandsealevelrise,andoceanacidification,whicharecausedbyanthropogenicgreenhousegasemissionsintotheatmosphere?(b)toprotectandpreservethemarineenvironmentinrelationtoclimatechangeimpacts,includingoceanwarmingandsealevelrise,andoceanacidification?”7RequestforanAdvisoryOpinionsubmittedbytheCommissionofSmallIslandStatesonClimateChangeandInternationalLaw,ITLOS,CaseNo.31/2022,12December2022(ITLOS).8ARequestforanAdvisoryOpinionfromtheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRightsConcerningtheInterpretationofArticle1(1),4(1)and5(1)oftheAmericanConventiononHumanRights,IACtHR,AdvisoryOpinionOC-23/17,15November2017(IACtHR).ii.RegionalcasesAttheregionallevel,climatecasesareproceedinginseveralvenues.Thesecasesarediscussedbelow.a.CasesbeforetheInter-AmericanSystemofHumanRightsThe2020LitigationReportnotedthatIACtHRissuedadvisoryopinionOC-23/17in2019,inresponsetoarequestfromColombia,inwhichthecourtconcludedthattherighttoahealthyenvironmentisahumanrightundertheAmericanConventiononHumanRights(ARequestforanAdvisoryOpinionfromtheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRightsConcerningtheInterpretationofArticle1(1),4(1)and5(1)oftheAmericanConventiononHumanRights2017).8Theopinionaddressedclimatechangethroughout,acknowledgingthatclimatechangeiswidelyunderstoodtointerferewiththeenjoymentofhumanrightsandarticulatingaState’sextraterritorialresponsibilityforenvironmentaldamageandclimatechange(TigreandUrzola2021).In2021,theInter-AmericanCommissionofHumanRights(IACHR)andtheOfficeoftheSpecialRapporteuronEconomic,Social,Cultural,andEnvironmentalRights,relyingonIACtHR’sadvisoryopinion,jointlyadoptedresolutionNo.3/21,entitledClimateEmergency:ScopeofInter-Americanhumanrightsobligations(IACHR2021a).Theresolution’spurposeistosystematizeStates’humanrightsPage32GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3obligationsinthecontextoftheclimatecrisistoensurethatpublicpolicydecisionsaremadeaccordingtoarights-basedapproach.TheresolutioncallsonStatestocomplywithstandardsofclimateactionthatparticularlyprotecttherightsofthemostvulnerableandcallsonStatesto“movetowardsacleanandjustenergytransition”.Theresolutionencouragescompaniesto“adjusttheirbehaviourandoperationstothenormsofthebusinessandhumanrightsregime”and“adoptplanstoreduceGHGemissions”andmakethempublic(IACHR2021a).Thisdutytoadoptmitigationplanscoversproductsandservices,subsidiariesandsuppliers.Inthe2021PetitiontotheInter-AmericanCommissiononHumanRightsSeekingtoRedressViolationsoftheRightsofChildreninCitéSoleil,Haiti(2021),severalHaitianchildrenpetitionedIACHRtoinvestigatehumanrightsviolationsstemmingfromwastedisposalintheirresidentialdistrict(IACHR2021b).9Thepetitionincludesadiscussionofclimatechange’sintensificationofharmstochildrenthroughenvironmentaldisplacementandexacerbationofwaterbornediseases.PetitionershaveallegedviolationsoftheprovisionsoftheAmericanConventiononHumanRightsontherightsofthe9PetitiontotheInter-AmericanCommissiononHumanRightsSeekingtoRedressViolationsoftheRightsofChildreninCitéSoleil,Haiti,IACHR,4February2021(IACHR).10CenterforFoodandAdequateLivingRightsetal.v.TanzaniaandUganda,EastAfricanCourtofJustice,6November2020(EastAfricanCourtofJustice).child(article19),therighttodignity(undertherighttoprivacy,article11),therighttoliveinahealthyenvironment(articles4and26),andtherighttojudicialprotection(article25).IACHRisexpectedfirsttodecidewhethertoassertjurisdiction.b.CasesbeforetheEastAfricanCourtofJusticeInNovember2020,fourcivilsocietyorganizationsfiledasuitagainsttheGovernmentsoftheUnitedRepublicofTanzaniaandUgandaintheEastAfricanCourtofJustice,seekinganinjunctiontostoptheconstructionoftheEastAfricanCrudeOilPipeline.InCenterforFoodandAdequateLivingRightsetal.v.TanzaniaandUganda(2020),plaintiffshaveallegedthattheGovernments,withoutobjectionfromtheSecretary-GeneraloftheEastAfricanCommunitywhoisresponsibleforoversightoftheEastAfricanCommunityTreaty,havesignedagreementstobuildthepipelinewithoutproperenvironmental,social,humanrightsandclimateimpactassessments.ThependingclaimarisesunderUgandannationallaw,andtheEastAfricanCommunityTreatyanditsprotocols.10©Flickr/ELSAInternationalGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page33c.CasesbeforeEuropeanregionalcourtsSeveralcaseshaverecentlybeenfiledunderEuropeanregionalcourts.CasesundertheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnion(CJEU)havebeenmetwithlimitedsuccessandweredismissedonproceduralgrounds.SomependingclaimsattheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights(ECtHR)asat31December2022arediscussedbelow.CourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnionCJEUhasexplicitandfar-reachingreviewpowerstointerpretthelawoftheEuropeanUnionandensureitisappliedinthesamewayacrossthememberStatesoftheEuropeanUnion,includingthepowertoannullegislativeacts(EuropeanUnion2007;EuropeanUnion2008).CJEUhassofarhadtwoclimatecases,andbothweredismissedduetolackofstanding(PeterSaboetal.v.EuropeanParliamentandCounciloftheEuropeanUnion2020).11InArmandoFerrãoCarvalhoandOthersv.theEuropeanParliamentandtheCouncil(2021)(thePeople’sClimateCase),theapplicants(familiesintheagriculturalortourismsectorsinseveralEuropeanUnionandnon-European11TheEuropeanUnionBiomasscasewashighlightedinthe2020LitigationReport.PeterSaboetal.v.EuropeanParliamentandCounciloftheEuropeanUnion,CJEU,CaseNo.T-141/19,OrderECLI:EU:T:2020:179,6May2020(EuropeanUnion).12ArmandoFerrãoCarvalhoandOthersv.theEuropeanParliamentandtheCouncil,CJEU,CaseNo.T-330/18,25March2021(EuropeanUnion).13Plaumann&Co.v.CommissionoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity,CJEU,CaseNo.25/62,OrderECLI:EU:C:1963:17,15July1963(EuropeanUnion).Unioncountries)challengedEuropeanUnionlegislationadoptedtoenableittomeetitsGHGemissionsreductiontargets,which,theyargued,wereinsufficienttoprotecttheirlives,livelihoodsandhumanrightsfromtheimpactsofclimatechange.12TheapplicantsinCarvalhoarguedthattheviolationofclimate-relatedhumanrightsissouniquethatthestrictstandingtest(thatapplicantsneedtoshowanindividualconcernparticulartothemortheirgroup)(Plaumann&Co.v.CommissionoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity1963;HartmannandWillers2021)13shouldbealtered(Winter2020).However,CJEUrejectedthoseargumentsanddismissedtheclaim,concludingthatsinceeveryoneisimpactedbyclimatechangeinoneuniquewayoranother,theapplicantscouldnotdemonstratethattheywereindividuallyimpactedbytheEuropeanUnion’sclimatepolicy(Tigre2022a).CJEU’sapproachpreventsindividualsandenvironmentalgroupsfromchallengingEuropeanUnionlawmeasuresofgeneralapplication,evenwhenhumanrightsareaffected(HartmannandWillers2021).InVilledeParisandOthersv.EuropeanCommission(2022),theCityofParis,theCityofBrusselsandthe©Pixabay/LVERPage34GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3MunicipalityofMadridbroughtanactionagainsttheEuropeanCommission,challengingaregulationestablishinganewprocedurefortestingtherealdrivingemissionsofcertainmotorvehicles.Thecitiesarguedthattheregulationwouldpreventthemfromimposingrestrictionsonthecirculationofpassengervehiclesinrelationtotheirairpollutantemissions.In2018,theGeneralCourtpartiallyupheldtheaction,promptinganappealtoCJEU.In2022,CJEUhandeddownitsdecisioninthatappeal,rulinginfavouroftheEuropeanCommission.14TherulingclarifiesrequirementsforstandingunderprimarylawoftheEuropeanUniontochallengeaCommissionregulation.CJEUheldthattheGeneralCourthaderredwhenitstatedthatthecitieswerepreventedfromexercisingtheirpowerstoregulatethecirculationofpassengervehiclestoreducepollutionbecausethecitiesdidnothavea“directconcern”.EuropeanCourtofHumanRightsECtHRhasnotyetruledontheimplicationsofclimatechangefortheenjoymentoftherightsenshrinedinECHR.However,12climatecaseshaverecentlybeenbroughtbeforeECtHR.Inthese,applicantsarguethattheMemberStatesoftheCouncilofEuropehaveviolatedsomeoftheprovisionsofECHRwhenconsideredinlightoftheParisAgreement.AllcasesrelyontherespondentStates’positiveobligationsconcerningtherighttolife(article2)andtherighttorespectforprivateandfamilylife(article8).Thecasesfurthermakediscriminationclaims(article14),allegingthatthecharacteristicsoftheirgrouportheirpersonalcircumstancesaresuchthattheywillsufferparticularlyfromtheimpactsofclimatechange.15Threecases(DuarteAgostinho,KlimaSeniorinnen,andGreenpeaceNordic)havealreadybeencommunicatedtoStateparties,meaningtheywereconsideredadmissibleatthepreliminarystage.Thecourtcanstillassessadmissibilityissuesatalaterstage.Fourclimatecases(DuarteAgostinho,14VilledeParisandOthersv.EuropeanCommission,CJEU,CaseNo.C-177/19PtoC-177/19P,13January2022(EuropeanUnion).15Ibid.16Article30oftheECHR.17DuarteAgostinhoandOthersv.Portugaland32OtherStates,ECtHR,QueryNo.39371/20,4February2021(ECtHR).18DeContov.Italyand32OtherStates,ECtHR,ComplaintNo.14620/21,3March2021(ECtHR).Uricchiov.Italyand32OtherStates,ECtHR,ComplaintNo.14615/21,3March2021(ECtHR).19AssociationofSwissSeniorWomenforClimateProtectionv.FederalDepartmentoftheEnvironmentTransport,EnergyandCommunications(DETEC)andOthers,FederalSupremeCourtofSwitzerland,CaseNo.A-2992/2017,26November2020(Switzerland).KlimaSeniorinnen,GreenpeaceNordic,andCarême)havebeenconsidered“impactcases”anddeemedapriorityforhearing.InAprilandJune2022,respectively,ECtHRannouncedthattheGrandChamberwoulddealwithKlimaSeniorinnen,CarêmeandDuarteAgostinho.Thisoptioncanbeusedwhenthesevenjudgesdecidethatthecaseraises“aseriousquestionaffectingtheinterpretationoftheConventionortheProtocolsthereto,orwheretheresolutionofaquestionbeforethechambermighthavearesultinconsistentwithajudgmentpreviouslydeliveredbythecourt”.16Thisdevelopmentunderlinesthehighprofilethecourtisgivingthosecases,whicharefollowingafasttrackatECtHR(Schmid2022).InDuarteAgostinhoandOthersv.Portugaland32OtherStates(2021),sixPortugueseyouthfiledacomplaintagainst33countriesallegingthattherespondentsviolatedpetitioners’humanrightsbyfailingtotakesufficientactiononclimatechange,andtheapplicantsrequestedmemberStatesoftheEuropeanUniontotakemoreambitiousdomesticaction.Theapplicantsallegedthatwildfiresandincreasedtemperaturesaffecttheirhumanrightsandfurtherbreachtheprohibitionofdiscriminationduetoclimatechange’sdisproportionateimpactonyoungergenerationsresultingfromtheprolongedeffectstheywillsuffer.17TheplaintiffsfiledthecasedirectlywithECtHRwithoutfirstexhaustingdomesticremedies,basedontheurgentneedstoaddresstheclimatecrisis.Twoothersimilarcomplaints(DeContov.Italyand32otherStates2021;Uricchiov.Italyand32otherStates2021)werefiledagainstItaly,relyingonthesamelegalgroundsandalsowithoutfirstexhaustingdomesticremedies.18AssociationofSwissSeniorWomenforClimateProtectionv.FederalDepartmentoftheEnvironmentTransport,EnergyandCommunications(DETEC)andOthers(KlimaSeniorinnenv.Switzerland)(2020)wasbroughtbyanassociationofseniorwomenandfourindividualapplicantsagainstSwitzerlandinNovember2020.19TheirapplicationtoECtHRGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page35followsadomesticrejectionoftheapplicants’complaintonthebasisthatseniorwomenarenotuniquelyaffectedbyclimatechange,asdetailedbelow.Müllnerv.Austria(2021)waslodgedagainstAustriabyanindividualapplicantwhosuffersfromUhthoff'ssyndrome,whichaffectspeoplewithmultiplesclerosiswhosufferwhentemperaturesriseabove25°C.ThecasewasfiledafteranunsuccessfulappealtotheAustrianSupremeCourt.20InGreenpeaceNordicandOthersv.Norway(2021),severalNGOsandsixyoungclimateactivistsfiledaclaimagainsttheNorwegianGovernment,allegingthatcontinuedoilexplorationbytheNorwegianStatebreachestheirfundamentalhumanrights.21ThecasefollowsadecisionbytheNorwegianSupremeCourt,asexplainedbelow.InCarêmev.France(2022),theMayorofGrande-Synthe,whoseapplicationinCommunedeGrande-Synthev.France(2021)wasrejected,complainedthattheCouncilofStateerredinrejectinghisaction.Byclaimingthathehadnointerestintheproceedingseventhoughhewasexposedtoclimateriskcausedbyinsufficientgovernmentaction,themayorclaimedtheCouncilofStatehadviolatedhishumanrights.22Fiveadditionalapplicationswerefiledin2022.Forexample,inSoubesteandOthersv.Austriaand11OtherStates(2022),youngEuropeancitizensallegedthattheirhumanrightshavebeenadverselyaffectedbyclimatechange,whichisdriven,toalargeextent,bythefossilenergyindustry.23Theyfurther20Müllnerv.Austria,ECtHR,25March2021(EuropeanCourtofHumanRights).21GreenpeaceNordicandOthersv.Norway,ECtHR,ApplicationNo.34068/21,15June2021(ECtHR).22CommunedeGrande-Synthev.France,CouncilofStateofFrance,No.427301,1July2021(France).Carêmev.France,ECtHR,ApplicationNo.7189/21,7June2022(ECtHR).23SoubesteandOthersv.Austriaand11OtherStates¸ECtHR,CaseNo.31925/22,2022(ECtHR).24PlanB.EarthandOthersv.UnitedKingdom,ECtHR,11July2022.25HumaneBeingv.theUnitedKingdom,ECtHR,26July2022(EuropeanCourtofHumanRights).contendedthatthe1994EnergyCharterTreaty,ratifiedbyall12respondentStates,protectsinvestorsinthatsectorfromregulatorychangesandgivesthemaccesstoexorbitantremediesthroughinvestor-Statedisputesettlement(ISDS)mechanisms,therebyinhibitingtherespondentStatesfromtakingimmediatemeasuresagainstclimatechangeandmakingitimpossibleforthemtoattainthelongtermtemperaturegoalsenshrinedintheParisAgreement.InPlanB.EarthandOthersv.UnitedKingdom(2022),applicantsallegedthat,inbreachofitslegalobligationsarisingundertheHumanRightsAct1998andECHR,theUnitedKingdomissystematicallyfailingtotakepracticalandeffectivemeasurestoaddressthethreatfromman-madeclimatebreakdown.24InHumaneBeingv.theUnitedKingdom(2022),theapplicantallegedthattheUnitedKingdomisinbreachofitsobligationsunderECHRforfailingtoaddresstherisksoftheclimatecrisis,futurepandemicsandantibioticresistancecreatedbyfactoryfarming.25ThisapplicationposednovelclimateargumentsfocusingonthedangerofagriculturalmethaneemissionsandhighlightingsoyfeedconsumptioninfactoryfarmingintheUnitedKingdomasakeydriverofdeforestationintheAmazonbasin.Page36GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3B.DomesticclimaterightscasesCasesbroughtindomesticforumshavearguedthatclimateobligationsemergefromexistingconstitutionalandfundamentalrightssecuredunderdomesticlaw.Thesecaseshighlighttheimpactofclimatechangeonhumanrightsandchallengedeficienciesofdomesticregimestoaddressclimatechange.Theyhavereliedon:(i)Humanrights(ii)Therighttoahealthyenvironment(iii)Rightsofnature(iv)Acombinationofthesei.HumanrightsSeveralcasesbroughtinEuroperelyonarticles2and8ofECHRtoinformdomesticlaw.Thesecasesoftenchallengewhetheragovernment’smitigationeffortsareadequatetomeetParisAgreementcommitmentsorwhetherparticulargovernmentpoliciesareconsistentwithhumanrightsobligations.Whileseveralcasesarestillpending,thesestrategieshaveachievedsomesuccess.CourtsinBelgiumandGermanyhavefoundthatinsufficientclimatemitigationbreacheshumanrightsobligationsunderECHRandunderthenationalgovernment’sdutyofcare.Courtshavefoundthatgovernmentshavefailedtotakethenecessarymeasurestopreventtheharmfuleffectsofclimatechangeorprotecthumanrightstominimizeclimaterisk.InApril2021,theGermanFederalConstitutionalCourtinNeubauer,etal.v.Germany(2021)struckdownpartsofGermany’sFederalClimateProtectionActasincompatiblewithconstitutionalrightstolifeandhealth,amongothers,becausethelegislationdidnotincludesufficientprovisionsforemissionscutsbeyond2030.26Thecourtfoundthelegislation’smitigationtargetsinadequatetoprotecthuman26Neubauer,etal.v.Germany,FederalConstitutionalCourtofGermany,29April2021(Germany).27Steinmetz,etal.v.Germany,FederalConstitutionalCourtofGermany,24January2022(Germany).28SeeFederalConstitutionalCourt,Germany:http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-jurisdiction/federal-constitutional-court/.291BvR1565/21,1BvR1566/21,1BvR1669/21,1BvR1936/21,1BvR2574/21,1BvR2575/21,1BvR2054/21,1BvR2055/21,1BvR2056/21,1BvR2057/21,1BvR2058/21,FederalConstitutionalCourtofGermany,18January2022(Germany).rightsortoproportionallydistributetheglobalcarbonbudgetbetweencurrentandfuturegenerations.ThecourtconcludedthatGermany’sclimatelawwaseffectively“offloading”emissionsreductiontofuturegenerationsinaviolationoffundamentalfreedoms.ThecourtgroundedthedecisionintheState’sdutytoprotectfundamentalrightsandtominimizeaforeseeableandsufficientlyseriousriskofharmposedbyclimatechange.Thecourtorderedthelegislaturetosetclearprovisionsforreductiontargetsfrom2031onwardbytheendof2022.ArevisedClimateProtectionActrequiringareductionof65percentinGHGsfrom1990levelsby2030waspassedin2021.AnewchallengewasbroughtbeforetheFederalConstitutionalCourtin2022,arguingthatthetargetscontinuetoinfringefundamentalrightsastheystillexceedGermany’sremainingcarbonbudgetandlackcoordinationbetweenfederalstates(Steinmetz,etal.v.Germany2022).27TheroleoffederalGermanstatesinestablishingclimatelawsandmitigationtargetswaschallengedinaseriesof11casesbroughtagainstthesubnationalgovernmentsinGermanyintheFederalConstitutionalCourtofGermany(1BvR1565/21,1BvR1566/21,1BvR1669/21,1BvR1936/21,1BvR2574/21,1BvR2575/21,1BvR2054/21,1BvR2055/21,1BvR2056/21,1BvR2057/21,1BvR2058/212022).28Theseclaimsarguedthatcodifyingalegallybindingreductionpathisrequiredatthesubnationallevel,asstatesbearco-responsibilityforprotectinghumanrights,includingsafeguardingfuturegenerations,withintheirsphereofcompetence.In2022,thecourtgaveonejointdecisionforall11complaints,refusingtoadmitthemforadjudicationbasedonalackofadequateprospectsFederalConstitutionalCourtofGermany(2022b).29ThecourtfoundthattheGermanfederallegislature,notthesubnationallegislatures,issubjecttoimplementingacarbonemissionsbudget.AdditionalclaimshavebeenbroughtbeforestatecourtsinGermanyseekingmoreambitiousclimateaction(DeutscheUmwelthilfe(DUH)v.Nordrhein-Westfalen(NRW)2020;DeutscheUmwelthilfeGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page37(DUH)v.Bayern2021;MarleneLemme,etal.v.StateofBayern[SubsidiaryClaim]2021;DeutscheUmwelthilfe[DUH]v.Baden-Württemberg[BaWü]2021).30In2021,theBrusselsCourtofFirstInstanceheldinVZWKlimaatzaakv.KingdomofBelgium&Others(2021)thatBelgiumandthreesubnationalgovernmentshadbreachedtheirdutyofcareundertheCivilCodebyfailingtotakenecessarymeasurestopreventtheharmfuleffectsofclimatechangeandcomplywiththeirmitigationtargets.Further,thecourtfoundthatbyfailingtotakesufficientclimateactiontoprotectthelifeandprivacyoftheplaintiffs,thedefendantswereinbreachoftheirobligationsunderarticles2and8ofECHR.However,thecourtdeclinedtosetmorestringentemissionsreductiontargetsonseparationofpowersgrounds.InNovember2021,Klimaatzaakappealedthejudgmentpertainingtothecourt’srefusaltosetspecificbindingtargetsrelatedtothereductionofGHGemissionsovertime.31Inacaseinvolvingsimilarclaimsdecidedin2022,KlimatickážalobaČRv.CzechRepublic(2022),thePragueMunicipalCourtorderedtheStatetourgentlytakethenecessarymeasurestoaddressclimatechangeanddeviseapreciseplantoachievethegoalsoftheParisAgreement.32SeveralclaimsfiledinotherjurisdictionsalsochallengetheadequacyofnationalclimateactionunderECHRprovisionsthathavebeenintegratedintodomesticlaw.InASudetal.v.Italy(2021),anenvironmentalNGOandmorethan200individualsfiledasuitagainsttheItalianGovernmentforfailingtotakeactionsnecessarytomeettheParisAgreement’stemperaturegoalofwellbelow2°C30DeutscheUmwelthilfe(DUH)v.Nordrhein-Westfalen(NRW),HigherAdministrativeCourtofNorthRhine-Westphalia,3December2020(Germany).DeutscheUmwelthilfe(DUH)v.Bayern,HigherAdministrativeCourtofBayern,24June2021(Germany).MarleneLemme,etal.v.StateofBayern(SubsidiaryClaim),BayernConstitutionalCourt,30June2021(Germany).DeutscheUmwelthilfe(DUH)v.Baden-Württemberg(BaWü),HigherAdministrativeCourtofJusticeBaden-Württemberg,8November2021(Germany).31VZWKlimaatzaakv.KingdomofBelgium&Others,BrusselsCourtofFirstInstance,17November2021(Belgium).32KlimatickážalobaČRv.CzechRepublic,MunicipalCourtinPrague,JudgmentNo.14A101/2021,15June2022(CzechRepublic).33ASudetal.v.Italy,CivilCourtofRome,5June2021(Italy).34ClientEarthv.Poland(onBehalfofM.G.),BiałystokCourtofAppeal,8September2021(Poland).ClientEarthv.Poland(onBehalfofM.O.),DistrictCourt,2021(Poland).ClientEarthv.Poland(onBehalfofM.S.),DistrictCourt,2021(Poland).ClientEarthv.Poland(onBehalfofP.R.),DistrictCourt,Poland,2021(Poland).ClientEarthv.Poland(onBehalfofP.N.),PoznańRegionalCourt,20December2021(Poland).35Greenpeaceetal.v.Austria,ConstitutionalCourtofAustria,DecisionNo.G144-145/2020-13,V332/2020-13,30September2020(Austria).36GreenpeaceNetherlandsv.StateoftheNetherlands,TheHagueDistrictCourt,DecisionNo.ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2020:12440,9December2020(Netherlands).withrespecttopre-industriallevelswhileaimingtolimittemperatureincreaseto1.5°C.Theyhavesoughtacourtordertoreduceemissionsby92percentby2030comparedwith1990levels,basedonItaly’s“fairshare”ofglobalemissionsundertheParisAgreement.33Similarly,in2021ClientEarthinPolandbroughtfiveidenticalsuitsonbehalfofprivatecitizensagainstthePolishGovernment,allegingthattheGovernmenthaspermittedGHGemissionsfromitsterritoryinexcessofthenation’s“fairshare”undertheParisAgreement,inviolationofitshumanrightsobligations(ClientEarthv.Poland[onBehalfofM.G.]2021;ClientEarthv.Poland[onBehalfofM.O.];ClientEarthv.Poland[onBehalfofM.S.];ClientEarthv.Poland[onBehalfofP.N.];ClientEarthv.Poland[onBehalfofP.N.]2021).34CasesthathavechallengedspecificprojectsorpoliciesbasedonhumanrightsobligationsunderECHRhavehadlimitedsuccesstodate.InGreenpeaceetal.v.Austria(2020),theAustrianConstitutionalCourtdismissedalawsuitrequestinganinvalidationoftaxexemptionsgrantedtoairtravelandnotrailways,findingthatrailpassengersdonothavestandingtosueoverpreferentialtaxtreatment.35Similarly,inGreenpeaceNetherlandsv.StateoftheNetherlands(2020),TheHagueDistrictCourtfoundthattheStatedoesnothavealegallyenforceableobligationunderECHRtoattachclimateconditionstoaCOVID-19bailoutpackagefortheDutchairlineKLMRoyalDutchAirlinesanddeferredtotheexecutivebranch’sdiscretioninrespondingtothepandemic.36InPlanBEarthandOthersv.TheSecretaryofStateforBusiness,Energy,andIndustrialStrategy(2019),theHighCourtofJusticeinLondonrefusedpermissiontoproceedinacaseallegingthattheUnitedKingdom’scontinuedsupportforhigh-emissiontransportationandfossilfuelindustrieswithinthePage38GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3UnitedKingdomanditsoverseasterritoriesviolatesrightsprotectedbyECHRandtheUnitedKingdom’sHumanRightsAct.37Rights-basedlitigationchallengingnationalclimatepoliciesandpolicy-andproject-levelapprovalshasalsoemergedoutsideofEurope.InENVironnementJEUnessev.ProcureurGeneralduCanada(2022),anenvironmentalnon-profitorganizationallegedthatCanada’sGHGreductiontargetswereinsufficienttoavoiddangerousclimatechangeimpacts,thattheplanstomeetthesetargetswerethemselvesinadequate,andthatbothofthesebreachCanada’sobligationstoprotectthehumanrightsofyoungpeopleundertheCanadianCharterofRightsandFreedomsandtheQuébecCharterofRightsandFreedoms.ThefederalGovernmentsubmittedthattheissueswerenotjusticiablebecausetheywereinherentlypoliticalandoutsidethecompetenceofthecourtandbecausetheallegationwasgovernmentinaction.InDecember2021,theQuébecCourtofAppealacceptedtheGovernment’sargumentsanddeniedamotiontocertifyaclassactionbythegroupofcitizens.TheappellantsfiledanapplicationforleavetoappealtotheSupremeCourtofCanada,butthisapplicationwasdenied.38InLaboratóriodoObservatóriodoClimav.MinisterofEnvironmentandBrazil(2022),anetworkofcivilsocietyorganizationsfiledaclassactioninthejudicialsectionofAmazonasagainsttheBrazilianGovernment.TheplaintiffsrequestedthattheNationalClimateChangePolicybeupdatedtoalignBrazil’sGHGemissionswitha1.5OCglobalwarmingscenario.Theplaintiffsassertedthatclimatechangeaffectsawiderangeofhumanrightssuchastherightstolife,dignity,health,foodandhousing,aswellastheconstitutionallyrecognizedrighttoahealthyenvironment.3937PlanBEarthandOthersv.TheSecretaryofStateforBusiness,Energy,andIndustrialStrategy,HighCourtofJusticeofEnglandandWales,ClaimNo.CO/16/2018,25January2019(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).38ENVironnementJEUnessev.ProcureurGeneralduCanada,SuperiorCourtofQuébec,28July2022(Canada).39LaboratóriodoObservatóriodoClimav.MinisterofEnvironmentandBrazil,SeventhFederalEnvironmentalandAgrarianCourtoftheJudiciarySectionofAmazonas,AçãoCivilPúblicaNo.1027282-96.2021.4.01.3200,13May2022(Brazil).40TsamaWilliamandOthersv.Uganda’sAttorneyGeneralandOthers,HighCourtofUgandaatMbale,MiscellaneousCaseNo.024of2020,14October2020(Uganda).41Decisionshighlightedinpreviousreportsthatrelyontherighttoahealthyenvironmentinclude:Leghariv.FederationofPakistan,LahoreHighCourt,W.P.No.25501/201,Granted,25January2018(Pakistan).FutureGenerationsv.MinistryoftheEnvironmentandOthers,ColombiaSuperiorTribunals,Radicación11001220300020180031900,5April2018(Colombia).InreCourtonItsOwnMotionv.StateofHimachalPradeshandothers,NationalGreenTribunal,CWPILNo.15of2010,9May2019(India).Theviolationofhumanrightshasalsobeenusedasthebasisforlegalargumentsdemandingadaptationmeasuresfromagovernment.InTsamaWilliamandOthersv.Uganda’sAttorneyGeneralandOthers(2020),thevictimsofrecurringlandslidesinBududaDistrict,Uganda,filedasuitagainsttheGovernmentforfailingtoimplementlandslideadaptationmeasures.Theapplicantsrequestedadeclarationofviolationofrights,damages,andcompensationforthelossoflife,threatstolife,destructionofproperty,infringementoftheirotherfundamentalhumanrightsandthecostsofresettlementtosaferareas.Thecaseispendingasat31December2022.40ii.TherighttoahealthyenvironmentSeveralcaseshavemadechallengestonationalclimatepolicypremisedontherighttoahealthyenvironment,aslaidoutinseveraldomesticconstitutions(VilchezMoraguesandSavaresi2021).41ThemajorityofthesecasesarefoundintheGlobalSouth.In2022,theBrazilianSupremeCourtheldinPSBetal.v.Brazil(onClimateFund)(2022)thattheParisAgreementisahumanrightstreaty,whichenjoys“supranational”status.This“supralegality”ofhumanrightstreatiesmeansthattheyareabove“regular”lawsinthelegalhierarchy.Accordingly,anyBrazilianlawordecreethatcontradictstheParisAgreement,includingtheNDC,maybeinvalidated.ThecaseconcernedtheGovernment’sfailuretoadoptadministrativemeasuresconcerningtheallocationoffundsofafinancialmechanismforsubsidizingmitigationandadaptationmeasures.TheSupremeCourtruledthattheexecutivebranchhasaconstitutionaldutytoexecuteandallocatethefundstomitigateclimatechange,basedonboththeseparationofpowersandtheconstitutionalrighttoahealthyenvironment.ThecourtfurtherfoundthatGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page39thejudiciary,inturn,mustacttoavoidtheregressionofenvironmentalprotection.Theconstitutionaldutytoallocatethefundseffectivelymeansthatthereisadutytomitigateclimatechangeconsideringtheinternationalcommitmentsundertheclimatechangeframework.42InMexico,theSupremeCourtinAmparoEnRevision610/2019(2020)invalidatedarulethatwouldhaveallowedhigherethanolcontentingasoline,concludingthattherighttoahealthyenvironmentandtheprecautionaryprinciplerequiredtheevaluationofthepotentialofincreasedGHGemissionsandananalysisofthecountry’scommitmentsundertheParisAgreement.43InGreenpeaceMexicov.MinistryofEnergyandOthers(ontheNationalElectricSystemPolicies)(2020),Mexico’sFirstCircuitCollegiateTribunalheldthatpoliciesreducingthecountry’sshareofrenewableenergyviolatetheconstitutionalrighttoahealthyenvironmentandareregressive.44InPSBetal.v.Brazil(onDeforestationandHumanRights)(2022)sevenpoliticalpartiesinBrazilbroughtanactionagainstthefederalGovernment42PSBetal.v.Brazil(onClimateFund),FederalSupremeCourtofBrazil,ADPF708,1July2022(Brazil).43RulingonModificationtoEthanolFuelRule,SupremeCourtofMexico,610/2019,Opinion,22January2020(Mexico).44GreenpeaceMexicov.MinistryofEnergyandOthers(ontheNationalElectricSystemPolicies),DistrictCourtinAdministrativeMatters,AmparoNo.104/2020,17November2020(Mexico).45PSBetal.v.Brazil(onDeforestationandHumanRights),FederalSupremeCourtofBrazil,ADPF760,6April2022(Brazil).46InstituteofAmazonianStudiesv.Brazil,FederalRegionalCourt,FourthRegion,ACPNo.5048951-39.2020.4.04.7000,29March2022(Brazil).forfailingtoimplementthenationaldeforestationpolicy,therebycontributingtodangerousclimatechange.Theclaimswerebasedonfundamentalconstitutionalrights,includingtherighttoahealthyenvironment,therightsofIndigenousPeoplesandtherightsofpresentandfuturegenerations.45InInstituteofAmazonianStudiesv.Brazil(2022),asatApril2023,theplaintiffsareseekingrecognitionofafundamentalrighttoastableclimateforpresentandfuturegenerationsundertheBrazilianConstitutionaswellasanordertocompelthefederalGovernmenttocomplywiththenationalclimatelaw.TheplaintiffshaveallegedthatthefederalGovernmenthasfailedtoadheretoitsactionplanstopreventdeforestationandmitigateandadapttoclimatechange.46InGreenpeaceNordicAss’nv.MinistryofPetroleumandEnergy(Peoplev.ArcticOil)(2020),theclaimantsallegedthatNorway’sgrantofdeep-seapetroleumextractionlicenceswithintheSouthBarentsSeaconstitutedafailuretoexerciseduediligencetoprotectagainstthehumanrightsimplicationsofclimatechange,contrarytotheconstitutionalrighttoahealthyenvironment,andtherightstolifeandprivateandfamilylifeundertheECHRandthe©Flickr/GPAPhotoArchivePage40GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3NorwegianConstitution.Onappeal,theSupremeCourtofNorwayheldthatfutureemissionsfromexportedoilaretoouncertaintobarthegrantingoflicencesfordeep-seaextractionandthattheconstitutionalrighttoahealthyenvironmentdoesnotgrantindividualrightstochallengepetroleum-related47GreenpeaceNordicAss’nv.MinistryofPetroleumandEnergy(Peoplev.ArcticOil),SupremeCourtofNorway,HR-2020-2472-P,CaseNo.20-051052SIV-HRET,23January2020(Norway).48RababAliv.FederationofPakistan&Another,SupremeCourtofPakistan,ConstitutionPetitionNo.Iof2016,April2016(Pakistan).49RidhimaPandeyv.UnionofIndia&Ors.,NationalGreenTribunal,OriginalApplicationNo.187/2017,March2017(India).50Thiswasacaseinwhichyoungplaintiffsclaimedthattheirconstitutionalrightstolife,liberty,andpropertywereviolatedbypoliciesallowingfossilfuelproduction,consumptionandcombustionat“dangerouslevels”.Seethe2020LitigationReport,pages15,39,43and44.51Julianav.UnitedStates,UnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit,947F.3d1159,Granted,17January2020(UnitedStatesofAmerica).52Heldv.State,MontanaDistrictCourt,No.CDV-2020-307,Complaint,March132020(UnitedStatesofAmerica).activities(Voigt2021).Notwithstanding,thecourtrecognizedtheconstitutionalrightofprivatepartiestobeinformedofpetroleum-relateddecisionsthatcouldhavealocalenvironmentalimpact(GociuandRoy2021).TheplaintiffshaveappealedthiscasetoECtHR(seePart3.B.ii.c).47Box5:Childrenandyouth-ledclaimsandfuturegenerationsAsat31December2022,about34caseshavebeenbroughtbyandonbehalfofchildrenandyouth(usuallydefinedaspeopleyoungerthan25yearsold)basedonhumanrights,astrackedintheSabinCenter’sdatabases.Thesecasesrelyonchildrenandyouth’sspecialvulnerabilitytoclimateharmandontheprincipleofintergenerationalequity.Childrenandyouthplaintiffsarguethatduetotheiryoungage,theywillenduretheeffectsofclimatechange–whichwillintensifyovertime–forlonger.Twoclaimswereledbygirlsasyoungas7and9yearsold,respectively.InRababAliv.FederationofPakistan&Another(2016),the7-year-oldgirlchallengedPakistan’sclimatepoliciesfromarights-basedperspective.48InRidhimaPandeyv.UnionofIndia&Ors.(2017),a9-year-oldgirlquestionedtheadequacyofIndia’sclimatemitigationeffortsbasedonthepublictrustdoctrine.49Thedisproportionateeffectsofclimatechangegiverisetoclaimsforequaltreatment(GradoniandMantovani2022).TheUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildrecognizedthemeritsofthistypeofclaimbystatingthatchildren“areparticularlyaffectedbyclimatechange,bothintermsofhowtheyexperienceitseffectsandthepotentialofclimatechangetoaffectthemthroughouttheirlifetimes,particularlyifimmediateactionisnottaken”(Sacchietal.2021).Casesgenerallyfocuson(i)insufficienteffortstoreducecarbonemissionsandmeetclimatecommitments,(ii)insufficienteffortstoimplementmitigationandadaptationmeasuresand(iii)specificregulatoryapprovalsthatareexpectedtohavedramaticclimateimpacts(Parkeretal.2022).Severalchildrenandyouth-ledcaseshavebeenfiledintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Thesecaseshavemostlyreliedonthepublictrustdoctrineand/orconstitutionalrights.Twocases,Julianav.UnitedStates(Juliana)(2020)andHeldv.State(2020),arestillpendingdeterminationbythecourt.TheplaintiffsinJuliana–acasethatwasanalysedinthe2020LitigationReport50–arecurrentlyseekingpermissiontoamendtheircomplaint,whichwasdismissedinadecisionfromtheCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit.51TheplaintiffsanddefendantsinHeldv.StatearemovingtotrialinMontanastatecourt.52Thevastmajorityofcases(14)havenotbeensuccessfulonthemeritsandweredismissedforalackofjusticiability,standing,oronthecourt’sdecisiontodefertotheexecutiveandlegislativebranches(SabinCenterforClimateChangeLaw2023).GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page41CaseshavealsobeenfiledinAustralia,Brazil,Canada,Colombia,Germany,Guyana,India,Ireland,Italy,Mexico,Netherlands,NewZealand,Norway,Pakistan,thePhilippines,Poland,theRepublicofKorea,SouthAfrica,Spain,UgandaandtheUnitedKingdom,aswellasinCJEU,ECtHRandIACHR(Parkeretal.2022).5353Twocaseshadpositiveoutcomesonthemerits:FutureGenerationsv.MinistryoftheEnvironmentandOthers(2018)andNeubauer,etal.v.Germany(2021).Onecasehadanegativeoutcomeonthemerits:GreenpeaceNordicandOthersv.Norway(2021).Casesthatweredismissedforlackofjusticiabilityand/orstandinginclude:PUSHSweden,NatureandYouthSwedenandOthersv.GovernmentofSweden(2016),RidhimaPandeyv.UnionofIndia&Ors(2018),LaRosev.HerMajestytheQueen(2019),SixYouthsv.MinisterofEnvironmentandOthers(2021),Sacchi,etal.v.Argentina,etal.(2021),andENvironnementJEUnessev.ProcureurGeneralduCanada(2022).Dependingonthejurisdiction,theoutcomeofacaseonseparationofpowersgroundsmaybeameritsdecisionorajusticiabilityquestion.Severalcasesareexpectedtoproceedonthemerits:RababAliv.FederationofPakistan&Another(2016),Álvarezetal.v.Peru(2019),Do-HyunKimetal.v.SouthKorea(2020),YouthVerdictv.WaratahCoal(2020),Mathuretal.v.HerMajestytheQueeninRightofOntario(2020),DuarteAgostinhoandOthersv.Portugaland32OtherStates(2021),andYouthv.GovernmentofMexico(2022).54WomenfromHuascoandOthersv.theGovernmentofChile,MinistryofEnergy,EnvironmentandHealth,CourtofAppealofCopiapo,No.323-2021,7May2022(Chile).55KlimaSeniorinnenv.Switzerland,ECtHR,ApplicationNo.53600/20,5December2022(EuropeanCourtofHumanRights).56MariaKhanetal.v.FederationofPakistanetal.,LahoreHighCourt,No.8960,Filed,15February2019(Pakistan).Box6:ClimatelitigationcasesbroughtbywomenCertaingroups’vulnerabilitytothepervasiveimpactsofclimatechangeisslowlybeingaddressedinclimatelitigation.Whileanumberofcaseshaveaddressedtheimpactsofclimatechangeonchildrenandfuturegenerations,asnotedabove,andonIndigenousgroupsasnotedinthefuturetrendssection(Part4),othergroupshavestartedusingargumentsrelatedtoequalitybeforethelawtorequestcertainprotectivemeasuresfromtheirrespectivegovernments.Forexample,fourcasesinChile,Pakistan,SwitzerlandandECtHRwerebroughtbygirlsorwomenwhoclaimedtheyweredisproportionallyaffectedbyclimatechange.Intwocases,theseargumentswereunsuccessful.Forexample,inKlimaSeniorinnenv.Switzerland(2020)(seePart1.A.ii.c),theSwissFederalAdministrativeCourtfoundthatwomenolderthan75yearswerenotexclusivelyaffectedbyclimatechange.WomenfromHuascoandOthersv.theGovernmentofChile,MinistryofEnergy,EnvironmentandHealth(2022)wasdismissedonproceduralgrounds.54Arecentstudyhasassessedhowgender-basedargumentshavebeenusedinclimatelitigationinLatinAmerica,findingthatplaintiffsandcourtshavefailedtofullyengagewithagenderanalysistounderstandthedisproportionateimpactssufferedbymarginalizedgroupsintheregion(Urzolaforthcoming).Twocasesarestillpending.KlimaSeniorinnen(2022)(nowatECtHR)raisesargumentsonthedisproportionateimpactofclimatechangeonseniorwomentoECtHR.55InMariaKhanetal.v.FederationofPakistanetal.(2019),acoalitionofwomenhavearguedthatsinceclimatechangehasadisproportionateimpactonwomen,thefederalGovernment’sclimateinactionviolateswomen'srightstoequalprotectionunderthelawandnodiscriminationonthebasisofsex.56Page42GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3II.Domesticenforcementofinternationalclimatechangecommitments57NotreAffaireàTousandOthersv.France(2021),AdministrativeCourtofParis,Nos.1904967,1904972,1904976/4-1,21October(France)58R(oaoFriendsoftheEarth)v.SecretaryofStateforBusinessEnergyandIndustrialStrategy,HighCourtofJusticeofEnglandandWales,EWHC1841,18July2022(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).Nationalandsubnationalgovernmentscommittoaddressingclimatechangethroughvariedinternationalagreementsandrelatednationallegislationorpolicystatements.Thesecommitmentsmaybesubjecttolitigationchallengingtheirscope,modeofimplementationornon-execution.Governmentsarethemostcommondefendantsinlitigationchallengingmitigationandadaptationcommitments,butasindicatedinthe2020LitigationReport,similarsuitshavebeenbroughtagainstcorporationsandotherinstitutions.Asmoregovernmentsandcompaniescommittonet-zerotargets,morelitigationthatquestionstheimplementationoftheseplanswilllikelyemerge.Governmentsarethemostcommondefendantsinlitigationchallengingmitigationandadaptationcommitments,butasindicatedinthe2020LitigationReport,similarsuitshavebeenbroughtagainstcorporationsandotherinstitutions.SeveralcasesinEuropehavequestionedgovernments’compliancewithandimplementationoftheirnationalmitigationcommitmentsornet-zerostrategies.TwoFrenchdecisionsfrom2021havespecificallyassessedtheFrenchGovernment’scompliancewithitscommitments.InNotreAffaireàTousandOthersv.France(2021)(partofL’Affairedusiècle),theAdministrativeCourtofParisheldthattheState’sclimateinactionandfailuretomeetitscarbonbudgetgoalshavecausedclimate-relatedecologicaldamagesunderinternationalandEuropeanclimatedirectivesandregulations,theFrenchEnvironmentalCharter,EnergyCodeandCivilCode.57ThecourtlaterorderedtheStatetotakeimmediateandconcreteactionsby31December2022tocomplywithitsmitigationcommitmentsundernationallawsandrepairtheclimate-relatedecologicaldamagescausedbyinaction,includingsubtractingexcessemissionsinthesubsequentyear.AnyfutureslippageofemissionsbeyondthelegislativecommitmentswasalsotobecompensatedbytheFrenchGovernment.InCommunedeGrande-Synthev.France(2021),theCouncilofStateofFrancefoundthattheGovernmenthadfailedtoadoptthenecessarylegislativemeasurestocomplywithitsmitigationcommitments.TherefusaltotakefurtheractionwasincompatiblewithFrance’sobligationsunderFrenchandEuropeanUnionlaw.TheCouncilofStateorderedtheGovernmentto“takeallthemeasuresnecessary”tomeetitsclimategoalsbybendingthecurveofGHGemissions,includinga40percentreductionby2030.TheprocedureconcerningtheevaluationoftheGovernment’scompliancewiththedecisioniscurrentlyongoing.IntheUnitedKingdom,acasewasbroughtchallengingtheGovernment’sNetZeroStrategy.InR(oaoFriendsoftheEarth)v.SecretaryofStateforBusinessEnergyandIndustrialStrategy(2022),FriendsoftheEarthaskedforjudicialreviewoftheeconomy-widedecarbonizationstrategyandtheheatandbuildingsstrategyfordecarbonizingheatingandhomes.FriendsoftheEarthclaimedthatthepolicieswillnotenablecompliancewiththecarbonbudgetssetundertheClimateChangeActandthatthestrategydoesnotassessitsimpactsonpeoplewithprotectedcharacteristics,suchaspeoplewithdisabilities,peopleofcolourandolderpeopleasrequiredundertheEqualityAct.InJuly2022,theHighCourtofJusticefoundthattheUnitedKingdomGovernmenthadfailedtocomplywithitslegaldutiesundertheClimateChangeAct2008whenapprovingtheNetZeroStrategy.58Thatfailurerestednotonthestrategy’scontent,butontheabsenceofkeyevidence,assumptionsandnumbersthatthesecretaryofstateshouldhavereliedonwhenapprovingthestrategybutweremissingfromthefinaldocument.""GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page43InLatinAmerica,severalclimatelitigationcaseswerebroughtchallenginggovernmenteffortstorelaxclimateregulationorderegulate.Thistrend,whichwashighlightedinthe2020report,continuesincountrieslikeBrazilandMexico.CasesinBrazilincludeInstituteofAmazonianStudiesv.Brazil(2022)andPSBetal.v.Brazil(onDeforestationandHumanRights)(2022).CasesinMexicoincludeGreenpeaceMexicov.MinistryofEnergyandOthers(ontheEnergySectorProgram)(2021),whereGreenpeacehasarguedthattheEnergySectorProgramviolatestherighttoahealthyenvironmentandtherighttoaccesselectricitybasedonrenewablesourcesbypromotingfossilfueluseattheexpenseofinvestmentsinrenewableenergy,GHGemissionsreductionandadaptation.59CasesinMexicoincludeGreenpeaceMexicov.MinistryofEnergyandOthers(ontheNationalElectricSystemPolicies)(2020),whereGreenpeacequestionedtheconstitutionalityofelectricitysectorpoliciesthatwouldlimitrenewableenergy.Inthelattercase,theFirstCircuitCollegiateTribunalheldthatthepoliciesinquestionwereregressiveandunconstitutionalastheyviolatedtherighttoahealthyenvironmentandtheinternationalclimateframework,displacedrenewableenergiesandeffectivelypreventedMexicofrommeetingGHGemissionreductiontargets.Threeseparatelawsuitsfrom2021(broughtbycivilsocietyorganizations,youthgroups,individualyoungpeopleandmembersoftheMexicanSenateMinority)furtherchallengedamendmentstoMexico’sElectricIndustryLaw,whichfavouredcoalandoil-firedpowerplants(NuestrosDerechosalFuturoyMedioAmbienteSanoetal.,v.Mexico[Unconstitutionalityofthe59Mexico,GreenpeaceMexicov.MinistryofEnergyandOthers(ontheEnergySectorProgram),DistrictCourtinAdministrativeMatters,AmparoNo.372/2020,19March2021(Mexico).60Mexico,NuestrosDerechosalFuturoyMedioAmbienteSanoetal.,v.Mexico(UnconstitutionalityofthereformtotheElectricIndustryLaw),DistrictCourtinAdministrativeMatters,AmparoNo.204/2021,28December2022(Mexico).ChallengetotheConstitutionalityofAmendmentstotheRulesGoverningCleanEnergyCertificates,SupremeCourtofMexico,AccióndeInconstitucionalidad64/2021,7April2022(Mexico).JuliaHabanaetal.,v.Mexico(UnconstitutionalityofthereformtotheElectricityIndustryLaw),SupremeCourtofMexico,AmparoNo.210/2021,22December2022(Mexico).61WestVirginiav.EPA,SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,142S.Ct.2587,30June2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).reformtotheElectricIndustryLaw]2022;ChallengetotheConstitutionalityofAmendmentstotheRulesGoverningCleanEnergyCertificates2022;JuliaHabanaetal.,v.Mexico[UnconstitutionalityofthereformtotheElectricityIndustryLaw]2022).60ThesecasescitetheMexicanConstitution’srighttoahealthyenvironment,theParisAgreementandsustainabilityprinciplesintheElectricIndustryLaw.Thecasesarestillpendingasat31December2022.In2022,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaissuedadecisioninWestVirginiav.EPA(2022),andheldthatsection111(d)oftheCleanAirActdidnotgivetheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)theauthoritytouse“generation-shifting”measurestosetCO2emissionlimitsforpowerplants.Indoingso,thecourtreversedaJanuary2021decisionbytheCourtofAppealsfortheDistrictofColumbia(D.C.)CircuitthatfoundthattheformerPresidentTrumpAdministration’srepealandreplacementofthepreviousPresidentObamaAdministration’sCleanPowerPlanwasbasedonatoo-narrowconstrualofEPA’sauthorityundersection111(d).TheCleanPowerPlanusedgeneration-shiftingmeasuresastwoofthethree“buildingblocks”forthe“bestsystemofemissionreduction”forpowerplantsundersection111(d).Onebuildingblockshiftedelectricityproductionfromcoal-firedtonaturalgas-firedunits,andanotherbuildingblockshiftedgenerationtolow-orzero-carbonsourcessuchaswindandsolar.61ThedecisioninWestVirginiahasreducedtheEPA’sdiscretioninfindinginnovativewaystoregulateGHGemissionsfrompowerplants.Page44GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3III.Keepingfossilfuelsandcarbonsinksintheground62ClientEarthv.SecretaryofState,CourtofAppeal(CivilDivision)ofEnglandandWales,CaseNo.C1/2020/0998/QBACF,21January2021(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).63StudentsforClimateSolutionsIncv.MinisterofEnergyandResources,HighCourtofNewZealand,NZHC2116Decided,24August2022(NewZealand).64Citizens’CommitteeontheKobeCoal-FiredPowerPlantv.Japan,SupremeCourtofJapan,9March2023(Japan).65Citizens’CommitteeontheKobeCoal-FiredPowerPlantv.KobeSteelLtd.,etal.,KobeDistrictCourt,20March2023(Japan).Casesthatchallengespecificresource-extractionandresource-dependentprojects(aswellasenvironmentalpermittingandreviewprocessestoensureadequateassessmentoftheprojects’climatechangeimplications)representanotherhighlyvisiblecategoryofclimatecases.Thesecasesrelatetothelong-term,globaleffectofprojectsextractingorprocessingfossilfuelsaswellastothelocalimpactsofmininganddrillingactivitiesonwater,landuse,airqualityandbiodiversity.Thesecasesareincreasinglyallegingthatproperconsiderationofaproject’simpactsshouldincludetheextenttowhichtheprojectfacilitatesfossilfuelconsumptionelsewhereintheworldandforanextendedperiodintothefuture.The2017and2020LitigationReportsdescribedkeycasesinChile,Colombia,Estonia,Japan,Kenya,Norway,Pakistan,theUnitedKingdomandUnitedStatesofAmerica.Severalofthosecasesarestillpendingasat31December2022.Additionalcasesseekingtokeepfossilfuelsinthegroundhavetargetedvarioussectors,includingfossilfuelandminingextraction,powerplants,roads,othertypesoffossilfuelinfrastructure,landuseandcarbonsinks.Thissectionhighlightscasesthatquestion(i)aproject’sconsistencywiththeParisAgreementoragovernment’snet-zerocommitmentsand(ii)EIArequirements.A.ConsistencywiththeParisAgreementornet-zerocommitmentsAnumberofcaseshavebeenbroughtchallenginggovernmentapprovalsbasedonaproject’sinconsistencywiththeParisAgreementoracountry’snet-zerocommitments.TheCourtofAppeal(CivilDivision)ofEnglandandWalesinClientEarthv.SecretaryofState(2021)declinedtoaddresswhethertheconversionofapowerplantfromcoaltonaturalgasignoredtheUnitedKingdom’snet-zerotarget,findingthatGHGemissionswerenota“freestandingreasonforrefusal”ofaproject’sapproval.ThecourtreasonedthattherelevantagencyhaddiscretionovertheweighttoassigntoGHGemissionsandthatthesecretaryofstateproperlybalancedtheproject’sadverseeffects,includingGHGemissions,withthepositiveeffects,includingsocioeconomicoutcomesandthereuseofexistinginfrastructure.62InNewZealand,severalstudentshavesuedtheNewZealandMinisterofEnergyandResources,challengingthedecisiontograntpermitsforonshoreoilandgasexplorationasinconsistentwiththeGovernment’slegalobligationsunderthecountry’sClimateChangeResponse(ZeroCarbon)AmendmentAct2019(StudentsforClimateSolutionsIncv.MinisterofEnergyandResources2022).63InCitizens’CommitteeontheKobeCoal-FiredPowerPlantv.Japan(2023),theOsakaDistrictCourtrejectedarequestforaninjunctiontopreventtheconstructionandoperationoftwonewunitsatacoal-firedplantinJapan.ThepetitionersarguedthattheprojectwasinconsistentwithJapan’s2030and2050climatetargets.Thecourtfoundthattheplaintiffs’humanrightsclaimsweregeneralratherthanindividualandthereforelackedstanding.Thecourtfurtherdeferredtothediscretionofthegrantingauthority.64Asimilarlawsuit,alsocurrentlypending,wasfiledbythesameNGOagainstthetwoprivatecompaniesplanningtheproject(Citizens’CommitteeontheKobeCoal-FiredPowerPlantv.KobeSteelLtd.,etal.2023).65TheParisAgreementcallsforpartiestorespect,promoteandconsidertheirobligationsonhumanrightsincludingaspectsofgenderequality,intergenerationalequityandtheempowermentofwomen.InWomenfromHuascoandOthersv.theGovernmentofChile,MinistryofEnergy,EnvironmentandHealth(2022),agroupofwomencalledfortheshutdownoftwothermoelectricpowerplants,GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page45©Flickr/USEmbassyarguingtheywerecontrarytoChile’sdecarbonizationplans,theParisAgreementandtheirhumanrights.InMay2022,theCourtofAppealsofCopiaporejectedtheclaimonthegroundsofseparationofpowers.ThecasewasappealedtotheChileanSupremeCourt.SimilarclaimshavebeenbroughtinAustralia.InSharmaandothersv.MinisterfortheEnvironment(2022),youthplaintiffsfiledalawsuitagainsttheAustralianFederalMinisterfortheEnvironment,arguingthattheMinisterowedacommon-lawdutyofcaretoAustralianchildrentoavoidcausingclimateharminexercisingherstatutorypowerstoapproveacoalmineexpansion.InJuly2021,theFederalCourt66MullaleyGasandPipelineAccordIncv.SantosNSW(Eastern)PtyLtd.,NewSouthWalesLandandEnvironmentCourt,NSWLEC147,16December2021(Australia).ofAustraliadeclaredthattheMinisterhadadutytotakereasonablecareintheexerciseofherpowersundertheEnvironmentProtectionandBiodiversityConservationAct1999toavoidcausingpersonalinjuryordeathtoAustralianchildren“arisingfromemissionsofCO2intotheEarth’satmosphere”.66InMarch2022,theFullFederalCourtofAustralia,anintermediateappellatecourt,unanimouslyoverturnedthatdecision(Tigre2022b).ThecourtfoundthattherelationshipbetweentheyouthplaintiffsandtheMinisterlackedtheclosenessanddirectnessthatthecommonlawdemandsbeforefindingadutyisowedbyonepartytoanother.ThecourtalsorejectedtheMinister’sargumentthattheprimaryjudgemadePage46GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3findingsbasedonunfoundedevidenceofclimatechange.Theplaintiffsannouncedthattheywouldnotappealthedecision.InMullaleyGasandPipelineAccordIncv.SantosNSW(Eastern)PtyLtd(2021),theLandandEnvironmentCourtNewSouthWalesdismissedachallengetotheapprovalofacoalseamgasfieldandassociatedinfrastructure.Thecourtfoundthattheplaintiffshadnotsufficientlyestablishedthattheplanningcommissionerredin(i)consideringtheexpectedGHGemissions;(ii)excludingScope3ordownstreamGHGemissionsfromitsassessment;and(iii)failingtoconsidertheclimateimpactsofgastransmissionpipelines.67However,inKEPCOBylongAustraliav.IndependentPlanningCommissionandBylongValleyProtectionAlliance(2021),theNewSouthWalesCourtofAppealfoundthattheCommissionhadadequatelyfoundthatKEPCOhadnotproposedtominimizeGHGemissionsdespitetheStateClimateChangePolicy’srequirements.68Similarpendingclaimsquestionthevalidityofawater-sharingplan67MullaleyGasandPipelineAccordIncv.SantosNSW(Eastern)PtyLtd.,NewSouthWalesLandandEnvironmentCourt,NSWLEC147,16December2021(Australia).68KEPCOBylongAustraliav.IndependentPlanningCommissionandBylongValleyProtectionAlliance,CourtofAppealofAustralia,NSWCA216,14September2021(Australia).69NatureConservationCouncilofNewSouthWalesv.MinisterforWater,PropertyandHousing,NewSouthWalesLandandEnvironmentCourt,Case2021/00282599,8June2022(Australia).70EnvironmentVictoriav.theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyetal.(2021),SupremeCourtofVictoria,SECI202103415,16September2021(Australia).71GuyaneNatureEnvironnementandFranceNatureEnvironnementv.France,CouncilofStateofFrance,No.455465,456314,455497,455500,10February2022(France).72AllAboardAotearoav.WakaKotahi,HighCourtofNewZealand,4June2021(NewZealand).(NatureConservationCouncilofNewSouthWalesv.MinisterforWater,PropertyandHousing2022)69andpowerstationlicences(EnvironmentVictoriav.theEPAetal.2021).70InGuyaneNatureEnvironnementandFranceNatureEnvironnementv.France(2022),theCouncilofStateruledthatarenewalofauthorizationofathermalpowerplantinFrenchGuiana–anoverseasterritoryofFrance–didnotneedtoconsiderFrance’soverallmitigationgoals.However,inApril2022,theadministrativecourtcancelledtheenvironmentalauthorizationofthepowerplantgiventhattherewasaninsufficientsearchforanalternativelocationandwouldposeanuisancetoprotectedspecies.71InNewZealand,theGovernmentabandonedaprojecttofundandbuildaroadafterajudicialreviewclaimquestioneditscompatibilitywiththeParisAgreement(AllAboardAotearoav.WakaKotahi2021).72Severalsimilarcases,inwhichgovernmentpermitsandauthorizationsarechallengedonclimategrounds,arestillpendingasat31December2022.©Flickr/BureauofSafetyandEnvironmentGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page47Threerelatedcases,nowcombined,werefiledinArgentinaquestioningtheMinistryofEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment’sdecisiontoapprovetheimplementationofanoffshoreseismicacquisitionproject.73InAfricaClimateAllianceetal.v.MinisterofMineralResources&Energyetal.(#CancelCoalcase)(2022),NGOslaunchedayouth-ledconstitutionalchallengequestioningtheSouthAfricanGovernment’splanstoprocurenewcoal-firedpowerelectricity.74InDenmark,anNGOquestionedtheconstructionofanartificialpeninsula–aprojectdevelopedasaclimateadaptationmeasure–asitfailedtoaccountforGHGemissionsaswellasDanishandEuropeanUnionnet-zerotargets(TheClimateMovementv.MinistryofTransportation2021).75Caseshavealsobeenbroughtwiththegoalofprotectingkeyecosystemsthatactascarbonsinks.Forexample,inAsociaciónCivilporlaJusticiaAmbientalv.ProvinceofEntreRíosetal.(DeltadelParanácase)(2021),NGOsandagroupofchildrenhavequestionedthreeArgentinianprovincesandamunicipality’sdutytoprotecttheDeltadelParaná,awetlandofinternationalimportanceundertheRamsarConventiononWetlandsofInternationalImportance,thatburnedsignificantlythroughout2020.RelyingonhumanrightsandArgentina’sobligationundertheParisAgreement,theplaintiffsaskedthecourttodeclaretherightsofnatureoftheecosystemduetoitsclimatemitigationandadaptationcharacteristics.76AsimilarcasewasbroughtinTürkiye,relatedtotheMarmaraLake,awetlandofnationalimportanceandasignificantcarbonsink.Theplaintiffsarguethatthegovernmenthasfailedtoprotectthelake,directlyviolatingthe73SeeFederalCourtofMardelPlataN.2,Argentina:http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-jurisdiction/federal-court-of-mar-del-plata-n-2/.74AfricaClimateAllianceetal.,v.MinisterofMineralResources&Energyetal.(#CancelCoalcase),HighCourtofSouthAfrica,CaseNo.56907/21,20January2022(SouthAfrica).75TheClimateMovementv.MinistryofTransportation,WesternHighCourtofDenmark,22October2021(Denmark).76AsociaciónCivilporlaJusticiaAmbientalv.ProvinceofEntreRíos,etal.(DeltadelParanácase),SupremeCourtofArgentina,CSJ542/2020,28December2021(Argentina).77S.S.GölmarmaraveÇevresiSuÜrünleriKooperatifiv.RepublicofTürkiyeMinistryofAgricultureandForestry,AdministrativeCourtofManisa,July2022(Türkiye).78MinistérioPúblicoFederalv.IBAMA,SeventhFederalEnvironmentalandAgrarianCourtoftheJudiciarySectionofAmazonas,ACPNo.1007104-63.2020.4.01.3200,21May2020(Brazil).PSBetal.v.Brazil(onAmazonFund),FederalSupremeCourtofBrazil,ADO59/DF,3November2022(Brazil).79MinistérioPúblicoFederalv.IBAMA,SeventhFederalEnvironmentalandAgrarianCourtoftheJudiciarySectionofAmazonas,ACPNo.1007104-63.2020.4.01.3200,21May2020(Brazil).ParisAgreement(S.S.GölmarmaraveÇevresiSuÜrünleriKooperatifiv.RepublicofTürkiyeMinistryofAgricultureandForestry2022).77SeveralBraziliancasesrelatedtotheprotectionoftheAmazonrainforestalsoarguethattheforestactsasasignificantcarbonsink(MinistérioPúblicoFederalv.IBAMA2020;InstituteofAmazonianStudiesv.Brazil2022;PSBetal.v.Brazil[onDeforestationandHumanRights]2022;PSBetal.v.Brazil[onAmazonFund]2022).78B.EnvironmentalimpactassessmentrequirementsManycasesinthiscategoryarepartiallyorentirelypremisedonEIAandsimilarplanningrequirements.Thesecasesoften,thoughnotalways,challengeprojectpermittingandapprovaldecisionsforfailingtoconsiderclimateimpactsaspartofrequiredenvironmentalreviews.InSaonuandMorobeProvincialGovernmentv.MinisterforEnvironmentandConservationandClimateChangeandOthers(2021),theMorobeProvincialGovernmentinPapuaNewGuineachallengedtheenvironmentalpermitofaminingleaseforfailingtoconsiderclimatechangewhenissuingthepermit,improperreviewofclimateissues,inadequateconsultationofaffectedcommunitiesandtheirreparableenvironmentaldamages.In2021,theCourtofJusticeatWaigani,PapuaNewGuinea,notedthatthepartiesdidnotprovideanyinformationonwhethertheEIAfactoredlevelsofCO2emissionsandimpactsonthelocalandglobalenvironmentorproposedmeasurestominimizesuchemissions.Thecourtissuedanorderofstaypendingsubstantialreview.79Similarly,theChileanSupremeCourtruledPage48GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3in2022inMejillonesTouristServiceAssociationandotherswiththeEnvironmentalEvaluationService(SEA)ofAntofagasta(2022)thatclimateimpactsshouldbeincludedintheenvironmentalreviewprocess,includinginarevisionofolderenvironmentalpermits.80InSouthAfrica,NGOssoughtaninterdictprohibitingseismicsurveysoffthecoastofSouthAfrica.TheHighCourtruledinSustainingtheWildCoastNPCandOthersv.MinisterofMineralResourcesandEnergyandOthers(2022)thattheexplorationrightwasawardedwithoutproperconsultationoranassessmentofclimateimpacts.Thecourt80MejillonesTouristServiceAssociationandotherswiththeEnvironmentalEvaluationService(SEA)ofAntofagasta,SupremeCourtofChile,CaseNo.6930-20216930-2021,19April2022(Chile).81SustainingtheWildCoastNPCandOthersv.MinisterofMineralResourcesandEnergyandOthers,HighCourtofSouthAfrica,CaseNo.3491/2021,1September2022(SouthAfrica).82FriendsoftheEarthv.Haaland,CourtofAppealsfortheD.C.Circuit,Nos.22-5036,22-5037,22-5067,24January2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).83CenterforBiologicalDiversityv.Bernhardt,NinthCircuitCourtofAppeals,982F.3d723,7December2020(UnitedStatesofAmerica).84Food&WaterWatchv.FERC,CourtofAppealsfortheD.C.Circuit,28F.4th277,11March2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).85R(FinchonbehalfoftheWealdActionGroup&Others)v.SurreyCountyCouncil(&Others),CourtofAppeal(CivilDivision)ofEnglandandWales,CO/4441/2019andC1/2021/0261,2022(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).recognizedtheriskofirreparableandimminentclimateharm,aswellasimpactsonthecommunities’culturalpracticesandoceanconservation.81CasesintheUnitedStatesofAmericahavealsoconfirmedthatconsiderationofclimatechangeisarequiredcomponentofEIAs.TheD.C.CircuitCourtofAppealsinvalidatedtheBureauofOceanEnergyManagement’sleasesaleofoffshorelandintheGulfofMexicoforoilandgasdevelopmentinFriendsoftheEarthv.Haaland(2023),holdingthattheEIAwasdeficientbecausetheBureaudidnotconsiderchangesinforeignoilconsumptionwhenevaluatingGHGemissionsassociatedwiththeleasesale.82TheNinthCircuitCourtofAppealsfoundanEIAdeficientforsimilarreasonsinCenterforBiologicalDiversityv.Bernhardt(2020).83InFood&WaterWatchv.FERC(2022),theD.C.Circuitaffirmedagainin2022thattheFederalEnergyRegulatoryCommissionwasrequiredtoconsidertheGHGemissionsattributabletoburningthegastobecarriedbyapipelineinitsEIA,atleastinsomecircumstances.84InR(FinchonbehalfoftheWealdActionGroup&Others)v.SurreyCountyCouncil(&Others)(2022),claimantschallengedpermitsissuedfornewhydrocarbonwellsduetoinconsistencywiththeUnitedKingdom’snet-zerotargetandtheGovernment’sfailuretoconsiderScope3ordownstreamemissions.TheHighCourtinitiallydismissedtheclaimin2020,findingthattheGovernmentfailedtoassessdownstreamemissions.Onappeal,theCourtofAppealin2022issuedasplitdecisioninwhichthemajoritydeferredtotheGovernment’sdiscretionandthedissentarguedthattheGovernmenthadfailedtomeetitsEIAobligations.85©Unsplash/WorksiteLtdGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page49Severalsimilarclaimsarestillpendingasat31December2022.InSouthDurbanCommunityEnvironmentalAlliancev.MinisterofEnvironmentandOthers(2021),anNGOchallengedtheSouthAfricanGovernment’sapprovalofoffshoreoilandgasexplorationonthebasisthatitfailedtoconsiderclimateimpactsintheEIA.86InSouthDurbanCommunityEnvironmentalAlliance&Groundworkv.MinisterofForestry,Fisheries,andtheEnvironment(2021),NGOshavechallengedtheauthorizationofa86SouthDurbanCommunityEnvironmentalAlliancev.MinisterofEnvironmentandOthers,HighCourtofSouthAfrica,June2021(SouthAfrica).87SouthDurbanCommunityEnvironmentalAlliance&Groundworkv.MinisterofForestry,Fisheries,andtheEnvironment,HighCourtofSouthAfrica,8April2021(SouthAfrica).88Thomas&DeFreitasv.Guyana,SupremeCourtofGuyana,27September2021(Guyana).89Henryv.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,SupremeCourtofGuyana,2021-HC-DEM-CIV-FDA,21January2022(Guyana).gas-firedpowerplantforinadequateassessmentofclimateimpacts.87InThomas&deFreitasv.Guyana(2021),twocitizensallegedthatGuyanaviolatedconstitutionalrightsbyapprovingoilexplorationlicencestoanExxonMobil-ledgroup.88InHenryv.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(2022),threecitizensquestionedthedecisionofEPAofGuyanatograntamodifiedenvironmentalpermitallowingEsso/ExxonMobiltoflaregaswithoutconsideringGHGemissions.89©Flickr/PMOBarbadosPage50GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3IV.Corporateliabilityandresponsibility90Smithv.FonterraCo-OperativeGroupLimited,HighCourtofNewZealand,NZSC35,31March2022(NewZealand).Seealsothe2020LitigationReportpages22,38,42,and44.From2020to2022,agrowingnumberofcaseshaveemergedthatnameprivatepartiesasdefendantsanddemonstrateanincreasingdiversityoflegalstrategiesthatuseavarietyoftheories.KeyexamplesincludecasesseekingtoholdGHGemittersorfossilfuelcompaniesresponsibleforclimateharm,aswellascasesagainstfinancialinstitutionsonthebasisthattheyhaveignoredormisusedknowledgeaboutclimatechangerisk.The2017LitigationReportdescribedseverallegalactionsofthiskind.Itnotedthatplaintiffshadyettoestablishthatcertainemittersweretheproximatecauseoftheplaintiff’sspecificinjuries.The2020LitigationReporthighlightedseveralpendingcasesintheUnitedStatesofAmericaagainstfossilfuelproducersseekingtoholdcorporationsaccountableforashareofclimatechange’simpacts.Theseincludeclaimsthatdefendantcompaniesareliablebothforpublicnuisanceduetotheirdeceptivemarketingoffossilfuelsaswellastheirfailuretowarnthepublicandconsumersabouttheforeseeableharmtheirproductscause.Whileacompany’sliabilityforclimateimpactshasyettobeestablished,inatleastoneinstanceafossilfuelcompanyhasbeenfoundtooweadutytomitigateemissionsfromitsproducts.A.CorporatedutytomitigateemissionsIncreasingly,climatelitigationcaseshavetargetedcorporationsinanattempttoidentifytheircorporateresponsibilitytomitigateGHGemissions.The2020LitigationReporthighlightedSmithv.FonterraCo-OperativeGroupLimited(2022),acasebroughtagainstsevencompaniesintheagricultureandenergysectorsinNewZealand.Asnotedinthe2020LitigationReport,theHighCourtofNewZealandruledthatthecompanieshadnodutyofcaretowardstheplaintiffsastheclimatedamageswerenotreasonablyforeseeableorproximatelycausedbythecompanies’actions.Inanappeal,theCourtofAppealruledthattortlawwasnottheappropriateavenuefordealingwithclimatechange,reasoningthateverypersonintheworldisatthesametimetheoneresponsibleforcausingtherelevantharmandthevictimofthatharm.ThecasewasgrantedleavetoappealtotheNewZealandSupremeCourt.90TheissueofacorporatedutyofcarewasalsorecentlyanalysedbyafirstinstancecourtintheNetherlands.InMilieudefensieetal.v.RoyalDutchShell(2022)(Milieudefensie),TheHagueDistrictCourtorderedDutch-basedoilandgasmultinational©Unsplash/MikaBaumeisterGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page51RoyalDutchShelltoreduceCO2emissionsassociatedwithitsproductsby45percentfrom2019levelsby2030.ThejudgmentrepresentsthefirsttimeaprivatecompanywasorderedtocomplywiththeParisAgreementandwasfoundtohaveadutytomitigateGHGemissionsundertheParisAgreement.Thecourtgroundeditsdecisioninclimate-relatedhumanrightsresponsibilitiesandtort-basedduties,includingthoserelatedtocorporateduediligence,andonanunwrittenstandardofcarebasedonthegoalsoftheParisAgreementandtheUnitedNationsGuidingPrinciplesonBusinessandHumanRights.91Thejudgmentisunderappealasat31December2022.France’s2017LawontheDutyofVigilance,whichimposesparent-basedduediligenceobligationscoveringhumanrightsandtheenvironment,has91Milieudefensieetal.v.RoyalDutchShellplc.,TheHagueDistrictCourt,C/09/571932/HAZA19-379,25April2022(Netherlands).92EnvolVertetal.v.Casino,JudicialCourtofSaint-Étienne,2March2021(France).alsofacilitatednewclimateclaimsagainstcorporations.InNotreAffaireàTousandOthersv.Total(2021),plaintiffshaveaskedthecourttoordertheoilandgascompanyTotaltorecognizetherisksgeneratedbyitsbusinessactivitiesandalignitsconductwiththeParisAgreement.Afteradebateonthecourt’scompetencytodecidethecase,thecasewillthenmovetothemeritsstage.InEnvolVertetal.v.Casino(2021),acoalitionofNGOssuedtheFrenchsupermarketchainCasinoforitssupplychainemissionsrelatedtothecattleindustryinBrazilandColombia.Thecasehaschallenged“emissionsoutsourcing”andtargetedacompanythathaslowemissionsprofilesintheircorporatehomebutwhoseproductshavecausedsignificantpollutioninotherjurisdictions.Thecaseisstillinthepreliminarystage.92©Flickr/CarlosArandaPage52GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Box7:PhilippinesCarbonMajorsreport93DeutscheUmwelthilfe(DUH)v.BayerischeMotorenWerkeAG(BMW),RegionalCourtofMunich,3September2021(Germany).94DeutscheUmwelthilfe(DUH)v.Mercedes-BenzAG,RegionalCourtofStuttgart,13September2022(Germany).95Kaiser,etal.v.VolkswagenAG,RegionalCourtofBraunschweig,11November2021(Germany).96BarbaraMetzetal.,v.WintershallDeaAG,RegionalCourtofKassel,4October2021(Germany).97ReteLegalitàperilClima(LegalityforClimateNetwork)v.IntensiveLivestockFarmingMultinationalCompaniesOperatinginItaly,OECDNationalContactPoint,6December2021(OECD).98ReteLegalitàperilClima(LegalityforClimateNetwork)andOthersv.ENI,OECDNationalContactPoint,15February2022(OECD).In2022,theCommissiononHumanRightsofthePhilippinespublisheditsNationalInquiryonClimateChange,theoutcomeofitsseven-yearinvestigationintotheresponsibilityof47fossilfuel-producingcompanies(theso-called“CarbonMajors”)forclimatechange(Philippines,CommissiononHumanRightsofthePhilippines2022).TheinvestigationwasinitiatedinresponsetoapetitionbyGreenpeaceSoutheastAsiaandotherenvironmentalorganizationsandindividualFilipinocitizensinInreGreenpeaceSoutheastAsiaandOthers,whoaskedtheCommissiontoinvestigate“thehumanrightsimplicationsofclimatechangeandoceanacidificationandtheresultingrightsviolationsinthePhilippines,”namingtheCarbonMajorsasrespondents.TheCommissionconductedafact-findingmissionthatincludedhearingsinManila,LondonandNewYork.Initsreport,theCommissionconcludedthatthePhilippineGovernmentowesaduty(basedontheUnitedNationsGuidingPrinciplesonBusinessandHumanRights)toprotecthumanrightsandavoidabusesbynon-Stateactors,andthattheGovernment’srefusalorfailuretoengageinmeaningfulandconcreteactiontomitigateclimatechangemaybecategorizedasahumanrightsviolation.TheCommissionfurtherconcludedthatbusinessenterprisesmustrespecthumanrights,irrespectiveofwhetherdomesticlawsexistorarefullyenforceddomestically.Thiscorporatedutyincludestheresponsibilitytoavoidcausingorcontributingtoadversehumanrightsimpactsthroughharmtotheenvironmentorclimatechange.TheCommissionacknowledgedthattheCarbonMajorshadearlyawareness,noticeorknowledgeoftheirproducts’adverseimpactsontheenvironmentandclimatesystemandengagedinwilfulobfuscationandobstructiontopreventmeaningfulclimateaction.TheCommissionconcludedthattheCarbonMajorshaveacorporateresponsibilitytoundertakehumanrightsduediligenceandprovideremediation.CasesagainstcorporationstargetingacorporatedutytoreduceGHGemissionswerealsobroughtinGermanyafterthedecisioninNeubauer.Threecaseswerefiledagainstautomakersseekingtocompelthemtostrengthentheircarbonemissionstargetandstopproducingfossilfuel-emittingcarsby2030:DUHv.BMW(2021),93DUHv.Mercedes-Benz(2022),94andKaiser,etal.,v.VolkswagenAG(2021).95GroundingtheircaseintheParisAgreementandGermanfederalclimatelaw,theplaintiffshavearguedthattheautomakershavebeenviolatingthefundamentalrighttoclimateprotection(asrecognizedinNeubauer)andimpingingontherightsandfreedomsoffuturegenerationsbynotadheringtoafaircarbonbudget.InBarbaraMetzetal.,v.WintershallDeaAG(2021),plaintiffsusedsimilarlegalgroundstoseekanordertocompeltheenergycompanyWintershallDeaAGtostrengthenitsemissionstargetandgiveuptheextractionofnaturalgasandcrudeoilby2025.96Allcasesareinthepreliminarystagesasat31December2022.TwocaseswererecentlyfiledinItalybeforetheOECDNationalContactPoint,seekingbroadercorporateemissionsreductions.InReteLegalitàperilClima(LegalityforClimateNetwork)v.IntenseLivestockFarmingMultinationalCompaniesOperatinginItaly(2021),plaintiffschallengedthecompatibilityofthepracticeofintensivelivestockfarmingwithItaly’snet-zerocommitments.97InReteLegalitàperilClima(LegalityforClimateNetwork)andothersv.ENI(2022),plaintiffsquestionedtheadequacyofthebusinessplanpursuedbytheoilcompanyENIasitpertainstoitscommitmenttonet-zeroemissionsby2050.Bothcasesarealsointhepreliminarystages.98GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page53Box8:NuisancecasesintheUnitedStatesofAmerica99CityofNewYorkv.BPp.l.c.,CourtofAppealsfortheSecondCircuit,No.1:18-cv-00182,24April2021(UnitedStatesofAmerica).CityofNewYorkv.ExxonMobilCorp.,DistrictCourtfortheSouthernDistrictofNewYork,No.1:21-cv-04807,12November2021(UnitedStatesofAmerica).Connecticutv.ExxonMobilCorporation,CourtofAppealsfortheSecondCircuit,No.21-1446,31August2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).Vermontv.ExxonMobilCorp.,DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofVermont,No.2:21-cv-260-wks,2September2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).CityofHobokenv.ExxonMobilCorp.,CourtofAppealsfortheThirdCircuit,HUD-L-003179-20,12October2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).CityofOaklandv.BPp.l.c.,DistrictCourtfortheNorthernDistrictofCalifornia,No.CGC-17-561370,24October2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).Mayor&CityCouncilofBaltimorev.BPp.l.c.,SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,No.24-C-18-004219,3January2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).CityofCharlestonv.BrabhamOilCo.,DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofSouthCarolina(CharlestonDivision),No.2020CP1003975,20January2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).City&CountyofHonoluluv.SunocoLP,SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,No.1CCV-20-0000380,22February2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).RhodeIslandv.ShellOilProductsCo.,SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,No.PC-2018-4716,22February2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).CountyofSanMateov.ChevronCorp.,SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,No.17CIV03222,27February2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).Statev.AmericanPetroleumInstitute,CourtofAppealsfortheEighthCircuit,No.62-CV-20-3837,23March2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).Delawarev.BPAmericaInc.,SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,No.N20C-09-097,27March2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).DistrictofColumbiav.ExxonMobilCorp.,CourtofAppealsfortheD.C.Circuit,No.2020CA002892B,31March2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).BoardofCountyCommissionersofBoulderCountyv.SuncorEnergy(U.S.A.),Inc.,SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,No.2018CV030349,5April2023(UnitedStatesofAmerica).100CityofNewYorkv.ChevronCorp.,CourtofAppealsfortheSecondCircuit,993F.3d81,1April2019(UnitedStatesofAmerica).NearlytwodozenstatesandcitiesintheUnitedStatesofAmericahavesuedlargefossilfuelcompaniesseekingcompensationfordamagesrelatedtoclimatechange(CityofNewYorkv.BPp.l.c.2021;CityofNewYorkv.ExxonMobilCorp2021;Connecticutv.ExxonMobilCorporation2022;Vermontv.ExxonMobilCorp2022;CityofHobokenv.ExxonMobilCorp2022;CityofOaklandv.BPp.l.c.2022;Mayor&CityCouncilofBaltimorev.BPp.l.c.2023;CityofCharlestonv.BrabhamOilCo.2023;City&CountyofHonoluluv.SunocoLP2023;RhodeIslandv.ShellOilProductsCo.2023;CountyofSanMateov.ChevronCorp2023;Statev.AmericanPetroleumInstitute2023;Delawarev.BPAmericaInc.2023;DistrictofColumbiav.ExxonMobilCorp2023;BoardofCountyCommissionersofBoulderCountyv.SuncorEnergy[U.S.A.]2023).99Thetypesofclaimsvaryandincludenuisance,negligence,strictliabilityandtrespassclaims,aswellasclaimsunderstateandlocalconsumerprotectionandunfairtradepracticesstatutes.Sincethefirstcasewasfiledin2017,litigationhascentredonwhetherthecasesbelonginfederalorstatecourts,raisingthebroaderissueofthecourt’sauthoritytoaddressclimateissues.Everycourtthathasissuedadecisiontodatehasfoundthat,becausethecasesseektoimposeliabilitybasedonthecompanies’deceptivemarketing,historicdisinformationcampaignsandfailuretowarnconsumersandnotthemereproductionoffossilfuels,thecasesbelonginstatecourt(CityofOaklandv.BPp.l.c.2022;Mayor&CityCouncilofBaltimorev.BPp.l.c.2023;City&CountyofHonoluluv.SunocoLP2023;RhodeIslandv.ShellOilProductsCo.2023;CountyofSanMateov.ChevronCorp.2022;BoardofCountyCommissionersofBoulderCountyv.SuncorEnergy(U.S.A.),Inc.2023).Atthetimeofthispublication,thereareseveralcasesthataremovingintolitigationinstatecourts,includingcasesinHawai’i,MarylandandRhodeIsland,whileothersawaitfinalrulingsontheissue.InCityofNewYorkv.ChevronCorp.(2019),theSecondCircuitCourtofAppeals(afederalcourt)affirmedthedismissalofNewYorkCity’scaseassertingcommon-lawclaims,whichsoughttoimposeliabilitybasedonthecompanies’fossilfuelproduction.TheSecondCircuitheldthat,asthecaserelatestofederalcommonlaw,itdisplacedthestatelawclaims.Furthermore,itheldthattheCleanAirAct(afederalstatute)regulatesanyfederalcommon-lawclaimsrelatedtodomesticemissions.Italsoheldthatforeignpolicyconcernsforeclosedfederalcommon-lawclaimsstemmingfromemissionsoutsidetheUnitedStatesofAmerica.100Incontrast,atrial-levelstatecourtinHawai’idenieddefendants’motiontodismissalawsuitbroughtbytheCityandCountyofHonolulu.ItdistinguishedtheSecondCircuit’sdecision,notingthattheHawai’ilawsuitsoughttoimposeliabilitybasedonthecompanies’tortiousspeechandfailuretowarn,andnotonlytheproductionoffossilfuels(City&CountyofHonoluluv.SunocoLP.2023).Page54GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3B.CorporateliabilityforadaptationAlimitednumberofcaseshaveaddressedtherecognitionofcorporateliabilityforadaptationtoclimatechange.Somependinglawsuitshighlightedinthe2020LitigationReporthaveyettobedecidedasat31December2022.TheseincludeLucianoLliuyav.RWEAG(2022),acasebroughtbyaPeruvianfarmeragainstaGermanutilitycompanyseekingcompensationforthecostsofprotectingtheplaintiff’stownfrommeltingglaciers.101DuetodelaysrelatedtotheCOVID-19pandemic,thecaseremainsintheevidentiaryphase.C.ResponsibilityoffinancialinstitutionsCourtsarebeginningtoassesstheresponsibilityoffinancialinstitutionsfortheclimatedimensionsoftheirinvestments.InClientEarthv.BelgianNationalBank(2022),plaintiffsarguedthatthebankhadfailedtomeetenvironmental,climateandhumanrightsrequirementswhenpurchasingbondsfromfossilfuelandotherGHG-intensivecompaniesaspartoftheEuropeanCentralBank’sCorporate101LucianoLliuyav.RWEAG,HigherRegionalCourtofEssen,CaseNo.2O285/15,OnAppeal,May2022(Germany).102ClientEarthv.BelgianNationalBank,CourtofFirstInstanceofBrussels,21/38/C,Withdrawn,2022(Belgium).103ConectasDireitosHumanosv.BNDESandBNDESPar,NinthFederalCivilCourtoftheFederalDistrict,ACP1038657-42.2022.4.01.3400,22June2022(Brazil).104Kangetal.v.KSUREandKEXIM,DistrictCourtofSeoul,23March2022(RepublicofKorea).SectorPurchaseProgramme(CSPP).ClientEartharguedthattheCSPPunderminestheEuropeanUnion’semissionsreductiontargetsandfailstotakeintoaccountclimateconsiderationsandsoughtapreliminaryreferencetotheCJEUtodeterminewhetherthedecisiontoestablishtheCSPPwaslawful.102TwocasesinBrazilpreviouslymentioned,PSBetal.v.Brazil(onClimateFund)(2022)andPSBetal.v.Brazil(onAmazonFund)(2022)havequestionedtheallocationoffundsbytheBrazilianNationalDevelopmentBank(BNDES).In2022,anNGOquestionedhowBNDESanditsinvestmentarm,BNDESPar,whicharebothpubliclyfunded,havereportedcarbonemissionsassociatedwithBNDESPar’sinvestmentportfolioandmaintainedequitypositionsinsectorsthatareamongthemostcarbon-intensiveintheBrazilianeconomy(ConectasDireitosHumanosv.BNDESandBNDESPar2022).103Finally,inKangetal.v.KSUREandKEXIM(2022),acasefromtheRepublicofKorea,plaintiffshavequestionedtheinvestmentofanexportcreditagencyinagasreserveoffthecoastofIndigenouslandinAustralia.104©Flickr/BarryMarshGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page55V.Climatedisclosuresandgreenwashing105YorkCountyv.Rambo,DistrictCourtfortheNorthernDistrictofCalifornia,No.3:19-cv-00994,22February2019(UnitedStatesofAmerica).PeopleoftheStateofNewYorkv.ExxonMobilCorporation,SupremeCourtofNewYork,No.452044/2018,27February2020(UnitedStatesofAmerica).Ramirezv.ExxonMobilCorp.,DistrictCourtfortheNorthernDistrictofTexas,No.3:16-cv-3111,31March2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).Commonwealthv.ExxonMobilCorp.,HighCourtofMassachusetts,No.SJC-13211,24May2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).O’Donnellv.Commonwealth,FederalCourtofAustralia,VID482/2020,22June2022(Australia).106ClientEarthv.EuropeanInvestmentBank,CJEU,T-9/19andC-212/21P,Appealed,2February2021(EuropeanUnion).Increasedpublicawarenessandunderstandingofclimatechangehavespurredactionsbroughtagainstcorporationsonclaimsofmisrepresentativestatementsaboutclimatechange.Thiswaswellhighlightedinthe2020LitigationReport,whichincludedafewexamplesofgreenwashingcasesinAustralia,theUnitedKingdomandUnitedStatesofAmerica.Allcasesmentionedarependingasat31December2022(YorkCountyv.Rambo2019;PeopleoftheStateofNewYorkv.ExxonMobilCorporation2020;Ramirezv.ExxonMobilCorp.2022;Commonwealthv.ExxonMobilCorp.2022;O’Donnellv.Commonwealth2022),105andseveralothershavebeenfiledsince.Thesekindsofactionsinvolveplaintiffsbringingsuitsclaimingtheyreliedonthosestatementstomakefinancialdecisions,aswellascasesbroughtbygovernmentsenforcingsecuritiesdisclosuresandconsumerprotectionlaws,andNGOschallengingallegedgreenwashingorclimate-washingcampaigns.Investorscontinuetofilesuitsallegingthatpublicdisclosuresrelatingtoclimateriskweremisleadingorfraudulent,bothinrelationtotheriskthatatransitionawayfromfossilfuelsposestotheirbusinessorinvestmentassetsandtheriskofphysicalimpactstoinfrastructure,operationsandsupplychainsassociatedwithclimatechange.Asobservedinthe2020LitigationReport,theclimatedisclosurecasesareusuallygroundedinnationalconsumerprotectionorcorporatelaws.Importantly,theregulatorycontextforclimatedisclosuresisinflux.In2019,theEuropeanCommissionapprovednon-bindingguidelinesonreportingclimate-relatedinformation(EuropeanCommission2019).In2021,itadoptedtheCorporateSustainabilityReportingDirective,alegislativeproposaltostrengthenthenatureandextentofsustainabilityorEnvironmental,SocialandGovernance(ESG)reportingintheEuropeanUnion,whichwouldconstitutesubstantialregulatoryreformintheESGreportingspace(EuropeanCommission2022).Anewruleaimedatenhancingpubliclytradedcompanies’disclosureofclimate-relatedriskshasbeenproposedbytheUnitedStatesSecuritiesandExchangeCommission(UnitedStatesofAmerica,SecuritiesandExchangeCommission2022).Theseregulationscouldleadtolitigationonmultiplefronts.A.Protectionofinvestors:climatedisclosuresCasesconcerningdisclosureofinvestmentsinhigh-emittingGHGactivitiesarefoundinAustralia,BrazilandtheEuropeanUnion.InClientEarthv.EuropeanInvestmentBank(2021),theEuropeanUnionGeneralCourtorderedtheEuropeanInvestmentBanktoacceptClientEarth’spetitionforaninternalreviewofthebank’sdecisiontofinanceabiomasspowerplant.TherequestreliedontheprovisionsoftheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEuropeConventiononAccesstoInformation,PublicParticipationinDecision-makingandAccesstoJusticeinEnvironmentalMatters(AarhusConvention).ClientEarthclaimedthattheprojectoverestimatedtheenvironmentaladvantagesbyunderestimatingtherisksofloggingandforestfireemissions.106InAbrahamsv.CommonwealthBankofAustralia(2021),shareholderssuedtheCommonwealthBankofAustraliafordisclosureofdocumentsundertheCorporationsActof2001ofthebank’sinvolvementinaseriesoffossilfuelprojectsthatpotentiallyinfringedthebank’senvironmentalPage56GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3andsocialpolicies.TheFederalCourtallowedtheplaintiffstoinspectalimitedscopeofdocumentsandorderedtheCommonwealthBankofAustraliatoproducetherelevantdocuments.107InClaraLeonelRamosandBrunodeAlmeidadeLimav.StateofSãoPaulo(FamiliesfortheClimateandIncentivAutoProgram)(2021),acommunitygroupinBrazilsuedthestategovernmentofSãoPauloseekingdisclosureofthebudgetaryandclimateimpactsoftheIncentivAutoProgram,anoverUSD150millionfunddesignedtoincentivizeautomakinginthestate.Plaintiffsallegedthatthefundofferedfinancingwithoutrequiringanyclimatemitigationeffortsonthepartofthecarmakers.TheplaintiffsclaimedthattheprogrammewaspotentiallyillegalforfailingtominimizeGHGemissions,inviolationofSãoPaolo’sClimateChangePlan.108TherehavealsobeenclimatedisclosurecasesagainstpensionfundsbroughtinAustralia,LuxembourgandtheUnitedKingdom.The2020LitigationReportnotedtheAustraliancaseMcVeighv.RetailEmployeesSuperannuationTrust(2020),inwhichtheplaintiffallegedthatthefundviolatedtheCorporationsAct2001byinadequatelyrespondingtohisrequestforinformationaboutthefund’sknowledgeofclimatechangerisk,itsassessmentofthatriskandtheactionstakeninresponse.Thepartiessettledthecasethroughanagreementforthefundtoimplementanet-zerogoal;tomeasure,monitorandreportclimateprogressinlinewiththeTaskForceonClimate-relatedDisclosures;toensureinvesteeclimatedisclosure;andtopubliclydiscloseportfolioholdings,amongothercommitments.109InGreenpeaceA.S.B.L.v.Schneider(2020),inwhichGreenpeaceaskedforinformationonhowLuxembourg’ssovereignfundaligneditsinvestmentswiththegoalsoftheParisAgreement,theadministrativejudgeruledthatthesovereignpensionfundhadtodisclosetheinformationsought.ThecourtalsofoundthatthefundhadnolegalobligationtocomplywiththeParisAgreement.110107Abrahamsv.CommonwealthBankofAustralia,FederalCourtofAustralia,NSD864/2021,26August2021(Australia).108ClaraLeonelRamosandBrunodeAlmeidadeLimavs.StateofSãoPaulo(FamiliesfortheClimateandIncentivAutoProgram),CourtofJusticeofSãoPaolo,No.1047315-47.2020.8.26.0053,10June2021(Brazil).109McVeighv.RetailEmployeesSuperannuationTrust,FederalCourtofAustralia,NSD1333/2018,Settled,2November2020(Australia).110GreenpeaceA.S.B.L.v.Schneider,AdministrativeCourtofLuxembourg,No.43604durôle,12March2020(Luxembourg).111EwanMcGaugheyetal.v.UniversitiesSuperannuationSchemeLimited,HighCourtofJusticeofEnglandandWales,EWHC1233,27October2021(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).112AmisdelaTerreandSherpav.Perenco,CourtofParis,No.20-22.444,9March2022(France).InEwanMcGaugheyetal.,v.UniversitiesSuperannuationSchemeLimited(2021),plaintiffsintheUnitedKingdomissuedproceedingsagainsttheUniversitySuperannuationScheme’sdirectorsunderthedirectors’dutytoactinthebeneficiaries’bestinterests.Claimantsarguedthatfossilfuelshavebeentheworst-performingassetclasssince2017andthatthefailuretocreateadivestmentplanhasprejudicedthesuccessofthecompany.TheclaimantsfurtherreliedontheECHRandthedirectors’dutiesundertheParisAgreement.111InAmisdelaTerreandSherpav.Perenco(2022),FrenchNGOsattemptedtoobtaindocumentsrelatedtotheenvironmentalimpactsoftheoilcompany’soperationsintheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo.TheTribunaldeGrandeInstancedeParisandtheParisCourtofAppealdeniedtheirrequest,andsotheyappealedtotheCourtofCassation.InMarch2022,theCourtofCassationruledinfavouroftheNGOsandheldthatanyinterestedpartymayaskaFrenchjudgeforaninvestigativemeasureifthereisalegitimatereasontopreserveorestablish,beforeanyproceedings,evidencethatcouldberelevanttotheresolutionofadispute,providedthattheactionenvisagedisnotmanifestlyinadmissibleorcontrarytothelawordoomedtofailure.112InIntheMatterofAGLLimited(2022),theplaintiffwasahigh-valueshareholderofAGLEnergyLimited,Australia’sbiggestGHGemitter.AlthoughtheplaintiffdidnothaveaccesstothematerialsthatAGLputtoshareholdersforavoteonademerger,theplaintiffwasconcernedthatthosematerialsmightnotadequatelyaddressclimaterisks.Shareholdersaretypicallyunabletoaccessthematerialsbeforethefirsthearingoftheapplication.InMay2022,atahearingoftheSupremeCourtofNewSouthWales,theplaintiffsoughtleavetobeheardinthecourt’shearingoftheapplication,includingonthebasisthattheproposeddemergerwasnotinthebestinterestsofshareholders.Leavewasgranted,andAGLwasGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page57requiredtoprovidetheschemematerialstotheplaintifftoreview.Thecourtorderedtheunamendedpublicationofthedocuments.AGLlaterdecidedtowithdrawthedemergerproposal.113B.Protectionofconsumers:greenwashingcomplaintsGreenwashingcomplaintsallegethatcorporateadvertisingcontainsfalseormisleadinginformationaboutclimatechangeimpactscontrarytoresponsibleadvertisingorfaircompetitionlegislationorstandards.Inonecase,theItalianCompetitionAuthorityhasquestionedEni’sDiesel+advertisingcampaignasitpertainedtothegreenclaimsintheadvertisingmessages,which,accordingtotheCompetitionAuthority,havedisseminatedfalseandomissiveinformationregardingthefuel’senvironmentalimpact113IntheMatterofAGLLimited,CourtofNewSouthWales,CommonLawDivision,NSWSC576,12May2022(Australia).114ItalianCompetitionAuthorityRulingEni’sDiesel+AdvertisingCampaign,RegionalAdministrativeCourtofLazio,20December2019(Italy).115ASARulingonRyanairLtdt/aRyanairLtd,AdvertisingStandardsAuthority,ComplaintNo.G19-1035778,5February2020(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).116ASARulingonShellUKLtd.’sShellGo+Campaign,AdvertisingStandardsAuthority,8July2020(UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland).andGHGemissionsreductions(ItalianCompetitionAuthorityRulingEni’sDiesel+AdvertisingCampaign2019).114TheUnitedKingdom’sAdvertisingStandardsAuthority(ASA)foundthatairlineRyanair’sclaimsofhavinglowCO2emissionsandbeingthelowest-emissionsairlineweremisleading.TheASAfoundthatconsumerswouldfindinsufficientinformationintheadvertisementstosubstantiatethattheywouldreducetheirpersonalCO2emissionscomparedwithflyingwithanothercarrier(ASARulingonRyanairLtdt/aRyanair2020).115Inanothercase,theASAconcludedthatShellhadtoclarifythatthecarbonoffsettingwascontingentonmembershipinaloyaltyscheme.Shell’scampaignonaschemethatallowedcustomersto“drivecarbon-neutral”throughoffsettingemissionsoffuelpurchaseswasruledmisleading(ASARulingonShellUKLtd.’sShellGo+Campaign2020).116NewZealand’senergycompanyFirstgas’campaignon“zero-carbongas”wasalsodeemedmisleadingbytheASAComplaintsBoarddueto©Flickr/DevonBuchananPage58GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3unsubstantiatedenvironmentalstatements(LawyersforClimateActionComplainttotheAdvertisingStandardsBoard2021).117InMilieudefensie(2020),TheHagueDistrictCourtalsoconcludedthatShellhadfalselyclaimedthatitsplanswerealignedwiththeParisAgreement.InDenmark,NGOsfiledasuitagainstDanishCrown,afarmcooperativeandtheEuropeanUnion’slargestporkproducer,claimingthatthecompanywasmisleadingconsumersthroughitscampaignthatclaimeditsporkproductionwas“climatecontrolled”andthattheporkwas“moreclimate-friendlythanyouwouldthink.”TheclaimantshaveallegedthatthecompanyismisrepresentingitsclimatefootprintandisinviolationoftheMarketingAct(VegetarianSocietyetal.ofDenmarkv.DanishCrown2022).118Theclaimisstillpendingasat31December2022.117LawyersforClimateActionComplainttotheAdvertisingStandardsBoard,AdvertisingStandardsAuthorityComplaintsBoard,No.21/194,6July2021(NewZealand).118VegetarianSocietyetal.ofDenmarkv.DanishCrown,WesternHighCourtofDenmark,2022(Denmark).119ComplainttoAdStandardsonHSBC’sGreatBarrierReefAd,AdStandards,0265-21,13October2021(Australia).Greenwashingclaimshavealsoreliedonmarketingcampaignsthatareincompatiblewithacompany’sinvestments.Forexample,acomplaintwasfiledatAdStandardsAustraliaagainstHSBCbankforcontinuedfossilfuelsinvestmentsdespiteamarketingcampaigntosupporttheprotectionoftheGreatBarrierReef(ComplainttoAdStandardsonHSBC’sGreatBarrierReefAd2021).119InFossielVrijNLv.KLM,severalNGOshavechallengedtheairlineKLM’sadvertisingcampaignbasedontheargumentthatthereiscurrentlynosuchthingas“flyingresponsibly”andthatKLMseekscompanygrowthandincreasedflightsaleswhenitshouldbereducingemissionsbyreducingthenumberofflights“tokeepajust,liveableworldwithinreach.”ThecasebuildsonanApril2022decisionofthenationalAdvertisementCodeCommission,in©Flickr/OxfamInternationalGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3Page59whichtheDutchmediawatchdogruledthatelementsofthe“FlyResponsibly”campaignviolatedthecode’sprovisionsonmisleadingadvertising,especiallythoseelementsreferringtoclimateneutralityor“CO2ZERO”.Thisincludestheslogans“Beahero,flyCO2ZERO”120Fossielvrij-Bewegingv.KoninklijkeLuchtvaartMaatschappijN.V.,DistrictCourtofAmsterdam,7July2022(Netherlands).121AustralasianCentreforCorporateResponsibilityv.Santos,FederalCourtofAustralia,NSD858/2021,25August2021(Australia).122GreenpeaceFrance,AmisdelaTerreFrance,NotreAffaireàTousv.TotalEnergiesSE,TotalEnergiesElectricité,GazFrance,CourtofParis,2March2022(France).and“CO2neutral:KLMcompensatesfortheCO2emissionsofyourKLMHolidaysflight”(Fossielvrij-Bewegingv.KoninklijkeLuchtvaartMaatschappijN.V.2022).120Box9:Greenwashingcomplaints–netzeroAsmorecompaniescommittonet-zerotargets,itislikelythatquestionswillberaisedastohowthesewillbeimplemented.TwocaseswerefiledinAustraliaandFrancechallengingoilandgascompanies’campaignsonnet-zeroemissions.InAustralia,theAustralasianCentreforCorporateResponsibilitysuedoilandgascompanySantosoverclaimsthatitprovidescleanenergynaturalgasandhasplansfornet-zeroemissionsby2040(AustralasianCentreforCorporateResponsibilityv.Santos2021).121ThesuithasallegedthatthesemisrepresentationsareinviolationofAustralianconsumerprotectionandcorporationlaws.InFrance,severalNGOsquestionedTotal’snet-zeroadvertisingcampaign,arguingtheywerefalseandmisleadingintheirdepictionoftheroleofgasandbiofuels.TvhecasewasbroughtunderFrenchnationallaw,implementingtheEuropeanUnion’sUnfairCommercialPracticesDirectiveandrepresentsthefirstcasechallenginganoilandgasmajor’snet-zeroclaimsforgreenwashinginEurope(GreenpeaceFrance,AmisdelaTerreFrance,NotreAffaireàTousv.TotalEnergiesSE,TotalEnergiesElectricité,GazFrance2022).122C.Protectionofconsumers:misrepresentationofproductsIntheUnitedStatesofAmerica,caseshavebeenbroughtbycitiesandstatesagainstfossilfuelcompaniesquestioningtheirroleinclimatedisinformationandmisrepresentationofproducts.InConnecticutv.ExxonMobilCorp.(2022),thestateofConnecticutsuedExxonMobiltoholdthecompanyaccountableforviolatingtheConnecticutUnfairTradePracticesActinconnectionwithallegeddeceptiveactstocreateuncertaintyaboutclimatescience.InCityofNewYorkv.ExxonMobilCorp.(2021),NewYorkCitysuedseveraloilcompaniesunderthecity’sconsumerprotectionlawsarguingthatthecompaniesengagedindeceptivetradepracticesbymisrepresentingtheirfossilfuelproductstoconsumers,misleadingconsumersabouttheimpactoffossilfuels.Similarly,inVermontv.ExxonMobilCorp.(2022),thestateofVermontbroughtaprotectionlawsuitagainstfossilfuelcompaniesallegingdeceptiveandunfairbusinesspracticesinconnectionwiththecompanies’saleoftheirproducts.Page60GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart3VI.Failuretoadaptandimpactsofadaptation123ConservationLawFoundationv.ExxonMobilCorp.,DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofMassachusetts,No.1:16-cv-11950,29September2016(UnitedStatesofAmerica).124ConservationLawFoundation,Inc.v.ShellOilProductsUS,DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofRhodeIsland,No.1:17-cv-00396,21July2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).125ConservationLawFoundationv.ShellOilCo.,DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofConnecticut,No.3:21-cv-00933,16September2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).ConservationLawFoundationv.GulfOilLP,DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofConnecticut,No.3:21-cv-00932,29September2022(UnitedStatesofAmerica).126D.G.KhanCementCompanyv.GovernmentofPunjab,SupremeCourtofPakistan,C.P.1290-L/2019,16April2021(Pakistan).127TexansAgainstHigh-SpeedRail,Inc.v.U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,DistrictCourtfortheWesternDistrictofTexas,No.6:21-cv-00365,18August2021((UnitedStatesofAmerica).Althoughsomegovernmentsandprivatepartiesareundertakingavarietyofmeasurestoadapttotheincreasinglysevereeffectsofclimatechange,othersareawareofthosechangesandtheforeseeableextremeweathereventsthatclimatechangewillbringbuthavenottakenstepstoprepare.Courtsareseeingbothcasesseekingcompensationforadaptationeffortsthathavecausedharmordamagedpropertyandseekinginjunctivereliefforfailingtoadaptinthefaceofknownclimaterisks.However,despitetheimportanceofadaptationefforts,therearestillalimitednumberofcasesfocusedonadaptation.The2017and2020LitigationReportsdescribedsuchcasesinAustralia,Canada,India,Japan,SouthAfricaandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.In2021,aUnitedStatesofAmericafederaltrialcourtinConservationLawFoundationv.ExxonMobilCorp.(2016)issuedanorderconcerningthenextstepsfortheConservationLawFoundation’slawsuitthatallegedthatExxonfailedtoprepareitsmarineterminalinEverett,Massachusettsfortheimpactsofclimate.123Thedistrictcourtconcludedthata2021SupremeCourtdecisiondidnotalterthestandardthedistrictcourthadusedindenyingamotiontodismissclaimsforprospectiveinjunctivereliefforlackofstanding.SimilarcaseshavebeenfiledinRhodeIsland(ConservationLawFoundation,Inc.v.ShellOilProductsUS2022)124andConnecticut(ConservationLawFoundationv.ShellOilCo.2022;ConservationLawFoundationv.GulfOilLP2022).125Thesecasesaremovingforwardtotrial.Ashighlightedinthe2020LitigationReport,severalcasesdealwithgovernmentstepstoaddresstheheightenedriskofcoastalfloodingthroughpermittingdenials.In2021,theSupremeCourtofPakistanupheldanotificationbarringtheconstructionofnewcementplantsortheexpansionofexistingcementplantsinenvironmentallyfragilezonescalled“negativeareas”.Inthatcase,acementcompanyownerchallengedthenotificationbecauseitviolatedtheirconstitutionalrighttofreedomoftrade,businessandprofession.TheSupremeCourtupheldthenotificationasaclimate-resilientmeasureduetotheactivities’potentialenvironmentalimpact,especiallyongroundwater.Thecourtemphasizedtheneedtoconsiderclimatechangeingovernmentdecisionsandtheimpactofclimatechangeonwaterresources.Thecourtspecificallynotedthevalueandneedofdevisingandimplementingappropriateadaptationmeasurestoensurewater,foodandenergysecurityforthecountry(D.G.KhanCementCompanyv.GovernmentofPunjab2021).126AfewothercaseshavebeenbroughtforwardduetoaGovernment’slackofconsiderationofadaptationmeasures.InTexansAgainstHigh-SpeedRail,Inc.v.U.S.DepartmentofTransportation(2021),plaintiffschallengedtheFederalRailroadAdministration’sapprovalofa“RuleofParticularApplicability”forahigh-speedrailtechnologyproposedforuseinTexas.TheplaintiffsincludedaclaimundertheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct,theEIAlawintheUnitedStatesofAmericathatallegesthatthedefendantsfailedtoconsiderhowthepotentialrailproject’sdesignwouldaccountforincreasingrainfalllevelsresultingfromclimatechange.127InTsamaWilliamandOthersv.Uganda’sAttorneyGeneralandOthers(2020),theapplicantsquestiontheUgandangovernment’slackofadaptationmeasuresagainstconstantlandslidesrelatedtoclimatechange.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4Page61©Flickr/UnitedNationsPhotoPart4:Thestateofclimatechangelitigation–futuredirectionsPage62GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4Part4:Thestateofclimatechangelitigation–futuredirections1Withtheincreaseincertaintypesofcases,someofthecategoriesidentifiedasfuturedirectionsinthe2020LitigationReportarenowinthecurrenttrends.ThisincludestheconsumerandinvestorfraudclaimsandtheincreasinguseofInternationaladjudicatorybodies.Similartothe2020LitigationReport,ananalysisofthesecasesandothers,theacceleratingimpactsofclimatechangeandtheglobalpoliticalcontextsuggestsseveralareaswhereonemightexpecttoseeincreasedclimatechangelitigationinthecomingyears.Aswasobservedinthesamereport,althougheachnewcaseisuniqueandtheoutcomeofagivencaseisdifficulttopredict,priorcasesinsomeofthesecategoriesoffersomeevidenceofhowfuturecasesmayberesolved.Thissectionfirstrevisitssimilartrendforecasts,madeinthe2017and2020LitigationReports,ofcasesinvolving:(i)Climatemigration(ii)Pre-andpost-disasterconditions(iii)Implementationofthejudicialdecisionsthemselves1Itthensuggestsadditionaldevelopmentsthatthenearfuturemayhold:(iv)Transnationalresponsibility(v)Casesbroughtbyvulnerablegroups(vi)“Backlash”cases,whichincludeISDS,justtransitionlitigationandcasesbroughtagainstclimateactivists©Flickr/ThomasCizauskasFGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4Page63I.Updateon2020predictions:climatemigration2I.L.v.ItalianMinistryoftheInteriorandAttorneyGeneralattheCourtofAppealofAncona,SupremeCourtofCassation,N.5022/2021,24February2021(Italy).The2017and2020LitigationReports(UNEP2017;UNEP2020)suggestedthatcasesaddressingtheneedsandstatusofpersonsdisplacedbyclimatechangeimpactswouldbeagrowinglitigationtrend.Sincethe2020LitigationReport,therehasbeenoneimportantdecisioninaclimatemigrationcase,inItaly.In2021,Italy’sSupremeCourtofCassationruledinI.L.v.ItalianMinistryoftheInteriorthatjudgesevaluatingrequestsforhumanitarianprotectionshouldconsidernotonlyarmedconflictbutalsosocial,environmentalorclimatedegradationandsituationsinwhichnaturalresourcesaresubjecttounsustainableexploitation.ThatcasewasbroughtbyaNigeriannationallivingintheNigerDelta,whoserequestforhumanitarianprotectionwasinitiallydenied.Initsdecision,thecourtcitedthehumanitarianvaluesarticulatedintheTeitiotacase(UnitedNations,HumanRightsCommittee2020),namelythat“stateshavetheobligationtoensureandguaranteetherighttolifeofpeople,andthatthisrightalsoextendstoreasonablyforeseeablethreatsandpotentiallylethalsituations”,andconcludedthattheNigerDelta’ssevereenvironmentalinstability,aresultoftheindiscriminateexploitationoftheareabyoilcompaniesandtheethnic-politicalconflicts,mightqualifytheplaintiffforhumanitarianprotection.Thecourtorderedthecourtoffirstinstancetore-evaluatetheapplication,incorporatingintotheiranalysisenvironmental,climateandresourceextractionimpactsonanindividual’srighttolifeanddignifiedexistence(I.L.v.ItalianMinistryoftheInteriorandAttorneyGeneralattheCourtofAppealofAncona2021).2Part4contentbreakdown:Past(trendsforecastsbeingrevisitedafter2017/20reports)Future(additionaldevelopmentsthatthenearfuturemayhold)Figure10.ClimatemigrationPre-andpost-disasterconditionsImplementationofjudicialdecisionsincludesISDS,justtransitionlitigationandcasesbroughtagainstclimateactivistsClimateattributionTransnationalresponsibility“Backlash”casesCasesbroughtbyvulnerablegroupsPage64GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4II.Updateon2020predictions:pre-andpost-disastercases3BushfireSurvivorsforClimateActionIncorporatedv.EnvironmentalProtectionAuthority,LandandEnvironmentCourtofAustralia,NSWLEC92andNSWLEC152,5March2021(Australia).4InreAltoMaipoDelawareLLC,BankruptcyCourtfortheDistrictofDelaware,No.21-11507,17November2021(UnitedStatesofAmerica).5Seethe2020LitigationReport,page23.Legalactionsonthefailuretoappropriatelyplanfortheconsequencesofextremeweatherevents,whicharealsocloselyrelatedtoadaptation,arelikelytoincreaseasthenumberofsucheventsdoes.Afewdifferenttypesofclaimshavebeenbroughtaftertheoccurrenceofadisasterorclimatechangeimpact,seekingavarietyoflegalremedies.Thiswaspreviouslyaddressedinthe2020LitigationReportwherecourtswerebeingaskedtoreviewadefendant’sactionorinactioninthefaceofknownriskthatclimate-relatedextremeeventswouldresultindamagetoplaintiffs’propertyorlossoflife.Assummarizedinthatreport,thescopeofpotentialliabilityfromcasesofthistypeisbroad:anyentitythatarguablyneglectedanobligationtoplanorprepareforclimate-drivendamagesfacesariskofbeingsuedinthewakeofanextremeweathereventorafterslow-movingclimateimpactsinjurepotentialplaintiffs.IntheUgandancaseTsamaWilliamandOthersv.Uganda’sAttorneyGeneralandOthers(2020),applicantshavesoughtdamagesandcompensationfromtheGovernmentforthelossoflife,threatstolife,destructionofpropertyandinfringementoffundamentalhumanrights,aswellasthecostsofresettlementtosaferareasduetooccurrenceofrecurringlandslidesinBududaDistrict.TheplaintiffsclaimthattheGovernmenthasfailedtopreventandproperlyadapttoclimate-drivendamages,thereforeaffectingtheirhumanrights.Landslideshavebeenmademorefrequentandintenseasaresultofclimate-relatedextremeweatherevents.InBushfireSurvivorsforClimateActionIncorporatedv.EnvironmentalProtectionAuthority(2021),theplaintiffsallegedthattheyhadbeenharmedbybushfiresmadelikelyormoreintensebyclimatechangeandclaimedthattheNewSouthWalesEnvironmentalProtectionAuthorityofAustraliafailedtodevelopguidelinesorapolicytoregulateGHGsconsistentwithlimitingglobaltemperatureriseto1.5°C.3In2021,theLandandEnvironmentCourtorderedtheNewSouthWalesEnvironmentalProtectionAuthoritytodevelopenvironmentalqualityobjectives,guidelinesandpoliciestoensureprotectionfromclimatechangeimpacts.Thecourtfoundthatthedutytodevelopenvironmentalprotectioninstrumentsincludedspecificclimatechangemeasures.Inafinancialcasefrom2021,acompanyconstructingalargerun-of-riverhydroelectricprojectintheAndesMountainsinChilefiledforbankruptcyinDelaware,UnitedStatesofAmerica.Thecompanycitedsignificantimpactsofclimatechange,whichhaveimpactedthehydrologyoftheMaipoValley,wheretheprojectisbeingconstructed(InreAltoMaipoDelawareLLC2021).4Itnotedthattheriversthatwouldpowertheprojecthaveseenasubstantialdropinwaterflow,alteringtheamountofpowerthatcanbeproducedandthereforethefinancialviabilityoftheproject.Casesaddressingextremeweathereventsarealsobeingfiledbeforethoseeventsoccur.TheConservationLawFoundationv.ExxonMobilCorp.(2016)casediscussedearlier,andalsohighlightedinthe2020LitigationReport,exemplifieshowgroupsmightuseexistingstatutestoseekprotectionagainstenvironmentalandpublichealthdisastersfromclimate-relatedextremeevents.5In2021,theConservationLawFoundationfiledtwosimilarcitizensuits,ConservationLawFoundationv.ShellOilCo.(2022)andConservationLawFoundationv.GulfOilLP(2022).Thesecasesassertedthatthedefendants’bulkstorageandfuelterminalsinNewHaven,ConnecticutviolatedtheCleanWaterActandResourceConservationandRecoveryActbecausedefendantshavenotdesigned,maintained,modifiedoroperatedtheirterminalstoaccountforthenumerouseffectsofclimatechange,includingsealevelriseandmorefrequentandmoreseverestorms.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4Page65III.Updateon2020predictions:implementationchallengesAsthenumberandvarietyofclimatechangecasesincrease,plaintiffsarelikelytocontinueseekingabroadrangeofremedies.However,theimplementationofthoseremediesremainsachallengeacrossalltypesofcases.The2020LitigationReportpointedoutatrendsuggestingtheincreasednumberofclimatechangecaseswouldresultinjudicialordersrequiringdefendantstotakebroadactiontoreduceeconomy-wide,sectoralorindividualsourceemissions;haltorslowdeforestationandland-usechange;preventfossilfuelextractionandprotectpeatlands;andincreasetheresilienceofcommunities.Itispossiblethattheimplementationornon-executionofsuchorderswillformthebasisoflegalsuitsmovingforward.Forinstance,aswasalsonotedinthe2020LitigationReport(Part2.III.D),implementationofthecourt’sdecisionintheColombianFutureGenerationscasecontinuestoraisechallenges(Dejusticia2019).AfterthedecisioninMilieudefensie,ShelldecidedtomoveitsheadquarterstotheUnitedKingdom,potentiallymakingimplementationofthedecisionmorechallenging(Hurst2021).SeveralcountriesinEurope,ineffortstoreducedependenceonRussianenergy,havealsorecentlydecidedtoreverttocoalduetotheaggressionbytheRussianFederationagainstUkraine(Betz2022).ThispolicychangecanhavesignificantconsequencesintheimplementationofsystemicmitigationdecisionssuchasUrgendav.theNetherlandsandNeubauer.IV.Updateon2020predictions:increasedattentiontoclimateattributionandfairshareassessmentsofmitigationThe2020LitigationReportpredictedthatrights-basedclaimsonpotentialgovernmentalorcorporateclimatemitigationobligations,aswellascasesonclimatechangeliabilityforprivateactors,wouldproceedtotheirevidentiaryphases.Itremainsthat,toprovetheexistenceofanobligationorabreachofduty,plaintiffsorpetitionersinsomecaseswilllikelyhavetodemonstrateboththattheirinjurieswerecausedbyclimatechangeandthatthedefendantsubstantiallycontributedtoclimatechange.Since2020,fewcourtshaveyettoreachthemeritsofthesetypesofclaims,despitethegrowingbodyofscienceillustratingtheconnections(Burger,WentzandHorton2020).Thescienceofclimateattributioncontinuestobecentraltoclimatelitigation,andasmorecasesarefiledandreachthemeritsoftheplaintiffs’claims,aswasanticipatedinthe2020LitigationReport,therewillbeincreasedjudicialattentiononthematter.Lliuyav.RWEAG(2022)andMilieudefensiedirectlymakeuseofattributionstudies.LliuyaspecificallyassessesthecorporateresponsibilityofprivateGHGemitters(inthiscase,basedinGermany)for©Flickr/CibolaNationalForestandGrasslandsPage66GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4theimpactsofclimatechangeinadifferentcountry(inthiscase,Peru)(Stuart-Smithetal.2021).Inaddition,severalstandingdecisionsaddressthisforthepurposesofinjury.InJuliana(2020),theNinthCircuitCourtofAppealsagreedwiththedistrictcourtthattheplaintiffsmettheinjuryandcausationrequirementsforstandingbecauseatleastsomeplaintiffshadallegedconcreteandparticularizedinjuriescausedbyfossilfuelcarbonemissionsthatwereincreasedbyfederalsubsidiesandleases.InNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncilv.Wheeler(2020),theD.C.CircuitCourtofAppealsfoundasathresholdmatterthattheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncilandoneofthestatepetitioners(NewYork)eachhadstandingbasedonpotential6NaturalResourcesDefensev.Wheeler,CourtofAppealsfortheD.C.Circuit,446U.S.App.D.C.93,955F.3d68,7April2020(UnitedStatesofAmerica).injuriesfromclimatechange,whichwerecausedinpartbyhydrofluorocarbonemissionsandwouldberedressedbyrestrictionsonsuchemissions.6AsplaintiffsrelyonthenotionoffairshareofglobalemissionsundertheParisAgreementtopreciselydetermineacountry’sobligationstomitigateclimatechange,itislikelythatspecificstudieswillalsobereliedoninclimatelitigationcases.Forexample,inASudetal.v.Italy(2021),ClimateActionTrackerspecificallypresentedareportassessingItaly’sfairshareinclimatemitigationtosubstantiatetheclaimtoreduceemissionsby92percentby2030comparedwith1990levels.V.Transnationalresponsibility(extraterritorialresponsibility)Increasingdiscussiononextraterritorialjurisdictionwilllikelybecomeacentralaspectofcasesinthefuture.ThepreviouslynotedadvisoryopinionbytheIACtHRdelineatedforthefirsttimetheparametersforestablishingjurisdictionincasesseekingredressfortransboundaryenvironmentalharms(IACtHR2017;TigreandUrzola2021).Thecourtreasonedthatextraterritorialjurisdictioncanbeestablishedwhen(i)thereisafactualnexusbetweenconductwithinaState’sterritoryandanextraterritorialhumanrightsviolation,and(ii)aStateexerciseseffectivecontrolovertheactivitiescarriedoutin©Flickr/TICAD7PhotographsGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4Page67anotherStatethatcausedtheharmandconsequentviolationofhumanrightsintheotherState.TherecognizednexusbroadensaState’sresponsibilityforenvironmentalharms,includingclimatechange,andreflectsitsobligationtoexerciseduediligencewithinitsterritorywhenhumanrightselsewhereareatstake(Murcott,TigreandZimmermann2022).UsingtheIACtHR’slegalreasoning,theUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildfoundinSacchietal.v.Argentina,etal.(2021)thatcountrieshaveextraterritorialresponsibilitiesrelatedtoclimatechange.Specifically,whentransboundaryharmoccurs,childrenareunderthejurisdictionoftheStateonwhoseterritorytheemissionsoriginatedif(i)thereisacausallinkbetweentheactsoromissionsoftheStateinquestionandthenegativeimpactontherightsofchildrenlocatedoutsideitsterritory,and(ii)theStateoforiginexerciseseffectivecontroloverthesourcesoftheemissionsinquestion.ThefindingsprovideasignificantpathwayforfutureclimatelitigationbeyondtheConventionontheRightsoftheChild,anditsrelianceontheinterpretationofextraterritorialresponsibilitybytheIACtHRshowsagrowingcross-fertilizationbetweencourts.OneofthekeylegalquestionsinGreenpeaceNordicAss’nv.MinistryofPetroleumandEnergy(Peoplev.ArcticOil)(2020)waswhetherextraterritorialemissionsfromthecombustionorotheruseofoilexportedfromNorwaywererelevantinapplyingtheconstitutionalrighttoahealthyenvironment.TheSupremeCourtfoundthatemissionsaretheresponsibilityofeachStatewithintheirjurisdictionalscopeandthattherightdoesnotprovideprotectionoutsideofNorwegianterritory(Voigt2021).However,thecourtleftopenthepossibilityofholdingtheStateresponsibleforviolatingitsdutytoprovideacleanandhealthyenvironmentforthecombustionofitsoilexportswhen(i)thecaseinvolvesgovernmentalactivitiesoractivitiesperformedunderthecontroloftheGovernmentofNorway,includingwhentheGovernmentfailstoimplementmeasuresagainstpollutingactivities,and(ii)whendirectenvironmentaldamageoccursinNorwayasaconsequenceoftheactivitiesforwhichtheGovernmentisdirectlyorevenindirectlyresponsible(GociuandRoy2021).ThisinterpretationmayopenthedoortoresponsibilityforextraterritorialemissionswhenGHGsemittedelsewherefromoilandgasexploitedinNorwaybutcombustedbycompaniesinanothercountry7GreenpeaceArgentinaetal.,v.Argentinaetal.,FederalCourtofMardelPlataNo.2,FMP105/202,5December2022(Argentina).accumulateintheatmosphereandleadtoharminNorwayaswell(GociuandRoy2021;Voigt2021).AsimilarclaimcanbeseeninthecaseofGreenpeaceArgentinaetal.,v.Argentinaetal.(2022),inwhichplaintiffshavearguedthattheStateisresponsiblefortheemissionsthatarisefromfossilfuelexports,inadditiontoemissionswithinitsownterritory.7InAmisdelaTerreandSherpav.Perenco(2022),theCourtofCassationinParisprovidedanavenueforestablishingextraterritorialresponsibilityforaFrenchcompany’sactionsintheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongoundertheDutyofVigilancestatute.Thecourtfoundthatoneseekingcompensationforenvironmentaldamageorsubsequentdamagemaychoosetoinvokeeitherthelawofthecountryinwhichthedamageoccurredorthelawofthecountryinwhichtheeventgivingrisetothedamageoccurred.Inthiscase,theeventgivingrisetothedamageoriginatedinFrance:theenvironmentaldamagesufferedintheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongoisduetothedefactocontrolanddominantinfluenceofthecompany(whoseheadofficeisinFrance)overthecompaniesofthegroupoperatingintheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo.Therefore,therighttorequestmeasurestopreserveorestablishevidencerelevantforacasequestioningenvironmentalliabilityabroadisdefinedinthelawofthejurisdictionorvenueinwhichlegalactionisbrought(inthiscase,inFrance).Anotherwaytoindirectlyestablishacountry’sextraterritorialjurisdictionisbyincludingplaintiffsfrombeyondtheparticularjurisdictionwherethecaseisfiled.TheseoftenincludeplaintiffsfromGlobalSouthjurisdictions,whichareoftenmostvulnerabletoclimateimpacts.SomeoftheplaintiffsintheGermancaseNeubauerwerefromBangladeshandNepal.ThecourtagreedthatitwasconceivablethatfundamentalconstitutionalrightsobligedGermanytoprotectpeopleinothercountries(PeelandMarkey-Towler2022).However,itdidnotanswerthequestionofwhethertherightsoftheforeignplaintiffswereviolated.ThecourtnotedthatthedutytoprotectplaintiffsfromNepalandBangladeshwouldnotnecessarilyhavethesamecontentcomparedwithpeoplelivinginGermany.Otherpendingcasesmayultimatelyexpandontheinterpretationofextraterritorialresponsibilityforclimateharm,includingtheFrenchcaseEnvolVertetPage68GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4al.,v.Casino(2021),andLliuyav.RWEAGinGermany.ThesecasesareinterestingbecausetheyrelatetothepotentialdamageofcompaniesheadquarteredandoperatinginaGlobalNorthjurisdictioninjurisdictionsintheGlobalSouth.Similarly,arecentclaimwasbroughtbyIndonesiancitizensinFourIslandersofPariv.Holcim(2023)inaSwisscourt,witharequestfortheSwisscementcompanyto(i)provideproportionalcompensationforclimate8FourIslandersofPariv.Holcim,OfficeoftheJusticeofthePeaceoftheCantonofZug,1February2023(Switzerland).9Lho’imgginetal.v.HerMajestytheQueen,FederalCourtofAppealofCanada,T-211-20,28June2021(Canada).10BaihuaCaigaetal.,v.PetroOrientalS.A.,Family,Women,andChildrenJudicialUnitfromFranciscodeOrellanaCanton,No.22201202000469,15July2021(Ecuador).change-relateddamagesontheIndonesianislandofPari,(ii)reduceCO2emissionsby43percentby2030,comparedwith2019levels(oraccordingtofindingsofclimatescienceinordertolimitglobalwarmingto1.5°C),(iii)financiallycontributetoadaptationmeasuresonPari.8Theclaimcanbeseenasnovelandunprecedentedasitcombinestwoapproachesatatransnationallevel:thereductionofGHGsandcompensationforclimatedamages.VI.CasesbroughtbyvulnerablegroupsWhileclimatechangeaffectspeopleworldwide,itaffectsthemunequally.Thishasslowlybeguntoberepresentedinclimatelitigation,asplaintiffsfromat-riskcommunitiesbringcasesonbehalfofthemselvesorbyrepresentingtheircommunities.Thishasbeenmoreprominentwithcasesfiledonbehalfofchildren,asnotedearlier.Indigenousgroupsandwomenarealsoincreasinglybecomingmoreactiveinlitigation.Asthesecasesaredecided,itispossiblethatmoreplaintiffsfromvulnerablegroupswillpushforincreasedgovernmentactionaddressedattheirvulnerabilities.IndigenousPeoples’territoriescontainnearly80percentoftheworld’sbiodiversity(Etchart2017).Whiledifferentareasareexperiencingdifferenteffectsofclimatechange,Indigenousgroupsaredisproportionatelyaffectedduetotheirconnectiontothelandandtheirspecificvulnerabilitytomarginalizationonotherfrontiers,suchaseconomicwell-being,foodsecurityandotheravailablerightsandcapabilities.AccordingtotheReportoftheSpecialRapporteurontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples,IndigenousPeoplesareamongthosewhohaveleastcontributedtotheproblemofclimatechange,yettheyaretheoneswhosufferthemostfromitseffects(HRC2017).ManyIndigenousPeoplesliveinareasatgreaterriskofbecominguninhabitable,suchasislandsandcoastalareas,aswellasfragilepolarandforestecosystems.Thisvulnerabilityisslowlyfindingrepresentationinasmallbutgrowingnumberofclimatelitigationclaims(Tigre2022c).ExamplescanbefoundinArgentina,Australia,Canada,Ecuador,France,NewZealandandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.ThesependingcasesprovideinsightintohowIndigenous-specificdomesticlegalapproachesmayshapeclimate-relatedadjudicationgoingforward(Marcum2022).Overall,theclimatelitigationcasesbroughtbyIndigenousgroupshavehadlimitedsuccess.Inoneofthefewsuccessfulcasessofar,aColombiancourtrecognizedtheimpactofclimatechangeonnaturalwatersupplyduetominingactivitiesaswellasthespecificviolationoffundamentalrightsofIndigenousgroupsduetotheirrelationshipwithwaterbodiesinaccordancewiththeirworldviews(ConstitutionalCourtofColombia2017).InLho’imgginetal.v.HerMajestytheQueen(2021),theCanadianFederalCourtdismissedaclaimbroughtbyIndigenousgroupsthatchallengedthegovernment’soverallapproachtoclimatechangeonseparationofpowersgrounds.Thecourtfoundthatclimatechangeisaninherentlypoliticalissuelefttotheexecutiveandlegislativebranchesofgovernment.Withregardtoremedies,thecourtfoundthatitcouldnottakeonasupervisoryroletoensureadequateclimatelawswerepassedduetothemultifacetedproblemofclimatechange.ThecourtneverreachedthemeritstoassesswhetherinadequateresponsestoclimatechangebytheCanadianGovernmentbreachedIndigenoushumanrights.9Thedecisioniscurrentlyunderappeal.InBaihuaCaigaetal.,v.PetroOrientalS.A.(2021),IndigenousgroupssuedoilcompanyPetroOrientalfortheclimateimpactsofgasflaringinEcuador.10Applicantsarguedthatthecompanyhasviolatedseveralhumanrightsduetotheimpactsofclimatechange,includingtherightsofnatureasGHGemissionsalteredthecarboncycle,andtherighttolandandterritorybecausetheirabilitytoenjoynaturalGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4Page69resourcesthroughancestralpracticeshasbeenlimited,amongothers.Thecourtoffirstinstancedidnotadmittheclaimastheplaintiffshadnotsufficientlydemonstratedtheviolationofrights.InDennisMurphyTipakalippav.NationalOffshorePetroleumSafetyandEnvironmentalManagementAuthority&Anor(2022),theFederalCourtofAustraliadecidedtohaltaprojectforoffshoreoildrillingneartheTiwiIslands,abiodiversityhotspot,becauseIndigenousgroupshadnotbeenproperlyconsulted.11Severalclaimsarestillpendingasat31December2022.InPabaiPabaiandGuyPaulKabaiv.CommonwealthofAustralia(2022),FirstNationleadersfromtheGudamalulgalnationoftheTorresStraitIslandshavechallengedAustralia’sfailuretocutGHGemissions,assertingthattheGovernment’sinactionwillforcetheircommunitiesintoclimatemigration.TheplaintiffsdetailedtheclimatevulnerabilityofTorresStraitIslandercommunities,includinglossoffisheries,damagesduetosealevelrises,includingtosacredsitesandcemeteries,andtheimpairmentofobservanceoftraditionalpracticesandceremonies.Theapplicantsallegedthatthe11SantosNABarossaPtyLtdv.Tipakalippa,FederalCourtofAustralia,FCAFC193,2December2022(Australia).12PabaiPabaiandGuyPaulKabaiv.CommonwealthofAustralia,FederalCourtofAustralia,VID622/2021,31March2022(Australia).13YouthVerdictv.WaratahCoal,QueenslandLandCourt,QLC33,2020(Australia).AustralianCommonwealthowesadutyofcaretoTorresStraitIslanderstotakereasonablestepstoprotectthem,theirculture,traditionalwayoflifeandtheenvironmentfromharmscausedbyclimatechange,andthattheGovernmenthasbreachedthisdutyasthetargetsareinconsistentwiththebestavailablescience.12InYouthVerdictv.WaratahCoal(2020),IndigenousyouthplaintiffswhowerepartoftheYouthVerdictenvironmentgroupchallengedacoalminingprojectthatwouldsignificantlycontributetoclimatechangeandlimittheculturalrightsofFirstNationsQueenslanderstomaintaintheirdistinctiverelationshipwiththeland.Thecaserepresentsthefirsttimethatthe2019QueenslandHumanRightsActhasbeenconsideredinrelationtotheenvironmentalimpactsofaresourceproject.13InMataatuaDistrictMāoriCouncilv.NewZealand(2020),claimantshaveallegedthatNewZealandhasbreacheditsobligationstoMāoriundertheTreatyofWaitangibyfailingtotakeadequatestepstoreduceitsfairshareofGHGemissions.TheclaimreliesontheimportanceofthenaturalecosystemtotheMāoriculture.TheclaimispendingattheWaitangiTribunal,theforumwheredisputesoverthe©Unsplash/MikaBaumeisterPage70GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4performanceoftheTreatyofWaitangibetweenMāoriandtheGovernmentofNewZealandareheardandresolved.14ThetwopetitionscurrentlypendingbeforetheUnitedNationsspecialprocedures,previouslymentionedinPart3.I,alsoincludeIndigenouspetitionersandrelyontherightsofIndigenousgroupstoaclaimforincreasedclimateactionbytheGovernmentsoftheAustraliaandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.InEnvolVertetal.,v.Casino(2021),theplaintiffshaverequestedcompensationtoBrazilianIndigenous14MataatuaDistrictMaoriCouncilv.NewZealand,WaitangiTribunal,WAI2607,16January2020(NewZealand).groupsforthelossofopportunityandmoraldamagestemmingfromCasinoGroup’sfailuretoadheretoitsdutyofvigilanceinavoidingdeforestationandbeingsuppliedcattlefromdeforestedareasandfarmsestablishedonIndigenousterritories.InaBraziliancaseseekingenforcementofcommand-and-controlmeasurestocurbdeforestationintheAmazonrainforest,thepetitioner,thepublicprosecutor’soffice(MinistérioPúblicoFederal)callsfortheexpulsionoflandgrabbersinIndigenouslandssituatedincriticalareasofdeforestation,knownashotspots(MinistérioPúblicoFederalv.IBAMA2020).VII.BacklashcasesRecentyearshavewitnessedtheinitiationofseveral“anti-climate”cases–orbacklashcases–whichaimtodelayordismantleexistingoremergingregulationsthatpromoteclimateaction(MarkellandRuhl2012;PeelandOsofsky2020).Theseinclude(i)ISDSclaims,(ii)justtransitionlitigationand(iii)criminalcasesbroughtagainstclimateactivists.Backlashcaseswilllikelycontinuetobebroughttocurbadvancementsinclimatechangemitigationandadaptationactions.A.Investor-StatedisputesettlementsInternationalinvestmentlawisgainingincreasingattentionasaforumforclimatechangelitigation.Arbitrationandmediationarebecomingimportantmeansofresolvingclimate-relateddisputes.However,theconfidentialnatureofsuchprocessesmakesthemdifficulttoexamineandquantify.Atleast14climate-relatedISDScasesfiledbetween2010and2022wereidentified.Whilethesecasesdonotalwayscontainexplicitreferencestoclimatechange,©Unsplash/MattCGlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4Page71theyallrelatedirectlytotheintroduction,withdrawaloramendmentofapolicymeasureexplicitlydevelopedtomeetacountry’sclimategoals.TheneedtocurbGHGemissionswillleadtofurtherassetstrandingindevelopedanddevelopingcountries.Aligningnationalpolicieswithclimateneedswillinevitablyaffectinvestmentsinthefieldoffossilfuelinfrastructureacrossthesupplychain.Therefore,themorecompellingtheneedtoadoptambitiousandabruptmeasurestopursueclimateobjectives,thehighertheriskofISDScasesbeingbroughtagainsthostStates.ISDSclaimsdonot–atleastnotdirectly–aimtosuspendoroverturndomesticregulation.Rather,theclaimsseekcompensationforthedetrimentcausedbysuchmeasurestoforeigninvestorsonacase-by-casebasis.Moreover,theystrictlyrelatetotheviolationofstandardsofprotectionunderinvestmenttreatiesforthepurposesofobtainingmonetarycompensation.IPCCnotedthatthesecasesmaybehinderingnationalmitigationefforts(IPCC2022).Forexample,inEcoOroMineralsCorp.v.RepublicofColombia(2021),anarbitrationpanelatICSIDfoundColombiatobeinbreachoftheFreeTradeAgreementrelatedtominimumstandardtreatmentduetotheactionsoftheColombianGovernment,whichcontinuedtoencourageEcoOrowithrespecttotheminingconcessiondespiteapotentialoverlapoftheareawiththepáramoecosystem,animportantcarbonsink.ThemajorityconsideredtheGovernment’sdelayindelimitingthepáramosanditsfailuretocomplywithconstitutionalobligationstoprotecttheecosystematthetimeofthecompany’sinvestment.Thetribunalfoundthatthecompanyhadlegitimateexpectationstoundertaketheminingexploitationactivitiesinitsconcession,andthatColombia’sdelayinregulatingthepáramosanddelimitingitsgeographicalscopewasarbitraryanddisproportionate,damagingEcoOrowithoutservinganyapparentpurpose.Thetribunalconcludedthat15EcoOroMineralsCorp.v.RepublicofColombia,ICSID,No.ARB/16/41,9September2021(ICSID).16RWEv.theKingdomoftheNetherlands,ICSID,CaseNo.ARB/21/4,2February2021(ICSID).17Uniperv.theKingdomoftheNetherlands,ICSID,CaseNo.ARB/21/22,Withdrawn,2022(ICSID).18TheNetherlandsv.RWEandUniper(Anti-arbitrationInjunctions),HigherRegionalCourtofCologne,January2023(Netherlands).19RWEandUniperv.theNetherlands(MinistryofClimateandEnergy),DistrictCourtofNorthHolland,ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2022:12628;ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2022:12635;ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2022:12653,30November2022(Netherlands).EcoOrowasentitledtodamages,tobedecidedatalaterdate.15Ontheotherhand,twodomesticcourtsinGermanyandtheNetherlandshavesignificantlylimitedtheabilityofcorporationstoseekcompensationfortheeffectsofclimatepoliciesontheirassets,directlyaffectingtwopendingISDScases,RWEv.theKingdomoftheNetherlands(2021)16andUniperv.theKingdomoftheNetherlands(2022).17ThetwoarbitrationclaimsagainsttheNetherlandsrelatetotheGovernment’sphase-outofcoalby2030,whichtheenergycompaniesargueviolatestheEnergyCharterTreaty.Inananti-arbitrationinjunctionbroughtbytheDutchGovernmentinGermanyinTheNetherlandsv.RWEandUniper,theHigherRegionalCourtofColognedeclaredinSeptember2022thatbothICSIDarbitralclaimswereinadmissible.ThecourtfoundthearbitralclauseoftheEnergyCharterTreatyincompatiblewiththelawoftheEuropeanUnionandthusinvalidinintra-EuropeanUnionarbitrations.Thecourt’sdecisioncanbeappealed.However,afterthedecisionwashandeddown,theGermanGovernmentannouncedthatitwouldtakeover99percentofUniperinexchangeforwhichthecompanyagreedtowithdrawitsICSIDclaimagainsttheNetherlands(TheNetherlandsv.RWEandUniper[Anti-arbitrationInjunctions]2023).18InRWEandUniperv.theNetherlands(MinistryofClimateandEnergy)(2022),TheHagueDistrictCourtheldthatcompaniesRWEandUnipercouldnotclaimfinancialcompensationfromtheGovernmentforthemandatoryphase-outofcoal-firedelectricityproduction.Thecourtruledthattherewasno“unlawfulinterference”withpropertyrightsbasedonthecaselawoftheEuropeanUnion,anddecidedthatthemeasurestakenbytheDutchStatetoreduceCO2emissionswereproportionalandthattheinterestsofthecompanieshadbeensufficientlyconsideredwhenadoptingthelaw.19Page72GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewPart4B.JusttransitioncasesDecarbonizationstrategiestophaseoutfossilfuelsaredevelopedinacontextofsocioeconomicproblems,includinginequalityandracialinjustice.Ajusttransition,perceivedfromanenvironmentalandlabour-drivenperspective,isvitaltoensurethatdecarbonizationisbothsuccessfulandfair.Itisdefinedastheshifttowardsalow-carbonsocietythatensurestheprotectionofminoritiesandcarbon-dependentcommunitiesfromundueburdensofthedecarbonizationcosts.ThisscenarioisevenmoresignificantintheGlobalSouth.Theequitypieceofglobaldecarbonizationpoliciesgivesriseto“anti-regulatory”or“defensive”climatelitigation(SavaresiandSetzer2022).Similartobacklashcases,theselawsuitsaimtodelayordismantleexistingoremergingregulatorymeasuresthatpromoteclimateaction(MarkellandRuhl2012;PeelandOsofsky2020).Justtransitioncasesquestionthewayinwhichclimatepoliciesaredevelopedandimplementedorimpacttheenjoymentofhumanrights(Tigreetal.2023).Withgovernmentsadoptingdecarbonizationstrategies,itislikelythatjusttransitioncasesbroughtbyworkersandcommunitiesinvulnerablesituationsimpactedbythesepolicieswillleadtolawsuitsquestioningpotentialbreachesoftheirhumanrights.Thesecasesoftencentrearoundtheparticipationofimpactedcommunitiesingovernmentdecisions.In2021,theSupremeCourtofChileruledinCompanyWorkersUnionofMaritima&CommercialSomarcoLimitedandOthersv.MinistryofEnergy(2021)thatajusttransitionstrategywasessentialfortheworkersharmedbythelossoftheirdirectandindirectsourceofemploymentresultingfromChile’sEnergySectorDecarbonizationPlantoachievecarbonneutralityby2050.Thecourtalsoruleditwasessentialforthecommunitiesaffectedbythelossofserviceslinkedtothedevelopmentofthedecliningthermoelectricactivity.Therulingorderedthegovernmentauthoritiestoimplementaplanforthereinsertionintothelabourmarketofworkersaffectedbythedecarbonizationprocess,consultingtheminthatprocessandadoptingcontrolmeasurestoensurecompliance.2020CompanyWorkersUnionofMaritima&CommercialSomarcoLimitedandOthersv.MinistryofEnergy,SupremeCourtofChile,25.530-2021,9August2021(Chile).21RegionalGovernmentofAtacamav.MinistryofMiningandOther,CourtofAppealofCopiapo,9-2022,30January2022(Chile).Theincreasingneedforthenecessarymineralstodevelopbatteriesinrenewableenergyprojectsfordecarbonizationstrategiessuggestsanincreaseinthecasesthatquestiontheenvironmentalimpactsofmining.Thissubsetofjusttransitioncasesislikelytogrowinthenearfuture,especiallyintheGlobalSouth,wheremosttransitionmineralsarelocated.ClaimshaverecentlybeenbroughtinChile(RegionalGovernmentofAtacamav.MinistryofMiningandOther2022)questioningthepublicparticipationofaffectedcommunitiesintheauthorizationoftheminingprojectandenvironmentalimpactsoflithiumminingpushedforwardaspartoftheenergytransition.21C.ClaimsagainstclimateactivistsWiththebackdropofagrowingsocialmovementraisingawarenessabouttheimpactsofclimatechangeandprotestingthelackofgovernmentaction,theSabinCenterhasalsostartedtoaddtoitsdatabasecasesbringingcriminalchargesagainstclimateactivists.SuchcaseshavesofarbeenobservedinAustralia,Canada,France,NewZealand,SwitzerlandandtheUnitedKingdom.Inthecasesthathavealreadybeendecided,judgeshavegenerallytakentheclimatecrisisintoconsiderationinsentencing.Inrecentcases,protestershavearguedforareducedsentenceorhaveattemptedtoavoidcriminalorcivilsanctions,arguingthatcivildisobedienceisnecessarygiventhestateoftheclimatecrisis.Forexample,inPolicev.Hanafin(2020),theNewZealandDistrictCourtacceptedthatanthropogenicclimatechangeanditseffectsareundeniableandthatthereisarighttofreedomofexpression,furthernotingthatwithoutactivism,changemaybetoolate.However,thejudgeheldthatactivismdoesnotnecessarilymeancivildisobedience,andpeacefulcivildisobediencecannotbecondonedwhereitinfringesthegenuineexistingrightsofanother.Theactivistswereconvictedbutdischargedwithoutpenalty.InClimateActivistsv.ParisAirports(2021),activistswhoillegallyenteredthetarmacatCharlesDeGaulleairportandhaltedairportoperationswereacquittedbecausetheiractionsweretakenina“stateofnecessity”towarnoffuturedanger,namelyclimatechange.Ascivildisobediencerelatedtoclimatechangecontinues,itislikelythatmoresimilarcaseswillbebrought.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewConclusionPage73Conclusion©Unsplash/MarkusSpiskePage74GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewConclusionConclusionThisreporthasprovidedabroadoverviewofcurrenttrendsinclimatelitigation,showinghowlitigationhasbecomeakeydriverofclimatechangemitigationandadaptation.Thenumberandvarietyofclimatechangecasescontinuestoincrease,asdoesthegeographicalrangeinwhichclimatelitigationtakesplace.Keytrendsidentifiedinthereportinclude:(i)Ongoingandincreasingnumbersofcasesrelyingonhumanrightsenshrinedininternationallawandnationalconstitutionstocompelclimateaction(ii)Challengingthedomesticenforcement(andnon-enforcement)ofclimate-relatedlawsandpolicies(iii)Seekingtokeepfossilfuelsandcarbonsinksintheground(iv)Claimingcorporateliabilityandresponsibilityforclimateharms(v)Advocatingforgreaterclimatedisclosuresandanendtogreenwashing(deFreitasNettoetal.2020)onthesubjectofclimatechangeandenergytransition(vi)AddressingfailurestoadaptandtheimpactsofadaptationSeveralcasesidentifiedinthepreviousreportsarestillpending,suggestingthatlitigants,courtsandinternationaltribunalswillbepresentedwithmanymoreopportunitiestoresolvethepressingdangerscreatedbyclimatechangeinthecomingyears.Thisreportfurtheridentifiedaseriesoffuturetrendsinglobalclimatelitigation,indicatingthedirectioninwhichitmayheadinthecomingyears.First,itispredictedthatthenumberofcasesdealingwithmigrants,internallydisplacedpeopleandasylumseekersseekingtemporaryorpermanentrelocationfromtheirhomecountriesorregions,owingatleastinparttoclimatechange,willcontinuetogrow(UnitedNations,HumanRightsCommittee2020).Second,researchcontinuestosuggestagrowingnumberofpre-andpost-disastercasespremisedonadefendant’sfailuretoproperlyplanforormanagetheconsequencesofextremeweatherevents.Third,asmorecasesarefiledandsomereachaconclusion,implementingcourts’orderswillcontinuetoraisenewchallenges.Fourth,courtsandlitigantswillincreasinglybecalledontoaddressthelawandscienceofclimateattributionasbothcasesthatseektoassignresponsibilityforprivateactors’contributionstoclimatechangeandcasesthatargueforgreatergovernmentactiontomitigateadvanceandproliferate.Fifth,courtswillcontinuetobeaskedtodeterminewhetherStatescanbeheldresponsiblefortheextraterritorialdimensionsofclimatechange.Sixth,astheimpactsofclimatechangecontinuetoaffectIndigenouscommunitiesdisproportionately,theywilllikelybringmorecasesseekingtobringaboutachangeinclimatepoliciesorredressforclimateharm.Additionally,severalbacklashcaseswillcontinuetobebroughttocurbadvancementsinclimatechangemitigationandadaptationactions,includingISDSclaims,justtransitionlitigationandcasesagainstclimateactivists.Futureresearchwillintegrateagenderanalysistobetterdeterminetheinvolvementofwomenandgirlswhoareoftenviewedasvictimstotheimpactsofclimatechangeasopposedtoagentsofchangewho,giventhenecessaryresourcesandopportunities,arestrongleadersthatfightforclimatejusticeforthebenefitofall.GlobalClimateLitigationReport:2023StatusReviewReferencesPage75ReferencesCaselaw(referencedinReport)1BvR1565/21,1BvR1566/21,1BvR1669/21,1BvR1936/21,1BvR2574/21,1BvR2575/21,1BvR2054/21,1BvR2055/21,1BvR2056/21,1BvR2057/21,1BvR2058/21(2022).FederalConstitutionalCourtofGermany,18January(Germany).http://climatecasechart.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/non-us-case-documents/2022/20220118_16013_order.pdf.ARequestforanAdvisoryOpinionfromtheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRightsConcerningtheInterpretationofArticle1(1),4(1)and5(1)oftheAmericanConventiononHumanRights(2017).Inter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights,AdvisoryOpinionOC-23/17,15November(Inter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights).http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/request-advisory-opinion-inter-american-court-human-rights-concerning-interpretation-article-11-41-51-american-convention-human-rights/.Accessed13June2023.ASudetal.v.Italy(2021).CivilCourtofRome,5June(Italy).http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/a-sud-et-al-v-italy/.Accessed13June2023.Abrahamsv.CommonwealthBankofAustralia(2021).FederalCourtofAustralia,NSD864/2021,26August(Australia).http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/abrahams-v-commonwealth-bank-of-australia-2021/.Accessed20June2023.ADPGroup(ParisAirports)v.ClimateActivists(2021).CourtofFirstInstanceofBobigny,TribunalCorrectional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