SMARTCHARGINGGUIDEENGLISHEDITION1EDITORIALCONCEPT&EDITORIALCOMMITTEEONTWERP&DESIGNPHOTOGRAPHYCONTACTDETAILSTheSmartChargingGuideispublishedbyElaadNL(TheElaadNLFoundation).Arnhem,29February2020Layout&DesignChrisKarthausAuthorsFrankGeerts,EricvanKaathoven,ArjanWargersandPaulBroosCo-authorsBaertedeBrey,RobCillessen,HarmvandenBrink,LonnekeDriessen,BramvanEijsden,LotteGardien,PaulKlapwijk,GijsvanderPoel,NazirRefa,MartijnSiemes,ThijsvanWijk,MariscaZweistraGraphicsNazirRefaThankstoCelinevanAalst,JanvanRookhuyzen,Harm-JanIdema,RickRoorCopyright©ElaadNL,2020PleasecontactElaadNLshouldyouwishtousedataorinformationpublishedinthisedition.PhotosAllphotosbyElaadNLunlessotherwisetitledCoverPatrickvanGemertUtrechtseweg310B426812ARArnhemTel0263120223Mailinfo@elaad.nlTwitter@elaadNLWebsitewww.elaad.nlColophon2CONTENTSForewordChapter1IntroductionChapter2TheChallengeChapter3SmartChargingSection3.1:TechnicallayerSection3.2:CommunicationlayerSection3.3:OrganisationlayerSection3.4:LegallayerChapter4HowcanweensureSmartChargingbecomesthenorm?FinallyListofabbreviations4519371011091103SmartChargingisacrucialbuildingblockontheroadtoasustainableenergysystem.ForewordKnowledgeandinnovationcentreElaadNLresearchesandteststhepossibilitiesforSmartCharging.Togetherwithourmanypartners,weconductresearchintoSmartCharging,i.e.smartandsustainableelectriccarcharging.WebelievethatSmartChargingisacrucialbuildingblockonthewaytoasustainableenergysystemforelectriccarspoweredbysunandwindenergy.ButwhatisSmartCharging?Whyisitnecessary?Whatvariantsarethere?Whichpartiesplayarole?HowdoesitworkinpracticeandwhatdowestillhavetodotomakeSmartChargingthenorm?Welookedforbutcouldnotfindapublicationthatansweredthesequestions.SowedecidedtopublishthisSmartChargingGuideourselves,firstinDutchandnowinEnglish.WehopethatithelpsanyonewhoisnotyetfamiliarwiththeformandfunctionofSmartCharging,andthatitprovidesnewinsightstothosealreadyfamiliarwithit.Itrustyouwillenjoyreadingthisguide,andshouldyoubeinspired,getintouchaswewouldliketoworktogetherinthefurtherdevelopmentandresearchofSmartCharging.Arnhem,29February2020OnophCaron,directorElaadNL4INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER15Thelightbulbreplacesthegaslamp.Reliable,safeandcleanlightentersourhouseholdsinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesreducingourdependencyondaylightforbothworkandlife.Thearrivalofhouseholdelectricalappliances.Halfwaythroughthetwentiethcentury,householdelectricalappliancescomeintoourlives:thefridge,freezer,washingmachine,ironandvacuumcleaner.Asaresult,householdchoresarenolongeraday’swork.Thearrivaloftheelectriccarandsolarpanels.Andnowwe’reinthemiddleofthethirdpowerrevolution,withsolarpanelsonourroofsandelectriccarsonourdriveways.Weincreasinglyheatourhomeswithelectricity,weplugintopowerourmobility,andwe’restartingtogenerateandstoreelectricityourselves,forexampleinourelectricallypoweredcars.Theincreasingimportanceofpowerinourlives:electricdrivingandself-generationofsustainablepower.Thethirdpowerrevolution6IntroductionEuropeisontheeveofamajormobilityrevolution.Inarelativelyshortperiod,we’llswitchfrompetrolanddieseltoelectricdriving.We’reonourwaytoachievingoneofthekeyParis2015climateagreements:toreducetransportemissions.IntheNetherlands,thiskeymessagewastranslatedbythecoalitiongovernmentintothefollowingaim:by2030allnewpassengervehiclesmustbeemission-free.Atthesametime,electricityproductionischangingdramaticallyaswemovefromfossilfuelslikecoalandgastorenewablesourceslikesunandwind.Thesetwotrendscometogetherwhenchargingelectriccars.So,let’sexplorethesetrendsabitfurther.2030emissionfreePhotoPetrolpumpSource:Pixabay7Thefirstfuel-poweredcarswerebuiltattheendofthe19thcentury;theywereverydifficulttodriveandespeciallytostart.Tostarttheengine,thedriverhadtomanuallypumppetroltothecarburettorfloatchamber,setthethrottleandpre-ignitionmanually,andcranktheengine.Atthetime,cityofficialssawtheelectriccarasamuchcleaneralternativetohorse-driventransport,ratherthanthepetrol-poweredcar.Asearlyas1907ataninternationalcongressinBerlin,adiscussionwasheldonthenegativeeffectofexhaustgasesonpublichealth,asitwasrecognisedthatthesecontainedupto3.7percentcarbonmonoxide.Thus,atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,electriccarswereverypopular:theywerecleaner,easiertooperate,andmuchmorereliablethanpetrolcars.Electrictaxiescouldbefounddrivingclientsinalltheworld’smajorcities,includingNewYork,London,andeveninAmsterdam.Theysometimeshadbatterypacksthatcouldbechangedwithin5minutes.Eventhen,whenchargingthebatterypacks,theLondonElectricCabCompanytooktheamountofelectricityavailableontheelectricitygridintoaccount:SmartChargingavantlalettre.InventorslikeEdisonandMarconiworkedonnewbatterytechnologiesasanalternativetoexistinglead-acidbatteries,developingalkalineandiron-nickelversions.In1900,FerdinandPorschedesignedaplug-inhybridcarpoweredbywheelhubmotors.Electriccarswerealsofoundinmotorsport:in1896,thefirstcarracetobeheldinAmericaonRhodeIslandwaswonbyanelectriccar.Electriccars:nothingnew!SourceJanWouters‘Theelectriccar:isit’s1914marketshareachievablein2020?’PhotoColumbiaMark68VictoriaelectricvehicleSource:Corbis/HallofElectricalHistoryFoundation8Photo(right)N.V.ElectriclightingcompanySource:BrushRidderkerkOurfuture,ourhistoryOnApril19,1886,theveryfirstDutchpowerstation,theElectricLightingcompany,startedgeneratingelectricityatKinderdijk,nearRotterdam.Thankstothisnewinvention,streetlightingcouldnowbepoweredbyelectricity,considerablyreducingthecostsoflightingandextinguishinggaslanterns.Moreover,this‘new’formofpowerwasmuchsaferandcausedlesssmellandsmokenuisance.Thepowerstationinitiallysuppliedpowerforupto350streetlampsinthearea;notmuchlaterresidentswereallowedtobuyenergyfor12to15guildersperlightbulbperyear.Thankstothis,thedaysoftheold,smoky,oilandgaslampswereover;theelectricbulbhadarrived.Theimpressiveenginepoweringtheplantranfrom12o’clockintheafternoonto10o’clockintheevening.Thepowerwassupplieddirectlytothelampsofsurroundingfactories,whileatthesametimebatterieswerecharged,providingpowertothoseneedingelectricityoutsidethisperiod.Aroundthesametime,anotherpioneeringinventionwasborn:theautomobile.Aswiththepowerplant,thisinnovationmeantthatexistingformsoftransportwerereplacedbyasafer,cleanerandmoremodernmeans.Thehorseandcarriage,excrementinthestreets,andthehectaresrequiredforgrowingoatsandstrawasfuelwerenowhistory.Thisnewcarwasnolongerpulledbyhorses,butpoweredbyanenginethatgotitsenergyfromgasoline,steamorelectricity.IntheyearsbeforetheFirstWorldWar,thesethreetypescoexisted,eachwithitsownadvantagesanddisadvantages.However,afterthewar,the‘internalcombustionengine’(ICE)tookoverandtheelectriccaralmostcompletelydisappeared.Itwasconsideredaninterestingexperimentalconceptand,everynowandthen,itreappeared.Asecondgenerationofelectricvehiclesappearedinthe1990s;manufacturersincludingGeneralMotors(EV1),CitroënandRenaultbuiltelectriccars,oftenwithlead-acidbatteries.Notallthesemodelswerecommerciallyavailable;CitroënbuiltelectricdeliveryvansspecificallydesignedfortheFrenchpostalTheN.V.ElectricLightingcompany9Inthefuture,afullysustainableenergysystemispossible.Theessentialconditionsforthisarefar-reachingelectrificationof,amongstothersmobility,heatsupplyandmajorindustries.Allthepowerneededforthishastocomefromsustainablesources,inparticularthesunandwind.Butasthesesourcescan’tsupplythesameamountofelectricityatanygiventimeandeveryseason,ourfutureenergysystemwillhavetorelyheavilyonadjustingdemandtosupplyandonenergystorage.Thisisnowpossibleforshorttermsolutions,daysReadmore?ThefutureDutchfullcarbon-freeenergysystem,KIVIDecember2017Asustainableenergysystemispossibleandweeksusingbatteries,howevertobridgetheseasons,wewillneedtostoreenergyinadifferentform,forexampleinhydrogen.PhotoAssemblySource:Pixabay10service.However,duetothepoorstateofbatterytechnology,theelectric-poweredcarneverbecameacommercialsuccess.Untilthiscenturyatleast.Lookingbacktothestartofthenationalgridandthearrivalofthecarshowsushowpromisingthistimewas.Onceagainwe’reinthemiddleofexcitingtimes.Inthe2015Parisclimateagreement,itwasagreedthatcountriesshouldtakemeasurestoreducegreenhousegasemissionsinordertolimitfurtherglobalwarming.Toachievethisgoal,EUmemberstatesagreedthattheEUshouldreduceemissionsbyatleast40%by2030.Ultimately,by2050,emissionsshouldbereducedto80-95%of1990levels.Thesecolossalchallengesforhumanityrequireground-breakingsolutions.Firstofall,therewillbemoreintensiveuseofsustainableenergyinstallationssuchassolarfieldsandwindfarmsonlandandatsea.However,wewillalsoseeanincreaseinsmaller,localinitiativesinthefieldofsustainableenergy,forexamplepeoplegeneratingandusingtheirownsolarenergy,sendingtheirelectricitybacktothegrid,neighbourhoodsandregionsindependentlymanagingawindfarmandsharingitsenergy.Figure1ShareofsustainableelectricityintheNetherlandsSource:PBLNationalEnergy2017PhotoLandscapeSource:PixabayWindonlandWindatseaSolarBiomass11Unfortunately,noonecanuseacrystalballtogazeintothefuture.Whichtrendswillhavethemostimpact?It’sdifficulttopredicthowcaruseandcarownershipwilldevelop.Thiswasalsotruewhenthecitywasfilledwithhorsesforourmobilityandaftertheywerequicklyreplacedbycars.Andthisisonceagaintrue.Willcarsbedrivingautonomously?Ifso,towhatextentandwhatwilltheconsequencesbe?Whatdoesthatmeanforchargingthesecars?Willplug-chargingstillbepossible,orwillitbewireless?Andotherquestionsariseaboutthewayweusecars.Howwillcarownershipdevelop?Ascarsremainunusedmostofthetime,theycouldalsobeshared.Ifcarscamewhenweneededthem,wewouldonlyneedabout15-25percentofthecurrentnumberofvehiclestomeetourneeds.However,thequestionis:willpeople,collectively,reallywanttogetridoftheirowncars?01110011001010100101001010010101001001011001010001110011001010100101001010010101001001011001010010010010110010100Inaddition,wehavetoexpecttheunexpected.Forexample,carusemaybecomesointerestingthatitsuppressesotheroptions:insteadofgettingonan(electric)bicycleorbus,yousimplyletthecardriveyou.Onethingisclear:muchwillchange,andmuchmorethanjusttheengine.Butexactlywhatandwhatthefuturebrings,remainsuncertain.011100110010101001010010100101010010010110010100011100110010101001010010100101010010010110010100Uncertaintiesaboutfuturemobility12Oneofthechallengestosustainableenergy,however,isthatit’snotalwayspresentinthesamequantities;thesundoesn’talwaysshine,thewinddoesn’talwaysblowstrongly.Moreover,energyisoftenneededattimesotherthanitsproduction.Thegridwillthushavetoadapttoadiverseandintermittentsupplyofrenewableenergy.Whiletodate,thesupplygeneratedbypowerstationshasalwaysadaptedtodemand,inthefuture,demand,e.g.whenchargingelectriccars,willhavetoadjusttothesupplyavailablefromsolarandwindenergy.Themessagetonewandexistingcarmanufacturersisclear:besustainableandclean.Citiesareextremelyworriedaboutairqualityresultingfrompetrolanddieselengineemissions.Thedependenceonfuel-producingcountries,theCO2emissionsassociatedwithcombustionenginesandtheircontributiontoclimatechange,makeanalternativenecessary:electriccars.Carmanufacturersarecurrentlyinvestingmassivelyindevelopingelectricvehicles.Forthefirsttimesincethecarappearedonthescene,electriccarshavebecomecompetitiveagain.Thisisduetotheirrapidlyimprovedperformance,anever-increasingrangeofmodels,andlowerprices.Moreover,governmentsaresettingmassivetargetsforthesalesofzeroemissionvehiclesonly.Theriseoftheelectriccarseemsunstoppable.Thecar’sownrevolution.PhotoSolarpanelsSource:Pixabay13Buses,trucks,boatsandaircraftMobilityelectrificationisaboutmuchmorethanprivatecars.Infact,electrictransportisalreadyextremelycommoninpublictransportsystems.Thinkoftrains,subways,tramsandtrolleybuses;three-quartersofallpassengerpublictransportkilometresarealreadypoweredbyelectricity.Inthemeantime,fossil-fueldrivenbusesarebeingrapidlyreplacedbyelectricones,whichmeansthatby2030atthelatest,theentireDutchpublictransportsystemwillbeemission-free.Themarketforelectrictrucksisstillinitsinfancyandcurrentlyitmainlyinvolvesconvertingexistingvehiclesandsmallproductionseries.However,arangeofmodelsfromdifferentmanufacturersisonitsway.Assoonasmanufacturershavetheproductioncapacity,we’llseeaspurtinthegrowthoftheseelectrictrucks.Thepriceperkilometreisexpectedtobesomuchlowerthatitwillnolongerbefinanciallyviabletocontinuerunningondiesel.It’sevenpossiblethatthistransformationwillbeevenfasterthanwhatwe’veseentodatewithelectriccars.Andthere’sevenmore.Thefirstelectricinlandvesselsarealreadysailing,andthefirstsmallelectricaircraftareinflight.Norwayaimstohavealldomesticflightspoweredelectricallyfrom2040.Fullelectrificationofsea-goingvesselsandlargecivilaviationaircraftforintercontinentalflightsstillseemsfaraway,butsmallelectricfour-seaterplanesarenowflyingjustasfastandasfarastheirpredecessors.Withinadecade,weexpectthistransformationtoapplytoalmostallbusinessformsofmobility,especiallythosewheremanykilometresaremade.Electricisnotonlygoodfortheenvironment,it’stheonlywaytobecompetitiveinthenearfuture.Publictransportbusesarerapidlybecomingelectric-powered.PhotoQBuzz14It’squiteclear:therewillbemanymoreelectriccarsdrivingfurtherwithincreasinglyimprovedbatteries.However,allthesecarshavetobereliablyandsafelychargedusingthegrid.Figure2aExpectedgrowthinelectriccarsupto2035intheNetherlandsFigure2bExpectedshareofelectriccarsasaproportionofthetotalfleetintheNetherlandsElaadNLOutlook(L)ElaadNLOutlook(L)ElaadNLOutlook(M)ElaadNLOutlook(M)ElaadNLOutlook(H)ElaadNLOutlook(H)ShareEVs(%)NumberofEVs(millions)15InnovatorsAround2010,wesawthearrivalofthefirstmodernelectriccarsonthemarketsuchastheTeslaRoadster,theNissanLeaf,quicklyfollowedbytheRenaultZOEandtheTeslaModelS.Thiswasaccompaniedbylargenumbersofplug-inhybrids.Carswithaplugandchargingpointshavequicklygrownfrombeinganodditytotheircurrentrecognisable,butstillmodest,placeonourstreets.TheNetherlandsisaninternationalleaderincharginginfrastructuredevelopment:uniqueintheworldisthatelectriccardriverscanuseanychargingpointwiththeirchargecard.Inthenearfuture,we’llseearapidgrowthofelectriccars,fromtheircurrentfewpercentpointsto100percentofallnewcarsin2030.Whatyouoftenseewiththeintroductionofnewdevicesisthattheiracceptancefollowsasetpattern.Itstartssomewhathesitantlywiththerealpioneers(innovators),thenslowlygainsmoremass(earlyadopters)andthentakesoverthemarketatanacceleratedpace(majority).Andofcourse,therewillalwaysbesomepeopleleftbehind(laggards).It’sonlythestartEarlyAdoptersTheelectriccarhasmovedonfromitspioneeringphase.Manymoremodelsarenowavailablefromagreaterrangeofcarmanufacturers.Theyarebecomingmoreaffordableandtheirrangeisincreasing.Thenumberofchargingpointsisalsogrowing,bothonthestreetandincreasinglyathomeandwork.Inaddition,severalnetworksoffastchargersarebeinginstalledacrossEurope,withincreasinglyhigherchargingspeeds.Inthesameperiod,wehaveseenamassivetransformationtoelectrically-poweredpublictransportbuses,andweexpecttoseesimilardevelopmentswithelectrictrucks.MassmarketElectricdrivinghasbecomethestandardandthestreetsceneisdeterminedbyelectriccars.Notonlyaretheremanynewelectriccarmodels,thesecond-handmarketisalsoelectric-powered.Electricdrivingiscleaner,quieter,cheaperandmoreattractivethandrivingonfossilfuels.Thegridisnowthebackboneforelectriccharging,inallshapesandsizes.Figure3Innovationadaptioncurve.Source:wikimedia16ConclusionWearelookingatanexpectedsubstantialgrowthinthenumbersofelectriccarsandinsustainableelectricityproductionfromsolarpanelsandwindturbines.Wepredictthatthisgrowthwillonlyacceleratefurther.We’restillatthestartofwhatispossible,andhavetoprepareforthefuture.Inthenextchapter,wediscussthechallengesthatthispresents.Howcanwemaketheelectriccaranintegralpartofasustainableenergysystem?Inthisbooklet,weconsideritagivenfactthatmillionsofcarswillbecomeelectric,andthatourfutureenergysystemwillprimarilybepoweredbysunandwind.PhotoTeslaSemi-truckSource:TeslaTheexpectationisthatthisgrowthwillonlyacceleratefurther.17PhotoAlliander18THECHALLENGECHAPTER219Anelectriccarusesenergymuchmoreefficientlythanagasolineordieselcar.Thecombustionenginesofthelatterhaveanefficiencyof25-35percent;thismeansthatroughlytwothirdsoftheenergycontainedinthefuelislosttoheatviathecoolingsystemandtheexhaust;onlyonethirdisactuallyusedtomovethecar.Anelectricmotorismuchmoreefficientandcanachieveanefficiencyof90-95percent.Theenergylossinanelectriccarismainlyduetothefactthatthealternatingcurrent(AC)fromthegridhastobeconvertedintodirectcurrent(DC)thatcanbestoredinthebattery.TheenergyisthenconvertedfromDCtoACagainbecausethecar’selectricmotorrunsonAC.CO2emissionsTomakeafaircomparisoninenergyconsumptionandCO2emissionsbetweentheconventionalandtheelectriccar,wehaveofcoursetolookattheentirechain:fromenergysourcetoexhaust,eventhoughanelectriccardoesn’thavethelatter!Wecallthiswell-to-wheel.Moreover,wealsoneedtoaccountfortheenergyrequiredtoproduceacarand,attheendofitslifecycle,torecycleit.Thisleadstothefollowingequation:Figure4EnergyandenvironmentalaspectsofpassengervehiclesSource:TNO(2015)ThebenefitsofelectricdrivingIntermsofelectricityproduction,TNOexaminedtwoscenariosinthestudy:all-greenelectricityversusamixofgreyandgreenelectricity,withemissionsof447g/kWh.Diesel/petrolCompletelyelectriccarOilproduction,refining&transport27-300Motoremissionswhiledriving140-1700Electricityproductionandtransport(includingnetloss)09-105Vehiclemanufactureandrecycling4664Total213-24673-169CO2-emissionsingram/kilometreEvenwith,mainlygrey,electricityproducedfromcoalandgas-firedpowerstations,onbalancetheelectriccaremitslessCO2thanagasolineordieselcar.Chargingelectriccarsusingenergyfromrenewablesourcesonlymaximisestheenvironmentalbenefit.PhotoMotorSource:Pixabay20ChallengeSoweseeandexpectanenormousgrowthofelectriccarsandofelectricitygeneratedbythesunandwind.Thechallengewecurrentlyfaceishowtosustainablychargemillionsofelectriccarswithoutanyproblems.Canwegenerateenoughelectricity?Isthatalsopossiblefromsustainablesourcessuchassunandwind?Canallthesecarschargeatthesametime?Andwillthatpowerbeavailableintherightplaces?Thesearethequestionsaddressedinthischapter.Isthereenoughenergyforalltheseelectriccars?In2030,somepeoplepredictafleetof1.9millionelectricpassengervehicles;aquarterofallourcars.Chargingthesecarswillrequirearound6terawatthours(TWh)ofelectricalenergyperyear-that’s6billionkilowatthours!Thisiseasilycalculatedbyestimatingthenumberofkilometresdrivenbycarsinthepastandthenumberofkilometresthatanelectriccarcandriveon1kilowatthour.Moreover,electricbuses,trucksandeveninlandvesselsandsmallplaneswillneedcharging.Ifultimately-perhapsin2050?-allmobilityiselectric,thiswillrequirearound20TWhofelectricity.Thesenumbersraisethequestion:canenoughelectricitybegeneratedintheNetherlandsforalltheseelectricvehicles?Electricityproductiontraditionallyoccursincoalorgas-firedpowerstationsandinnuclearpowerstations.Additionally,someindustriesandgrowersproducetheirownelectricitywithsmallerproductionunitsorcombinedheatandpowerplants.IntheNetherlandsapproximately31gigawatts(GW)generationpowerisavailable.Theoretically,wecanproducemorethan270TWhofelectricityin8,760operatinghoursperyear(365daysx24hours).Butwedon’tneedthatmaximumcapacityatalltimes-farfromit:wecurrentlyusearound120TWhofenergyeveryyear.If20TWhisneededforallelectrictransportin2050,anaverageof2.3gigawatts(GW)ofproductioncapacityisrequired;that’sonly6percentofexistingtheoreticalproductioncapacity.Thechallengewefaceis:howcanwesustainablychargemillionsofelectriccarswithoutanyproblems?21PhotoEVSource:USDepartmentofEnergyHowdoesanEVwork?Justlikeafossilfuelpoweredcar,anelectriccarhasanenginethatdrivesthewheels.However,anelectriccarenginedoesn’tgetitsenergyfromgasolineordiesel,butfromabattery.Electricmotorsuseenergymuchmoreefficiently;theyhavealargertorqueandspeedrangethancombustionengines.Thismeansanelectriccardoesn’tneedagearbox.Thishasmanyadvantages:thecarhasmorespace,anditsavesonweightandmaintenance.Moreover,anelectricmotorcontainsmuchlesspartsthananinternalcombustionengine,andnooilhastobemeasuredorchanged.Anelectriccarthereforehaslowermaintenancecosts.Anotherimportantfeatureoftheelectricmotoristhatitactsasadynamo:whenacarslowsdown,forexampleonaroundabout,theelectricmotorfunctionsasadynamo,rechargingthebattery.22Thisiscertainlyfeasiblebecause,atthemoment,morethan50percentofourcapacityisonlyusedatpeaktimes.Ifyoucomparethe20TWhneededtomakeallmobilityelectricwiththecurrent120TWhtotal,thatamountstoaslightlylessthan17percentincrease.Butthiswon’tbeanimmediatechange;thisisaboutadecades-longgrowthinelectricityconsumption.Thismustbefeasible.Canitallbegeneratedsustainably?Theworldischangingfast.We’llstopusingnaturalgasandcoalinpowerplantsandincreasinglyproduceelectricitythroughwindturbinesandsolarpanels.Attheendof2018,wehadalmost9GWofinstalledgenerationcapacity,producing14TWhintotal.Moreover,withbiomassandbiogas,afewsmallhydropowerstationsandwasteincinerationplantsallofwhichalsoproduce‘greenenergy’,in2018weproducedatotalof18TWhofenergyfromrenewablesources.Sustainableenergyproductionisgrowingfast:theClimateAgreementintheNetherlandsstatesatargetof84TWhenergyin2030.Thisincludes7TWh‘small-scalesolarpowerprojects’.Figure5SolarandwindenergydevelopmentintheNetherlandsuptoandincluding2017source:CBS(StatisticsNetherlands)EnTrance(2018)WindonlandWindatseaSolarShareShareofsolarandwindoftotalelectricityproductiondemandElectricityproduction(TWh)23SourceWTT(LBST,IEA,Worldbank),TTW,T&EcalculationsCars:Batteryelectricmostefficientbyfarhttps://www.transportenvironment.org/file/4477SourceDrivingunderPowerThehydrogen-poweredelectriccarInadditiontobattery-electricpoweredcars,thereisanothertypeofelectrically-drivencar:thehydrogenfuelcellcar.Youfillyourcarwithhydrogengasunderhighpressure,andthisisusedinthefuelcelltogenerateelectricitytopowertheelectricmotor.Thereareanumberofclaims:thecarcanberefuelledquicklyandyoucandrivefurtherononetank.Butforthetimebeing,thesupplyofbattery-poweredelectriccarsismuchlarger,themodernversionshaveacomparablerange,andtheyaremuchcheaperinallrespects.Amajordisadvantageofhydrogencarsisthelowerenergyefficiencyofthefuelcellcar.Hydrogenisnotanenergysourcebutanenergycarrierandhastobeproducedfirst.Atpresent,hydrogenisusuallymadefromnaturalgasusinganindustrialprocess;thisisofcoursenottrulysustainable.‘Greenhydrogen’canbeproducedbyelectrolysis,but20-35percentoftheenergyislost.Thehydrogenisthenconvertedbackintoelectricitybythefuelcellinthecar;heretoo,around35percentoftheenergyremainsunused.Thus,theenergychainefficiencyofahydrogencarisafactor3worsethanthatofabattery-electriccar;thisimpliesthatthreetimesasmuchgreenenergyisneededforhydrogencars.Hydrogenmayplayaroleinfuturemobilityscenarios.However,forpassengercarsandfreighttransportinthecityandformanyotherapplications,weexpectbattery-electricmobilitytobecomedominant.Toclose,hydrogenwillmostlikelyplayanimportantroleintheenergytransitioninotherways:itcanbeusedforhightemperatureheatingintheindustry,for(seasonal)storageoflargequantitiesofenergy,andasback-upenergy.24Wearealsogoingtomakemaximumuseofseawindwithacapacityof11.5GW,producing49TWh,windparksonlandaswellaslargesolarparks.Inotherwords,ifweprioritiseelectrictransportandthetargetssetareachieved,thenthereisenoughelectricityfromsunandwindforallourmobilityrequirements.It’sworthmentioningthattheNetherlandsisnotevenaleaderinthisfield.Wemust,however,beawarethatsunandwindarenotasmanageableasgasandcoalplants;thewinddoesn’talwaysblowandthesundoesn’talwaysshine.Thebalanceoftheenergysystemwillthereforechange,anditcannolongerbegeared100percenttoproductionbydemand;itwillpartlyhavetohappentheotherwayaround.Thenextstepinthisthoughtprocessistoconsiderwhetherallthecarscanbechargedatthesametime.Twothingsareneededforthis:alltheelectricitymustbeabletobegeneratedatthattime,andthegridmustalsobeabletotransportit.Thisiswherewereachthelimitsofourcurrentsystems.Figure6Generationcapacitysolarandwind,andthepowerdemandofelectriccars.25Toomuchofagoodthing?Becauseyoucan’tturnthesunandwindonoroff,youneedamuchgreatercapacitytoensureenoughpowerthanwithtraditionalpowerplants;thelattercanalwaysstepupproductionifdemandrequiresit.Astheshareofwindandsolarenergygrows,thereisagreaterchancethatatcertainmoments,energyproductionwillbesolargethatitexceedstheenergydemand.InGermanyandonoccasionsintheNetherlands,somuchelectricityisproducedfromsolarandwindsourceswhilethereistoolittledemandthatelectricitypricesfallunderzero.Inthesecases,youwillbepaidtotapelectricity:atopsy-turvyworld.ThiscanhappenatmomentslikeasunnySundayafternoonwithalotofwind,asindustryneedsarethenataminimum.Anysurplusesareoftendistributedabroad;however,astheNetherlandsstartsgeneratingmoresustainableelectricityitself,itwillbemoredifficultforGermanytoriditselfofexcesselectricpower.Thiscanleadtothetemporaryshutdownofsolarpanelsorwindturbines.Thisiscalledcurtailmentandisactuallyawasteofunusedsustainableelectricity.Fortunatelythereareothersolutionswhichallowustoadjustthedemandforelectricitytothesupply(demandresponse).Agoodexampleistochargeelectricvehiclesatthatmoment.Figure7Electricityproductionandspotpricessource:https://www.energy-charts.de/power_de.htmElectricityproductioninGermanyinweek372019Pricebelow26Canwegenerateenoughpowertochargeallourelectriccarsatthesametime?Toanswerthisquestion,wehavetounderstandthatelectricitymustbegeneratedatthesametimeitisneeded.Adevicethatrequiresalittlebitofpoweroveralongtimehasacompletelydifferentimpactontheproductioncapacitythanadevicethatrequiresalotofpowerinashortertime.Thinkofakettle:ifalotofelectricityisrequiredinashorttime,itmustalsobepossibletogenerateitatthattime.Electriccarscanchargealotofelectricityrelativelyquickly.If,inaddition,therearelargenumbersofcars,inthescenariothateveryonedriveselectricallythiswouldbemorethan8millionvehicles,andtheyallchargeatthesametime,theproductioncapacitymustthereforealsobeconsiderablyextendedinordertomeetthispeakdemand.Thateffectismuchgreaterthanthepredictedgrowthintotalelectricitydemandofaround17percent.PhotoTennet27TheelectriccaraspacemakerofthegridInEurope,theelectricitygridoperatesatafrequencyof50Hz.Thismeansthatthevoltagehasawaveformthatvaries50timespersecondbetweenmaximumpositivevoltageandmaximumnegativevoltage.Thiscanbeseenasthenet’s‘heartbeat’.Thisfrequencyisdeterminedbythebalancebetweenelectricityproductionandoff-take.Ifthereismoreenergydemandthangeneration,thefrequencydecreases,andifthereismoregenerationthandemand,itincreases.Itisimportantthatthis50Hzremainsconstantasallourdevicesaredesignedforthis.Thefrequencyofthegridthusdeterminesthespeed,offorexampleanACmotor;ifthisdeviatestoomuch,itcanstarttorunfasterorslowerthanintended.Digitaldevicescanalsobedisturbedbyfrequencychanges.Atthestartof2018,digitalclockswere6minutesbehindintheNetherlandsand25othercountriesduetoanimbalancebetweentheenergygridsofSerbiaandKosovo.Ifthegridbecomestoounbalanced,thiscanleadtoafailureoftheentireelectricitygrid.Tennet,thehighvoltagenetworkoperator,managesthis‘heartbeat’intheNetherlands,ensuringthatitremainsat50Hz.Tennetusesdifferentenergymarketsforthisandwithcontinualchecks.Balancingsupplyanddemandwasarelativelysimpletaskinthefossil-fuelpast:ifthedemandforenergyincreased,somemorecoalwouldsimplybeincineratedinthepowerstations.However,becausewenowhavemorerenewableenergyintheformofwindandsolarenergy,thesupplysidehasbecomemoredependentonweatherconditionsandthereforelessdirectlymanageable.Ontheotherhand,thedemandsidehasalsobecomemoreflexible.Electricmobilityinparticularoffersanexcellentopportunitytoadjustelectricitydemandtotheamountofavailableelectricity.Thechargingspeedcanbevariedand,withthelatestchargingtechniques,youcanevensupplypowerbacktothegrid.Inthisway,theelectriccarensuresthatourgrid’sheartbeatremainssteadyat50Hz.Theelectriccarthusactsasapacemakerforthegrid!28If8millioncarsareelectricandtheyallstartedchargingatsixo’clockintheevening(withacapacityof11kW),anadditional88gigawatt(GW)ofproductioncapacitywouldberequiredatthattime.Thatisfourtimesasmuchproductioncapacityasiscurrentlyavailable:wewouldneedtomovefromthecurrent31GWcapacityto119GW.However,thisisaveryunlikelyscenario.Toensurethispeakdemand,wewouldhavetodevelopalotofextrawindturbinesandsolarparksorkeeptheoldgas-firedpowerplantsrunningforlonger,orevenextendthem.Inanycase,itwouldbeanextremelyexpensivesolution,requiringhugeinvestments(roughly€90billion)forenergyproductioncapacityonlyusedforonehouraday.Inadditiontosufficientpowergenerationatpeakdemand,wewouldalsohavetogetthisadditionalpowertotherightplaceattherighttime:energyhastobetransportedviatheelectricitygridfromtheproductionlocationtothedemandsiteatthemomentitisrequired.Doestheelectricitygridhavethecapacitytotransportalltheelectricityrequiredforchargingelectriccars?Ourelectricitygridhasalotofsparecapacity.Onaverage,thegridloadisonly20-30percentofthemaximumcapacity.Thisisalogicalconsequenceofthefactthatthepowergridwasdesignedtocopewiththehighestexpectedelectricitydemand.Thismeansthatthepowergridisonlyintensivelyloadedtemporarilyatpeaktimes.Outsideofthesemoments,thegridhasabout70percentcapacityleft,spreadacrossawholeday;that’smorethanenoughtochargealltheelectriccars.Wehavecalculatedthatapproximately17percentextrapowerisneededforelectrictransport;20TWhextrapoweragainstthecurrent120TWhtotal.However,iftheelectricitydemandasaresultofchargingelectriccarstakesplacemainlyatpeakhours,andif,atthatmoment,thereisahighdemandconcentratedatcertainlocations,thenagridproblemwillarise.PhotoCablesSource:Enexis29310,000kilometresofcable!TheDutchelectricitygridhas310,000kilometresofcableconnecting8millioncustomers,bothconsumersandbusiness.Therearethreedifferentvoltagelevels:low(230/400Volt),medium(400Volt-110kV)andhigh(110-380kV).Thehigh-voltagegridismanagedbyTennet,thenationalgridoperator,andconsistsmainlyofoverheadlinesonmasts.Thehigh-voltagegridhasbeendesignedtoberedundantinordertominimizetheriskofpowerinterruptions:therearetwogroupsoflinesforeachroute.Themediumandlow-voltagegridsareownedbysevenregionalgridoperators,ofwhichLiander,EnexisandStedinarethelargest.Thecablesareunderground.Ineveryresidentialareathereisasmalltransformerbuildingthattransforms10,000voltsto400volts.Theelectricitycablesinourstreetsareconnectedtoalow-voltagerackinthetransformerstation.Thestandardhomeconnectionhasacapacityof3x25ampere(17kW)or1x35ampere(8kW).Attimes,householdshavepeakconsumption,forexamplewhentheoven,washingmachine,vacuumcleanerandkettleareonatthesametime.Butthisisunlikelytohappentoeveryoneatthesametime:simultaneityislow.Asaresult,theaveragehouseholdgridload,evenduringpeakperiods,isbetween1and1.5kW.Forsafetyreasons,gridoperatorscaterforthiswheninstallingnewgrids,ensuringanaverageof4kW(butnotthe17kWofthehomeconnection).Inthisway,aproblemonlyariseswheneveryonestartsusingalotofpoweratexactlythesametime.PhotoMetercupboardSource:Enexis30Supposeyoucomehomefromworksomewherebetweenfiveandseveno’clock,parkthecaronthestreetoronthedrivewayandstartcharging.Dependingonthecartype,thecarwillchargeforhoursanddemandacapacityof3.7to11kWfromthegrid(insomeexceptionalsituationseven22kW).That’smuchmorethananaveragehouseholdwithnoelectriccar;anaveragehouseholdhasapeakpowerdemandofbetween1and1.5kW.Ifyou’retheonlyoneinthestreetwithanelectriccar,there’snoproblem;thegridhasmorethanenoughcapacityforthat.Butifyou’reatrendsetterandthewholestreetstartsdrivingelectricallyandeveryonechargestheircarsatsimilartimes,localoverloadcanoccur.Thiscausesthepowercablesandthetransformerstoheatup,andcaneventuallyleadtoabreakdown.Thistypeofoverloadmainlyarisesinthelow-voltagegrid;gridoperatorscallthis‘localcongestion’.1car:10householdsintermsofcapacitydemandSomemodernelectriccarmodelshaveacapacitydemandofmorethantentimesanaveragehome’scapacitypeakdemand.Somemodernelectriccarmodelshaveacapacitydemandofmorethantentimesanaveragehome’scapacitypeakdemand.However,beawarethatthisisaboutthecapacitydemandforpowermeasuredinkW,andnottheamountofenergyrequiredintotal,measuredinkW-hours(kWh).31Massesofelectriccars,massesofchargingpoints!From2030onwards,allnewcarsonDutchroadswillbeemission-free;afleetofbetween1and2.2millionelectricpassengervehicles.Andallthesecarswillneedtobecharged.AccordingtoarecentforecastbyElaadNL,between0.8and1.7millionchargingpointswillbeneeded:acombinationofhome,workandpublicchargingpoints.Giventhecurrentnumbersofchargingpoints,we’relookingatsignificantgrowth.Thishasledtoanincreaseinconnectionrequeststothepowergridandtothenecessitytopowerupthegridtomanagetheincreasednumberofhome,workandstreetchargingpoints.ElaadNL’smiddlescenarioforecastsanaverageannualneedformorethan23,000newconnectionsforpublicchargingpointsandhubsonthegrid.In2035,thiswillhaverisento45,500newgridconnections,annually.StreetchargingCurrentlyintheNetherlandstherearenearly8millionhouseholds,andaboutathirdofthesehavetheirowndrivewaywherepeoplecanparkandchargeathome.Thismeansthattwothirdsofallhouseholdsdependonpublicparkingspacesandthereforewillbedependentonthepubliccharginginfrastructure.Theconstructionofthischarginginfrastructureiscomplexandtime-consuming.Partofthiscomplexityistheconnectiontotheelectricitygrid.Anapplicationforconnectinganewhometothegridisoftenknownuptosixmonthsinadvance.However,whenconnectingapublicchargingstationtothegrid,thingsaredifferent.Thegridoperatorisobligedtoensureagridconnectionisachievedwithin18weeksatthelatest.Forpublicchargingpointsthiscurrentlytakesbetween10-18weeks.However,ifyoubuyanelectriccar,youwanttobeabletochargeitimmediatelyondelivery.Gridoperators,municipalitiesandchargepointoperatorsallhavetomakeeveryefforttoensurethattheworkcanbecarriedoutintherequiredtime-frame.Thismeansfreeingupandtrainingskilledpersonnel,makinggoodagreements,havingaroll-outvisionandplacementpolicywithanefficientprocessandtimelyplanning;alltoensurethecharginginfrastructurecanbedeliveredontime.Figure8ExpectedgrowthinthenumberofchargingpointsintheNetherlands.publicchargingstationsHomechargingpointschargingstationsattheworkplaceChargingAreas(chargingstations)lowscenario(total)Highscenario(total)Numberofchargingpoints(inmillions)32Essentially,therearetwowaystodealwiththis:addtothegrid’s‘strength’,i.e.installingthickercablesandtransformerswithmorecapacity,orensuringabetterdistributionofthepowerdemand.Thefirstoptionissometimesunavoidable,butit’snotanattractiveoptionforanumberofreasons.Firstly,it’sexpensive:anestimated€40billion.Moreover,allstreetsintheNetherlandswouldhavetobedugupwithconsiderableinconveniencetoallinvolved.Thirdly,thequestionarisesastowhetherthisisevenfeasible:theNetherlandshasagreatshortageoftechnicalpersonnel.That’swhythegridoperatorsonlywanttostrengthenthegridsinthoseplaceswhereothersolutionsdonotoffersufficienthelp.Inmanyplaces,gridoperatorswillhavetoextendthemedium-voltagegridinordertobeabletoconnectwindturbinesandsolarparks.Theintroductionoffastchargingpointsmayalsoleadtoanincreaseddemandfromthegrid;forexampleconsidertheeffectofbusdepotswhere60-300electricbusesarechargedovernight.33SolarcarsWillallfutureelectriccarsbeequippedwithsolarpanelssothattheychargethemselves?TheFiskerKarmawasfittedwithasunroofproducingmodestamountsofpower.Currently,twosolar-poweredelectriccarmodelshavebeenpresentedcommerciallythatcandriveasmuchaspossibleusingtheirown-generatedpower:theLightyearOneandtheSonoSion.Noneedtochargeagain?Thatcarmanufacturersaretryingtomakeelectriccarsasefficientaspossibleandintegratesolarpanelsisanamazingdevelopment.Butthepotentialofasolar-sunroofisnotunlimited:evenonasunnydayitwillprobablynotchargeyourbatteryata100%,dependingoffcourseonbatterysize,millageandthesolarpanels’production.Soinmostcases(ifyoudon’tliveinAustralia)itwillprobablystillbenecessarytochargeyourcar’sbatteriesfromthegridorfromyourownsolarpanels,fromtimetotime.Ifsolarcarsweretobecomesuccessful,itwouldcertainlyhaveagreatimpactonchargingandtheelectricitygrid;therewouldbelessdemandfromcar-charging,especiallyinthesummer.Photo(left)LightyearOne.ByLightyear.(Right)Sion.BySonoMotorsGmbHAfewyearsago,fivegraduatestudentsfromEindhovenUniversityofTechnologystartedtheLightyearcompany.TheirfirstcaristheLightyearOne‘theelectriccarthatchargesitself’.TheroofofLightyearOneisfittedwithsolarcellsthatprovideenoughenergytochargethebatteryduringtheday.TheSionsolarcarisfittedwithsolarcellsontheroof,onbothsides,onthebonnetandontherear.Withafullbattery,theSionhasarangeof240kilometres.Noneedtochargeagain?34Althoughstrengtheningtheexistinggridwillsometimesbenecessary,theotheroptionisgenerallymuchmoreattractive.Weneedtoseewhethertheextrapowerdemandfromelectriccarscanbebetterdistributed.Inparticular,spreadingchargingovertimeopensupmanyopportunities.Yousimplypluginwhenyougethome,butthankstosmarttechnologies,forexample,yourcaronlychargesfortherequirednumberofhoursinthemiddleofthenightwhenthereislowdemandbutthewindturbinescontinuetoturnsmoothly.Atthesametime,yourneighbour’scarwillbechargedimmediatelyashehastodrivealongwaythatsameevening.Soeveryoneonyourstreetcanpluginatthesametime,butweensurethatthedemandisdistributedaccordingtoneed,therebypreventinggridcongestion.Inotherwords,wearegoingtochargesmartly:SmartCharging!ConclusionGeneratingenoughpowerforalltheseelectriccarshastobepossible,andwewillbeabletogenerateitsustainably.Butifweallchargedourcarsatfullcapacityatthesametime,ahugeextrapeakdemandwouldoccurthatwewouldnotbeabletodealwitheasily.Wewouldhavetoinstallextrapowerplantsandincreasethenetwork’s‘strength’considerably,otherwiseitwouldn’tbepossible.Butifyoulookateverydayuse,it’sactuallyveryeasytochargeallthesecars.Thecaritselfmustbecomeanintegralpartofasustainableenergysystem.Soifwedoitsmartlyandspreadourchargingtimes,wecaneasilyandsustainablychargemillionsofelectriccars.Inotherwords,SmartChargingisanecessaryconditionformassiveandsustainableelectriccarcharging.SmartChargingisanecessaryconditionformassiveandsustainableelectriccarcharging.3536SMARTCHARGINGCHAPTER337Onedayinthefuture...Onadayinthenearfuture,Evagetsupandgetsreadyforabusydayatwork.Shedrivesherelectriccartowork30kilometresawayandplugsitinattheparkinglotundertheoffice.Thankstosmarttechniques,thecarknowsthatEvahasnoexternalappointmentsandthatthere’smorethanenoughenergyinitsbatteriestogethome.Colleagues’carsarethereforegivenprioritywhencharging.Eva’scaronlychargeswhenthepowerdemandislowandthesolarpanelsontheroofprovideenoughpowertochargecars.Whenshedriveshomeattheendoftheday,thebatteryisalmostfullagain.Onceathome,sheplugshercarin,asdomostofherneighbourswhohavealsojustarrivedhome.Becauseshedoesn’thavetoleavethateveningandthere’senoughenergyleft,hercarsuppliesherhomewithelectricityuntilshegoestobed.Thecarstartschargingagainatnightwithelectricityfromawindfarmontheoutskirtsofthecity.Thefollowingmorning,fullychargedwithrenewableenergy,hercarisreadyforanewday!02:0020:0014:0008:0038Ifwewanttochargeallourelectriccarssmoothlyandsustainably,we’llhavetodothis‘smart’withthehelpofSmartCharging.Butwhatexactlydoesthatmean?Howdoesitworkandwhat’sinvolved?That’swhatthischapterisabout.First,welookattheessenceofSmartChargingandthenweusethefour-layermodeltolookatSmartChargingfromdifferentangles.TheessenceSmartChargingisessentiallyacontrolsignalthatindicateswhenandatwhatspeedanelectriccarischarged.Yousimplypluginyourcar,butitmaynotalwaysimmediatelystartcharging.Smarttechnologyensuresthatitischargedatthebesttimeandatanoptimumspeed.Thisoptimisationcantakeplace,forexample,whenthesunandthewindcanprovideenoughsustainableelectricity,i.e.itchargeswhenthesunisshiningorthewindisblowing.Inthisway,itavoids‘trafficjams’inpowerconsumption,bychargingoutsidepeakhoursoratalowerchargingspeedduringpeakhours.Anotheroptimisationfactorisprice,asthecarwillthenonlychargewhentheelectricitypricesarelowest.Ofcourse,youcanalsochoosetostartchargingimmediatelyatmaximumspeed.WithSmartCharging,thedemandforelectricityfromanelectriccarisalwaysadjustedtomatchyourandtheenvironment’sneedsinsuchawaythatthere’salwaysenoughpowertomeetthedemand.ThenextstepinSmartChargingisusingthecarforenergystorageforpurposesotherthandriving.Thismeansthatyounotonlyusepowerasrequiredbythecarfordriving,butthatyourcaractsasapowersupply.ThistechniqueiscommonlyreferredtoasV2G(Vehicletogrid)orV2X(Vehicletoanything).Othersspeakofbidirectionalchargingor‘powerrecycling’.Thepowerstoredinyourcarcan,forexample,beusedtopoweryourownhome,theneighbourhood,orevenfedbackintothegrid.SmartChargingisessentiallyacontrolsignalthatindicateswhenandatwhatspeedanelectriccarischarged.3940Incidentally,V2Gisnotyetastandardelectriccarfeature.AnumberofJapanesecarscandoitviaaDCchargingstationwherethecar’sdirectcurrent(DC)isconvertedtoalternatingcurrent(AC)foruseathomeoronthegrid.Untilrecently,thatwasonlypossiblewithafastchargingstation.BidirectionalcharginganddischargingviaanACchargingstation,currentlyusedforstandardcharging,isstillunderdevelopment.RenaultZOEsarenowbeingco-developedinapilotprojectinUtrechtthatcandischargeusingACchargingpoints.ForbothvariantsofSmartCharging-adjustingthedemandtoneedsorusingthecarasapowerprovider–alothastobedonetoensurethatthiswillworkproperly.Thefour-layermodelForSmartChargingtoworkwell,itmust,ofcourse,betechnicallyfeasible.BothcommunicationandITmustmatchandbesecure.Moreover,rulesandregulationshavetobeinplacetomakeitpossiblefromanorganisationalandlegalpointofviewtoensurethatstakeholderscanworktogether.4142TheelementsoftheSmartChargingfour-layermodel:1.Technicallayer2.Communicationlayer3.Organisationallayer4.LegallayerThefirstlayer,thatoftechnology,isaboutthecomponentsthatmakeSmartChargingtechnicallypossible,thepossibilitiesandlimitationsthattechnologyprovides,andthedata.Forexample,somewhereintheSmartChargingecosystemtheremustbecomponentsthatsendandreceiveacontrolsignal.Ifthereisnointelligenceanywhereinthehardware,youcouldn’tchargesmartlyotherthanbyplugginginorpluggingoutattherighttimes.Butmorethanthefactthatnobodywantstogooutinthemiddleofthenightandplugintheircartoharvestlow-pricedpowerfromwindturbines,thisisn’twhatwemeanbySmartCharging.Inotherwords,thedevicesmustcontainsmartcomponents–thechargingstationandthecar,orviaanotherroutesuchasahomeenergymanagementsystem.Thetechnicallayerisalsoaboutdata:dataonpowerconsumption,batterystateofcharge,etcetera.ThetechnologyalsodeterminesthebandwidthwithinwhichSmartChargingispossible:thepowerusedtochargethebatterythatenterstheSmartChargingpointfromthegridcanneverbemorethanthemaximumtransmittedateverylinkinthechain.Thesecondlayeristhethatofcommunicationbetweendevices.ThisspecifieswhichroutesaSmartChargingcontrolsignalcanfollowandwhichlanguages(‘ICTprotocols’)arerequired.Thedevices-chargingstation,car,orotherroute-mustnotonlyhavecomponentsthatcancommunicatewiththeoutsideworld.Theymustalsobeableto‘talk’toeachotherinthesamelanguagesothattheyunderstandeachother.Andthatcommunicationmustbesecure,socybersecurityisacrucialfeatureinthislayer.TechnicallayerCommunicationlayer43DirectandAlternatingcurrent–AC/DCElectriccarbatteries,infactallbatteries,workondirectcurrent(DC),whileelectricityfromthesocketisalternatingcurrent(AC).Duringnormalcharging,aninverterinthecarconvertsACtoDC.Withfastchargers,theinverterisinthechargingstationandthebatteryreceivesDCfromthechargingstation.Notethattheplugsandcablesforfastchargingaredifferentfromthoseusedfornormalcharging.InventorThomasEdisonhadtosetupacompletelynewsystemforgeneratingandtransportingelectricityinordertomakehislightbulbsburn.Hedidthatwithdirectcurrent(DC).Butsoonafter,acompetitivesystemwasintroduced:thealternatingcurrent(AC)system.Lateron,anotherinventor,NikolaTesla,becameembroiledinthisandafiercebattleeruptedoverwhichsystemwastobecomethestandard.ThiswasbrilliantlywonbytheACcampasthisenabledelectricitytobemoreeasilytransportedoverlargerdistances.However,thiswasonlymadeontheunderstandingthatDCwouldalwaysremainimportantinapplicationssuchasbatteries.AllmodernelectronicsalsoworkonDC.Currently,therearethosewhoadvocatetheentiregridtobecomeDC.SourceAC/DC:TheSavageTaleoftheFirstStandardsWarTomMcNichol,201344Thethirdlayerisabouthowweorganiseitall.Whosendscontrolsignals,withwhichprofiles,andwithwhichstrategies?Andhowdotheseallcometogether?Howcanweregulatethis?SeveralpartieshaveastakeholderinterestinSmartCharging:themotorist,thecarmanufacturer,thechargingstationoperator,anElectricMobilityServiceProvider,themunicipality,thegridoperator,theenergysupplier,apossible‘aggregator’,etcetera.Theseinterestscansometimesrunparallel,butcanalsobeconflicting.Sowehavetosetupthesysteminsuchawaythatitcanhandlestakeholderneeds.Inaddition,akeyaspectisthatthesystemthatactuallycontrolschargingmakesintelligentcombinationsoftheinputfromthediversegroupofstakeholders.Intelligentandautomateddecision-makingisneededtosatisfyallthestakeholders’needs.Thefourthlayeristhelegalsetofcontracts,lawsandregulations,i.e.thecontractsthatthepartiesdrawupandthelawsandregulationswithinwhichtheyoperate.SmartChargingstartswithanagreementbetweenthepersonwhocanprovideflexibility(forexample,charginganelectriccarlaterorlessquickly)andthepersonwhoneedsthisflexibility.Agreementscanthereforevaryfromlong-termintheformofanannualcontract,orbemoreflexible.Worthnotinghereistheissueof‘whoplayswhichrole’?Whatisavailableonthemarket,andwhataboutpublicparties?Cangridoperators,forexample,payforflexibilityorofferothercontracts(includingflexibility)andcantheyinterveneifthere’sariskofoverloadingthegrid?Atthemomentthelawprovidesforroomforexperimentationsowecangainexperiencewithvariousformsofflexibility,especiallyrelatedtoSmartCharging.However,structuralsolutionsarestilllimitedatthismomentintime.ThesefourlayerstogetherformthekeycomponentsoftheSmartChargingecosystem.SeveralpartieshaveaninterestinSmartCharging.OrganisationallayerLegallayer45Thethirdgenerationofelectriccarsisonitsway!Twomajorbarrierstobuyingelectriccarsarerapidlydisappearing.Rangeanxiety(howfarcanIstilldrive?)isnowonthereturn.Youcanchargeyourcarfaster,thereareincreasingnumbersofchargingpoints,andthebatterieshaveaneverincreasingcapacity.Atthesametime,purchasecostsarefalling:thethresholdisnowmuchlower.Anexample;theNissanLeafwasintroducedintheNetherlandseightyearsagowitha24kWhbatteryandjustover100kilometresradius.Itwaspioneeringatthetime,butthiswasnotenoughtoconvincethemasses.ThesecondgenerationofNissanLeafisnowavailablewitha40kWhbatteryandarangeofover200kilometres;morethandoublethepreviousversion.Thereisnowa‘plusversion’withabatterycapacityof62kWh.Theelectriccarofthefuturewillhavemanyfewerrestrictions.Theexpectationisthatby2025,thethirdgenerationofelectriccarswillhavesufficientrangeforeveryoneandthatrechargingwillonlytake15minutes,ifnecessary.Thesecarswillthenbethestandardandequivalentlypricedtopetrolpoweredcars,whiletheyaremuchcheapertouse.Becausecarmanufacturersseethesevehiclesaskeymodels,productionisfullyunderwayandthecurrentlongerdeliverytimeforelectriccarswillbeathingofthepast.Thus,inthenearfuture,electriccarswillhavebecomethebestoption.Thesecond-handmarketwillalsopickup:second-generationelectriccarswillbeaffordableforstartersorasasecondcar,inadditiontotheincreasingnumbersofshared(second)cars.SourceNVDEAnnouncedEVsupto50.000euroFrompriceRange463.1TechnicallayerTherearetwomainpartstothetechnicallayer:componentsanddata.ThesedeterminewhetherSmartChargingispossibleandwithinwhichbandwidth.Threeelementsarecrucialtothis:theabilitytosendacontrolsignal,theavailabledata,andthemaximumchargingcapacities.Where’stheintelligence?Asnotedearlier,forthecrucialelementofcontrolyouneedintelligenceembeddedsomewhereintheSmartChargingecosystem.ThisintelligencecomesfromaSmartChargingManagementsystemwhichcanbefoundinanumberofplaces:thecar,thechargingstation,ahomeenergymanagementsystem,oreventhegrid.Itcanoperateasastand-alonesystemandcanmakeindependentdecisions.Buttheintelligencecanalsobelocatedmorecentrally;inthiscasethesignalpassesthroughacommunicationconnectionwiththelocalcomponents.Theadvantageofcentralisedsolutionsistheycancombineinformationacrosslocations.IntelligenceintheSmartChargingecosystemLocalstand-aloneCentraltothecloudCarBatterymanagementsystemConnectedcarChargingstationControllerBackofficesysteemPowergridSmartmeter&localsmartgridGridmanagementsystemoperatorsRelatedenergysystemsHomeenergymanagementsystem&BuildingenergymanagementsystemOnlineenergymanagementplatformsSmartChargingispossiblewithanyofthesesolutions.Experiencewiththeseoptionsvariesconsiderably;mostresearchdatacurrentlycomesfromSmartChargingstationsinthepublicarena.PhotoCircuitBoardSource:Pixabay47ExpectedrapidgrowthinfastchargingstationsFastchargingstationsandregularchargingstationscomplementeachother.Fastchargingisfasterbutmoreexpensive,andisn’t(yet)possibleatyourfrontdoor,howeverthey’rebothindispensableifyoudrivefurtherthanyourcar’sbatterylimit.Inadditiontotheexpectedlargegrowthofregularchargingstations,wealsopredictsubstantialgrowthinthenumberoffastchargingstations.Atthismoment,e-driverscanfast-chargeatabout200locationsintheNetherlands,withatotalof1,000fast-chargingstations.Weexpectthisnumbertomorethandoublebetweennowand2025;aneight-foldincreasemayalsobefeasible.Themarketisalreadydiverse;differentprovidershaveallenteredthismarketwithdifferentmotives,ideasandconsiderations.WeseechargingstationsoperatedbycarmanufacturerslikeTesla,byindependentproviderslikeFastned,butalsobythe‘traditional’petrolstationsthatwanttoserveelectriccarsandtheirdrivers.Inaddition,agroupofentrepreneursareaddingfastchargingtotheirservice,forexample,roadsiderestaurantsandsupermarkets.Thepowergeneratedbyafastchargerisalsorapidlyincreasing;thelatestelectriccarmodelscannowchargeat350kW.Promisinglocation(50-100kW)Promisinglocation(175-1750kW)Promisinglocation(700-1750kW)Existinglocation(50–150kW)Figure948ButrecentlyalsopilotprojectshavestartedwithSmartCharginginhome-andofficeenvironments.Andotheroptionswithintelligenceinthecar(connectedcar)orinthesmartmeterarebeinginvestigated.Howfastcanyoucharge?SmartChargingalsodependsonthemaximumchargingspeedavailable,asthisdeterminesthebandwidthofchargingcapacity.Chargingspeedisexpressedinkilowatts(kW)anddependsonanumberoffactors.Firstly,thecarhasamaximumchargingspeedwhichdiffersbetweenmodelsandbrands.Secondly,thechargingpointdeterminesthemaximumavailablepowerwhichdependsonthetypeandwhetherseveralcarsarechargingatthesametime.Andfinally,theconnectionfromthechargingstationtothegridhasamaximumcapacity.Therefore,thechargingspeedisdeterminedbytheweakestlinkinthechain.Thusacar’sowncapacity,thechargingstation,ortheconnectiontothegriddeterminethecar’schargingspeedatanygivenmomentintime.SmartChargingalsodependsonthemaximumchargingspeedavailable,asthisdeterminesthebandwidthofchargingcapacity.49Wirelesscharging!Parkingwithwireless,plug-in-freecharging,orevenchargingwhileyoudriveonaspeciallyequippedroad:theseareonlytwoexamplesofanumberofexperimentswithwireless–inductionchargingtechniques.Howdoeswirelesschargingwork?It’sbasedontwomagneticcoils:oneinthegroundandoneunderthevehicle.Invertersensurethatahighfrequencycurrentflowsthroughtheprimarycoilintotheground;thisconnectstothesecondarycoilinthecar;agapof15centimetresbetweenthecoilsispossible.Thecar’scoilconnectstoaninverter,whichthenchargesthebattery.It’sanefficientprocess,above90%isachievable.However,thisisstilllowerthanplug-connectedchargingwherereturnsofmorethan95%arepossible.Carmanufacturersarestillfullycommittedtocable-charging.Withtheadventoflargerbatteriesandthereforeagreaterrange,thereislessneedtopluginaftereveryride,andforreallylongdistances,fastorsuperfastchargingshouldbepossible.Currently,cable-chargingisstillthebestoption.However,itwouldbeanadvantageformanynottoneedadailyhome-chargingsession.Moreover,inthecontextofSmartCharging,itwouldbebesttohavecarscontinuallyconnectedtothegridasoftenandforaslongaspossible.Wirelesschargingmakesthisfeasible.Inthefuture,wewouldexpectself-drivingcarstobeabletoself-charge;wirelesschargingwouldseemthebestwaytofacilitatethis.Anothergreatadvantageofwirelesschargingwouldbethereducedimpactonourstreets,asfewerchargingpointswillbeneeded.Atthemoment,wirelesschargingisonlypossiblebymakingpost-purchaseadaptationstoexistingelectriccars.BMWistheonlymanufacturertoofficiallyofferawirelesschargingsystem.Currently,highchargingcapacityexperimentsarebeingcarriedoutonelectricbuses.Howeveraso-calledpantographlooksmorepromisingforhighpowerbuscharging.Figure10WirelesschargingPhotoRotterdamtestswirelesscharging50AdjustablechargingspeedsTheSmartChargingecosystembecomesevenmorecomplexifwetakeintoaccountthattheeffectivechargingspeedisinfluencedbyotherenergyusersandproviders.Ifmanydevicessimultaneouslyrequirepoweratthelocation,forexamplecars,heatpumps,elevators,anddatacentres,or,alternately,ifpowerisfedintothegridfromsolarpanels,EVchargingspeedcanbeadjustedtoensureanoptimalbalance.Currently,anumberofvariantsofSmartChargingareavailablethatcan,dependentonuser-needs,determineeffectivepowerdistribution.Ifmanycarsaresimultaneouslyconnectedtoachargingstationorcentre,themaximumchargingspeedisadjusteddownwards.ThissimpleformofSmartChargingiscalled‘localloadbalancing’.Therearemanyotheroptions.Athome,forexample,informationfromthesmartmetercanbeusedtoadjustthecarchargingspeedtohouseholdconsumption:thespeedcanbeoptimisedtomatchelectricityconsumptioninandaroundthehouse.Carscanchargelessornotatallattimesofpeakdemand;theycanevensupplyextrapower(V2HVehicletoHome).Thisshowsthatalotispossibleevenwithintheexistinggridconnection.Thisisalsotrueforanofficelocation,wherethechargingneedsandgridconnectioncanbedeterminedonthebasisoftheannualpeakpowerconsumption.51PhotoFastnedfastchargingSource:Fastned52SmartChargingcanthereforebeusedtooptimizethetotalenergyconsumptionatthelocationandtominimizethesize(andthereforethecosts)ofthegridconnection.Mostemployeeswithanelectriccarwillbeintheirofficeforalargepartoftheday,thereforethetimewhentheirEVischargedbecomeslessimportant.Theofficebuilding’senergymanagementsystemcanoptimizecharging.Onsunnydays,forexample,theafternoonwouldbeoptimalforEVcharging,usingthepowerfromsolarpanels,andinpoorweatherconditions,thefirstcarscouldbechargedinthemorning.Thesituationissomewhatdifferentwhenwelookatfastchargers.Alocationwhichonlyhasfastchargers,forexamplealongmotorways,isexpectedtohaveahighpeakconsumption.Ifallthechargingpointsareoccupied,demandforelectricityisatamaximum,whileconsumptionplungestozeroifnocarsneedcharging.Inotherwords,powerconsumptioncanfluctuateenormously.Dependingonthedemandorthroughputspeedatthechargingpoints,fastchargingstationoperatorscouldinstallalargebattery,partlypoweredbysolarpanels.Thiscanthenbeusedtoaccommodatethepeakswhichoccurwhenmanyofthechargingpointsareinuse.Atquietermoments,thebatterycanrecharge.However,thissolutiononlybecomesattractiveiftheinvestmentintheselargebatteriesislowerthantheadditionalcostofamorepowerfulgridconnection.53Whengeneratingelectricity,amagnetrotatesbetweenthreeseparatemagneticfields,withthreedistinctwavecycles(phases).Eachphaseisconnectedtoasinglepowerwire.Mosthouseholdappliancesonlyrequirea1phaseconnection.However,insomecases,appliancesthatusealotofelectricitysuchaselectrichobsorovensareconnectedto2oreven3phases.Inthemetrecupboard,asasafetyprecaution,eachphaseisfittedwithafusetoprotectagainstshortcircuitsoroverloads.MaximumchargingspeedsThedifferencebetween1and3-phasechargingElectriccarsManyofthefirstgenerationEVsonlychargeusing1phase,withamaximumcurrentlimitedto16A,correspondingtoachargingspeedof3.7kW(16Ax230Vx1phase).Thisappliestoalmostallplug-inhybridelectriccars.Carmanufacturershavesincedevelopedanumberofmodelsthatchargeatamaximumcurrentof32Awithachargingspeedof7.4kW(32Ax230Vx1phase).Thereareevensomemodelswhere3phasechargingispossible.Weexpectthevastmajorityofnewcarmodelstobefittedwitha3-phasechargerwithacurrentof(atleast)16Aperphaseandachargingspeedof11kW(16Ax230Vx3phases).Thesemodelscanalsochargeifonly1phaseisavailable,onlythiswillthenbeslower.However,iflessthan6Aisavailable,thecarwillstopcharging.ChargingpointsStreet-sidechargingpointsalmostalwayshave3phases.Asachargingstationnever‘knows’whatkindofcarwillbeconnected,italwaysreservesthemaximumcurrentforall3phases.IfanEVindicatesthatitcanonlychargeon1phase,mostofthecurrentchargingpointsreserveall3phasesforthiscar.Moreover,attherequestofthegridoperator,thepowerwiresareusually‘twisted’acrossthe2sockets,sothatiftwo1-phasecarsarebeingcharged,2differentpowerwires(phases)areused.Thishelpsmaintainanevendistributionacrossthe3phases.Athomeuserscanchoosebetween1and3phasechargers.ThisusuallydependsontheirEVmodel.Homechargersarealwaysconnectedtoaseparategroupinthemetrecupboard.Inthecaseofa3-phasehomecharger,themainsconnectionmustalsohave3phases;insomecasesthegridhastobereinforcedfroma1to3-phaseconnection.54Fastchargingstationslocatedonmotorwaysservethispurpose.Someofthechargingstationswillbesharedbydifferentgroupsofusers.Acitycentrechargingstationwillcommonlybeusedbyofficestaffduringtheday,byvisitorsintheafternoonorevening,andbyresidentsintheeveningandatnight.Therearealsoanumberofspecificusergroupssuchastaxis,sharedcarsorinner-citylogistics.ThisvarietyofusersinfluencestheoptionsforSmartCharging.Atlocationswheretheparkingtimeislongerthanthetimerequiredtotopupthecar,thereareanumberoflogicaloptionsforSmartCharging.ThemostimportantpossibilitiesforSmartChargingarehome-chargingand/oroffice-charging,orwhenthecarisparkedforalongerperiod,forexampleatathemepark.HomeOfficeVisitTravelShortstayExtendedstayShortstay>8hourparkparkStop&Go<1/2hourChargedkmperhourPower(kW)AC/DC>7en<171,4-3,7AC1X6A/1X16A>17en<557,4-11AC1x32A/3x16110223x32A25050DC750150DC1750350DCChargingspeedsofferedbychargingstation,perlocationThetableshowsthetypicalchargingspeedsofferedatchargingpoints,dependentonlocation.Athome,thechargingpointiseitherawall-mountedboxorastreet-sidechargingstation.Thechargingspeedstartswithapowercomparabletoasingleoutlet(1.4kW)andcanreachthepowerofanentirehouse(11kW).Thisisshowninthetableingreen.Somestreet-sidechargingpointscanbeevenfaster(22kW),theseareshowninblue.Fastchargershaveevenhighercapacities;thesearecolouredred,indicatingthatthischargingspeedisnotusualforthatlocation.LocationdeterminesSmartChargingoptionsThechargingstation’slocationisanimportantdeterminantofauser’sSmartChargingoptions.Ifyouchargeathomeoratwork,yourEVwilloftenbeparkedatthechargingstationforalongtime.However,ifyou’reonlythereforashorttimeand/orhavetochargeenroute,you’llwanttochargeyourEVasquicklyaspossible.5556UsingdataforcustomisationAcontrolsignalisnormallyallthatisneededforsimpleformsofSmartCharging.Forexample,thechargingstationcanthentransmitmoreorlesspoweratspecifictimeswithintheavailablebandwidth.However,foramoreoptimalandcomplexuseofSmartCharging,youneeddata.Themoreinformationavailable,thebetterthesystemcanbecustomisedtoyourneeds.Thechargingstationcanthenbasechargingdecisionsoninformationabouthowfullthecar’sbatteryis,thetimethedriverhastoleave,orwhethernearbysolarpanelscanprovideextrapower,andofcourse,muchmore.Wehavelistedsomeexamplesofthedifferentdatatypes:DriverParkingtime(departuretime-arrivaltime)DesiredkWh(minimumandoptional)PricepreferencespriceEnergymix-solar/windChoiceofElectricMobilityServiceProviderCarSupportedchargingspeedsBatterysize(kWh)Howfullisthebattery?(stateofcharge)Chargingstation(location)NumberofchargingpointsSupportedchargingspeedsLocalelectricitygridContractedmaximumcapacitygridconnectionRelatedlocalenergysystemPresenceofsolarpanels,staticbattery,home,office,etc.Consumptionorgenerationofrelatedenergysystems57Justpauseforamoment...It’snotcommonknowledge,butonaverage,acardrivesnomorethan35kilometresaday;infact,veryfewexceed100kilometres.Manymoreonlydrivelessthan15kilometresdaily.PhotoRoadsurfaceSource:Pixabay58PlayingwithtimeandpowerIfSmartChargingisnotapplied,themaximumchargingspeedisdeterminedrightatthestartofthechargingsessionasaresulttheweakestofthethreecomponents:car,chargingstationorgridconnection.Thechargingprofilethenis:transferasmuchenergyaspossibleuntilthecarisfull.WithSmartCharging,youcan‘play’withbothtimeandpowerresultinginmanydifferentprofilesandstrategies.First,let’slookatthecontroloptionsforanindividualchargingsession.Weassumeastandardspeedof12Ampereperphase.Thisiswhatastandardpublicchargingstationwithtwochargingpointsprovidesiftwocarschargesimultaneously.Thefollowingcontroloptionsarethenpossible:Ampere’sperphase(A)3phasepower(kW)KmperhourchargedENStandard128,340Accelerated16-3211-2255tot110Delayed>6en<124,1-8,220tot40Paused000V2G>6en<164,1-11-20tot-55ThreemaincontroloptionsformtheessenceofaSmartChargingsession:chargingcanbespeededup,sloweddown,orpaused.However,ifbidirectionalcharging(V2G)isavailable,thisaddsafourthoption:energysupply.Fromanelectricalengineeringperspective,dechargingisexactlythesameascharging,onlyintheoppositedirection.Inthiscasethedirectionisoppositetocharging-energyleavesthebattery–sothenumberofkilometreschargedisnegative.Theoptionstomanagechargingarefairlyobvious:chargingcanbefaster,slowerorevenpaused.59Howwechargeanelectriccardifferssubstantiallyfromhowwefillupourcarswithfuel.Chargingleadstodifferentbehavioursandhabits.Althoughsomeelectriccardriversusethefastchargerslocatedalongourmotorways,whichtosomeextentiscomparabletorefuelling,themajorityofdriverschargetheircarsattheirdestination.Thisisusuallyathome,onprivatepropertyorintheneighbourhoodonthestreet,butitcanalsobeatworkorduringavisit.Fillingatankcompletelyusuallyonlytakesafewminutes,however,withanelectriccaryouusethetimethatthecarisparkedto‘fillitup’,withnewenergy.Asacarusuallyspendsupto95percentofthetimeparked,thereismorethanenoughtimetochargeitatthemostidealmoment.Thechargingbehaviourwecurrentlyseegivesusinsightsintofuturedevelopments.However,today’susersareaspecificgroupthatusuallyconsistofleaseandbusinessdrivers.Thisgroupisnotrepresentativeoffutureusers.Anaveragecarclocksuparound13,000kmperyearintheNetherlands,withprivatelyownedvehiclestravelinglessataround11,600km,andcommercialvehiclesataround23,000km.Weexpectthelargegroupofvehiclesnotusedforcommutingtoshowadifferentchargingbehaviourthanthecurrent‘frequent’driver.Whatthechargingbehaviouroffutureuserswilllooklikeexactlyishighlydependentonvariablessuchasthecostofcharging,thedevelopmentofavailablecharginginfrastructureandcapacities,andtheacceptanceoradoptionofSmartCharging.Charginginthefuture:newhabits!Afew(rounded)numbersasanillustration:•8millionpassengercars.•Anaverageof13,000km/year.•Energyconsumptionis0.2kWh/km,so2,600kWh/year.•Averagebatterycapacityis50kWh.•Assuming35kWhpercharge.•Eachcaristhenchargedapproximately75timesayear.•Or,1.4timesaweek.•Car-chargingcaneasilybespreadoverallsevendays.60TheSmartChargingcontroloptionsleadtoachargingprofileorstrategy.Anexample:insteadofstandard,undirectedcharging(bluestraightline),thecarchargesmoreatacertaintimeandlessatothertimes.Inthegraphabove,thechargingprofileindicatesthechargingspeed(greenline)andtheareaunderthechargingprofilerepresentsthetotalamountofchargedenergy(kWh).DifferentSmartChargingtechniquesThecontroloptionsforanindividualchargingsessionarenotdeployedrandomly;theyarebasedonconsciouschoicesandstrategies.Anindividualsessionprofileisoftenpartlytheresultofanoptimisationoverseveralongoingchargingsessions.Choicesaremadethatarenotonlybeneficialfortheindividualsessionbutalsoforthegroup.Optimisingagroupofchargingsessionsissimilartowhattheenergyworldterms‘demand-sidemanagement’(DSM)or‘demand-sideresponse’(DSR).DSMisusedtomitigatestrongpeaksandtroughsinaconsumptionpatternandtobalancetheenergyprofile.Howthisisachieveddependstoalargeextentonthebasicprofile;thisismainlydeterminedbyusage.Forexample,thebasicprofileofahouseisverydifferentfromthatofanoffice,ahotel,astoreoralocationwithfastchargers.Figure11ExampleofSmartChargingversusstandardcharging61Mostpeopleareawareoftermslikecryptocurrency(withBitcoinasthebest-knownexample),blockchain,andperhapsevendistributedledgertechnology(DLT),howeverwewon’tgointodetailsoftheunderlyingtechnologyhere.Currently,manypeopleareexperimentingtoseewhereandhowthesepromisingtechniquescanbeappliedinpractice.OneofthoseapplicationsisintheSmartChargingecosystem.Inthecurrentcharginginfrastructure,wepaywithachargingcardandinthefuture,thiswillbereplacedwithcertificates(publickeyinfrastructure).Cryptocurrency,blockchainandSmartChargingOneofthepilotprojectsincorporatedblockchaintechnologyinachargingstation.IOTA(aformofDLT)waschosen:therearenoextratransactioncostsandno(data)miningisinvolved.Inthissituation,whencharginganEVusingacable,aconnectioniscreatedbetweenthecarandthechargingstation.ThecarindicateshowmuchenergyitwantstochargeandthechargingstationtellsthecarhowmuchthiswillcostbeforeplacingthetransactionontheIOTAnetwork.Thechargingstationwaitsuntilthenetworkapprovesthetransactioncosts,thenthecarcanstartcharging.AlltransactionsinaSmartChargingecosystemcouldusetheIOTAnetwork.Forexample,yoursolarpanelscouldsupplypowertotheneighbours’electriccars,andthegridoperatorcouldpossiblyrewardclientsforusinglessormoreenergyatspecifictimesoftheday.Thesetransactionscanbemadebyanyoneandarenotboundbynationalborders.AstheIOTAnetworkstoreseverything,acompleteaudittrailofsuppliedpowerandtheassociatedcostsisavailable:everythingisfullyautomated.62•Valleyfilling:moreorfasterchargingatperiodsoflowenergydemand.•Stimulation:fasterchargingwhenmoresustainable(orcheap)electricityisavailable.•Loadshifting:slowerchargingattimeswhenpeakloadsareimminent;EVsthenchargefasteratothertimes.•Energyconservation:atthetimeofcharging,thespeedisreducedtolessthanthetechnicalmaximumfortheentirechargingperiod.•Peakclipping/peakshaving:lessrapidchargingattimeswhenthereisariskofpeakloads.•Powerproduction:resupplyofenergyfromtheEV.ValleyfillingLoadshiftingPeakclippingStimulation(sun)EnergyconservationStimulation(wind)Powerproduction(V2G)Dependingonthebasicprofile,anumberofSmartChargingtechniquescanbeapplied.ThereareanumberofoptionstooptimiseSmartChargingsessions:Figure12SimplifiedrepresentationofSmartChargingtechniques63TheEindhovenflexmarkettestAspartoftheEuropeanInterflexproject,researchersatStrijpSinEindhovenareinvestigatingafutureenergymarketbycreatingalocal,flexiblemarket.Ifthegridoperatorrequiresflexibilitybecause(inthetest)there’sathreatofgridoverload,flexibilitycanbepurchasedonthemarket.ThiscouldthenbeprovidedbyaneighbourhoodbatteryorfromEVSmartCharging.ResearchersarePhotoInterflexSource:Interflexinvestigatinghowthistypeofflexiblemarketcouldwork,whatitinvolves,andhoweffectiveitmaybe.Theproject’saimistoeffectivelymonitorandmanagetheentirelocalenergysystem.Communicationprotocolsarebeingfurtherdevelopedforthis.FlexibilityisauctionedintheInterflexproject.64Inthesechargingstrategyvisualisations,wedisregardlocalelectricitygenerationoptionssuchassolarpanels,batterystorageoranEVwithafeed-infunction.Thepresenceoflocalgenerationhasanumberofconsequencesandcreatesadditionalpossibilities.Inthecaseofsolarpanels,thebasicgridprofileatthelocationinquestionwillbethefirsttochange,assolargenerationcannotbecontrolled.Ifthereisnoenergyconsumption,electricityissuppliedtothegrid.Themaximumenergysupplytothegridislimitedbythesizeofitsconnection;thismaybeaphysicalorlegalcapacitylimit–e.g.thecustomerhasagreedacertainmaximumwiththegridmanager.Curtailmentoccurswhenthegenerationcapacitycannotbefullyutilizedbecausethegridconnectionhasinsufficient(contracted)capacity,andthepowerpeakoftheproductionmustthereforebereduced.Thealternativetolimitinggenerationistostimulatelocalconsumption;thiscanbedonebychargingEVsorafixedbattery.Itisalsopossibletooptforastrategytochargebatterieswhensufficientfreegridcapacityisavailable,andtosupplyitbackwhendemandishigh;therebypreventingpeaksindemand.Takingthisonestepfurther:thecarcanfunctionasanenergysupplierWhenelectricityisaddedtothegrid,thesituationbecomesfarmorecomplexaswellasmoreinteresting.Inthiscase,bothspeedandtimecanvaryandbeadaptedtoanumberofstrategies.Forexample,theEVcansupportthegridattimesofhighdemand,oritcanstorelocallygeneratedelectricityfromsolarpanelsandsupplyittoahomeintheevening.Thecarcanevenbecomeapowertrader,bydemandingenergyattimeswithlowprices,andresupplyingitwhenpricesarehigher.Inotherwords,byusingtheEVasabuffer,SmartChargingstrategiescanbeimplementedevenmoreeffectively.ConclusionThetechnicallayerthereforedetermineswhetheritispossibletochargesmartly,whichroutesarepossible,howdatacanbecustomisedanddelivered,andwithinwhichbandwidth.ThisthenprovidesuswithinitialinsightsastohowchargingprofilesandstrategiescanbeusedwithSmartCharging.65663.2ThecommunicationlayerCrucialtoSmartChargingistheabilityofvariousdevicestocommunicatewitheachother.Welookatthedifferentroutesthatcanbeusedforthis,butalsoatthelanguagewhichdevicesusetosafely‘talk’toeachother.DifferentroutesTherearemanypossibleroutesofcommunication,butinallcases,theSmartChargingsignalmustbecommunicatedtothecarorthechargingstation.TherearecurrentlythreemainroutestoactivatingSmartCharging:1.SmartChargingviacharginginfrastructure(Charger-centric)Inthisexample,thegridoperatorgivesasignalthatrunsviathebackofficesystemtotheSmartChargingstation,whichinturnpermitsthecartochargefasterorslower.ManySmartChargingtestscurrentlybeingconductedintheNetherlandsonpublicchargingpointsaremanagedinthisway,forexampletheframeworksfortheFlexPowerandINVADEprojects.Thesignalsintheexampleareprovidedbythegridoperator,buttheycouldalsobefromotherstakeholders,liketheenergysupplier.2.SmartChargingviacar(Car-centric)ThisroutethatrunsviathecarisalsotermedTelematics;thecombinationoftelecommunicationsanddataavailableinmoderncars.Thecarmanufacturerthusreceivesreal-timeinformationaboutthecarandcansendinformationtothecar.ThissystemcanalsobeusedtogenerateaSmartChargingcontrolsignalwhichcouldbeprovidedbyapartyneedingflexibility-theregionalgridoperator,thenationalgrid,oranotherparty-orthroughanintermediary,aso-calledaggregator.ThissignalrunsviathecarmanufacturertotheEVwhichthenstartschargingfasterorslower.Whereasthecharginginfrastructurerouterequiresfixedchargingpoints,car-centriccharginginvolvesmovingcarswherecontrolsignalswillhavetobesent,forexample,onthebasisofGPScoordinates,whichthecarmanufacturerthentranslatestothosecarscharginginthatspecificarea.67WhyopenstandardsaresoimportantOpenstandardsinITcommunicationbetweendifferentdeviceslikechargingstation,carorback-officesystemsneedtobetransparent,user-friendly,andofferconsumersfreedomofchoice.Openstandardsleadtobettersolutionsbecausemanypartiesworktogetheronanequalbasis,leadingtocheapersolutions.Thesebetter,cheaperandwidelyavailablesolutionswillacceleratetheroll-outoftheDutchcharginginfrastructureandensurethatSmartChargingisasuccess.SmartChargingrequirescommunicationfortransmittingcontrolsignals,soitisessentialthatauniversal‘language’isusedtoenablecontrolofeachchargingstationviaanybackofficesystem,regardlessofbrand(OCPP).Atthesametime,everyEVhastobeabletotalktoeverystation(ISO15118)andpossiblyeventothesolarpanelsonyourroof,independentofbrand:theremustbenolock-instyinguserstoaspecificbrand.Finally,openprotocolsstrengthentheexportpositionoftheDutchEV-sector:asanopenstandardsleader,theNetherlandshasaccesstoothermarkets.developingasharedprotocol,eachstakeholder’sinterestsareassured,andjointsolutionscanbeintroducedfaster.•Knowledge-sharingbetweenarangeofpartiesandcountriesleadstoincrementalgain:throughopencooperation,newideasandbestpracticesspreadfaster.Electrictransportisaglobalmarketwhereinternationalcooperationisa‘must’.•OpenprotocolsaregoodfortheexportpositionoftheDutchEVindustryasproductsdevelopedherecanbeusedinothercountrieswithoutanymodification.•Openprotocolsforthecharginginfrastructurecanbereused,enablinginteractionwithotherdevicessuchasheatpumpsandsolarpanelinverters.0111001100101010010100101001010100100Morebenefits•AnopeninfrastructureisgoodfortheDutche-driver.TheOCHPandOCPIopenprotocolsgivetheDutche-drivereasyaccesstomorechargingpoints,bothathomeandabroad.•Innovationandcompetitionisencouraged.Thistranslatesintobetterservices,lowerpricesandmorenewservicessuchasSmartCharging,Plug&Charge,Car-sharing,etcetera.•Openprotocolshelptoacceleratetheintroductionofe-drivingintheNetherlands.•Partiesthatinvestincharginginfrastructures(companies,municipalities,provinces)havethefreedomofprovider-choice.Theycanchoosethebestprice/qualityratio,addnewproviderstotheirexistinginfrastructure,anddevelopnewservices.•Thereisalargenumberofe-drivingstakeholders:theconsumer,hardwaremakers,ElectricMobilityServiceProviders,energycompanies,municipalities,carmanufacturers.By0111001100101010010100101001010100100101011100110010101001010010100101010010683.SmartChargingviaEnergyManagementSystemTheSmartChargingsignalcanalsobesentviaanEnergyManagementSystem(EMS).Increasingnumbersof(office)buildingsandhomesnowmanagetheirownenergyconsumptionInadditiontoprovidinginformationaboutthebuilding’sconsumption,EMSsalsoprotecttheconnectionagainstoverloadingintheeventofexcessiveconsumption.ItwouldalsobeapplicabletocharginganEVifthechargingstationisconnectedtothebuilding.Inthisroute,thegridoperatororanotherpartydetermineswhethertheEMScanchargethecarfasterorslower.Currently,manyprotocolshavebeendevelopedspecificallyforEnergyManagementSystems;weexpectthattheseprotocolswillbecomeincreasinglycompatiblewithEVstandardprotocols.OpenstandardsandprotocolsStandardsandprotocolsplayanimportantroleinalltheseroutes;thesearethelanguagesthatdeterminehowonedevicecommunicateswiththeother.Thesearepreferably‘open’,developedsothattheycanbeusedbytheentireindustryandstakeholders.TheNetherlandsisattheforefrontofthedevelopmentofopencommunicationstandardsforchargingelectriccars,andtheinternationalcommunityisfollowing.Inrecentyears,togetherwithmanynationalandinternationalstakeholders,anumberofopencommunicationprotocolshavebeendeveloped,namelyOCPP,OSCPandOCPI.Below,wedefinetheseacronymsinrelationtoSmartCharging.Forthesakeofclarity,wehavenotincludedroamingprotocols.OCPP(OpenChargePointProtocol)isanopenprotocolforcommunicationbetweenthechargingstationandthecentralbackendsystemofthechargingpointoperator.Itcontrolstheentirechargingtransaction.OCPPwasinitiatedbyElaadNLintheNetherlandsanddevelopedfurtherinrecentyearsbyabroadinternationalgroupofEV-industrystakeholders.OCPPisthedefactointernationalstandardandiscurrentlyappliedinmorethan100countriesworldwide.OCPPisnowmanagedbytheOpenChargeAlliance,aninternationalindustryalliancewith136membersfromdozensofcountriesonfivecontinents.OCPPmakesitpossibletopassonSmartChargingsignalsfromthecentralbackendsystemtothechargingstation.01011001010011001010000101100101006970OSCP(OpenSmartChargingProtocol)isanopencommunicationprotocolbetweenthechargingstationmanagementsystemandthegridoperator(regionalgridornationalgridoperator).Itcommunicatesthecapacitylimitswithinwhichchargingcanoccurwithoutcausinggridoverload.ThisprotocolalsooriginatedintheNetherlands,howeveritisnotoftenusedinpractice.OpenADR(OpenAutomatedDemandResponse)isanopenstandardforexchanging‘DemandResponse’signals,orsignalsrelatedtopriceorchargecontrol.ThisenablesSmartChargingsignalstobesentbetweenparties,forexamplefromthegridoperator(DSO)toachargepointoperator(CPO).ThecommunicationisbasedonIPcommunicationnetworkssuchastheinternet.Thisprotocoliswidelysupported.IntheUnitedStatesitiscommonlyused.OCPIstandsforOpenChargePointInterfacebetweenaCPOandaThirdParty,usuallybeingachargingserviceprovider(ElectricMobilityServiceProvider=EMSP),butthiscouldalsobeanotherpartysuchasanenergysupplieroraggregator.OCPIoriginallyonlyworkedpeer-to-peer,butnowalsosupportsRoamingPlatforms(includinge-clearing.net)viaahub-to-peerconnection.OCPIisaDutchinitiativewithwideinternationalsupport.Theprotocolprovidesreal-timeinformationaboutthechargingstationsuchaslocation,availability,prices,billing,aswellasensuringOEMOriginalEquipmentManufacturer(readCar)BRPBalanceResponsiblePartyDSODistributionSystemOperatorCPOChargePointOperatorTSOTransmissionSystemOperatorEMSPElectricMobilityServiceProviderFigure13Communication,protocolsandstandards71In2017,apilotprojectcalledFrequencyContainmentReserve(FCR)wasstartedtoinvestigatewhetherelectricvehiclescouldsupportTennet’sprimaryreservemarket.Theaimwastoseewhetherthechargecapacitycouldbeadjustedwithin15secondsandthatanupdatetotheactualcapacitycouldberegisteredevery4seconds.Thisisnecessarytomanagechangestothegridfrequency.Resultsshowedthatapproximately95%ofthechargeprofilesreachthechargingstationwithin2seconds.Theprojectteamconcludedthatitispossibletorespondquicklyenoughinalmostallcases,withtheexceptionofofflinechargingpoints.Theresearchersreachedanumberofinterestingfindings:•Thestandardspeedofchargingcarsissetatthemaximum,whichmeansthattheycanonlydemandlesspowerandnotmore.Thiscanbesolvedbysettingalowerdefaultcharginglevel.•Atnight,thecollectivechargecapacitydropspracticallytozeroasallcarsarecharged.Atthattime,nopowerisavailabletomanagethebalance.•Inayear,thecollectivechargecapacityistoolowforabout25%ofthetime.ProjectFCR:maintainingbalanceusingelectriccarsIfSmartChargingweretobeusedoptimally,thiswouldchange(seefigurebelow)andthedesiredminimumpowerwouldalwaysbeavailable.•Theso-calledPWMsignalusedtocommunicatethemaximumchargingcurrenttothevehiclefromthechargingpointcanbecomedistortedina(long)chargingcable.Thevehiclewillthereforealwaysinterpretthecontrolsignalasbeinglowerthanthatsentbythechargingpoint.•Althoughtheso-called‘mode-3’powercontrolworkscontinuouslyinprinciple,noteverypowerlevelcanbereached.Dependingonthedesignofthevehicle’schargingelectronics,thevehiclecanprobablyonlymakeanumberofintermediatestepsbetweentheminimumcurrentof6ampsandthemaximumcurrentof(usually)16amps.Thisdifferspermodel.•Inaddition,forsomecarmodels,ahigherminimumcurrentratingcanapply,e.g.12A.•Anotherfindingisthatvehiclesmayalwayschargeslowerthanindicatedbythecontrolsignal.Thisoccursnaturallywhenthecar’sbatteryisalmostfullycharged,butitcanalsohappenatanytimeduringthechargingsession.•Andfinallyit’simportantthatthechargingpointclockiscorrectlysynchronizedwiththechargingprovider’schargingprofiles.Shouldtheydiffer,thechargingbehaviourcanbedifferent.IntermediatestepsbytestcarmodelAIntermediatestepsbytestcarmodelBFigure14Figure15TotalPowerinaweekPower(M)DayofthemonthNovember201672bilateralroaming.TheSmartChargingfunctionalityhasbeenincludedinthemostrecentversionoftheprotocol(v2.2).ISO15118isaninternationalprotocolforcommunicationbetweencarandchargingstation.Inadditiontoitsextrafocusonsecurity,anaddedvalueisthatitmakesitpossibletocommunicatetheuser’sdeparturetimeandthecar’senergyrequirement(howfullthebatteryis)fromthecartothechargingstation.Thisthenmakesitpossibletochargesmarter,moreefficiently,andbettermatchthedriver’swishes.Inaddition,itallowstheSmartChargingcontrolsignaltobecommunicatedbetweenthecarandthechargingstation.CybersecurityAnextremelyimportantaspectinallcasesofcommunicationiscybersecurity.TheSmartChargingsignalmustbesentsafely,withoutanyonebeingabletoseeoradjustit.Boththegridandourmobilityarecrucialinmodernsociety;theyevenformpartofthecriticalinfrastructure.Thustheyhavetobewell-protected.Asmoreelectriccarscomeintocirculationandcharging/dischargingbecomesanincreasinglyimportantpartoftheenergysystem,thereisagrowingneedforcybersecurity.Bylinkingourmobilitytoourenergysupplyandviceversa,itisessentialthatweensurethatthechargingstationnetworkisstableandsecure(non-invasive).73AsthereareincreasingnumbersofEVs,andnotallofthemwillbefullychargedatthesametime,gaininginsightsintochargingbehaviourareincreasinglyrelevant.WhichchoicesweremadebySmartChargingalgorithmsandwhatweretheconsequences?ThisistheideabehindtheTransparentChargingStationproject.Aprototypewasintroducedin2017andwona2018DutchDesignAwardinthecategory‘Product’.Theprojectmakesvisiblewhatiscurrentlyinvisible,andwillbeintegratedintotheFlexPowerprojectinAmsterdam.Inthisproject,electricshared-carsaregivenpriority;theyarechargedfasterduringoff-peakhours,optimizingsunandwindpoweruse.Togetherwiththemunicipality,weareworkingonthebestwaystoprovidetransparency.Thetransparentchargingstationproject74Chargingstationsshouldonlybecontrolledbyrecognisedlegalpersonsandorganisations.Threepointsareimportant:•Securecommunicationfromandtothechargingstationthroughtheuseof,amongstothers,secureprotocols,servers,andinfrastructure.•Physicalchargingstationsecurityby,amongstothers,usingsensorsthatdetectunauthorizeduseofachargingstation,secureencryptionkeystorage,andsecuresoftwaredevelopmentprocesses.•Asecure(mobile)networkandserverinfrastructure.Inordertosupportgovernmentsthattenderforchargingstations,ENCS(EuropeanNetworkforCyberSecurity)andElaadNLhavedrawnuprequirementsforthefieldofcybersecurity.ConclusionThecommunicationlayerdescribestheroutesandlanguagesviawhichthevariousdevicescommunicatewitheachother.Muchofthiscommunicationrunsthroughopenstandards,emphasizingtheneedforexcellentcybersecurity.75Large-scaletestingofSmartChargingalgorithmsAspartofEUHorizon2020programINVADE,SmartChargingwasperformedonover1,000publicchargingpointsforafullyear.ThechargingpointswerevirtuallyrelocatedtotwoneighbourhoodsintheNetherlandstosimulatethenearfuturescenarioinwhichallcarsareelectric.Chargingprofileswereformedastheresultofgridcapacitylimitsfromtheneighbourhoodsandcommercialdecisionsaddedbythecommercialoptimiser.TheserequirementswerematchedinadataplatformcreatedspeciallyforINVADE,afterwhichtheresultingprofilewassentbacktoallchargers.Eachchangeinavailablegridcapacityorthenumberofactivesessionsresultedinrecalculationofthechargingprofiles.Althoughmorethanhalfofthesessionsreceivedsignificantlylowerchargingspeeds,nodifferencesintotalchargedenergyweremeasuredbetweensessions,indicatingenoughflexibilityintheconnectiontime.Theprojectalsoshowedthatextrameasuresarelikelytobeneededduringpeaktimesinwinter,whereresearchersfoundthattheavailablegridcapacitymismatchedthelowerboundarypreconditionusedinthisprojectduringearlyevening.PhotoNynkeArends763.3OrganisationallayerThethirdistheorganisationallayer.ItdescribestheinterestsandstrategiesofthestakeholdersinvolvedintheSmartChargingecosystem.Ultimately,thesetranslateintowishesforaspecificSmartChargingprofile.Oneofthemajorchallengeswefaceisthattheydonotallleadtothesamedesires.Whowantstochargesmartlyandwhy?Tostartwith,let’sseewhichstakeholdersareinvolved,andwhattheirstakeis.Thesearequitediverse:consumers(e-drivers),carmanufacturers,batteryproducers,chargingstationoperators,chargingstationproducers,serviceproviders,aggregators,energysuppliers,(sustainable)energyproducers,butalsomunicipalities,provincesandthecentralgovernment.TheyincludenationalgridoperatorTennetandtheregionalgridoperators(mediumandlowvoltagegrid).Thereareprobablyotherswhichwehaveforgotten!Whataretheirinterestsandwhywouldtheywanttochargesmartly?Theconsumer,preconditionsandpreferencesTheinterestsofe-driversnaturallyplayacrucialroleinSmartCharging;afterall,it’stheconsumerswhohavetodriveandchargetheirelectriccar.TheircarisprimarilyameansoftransporttogetthemfromAtoBwithoutanyproblems.TheirneedsareparamountwhenitcomestoSmartCharging.Theyneedarangeofoptionsrangingfromtheopt-out‘chargemenow’forurgentchargingneeds,toa(self-determined)loweraction-radiuslimitfor‘VehicletoGrid’,withforexample,anodischargeoptionifonly30kilometresisleftinthebattery.Inadditiontobeingabletodetermineusepreconditions,consumers’preferencesarealsoimportant.Willdriversoptforchargingaseconomicallyaspossibleorassustainablyaspossible,whichinpracticemayleadtothesamechargingprofile?Willconsumersmanagetheirownchoices,orwilltheylettheirsmarthomeenergymanagementsystemorappdothisasmuchaspossiblebehindthescenes?Inotherwords,it’simportantfore-drivers77UsingEVstostoresolarenergyIntheUtrechtneighbourhoodofLombok,theelectriccarisincreasinglybecomingpartofasustainableenergysystem.Theidea:solarpanelsonpublicbuildings,forexampleschools,provideelectricitytopowerelectricsharedcarsattimeswhenthereisasurplus.Inturn,thecarscansupplyelectricitytothegridatpeakdemandtimes.TogetherwithRenault,anumberofDutchpartnersdevelopedchargingpointsandcarsthatcanbothchargeanddischarge.SpecialtohisprojectisthatDCchargers(fastchargers)arenotrequired;anypublicchargingstationlocationanywhereonthestreet(workingonAC)ispotentiallysuitable.Fastchargersaremuchmoreexpensiveandlargerandthereforelesssuitableforlarge-scalerollout.Anotherspecialfeatureisthatthecommunicationbetweenthecarandthestationtakesplacethroughspeciallydevelopedopenprotocolsthatalloweverychargingstationandcarmanufacturertoworkviathesamesystem.Thismakesaglobalrolloutpossible!HisRoyalHighnessKingWillemAlexander,togetherwithJérômePannaud(r),directorofRenaultBeneluxandRobinBerg(l),directorofWeDriveSolar,openedthefirstEuropeanV2GprojectinUtrechton21March2019.PhotoWedriveSolar78tobeabletostatetheirownpreconditionsandpreferences,andthattheseareusedwheninterpretingSmartChargingneeds.Allthisshouldnotleadtoconsumersbeingfacedwithextrademandsontheirtimeand/oreffort.However,acarremainsunusedmostofthetime,andisusuallypluggedintoachargingstation,sothereareplentyofopportunitiesforSmartChargingthatbenefittheconsumer.SmartChargingcanmean:thatyouchargemorecheaply(atthosetimeswhentheelectricitypriceislowest),thatyouchargemoresustainably(makingoptimumuseofyourownsolarpanelsorthelocalwindfarm)andinthecaseofbidirectionalcharging(V2G),storeelectricityfromsolarpanelsforlateruse.InsomeSmartChargingprojects,motoristscanalsochargefasteratcertaintimes(FlexPowerproject).ThankstoSmartCharging,morechargingpointscanbeaddedtothesamegridconnection.Forexample,acarparkcanbefittedwithmorechargingpointswithouttheneedforaheavierandmoreexpensivegridconnection;thisalsoappliestochargingbays.Moreover,thereareanumberofindirectbenefits.Forexample,amassiveapplicationofSmartChargingcanpreventtheneedtoreinforcepowergrids,therebyreducingtheneedforadditionalpowerplants.Avoidingthesecostswillresultinlesshighenergybills.Companies:makingmoneywithSmartChargingArangeofbusinessesareinvolvedintheSmartChargingecosystem;theyarecompetingtogainapositiononthecurrentlyunregulatedmarketforcharginginfrastructureandchargingservices.Allhavedevelopedpropositionsthatrespondtocustomerneeds,whileprovidingahealthyrevenuestream.Thecustomeragreementsandthebusinessmodeldeterminewho,intheend,willcontroltheSmartChargingchain.Thevarious(smart)chargingcustomerpropositionsalmostalwaysincludeacombinationofmobility,electricity,anddigitization.Andthepositioningofthecustomerpropositionsareusuallycentredaroundthevehicle,thecharginginfrastructure,orlocation.Below,wehaveincludedthebest-knownSmartChargingstakeholders.Itshouldbenotedthatthesecompaniesuseanumberofsuppliersandsub-contractors,includingbatterymanufacturers,installationbusinesses,ITcompanies,carsharingproviders,consultants,andmanymore.79PhotoJaccovanderKuilen80CarmanufacturersAscarmanufacturerscontinuetoworkonreducingcaremissions,theywillincreasinglymovetomanufacturingelectriccars.ThisincreaseinnumbersofEVsinturnhasmanyconsequences.Amongstothers,thatallthesenewEVswillhavetobecharged,sustainablyandproblem-free.WehavealreadynotedthatSmartChargingisanessentialelementofthisfuturepicture.Anumberofmanufacturers,includingRenaultandNissan,havealsoembracedtheideaofbidirectionalcharging.Thismakesyourcar,justlikeyoursolarpanels,partofasustainablehomeorneighbourhoodnetwork.Anotherimportanteffectisthatelectriccarsrequiremuchlessmaintenance,sothiswillleadtootherbusinessmodels.Forexample,themajorcarbrandswillprovideotherinnovativeservices,suchasfastchargingpointsandsupplyingpowerforcarcharging.PerhapsVolkswagenwillpurchaseelectricityonalarge-scalesothatyoucanchargeyourVWcheaply.Andperhapswe’reincreasinglymovingfrombeingcarownerstoformsofrentalconstruction;mobilityasaservice.AnotherimportantstrategicaspectisthewayinwhichtheSmartChargingcontrolsignalisgiven.Ifthisgoesthroughthecar,thisreinforcesthepositionofthecarindustry.Dataavailabilityalsobecomescrucial;withSmartCharging,you’llwanttoknowhowmuchpowerisstoredinyourbattery(thestateofcharge),butwhoownsthatinformation,and(how)isitshared?Consumer-groupsneedtoinitiatethisdiscussion,butwecurrentlyseethatthecarmanufacturersandassociateswillretainmostofthepowerindeterminingwhoseeswhat.ChargePointOperators,orCPOsWhenSmartChargingisusedmorechargingpointscanbeconnectedtoagridconnectionortoyourowntransformer,sothatmorechargetransactionsareavailablewithoutanylossofdrivercomfort.Thisispossibleinthepublicarena,aswellasincarparksor,forexample,underanofficebuilding.CPOswillbeabletomeetconsumers’mobilityneedsbyprovidingachargingservice,aswellasofferingflexservicestoflex-users.ThiswillleadtoanincreasednumberofCPObusinessmodels.ChargePointManufacturersChargePointManufacturerswill,logically,playanimportantrole.TheywillhavetoprovideproductsthatcancopewithSmartCharging,withsecuresoftwarethat81ExperiencewiththeJedlixSmartChargingappWhoeverwantstocanalreadystartSmartCharging.SomecompaniesalreadyprovideSmartChargingservicesforcompaniesande-drivers.StartupJedlixisthebestknownofthese,providingaservicedrivenbyasmartphoneapp.Afterinstallingtheapp,Jedlixcustomerscanchargesmartataselectgroupofpublicchargingpointsorathome.InpracticethismainlymeansthatchargingoccursinthemiddleofthenightwhenthewindPhotoJedlixappSource:jedlix.comfarmsarefullyrunningandthereislittledemandforelectricity,therebysavingchargingcosts.Thebenefitsaresharedwithappusers.Jedlixclientchargingbehaviourwasanalysedoveraperiodofmonths;atotalofmorethan10,000anonymizedchargingsessionsfromnearly140differente-drivers.Theresultswereasexpected:ingeneralitappearsthatSmartChargingreducescharginginthemorningandeveningpeaks.Thetotalenergydemandshiftstothenighthours,witha47%lowerconsumptionateveningpeaktimes(18:00-21:00).SmartStandardTimeTypeofchargingsessionTotalenergydemand(aprilandmay2018)perhour(kWh)82communicatesviatheappropriateprotocolsandopenstandards.TheNetherlandshasalargechargingstationindustry;weexpectthatwiththeseinnovationstheycanbeinternationalleadersinthisfield.Byprovidingchargingstationsinsemi-publicspaces(atIKEA,theofficeorhotel)andprivatechargingstationsinpeople’shomes,theyoftenhavedirectcontactwithcustomersandcanapplysmartsolutionsifdesired.ElectricMobilityServiceProviders(EMSPs)AnEMSPorchargingserviceprovideristhepartyfromwhichmotoristspurchasetheirchargingsubscription.ThisorganisationcanextendthechargingservicebyfacilitatingSmartCharging.Itisimportantthatwhenofferingthisservice,itmustbecleartomotoristswhichchoicescanbemadewhenSmartCharging,andwhattheassociatedbenefitsare.TheEMSProlecanbeprovidedbydifferenttypesofcompanies:energysuppliers,chargingpointmanufacturers,consumerorganisationssuchastheANWB(theDutchAA),andmore.AggregatorsOtherpartiescanstarttradingintheprovisionofaflexibleelectricitysupplyanddemand.Anewroleisthatofaggregator;anaggregatorbundlesthepowerdemandfrommultipleEVsorchargingpoints.Theycanmakeapropositionbasedoncost-effective,transparentandprofitablemanagementofthemarketplace’sflexibleproviders.SmartChargingofelectriccarsisanimportantsourceofflexibility.Achargepointoperatorcanalsochoosetotakeontheroleofaggregator.EnergysuppliersEnergysupplierscanpotentiallymakeaprofitfromSmartChargingbysupplyingenergyattimeswhenelectricityischeap.Astheyareresponsibleforacontinuouspowersupply,theycanuseSmartChargingtopreventanysystemimbalance-finesbymatchingdemandtothepreviouslysubmittedenergyprogramme.AsSmartChargingcanbeusedtoflexiblychargecars,energysuppliershavemanyoptionstoplaywith,especiallyascar-numbersincrease.Therefore,ifthereareunexpectedchangestoenergysupplyprovision,SmartChargingcanofferasolution.SustainableenergyproducersSmartChargingbenefitsproducersofsustainable(sun&wind)energy.Ifthisisappliedonamassivescale,thedemandforelectricitycan,toalargeextent,beadaptedtothesupply.InthiswaymoresustainableelectricitycanbeavailabletoPhotoNynkeArends83PhotoCableSource:Alliander84theenergysystemwithouttheneedtodisconnectsustainableelectricityduetocurtailment.Thismeansthatpowerdemandcanbemanagedatfavourabletimes,improvingtheyieldofgeneratedelectricity.Inthisway,SmartChargingguaranteesoptimaluseofsustainably-generatedenergyGridoperatorsFinally,wehavethecompaniesthatmanagethegrid.Tennetisresponsibleforthehigh-voltagegrid,andtheregionalgridoperators(suchasLiander,StedinandEnexis)forthemediumandlowvoltagegrid.Tennethastobeabletomaintainthegrid’senergybalance,copingwiththegrowingdemandforenergyandthegrowingsupplyofvariousformsofrenewableenergy.Themainchallengewithsustainableelectricityisthatthesupplyisneitherstablenorcontinuous.WithSmartCharging,electriccarscanbeusedtochargeatspecificmoments;inthisway,energydemandfollowssupplyandthegridisbalanced.Thisisalsorelevantfortheregionalgridoperatorsaslocallygeneratedsolarpowercanbeusedimmediatelyonsitebysmartchargingelectriccars.Thefocushereisthereforenotnationalbutlocal,withneighbourhoodspoweredbyusingatransformer.Anotherchallengeforgridoperatorsishowtodealwiththemomentswheneveryoneneedsenergyatthesametime;theso-calledpeakdemand.Smartchargingprovidesasolutionbytemporarilynotchargingelectriccarsorchargingthemlessquickly.WiththeircollaborationinElaadNLandallkindsofjointpilotprojects,gridoperatorsplayanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofSmartCharging.Bymakingitareliablepartofgridmanagement,thiswillpreventorpostponetheneedformajorinvestmentsinreinforcingthegrid.Currently,gridoperatorssufferfromregulativerestrictions;thiswillbediscussedfurtherinthisbooklet.Incidentally,theinterestsofthenationalgridoperatorandtheregionalgridoperatorsmayconflictincertainsituations.Forexample,TennetmayhaveaninterestinchargingasmuchaspossiblethroughouttheNetherlandsatacertainmoment,forexample,whenalargesupplyofelectricityisavailablefromoffshorewindfarms,butthismayleadtoanexcessivedemandforelectricitylocally.ThiswillleadtodifferentSmartChargingdemands.85AmsterdamisoneofthemostactivecitiesinEuropeinthefieldofelectrictransport.Thecityalreadyhasalargenumberofelectriccars,electrictaxis,andshared-carprojects,andthenumberofEVsisrisingsharply.Inaddition,itunderstandsthatthereisanurgentneedforlocallygeneratedsustainableenergy.InMarch2017,theFlexpowerAmsterdamresearchprojectwasstartedtolinksustainabilityandelectricmobility.Inthistest,electriccarschargefasterthannormalineveninghoursandduringthedaywhenthesunisshiningandthereisalargesupplyofsustainablygeneratedenergy.At‘peaktimes’,whendemandishigh,thepublicchargingpointschargelessquickly.Thefirstresultsarepositive:thesystemworksandcarscanchargefasterwhenmorerenewableenergyisavailableonthegrid.Carswithmorepowerfulchargingsystemschargedfasterduringtheday;olderelectriccarsandplug-inhybridswerenotaffected.Ultimately,Flexpowerensuresashorterchargingtimeformodernelectriccars.Afterthefirstpilot,thetestareawasexpandedfromAmsterdam’scentretothedistrictsWest,NewWestandSouth.Inaddition,thedaytimechargingspeedwasdirectlylinkedtotheactualgridsupplyofsolarenergy.Thepeaktimeswhenchargingwasslowerwerefoundtobefrom18.00–21.00.FlexiblechargingspeedsinAmsterdamTimeperiodChargingspeed6:30–18:00hourNormal(similarto3x25Agridconnection),andfasterwhensunisshining(withamaximumof3x35A)18:00–21:00hourSlower(flexible)21:00–6:30hourFaster(similarto3x35A)PhotoFlexpowerSource:MunicipalityofAmsterdam86Governments(municipalities,provinces,centralgovernment,EU)DifferentlevelsofgovernmentalsohavevestedinterestsinSmartCharging,andplayanimportantrole.ThecentralgovernmentwantstoreduceCO2emissionsinordertocombatclimatechange,andisworkingonanenergytransitioninwhichmoreandmoreenergyisgeneratedsustainably.Electriccarsthataresmartlychargedhelpthemachievebothobjectives;theydirectlyreduceemissionseveniftheystillrunpartlyongreyelectricity,butalsohelpwiththeswitchtousingsustainableelectricity.Aswehaveseen,withSmartChargingthedemandforelectricitycanbebetteradaptedtothesupply.Thispreventscurtailment,switchingoffsolarpanelsandwindturbinesintheeventoftoomuchsupply,andimprovesthereturnoninvestmentsinthegenerationofsustainableenergy.Inrecentyears,centralgovernmentpolicyhashadapositiveimpactonthegrowthofelectrictransportintheNetherlands.Therearearelativelylargenumberofelectriccarsonourroads,partlyduetotaxincentives.Thecentralgovernmentalsodetermines,forexample,theopportunitiesforprovidingfastchargersatservicesitessituatedonournationalroadnetwork.AnotherimportantfactorinthelargegrowthofEVsintheNetherlandsistheextensivechargingstationnetworkthattheNetherlandshasalreadybuiltup.Pioneeringworkwasdonebythee-laadfoundationwhichinstalledaroundthreethousandpublicchargingpointsinalmostthewholeoftheNetherlandsinafewyears,andpartieslikeFastnedthatinstalledanetworkoffastchargers.Inaddition,municipalitiesandprovincesalsoplayedanimportantroleinincreasingthenumberofchargingstationsbymanagingthetenderprocess,whereregionalgovernmentspayfortheinstallationofcharginginfrastructureinthepublicarena,andthroughpermitswhereonlytherightstoinstallpublicchargingstationsaresold.IntheNetherlands,thesetendersforchargingstationsnowalsoincludenewrequirements,suchastheabilitytocopewithSmartChargingdemandsinrecentyearsandtheprovisionofgoodcybersecurity.Thankstothis,notonlyarethenumbersofchargingstationsgrowing,butalsotheoptionsforSmartCharging.Municipalitieshavetobeabletodealwithahighdemandforcarparking,whileatthesametime,facilitatethetransitiontoelectric,sustainableandclean,driving.Theprovisionofacharginghubwithmanychargingpointswhereenergyiscleverlydistributedisaninterestingproposition.Thedemandforcarparkingcanalsoresultinshorterparkingtimes,whichinturnreducesthepossibilitiesforSmartCharging.ThecentralgovernmentaimstoreduceCO2emissionsandtofightclimatechange.8788‘Laadpaalklever’(chargingpointabuser)wasthe2019WordoftheYear,butforSmartCharging,itisadvantageousifcarsarepluggedinlongerthantheyhavetocharge.LessclosetohomebutnolessinfluentialistheEuropeanUnion.EUregulationshavealsoledtoemissionrequirementsforcarsbyprovidinganimpetusforthedevelopmentandproductionofelectriccars,therequirementforauniversalplug(theMennekestype2),andbyrequiringMemberStatestoinstallanadequatecharginginfrastructure.Europealsoplaysanimportantroleinpromotingopenstandardsthatpreventafewlargecompaniesfromcontrollingeverything,therebyensuringconsumerprotection.ConclusionSoweseeawiderangeofstakeholderswithaninterestintheSmartChargingecosystem.TheyviewSmartChargingfromdifferentinterests;sometimesthesematch.Atothertimestheyclash.However,intheendthesedifferentinterestallhavetocometogether;anelectriccarmustreceiveaclearcharge/dischargecontrolsignal.SmartCharginginterestsandstrategiesarestillunderdevelopment,soitisvitalthatwejointlyworktogethertodeveloptherulesofthegamethatfulfildrivers’wishes,thesocialtaskofachievingasustainableenergysystem,andfinally,ensurehealthyrevenuemodelsforcommercialparties.89TheNetherlandsisaparticularcountryinEuropeifyoulookatchargingelectriccarsonsustainableenergy.Ontheonehand,weareattheforefrontwhenitcomestothenumberofpublicchargingstationsandnewlysoldelectriccars,ontheotherhand,weareatthebottomofthelistsofrenewableenergygeneration.Inthisareathereisstillmuchtobegained!TheNetherlandsinEurope:frontrunnerandlaggardTop5countriesnewregistrationsmarketshareelectricvehicles(2019)Top5countriesnumberofpublicchargingpoints(2019)(2018,in%ofgrossfinalenergyconsumption)SourceEuropeanalternativefuelsobservatorySourcehttps://ec.europa.euShareofenergyfromrenewablesourcesintheEUMemberstatesNewlyregisteredAFcarsrealtivetototalnewlyregisteredcars(in%)903.4ThelegallayerThefourthlayeristhatofcontracts,lawsandregulations.Withtheriseofelectricdriving,themarketsformobilityandelectricityaremerging.Newagreementshavetobemadebetweenstakeholders,andcurrentlawsandregulationshavebeenfoundtohaveamajorimpactonSmartCharging.ContractsWithregardtochargingelectriccars,weessentiallyseethefollowingthreetypesofagreements:1.ChargingcontractThisisanagreementbetweenadriverandanEMSPthatregulatesthattheclientcanchargeatachargingpoint.Thiscanbealong-termagreementintheformofanannualcontractoracontractforeachtimethecarischarged.IntheNetherlands,theseoptionsareinplaceforchargingpointsinpublicspaces.Whenachargingcontractisagreedbetweenparties,theclientreceivesachargingcardwithwhichchargingsessionscanbestartedonallpublicchargingpoints.Inmanyothersituations,noformalchargingcontractisinplace,forexample,chargingattheoffice,ahotel,orshopisoftenfreeandthereforenocontractisrequired.2.ElectricityconsumptionThecontractforthesupplyofelectricityisconcludedbetweenthechargepointoperatorandanenergysupplier.Itregulatesthesupplyofelectricitytothechargingpoint.ConsumptionisthenpassedonfromaCPOtoanEMSPaspartofthechargingservice.Newresearchislookingatwhetheritispossibletosetupanenergycontractbetweentheclient(possiblyviatheirEMSP)andtheenergysupplier.3.GridaccessandmaintenanceFinally,thereistheprimarycontractbetweenthegridoperatorandthechargepointoperatorwhichcoversgridconnectioninstallationandmaintenance.Alltheabovecontractshaveconditions(orrestrictions)andaprice.Wepredictthatthesebasicserviceswillvaryinthefuture,forexamplethechargingcontractmay91Infutureenergysystems,inadditiontoreliabilityandsustainability,affordabilitywillbeanimportantcorevalue.SoevenwithSmartChargingitisimportanttolookatthebalancebetweensocialcostsandbenefits.Weneedaframeofreferencetomakethiscomparison,socurrent(standardandcontrolled)EVchargingbehaviourisgenerallyused.Inrecentyears,anumberofstudieshavebeenconductedintheNetherlandstogainmoreinsightsintothecostaspectofSmartCharging.Inmostcases,thefollowingareconsideredasincome:ComparingthesocialcostofStandardversusSmartChargingsystemssavingsthroughavoidinggridinvestments(gridextensions),savingsthroughelectricityproduction,andcostbenefitsarisingfromavoidingcurtailment.AdditionalhardwareandsoftwarecostsfortheSmartCharginginfrastructurearethemaincostcomponents.Inaddition,wehavetoconsiderpossiblecustomercompensationforcontrolledcharginganddecharging(V2G)ofhis/hervehicle.Accordingtoonerecentstudy[SmartCharging:a‘musthave’withgrowthinelectrictransport,2019,Enpuls,CEDelftandothers],SmartCharging(definedasstaggeredchargingtoavoidgridcongestion)woulddecreasethepeakloadbymorethan2GW-thatis20%oftheexpectedpeakload.Inthisscenario,SmartChargingcouldpreventatotalof€1.4billioningridinvestments.Thesebenefitsareafactorof13-14higherthantheexpectedcostcomponents.Thiswouldworkoutat,foran‘average’e-driver,anannualcostbenefitofmorethan€100.PreviousstudieshavebeenlessfocusedonestimatingthebenefitsofSmartCharging,butneverthelesstheyshowthatSmartChargingisalwayscosteffectivewhencomparedtostandardcharging.Anotherstudy[CheaperpowerduetoEVSmartCharging;2015.CEDelft]reportedthatwiththeintroductionof1millionEVsintheNetherlands,smartpeakchargingcouldpreventadditionalpeakloadsbetween0.9-1GWpattheLV(Lowvoltage)grids.Preventingthispeakloadcouldsaveanestimated€200-236millioningridinvestments.Source[1]SmartCharging:a‘musthave’withgrowthinelectrictransport,Enpuls,2019Source[2]CheaperpowerduetoEVSmartCharging,CEDelft2015.PhotoCoinsSource:Pixabay92varyincostsdependingonthechargingpoint’slocation.Newvariantsoftheenergysupplycontractwillariseandpossiblyalsoofthecontractwiththegridoperator;thesevariantsmayallowfasterorslowerchargingdependingontheavailabilityofsustainablepowergenerationand/orgridcapacity.Incertainsolutions,thesenewcontractformswillbelinkedtotheSmartChargingcontrolsignal.Inadditiontotheabove,numerouscontractformsarepossiblebetweenstakeholders.Someexamplesofbusiness-to-business(B2B)contractsarethosebetweenanEMSPandaCPOontheuseofchargingpoints,betweenaCPOandanaggregatorforoptimizingelectricityconsumption,betweencarmanufacturersandenergysuppliersforofferingacarbrandchargecard,andbetweenchargepointoperatorsandemployersforofferingchargingservicesatwork,etcetera.Legalconditionsalsoapply.Examplesaremaximumprices,opportunitiesandrestrictionsfordifferentiationinpricesandcontracts,taxrules,etcetera.Theselegalconditionsdetermine,amongstothers,theabilityofagridoperatortouseSmartCharging.GridconnectionsWewilllookatthecontractforgridconnectioninmoredetail.Ingeneral,thesumofthetechnicalcapacityofindividualgridconnectionsishigherthanthecapacityoftheunderlyinggrid.Thisistheresultofadesignchoicemadeinthepastthattakesintoaccountthatnoteveryoneneedsthesameamountofelectricityatthe93Aswithanynewtechnology,thehumanfactorwillplayacrucialroleinSmartCharging.Researchintothisisstillinitsinfancy.Weknowlittleaboutthepeoplewhowillbesmartlychargingtheircars:whataretheirpreferencesandpreconditions?Whatwillmoveandmotivatecarownerstochargesmartly?Whatwilltheobstaclesbe?And,howcanweencouragepeopletochargesmartly?Wehavesomeindications.Forexample,researchwherecarschargemoreslowlyoutsidepeakhoursshowsthatusersfinditimportanttohavea‘charge-me-now’buttonwithwhichtheycanstillchargeimmediatelyifnecessary,howeverthiswashardlyused.ThistypeofresearchprovidesimportantinsightsintohowSmartChargingcouldworkbestinpractice.Askingcurrentelectriccardriversquestionsandinvestigatingtheirbehaviourissimplynotenough:today’susersarenotrepresentativeoffutureusers.Forexample,thedemographyofpeoplewhodriveelectricwillbroadenfromarelativelysmallgroupofmainlyhighlyeducatedmen(inparticularleasedrivers)toabetterreflectionofthepopulation.ThehumanfactorWestillknowlittleaboutthepeoplewhowillbeSmartChargingtheircars:whataretheirpreferencesandpreconditions?94sametime(so-callednon-simultaneity).IntheNetherlands,the3x25Aconnectionisaparticularissueastheclienthas17kWpoweravailable,andtheunderlyinggridhasinmanycasesbeencalculatedusinganaverage4kWsimultaneousload.Thecurrentgridcontractsdonotcontainanyincentivestousetheelectricitygridefficientlyandthuspreventoverloading.Forexample,SmartChargingcouldbestimulatedbytakingadifferentapproach.Asnotedearlier,thecapacityavailableintheselectedgridisimportantwhendeterminingSmartChargingstrategies.Inmostcases,theaimistomakeoptimumuseofgridcapacity.Withthedevelopmentofelectriccars,gridoperatorsarebeingforcedtothinkaboutalternativestoexistingconnectioncontracts.Threemainsolutionsareemerging,allwithacommondenominator:thetermsandconditionsoftheexistingconnectioncontracthavetobereconsidered.•connectionwithflexiblecapacity•connectionwithflexiblerates•connectionwithbandwidthConnectionwithflexiblecapacityThissolutionentailsdeterminingavariablecapacityprofile.Thisprofileisdefinedpertimeperiodandhasanumberofvariants.Ithasafixedmonthlyfee.Theeffectofdifferentprofilesistestedduringexperiments:•Lesspoweratpeakperiods;extrapoweroutsidepeakperiods.•Profileisupdatedperiodically.Differentprofilesarepossibleperworkday,weekend,monthorseason.Onecouldstartwithstaticprofiles,whichcaneventuallybecomedynamicprofiles.•Inadditiontoindividualconnectionprofiles,groupprofilescanbedevelopedforchargingpointsconnectedtothesameelectricitycableortoneighbourhoodtransformers.ConnectionwithflexibleratesThismodelisbasedondifferentratesatdifferentdaytimeperiods.Thesetimeblocksarerelatedtothepeakandoff-peakhoursofavailablecapacity;flexiblerateswillbeapplieddependingontheavailablecapacity.Inshort,theratesarelowatTestingtheeffectivenessofdifferentsolutions.95Predictionsrelatedtoelectricityproductionaregenerallyunreliable.ThenorthwestEuropeanelectricitymarketcanbemoreorlessviewedasanintegrated‘supranational‘market.DevelopmentsinothercountriesthereforehaveagreatimpactontheIn2030,twothirdsofourelectricitywillbegeneratedfromrenewablesourcesDutchelectricitysector.WeseethattheinstalledcapacityintheNetherlandswillalmostdoublefromthecurrent30GWto60GWin2030.Itisnotablethatarelativelylargeamountofinstalledpowerisrequiredforsolarproduction.Moreover,itisestimatedthatin2025,morethanhalfofDutchelectricitywillcomefromrenewablesources.In2030,fiveyearslater,itisexpectedthatmorethantwo-thirdsofDutchelectricitywillbefromrenewablesourcesSourceClimateandEnergyOutlook201996timeswithhighcapacity,forexampleatnight,andhighattimesoflowcapacity,forexampleduringtheeveningpeak.Theeffectofdifferentratesistested.Experimentsstartedwithastaticprofilewhichisupdatedperiodically.Atalaterphase,whenmorelocalsustainableenergyisgenerated,itisexpectedthatthisstaticprofilewilldevelopintoadynamicprofile.ConnectionwithbandwidthInthisvariant,small-scaleconsumersreceiveacontractinwhichabandwidthisagreed,forexample4,10,or17kWforafixedmonthlysum.Anyconsumptionwithinthebandwidthiscoveredbythemonthlypayment.Iftheclientusesmorethantheagreedbandwidth,anadditionalinvoicewillbeissued,calculatedperkWh.Ultimately,afteraperiodofresearchandexperimentation,achoicewillhavetobemadefortheshapeoffuturegridcontracts.Asgridoperatorsareregulatedcompanies,thetariffsaresetpoliticallywithintheframeworkoftheEnergyAct.ThechoiceofcontractwillhavemajorconsequencesfortheexpectedsurgeinSmartChargingandvariants.ConclusionInthelegallayer,thedifferentagreements,regulationsandlawswilldeterminethefuturedirectionofSmartCharging.Newmarketmodelswillensurecoordinationofcapacitysupplyanddemandinthelongerterm.TheuseofSmartChargingservicesrequiresamarketmechanisminwhichstakeholders,includingthegridoperators,canworktogether,forexample,forunlockingeithervoluntaryorenforceableflexibility.Agreementscanbemadeaboutwhichchoiceshouldbemadeifthereisariskofgridoverloadandbeingabletochargewithlesspower.BecauseSmartChargingisrelativelynewandinaphaseofrapiddevelopment,thereareanumberofchallengestobemet:wehavetoremovebarriersanddevelopeffectivelawsandregulations.PhotoChargingpointSource:JaccovanderKuilen97FourlayermodelforSmartCharging98SmartChargingisthesolution!Afterhavingexploredthefourlayers,anumberofconclusionscanbedrawn.Tobeabletosustainablychargeelectriccarsonalargescale,weneedSmartCharging.Thisis,simply,aboutmanagingelectriccarcharginganddischarging.GreateffortsareneededforustosuccessfullyapplySmartCharging.Thetechnology,hardwareandITcommunication,mustmakesteeringpossible,communicationmustbesecureviaopenstandards,andalotofdataarerequiredforcustomization.ManystakeholderswillwanttoapplydifferentformsofSmartChargingbasedondifferentwishesandinterests.Sometimestheseinterestswillcoincide,butoftentheywon’t.WethereforeneedrulesandregulationstodeterminewhocanmanagewhatandwhenintheSmartChargingecosystem.ThereisstillagreatdealtobedonebeforeSmartChargingcanbeusedefficientlyandeffectivelyonalargescale.Thiswillbediscussedfurtherinthefinalchapter.BecauseSmartChargingisstillrelativelynewandinfulldevelopment,therearemanychallengestobemet.99100HOWCANWEENSURESMARTCHARGINGBECOMESTHENORM?CHAPTER4101NowwehaveexploredallsortsofaspectsrelatedtoSmartCharging,it’stimetolistwhatwestillhavetodotomakeSmartChargingasuccesssothatwecansustainablyandeffortlesslychargemillionsofelectriccars.Firstofall,westillhavetoresearch,exploreandgainexperienceinbothsmall-scaleandlarge-scaleresearchprojects;we’recurrentlyinthemiddleofthis.Manystudiesandprojectsarestillongoingorhaveyettostart.There’salsoalotmoretoinvestigate.ManystakeholdersareworkingtogetherwiththeElaadNLknowledgeandinnovationcentre.Inaddition,gridoperatorsareusingthelimitedoptionsavailabletothemunderthecurrentlegalframework,theso-calledexperimentalspace.OnlyinthiswaycantheyproperlyexplorethedifferentvariantsofSmartCharging.Payingforflexibility,variablerates,variableconnectioncapacity,andothervariantsofSmartChargingarenotyetpossibleunderexistinglegislationandregulations.Ingeneral,atthismomenttheexistinglegislationandregulationinthisfieldareinadequatetocopewiththeemergenceofelectriccarsandlocallygeneratedsustainableelectricity.Agreatdealstillhastobedone!WethereforeconcludethisGuidewithato-dolist.WhichtenpointsareessentialformakingSmartChargingasuccess?0111001100101010010100101001010101110011001010100101001010010101011100110010101001010010100101010010010110010100011100110010101001010010100101010010010110010100102TheTo-Dolist.•FullytestelectriccarsbeforetheyplugintothegridCurrently,Europeantypeapprovalofelectriccarsisconductedbythecertifyingauthorities,inparticularwithregardstovehiclesafety.Additionaltestsareperformedonavoluntarybasis,forexampleattheElaadNLtestlab,forinteroperability(beingabletochargeonallchargingpoints),powerquality(gridpollution)andSmartCharging(monitoringofcontrolsignals).Infact,everynewelectriccarshouldbetestedonalltheseaspects,notjustonroadsafety.Byconvertingfromalternatingcurrenttodirectcurrent,electriccarscanbothpolluteandimprovegridquality.Chargingon1phasecanleadtounbalancedphases,thereforechargingon3phasesispreferable,wherepossible.WhereEVssupportSmartChargingcontrolsignals,thecarcanmakeapositivecontributiontobalancingtheelectricitysystem.Actionisneededintheshortterm.Theelectriccars,vans,trucksandbusesthatarenowbeingmadeandarebeinglaunchedonthemarketwillbeontheroadformanyyearstocome.Currently,theaveragelifespanofapassengercarisaroundsixteenyears.•RolloutaSmartCharginginfrastructurewithoptimumcapacityByconnectingthechargingstationtothegridwiththelargestpossiblecapacityconnection,wecancreatemaximumflexibilityforSmartCharging.Anelectriccarcanbechargedfasterattimeswhenthisisdesirableifthereisgreatercapacity.Fasterchargingreducesthegridloadatpeakhours,providedthatthecorrectSmartChargingregimeislinkedtothis.103Unfortunately,ahighercapacityconnectionismoreexpensivethanalighterone.Thisispartlyduetothedifferenceincapacitythathastobereservedinthegridtomeetthepeakload.IfgridoperatorscancombineSmartChargingsignalswiththecapacityratesthattheyareallowedtocharge,thenthee-driverwillreceiveamuch‘faster’chargingstationandwecanusetheelectriccarevenbettertorequestpowerwhendesirable.•OfferregionalgridoperatorstheopportunitytomakeflexibilityagreementsTakeadvantageoftheabundantgridcapacity.BychargingEVsatsmartmoments,forexampleatnightorintheweekend,wecanoptimallyuseavailablegridcapacity.WithoutSmartCharging,thefurthergrowthofelectricdrivingwillleadtogreaterpeaksinpowerdemand,whileatthesametimechargingelectriccarswithSmartChargingoffersagreatdealofflexibilityformanagingthegridandfortheuseofsolarandwindenergyasitisproduced.OptionsformakingspecificagreementsfortheuseofSmartChargingtopreventpeakoverloads(congestionmanagement)arecurrentlylimitedlegally,outsideapprovedexperimentalconditions.WeneedtogiveregionalgridoperatorsroomtomakeagreementsforvoluntarycongestionmanagementonconditionthatstakeholderssupportSmartChargingsignals.Wealsoneedtogivethemthepowertodevelopandvalidatenewdifferentcontractmodelsforagridconnection:flexiblecapacityagreements,abandwidthmodel,andvariablegridrates.Asthedigitizationofthepowergridprogressesfurther,thisprofilecanbemadedynamic.Inthelongterm,adynamicprofilecanbeintegratedintoatariffsolution.Experiencehasalsobeengainedwiththemarketplacearchitecture,howeveritappearstobelesssuitableforthispurpose.104•TheSmartCharginggameplanThedifferentSmartChargingperspectivescanbecontradictory.Clearprioritizationisrequired;itmustbeclearwhocancontrolwhatandwhen.Regulationisdefinitelyneeded.Itisimportantthatitisclearwhodetermineshowanelectriccar’sbatterycanbeusedforSmartChargingandwhichSmartCharginginitiativehaspriority.Forexample,undercurrentregulations,nowherecanitbefoundthatthee-driveristheonewhogivespermissionfortheuseofhiselectriccarandunderwhichconditions(timeofdeparture,minimumbatterycapacity,etcetera.).Moreover,exceptionsmaybeneeded.Forexample,preventinglocalgridoverloadismoreimportantthanotherfactors,ascurrentlywehavefewalternativesandweneedtoensuregridreliability.ChargePointOperatorsalsoneedtoprovidespaceforSmartCharging,eventhoughthismaynotalwaysrunparalleltoelectriccarowners‘wishes.TheChargePointOperatorof(semi)publicchargingpointshasadifferentinterestthan,forexample,thatofthee-driver,Tennetortheregionalgridoperator.TheChargePointOperatorusuallyhasabusinessmodelforchargingpointsbasedonmaximizingtheoccupationofthechargingpointandoptimizingthedeploymentoftheavailablechargingcapacity.DuetoSmartCharginginitiativesfromotherplayers,acarmaynolongerbeconnectedtoachargingpointforalongerperiod,andthereforeunabletouseSmartChargingoptions.Inshort,wehavetoclearlyregulateSmartCharginginordertomakeitsuccessful.•EnsuredatarequiredforSmartChargingTomakeSmartChargingpossible,communicationisneededbetweenallthestakeholdersinthechain.Thisconcerns,forexample,communicationaboutthestateofcharge(sizeofbatteryandtheextenttowhichitischarged),thetimeof105departure(orthetimetheconsumerneedsthebatterytobefullycharged),thetypeofelectriccar,thechargingspeeds(thresholdvaluesfortheminimumandmaximumpowerforcharging)ande-driverpreferences(forexample,minimumrangethatmustbeavailable).Atpresent,accesstothisdata(inparticularthestateofcharge)hasnotyetbeenarrangedandlaiddowninatechnicalstandard.Specificbilateralagreementsmustbemadewithcarmanufacturerstounlockthestateofcharge.•EnsureopenaccessandpromotetheuseofopenstandardsintheSmartChargingecosystemInasuccessfulSmartChargingecosystem,allkindsofdevicescan‘talk’toeachotherregardlessoftypeorbrand.Solarpanels,homeenergymanagementsystems,chargingpointsforelectriccarsandbackofficesmustallbeabletocommunicatewitheachotherproblem-free.Byusingopenstandardsaworldwideroll-outispossibleandwecanpreventlock-insandfurtherdevelopthesystem.Thiscanbereinforcedbyrequiringtheuseofopenprotocolsintendersforthenewcharginginfrastructure.•Cybersecurity:protectingthee-driverandgridAselectriccarsandSmartChargingbecomeacrucialpartoftheelectricitysystem,theexchangeofdataandmeasurementsmustalsobesafeandreliable.Thesystemhastobecompletelysecuretopreventaccessbyunauthorizedpartiesviahacks.Theneedforbetter(cyber)securitymatchesconsumerdesiresforanopenmarketwithfreedomofchoiceincombinationwithaseamlessservice.Thecharginginfrastructureneedstobedefinedasacriticalinfrastructure.TendersforpublicchargingpointsneedtocommittothecybersecurityrequirementssetbyENCSandElaadNL.106•OptimiseenergystorageinelectricvehiclesAsthebatteriesoftheelectricvehiclesgrowincapacity,thereisincreasingroomforSmartCharging.Inadditiontoitsuseformobility,thebatterycanalsobeusedaslocalstoragewithintheelectricitysystem.Atthemoment,consumerscanvirtually‘store’self-generatedelectricityonthegrid,astheyonlypayforthebalanceofkWhthattheypurchasefromthegridonanannualbasis(withinasetlimit).Thisso-callednettingarrangementhasprovensuccessfulinstimulatingthepurchaseofsolarpanels.However,ithaseliminatedtheincentivetooptimizetheproductionofsustainableelectricityandlocaluse.Afterall,thereisnodifferenceincostbetweentemporarystorage,forexampleinelectriccarbatteries,ofelectricityforyourownuseatalatertimeandfeedingthegridwithhome-producedelectricity.Thenettingschemewillberevisedin2023.WeneedtoensurethatthenewnettingschemeincludesincentivesforSmartCharging.•PricetransparencywillimproveparticipationinSmartCharginginitiativesGreatertransparencyfore-driversaboutthecurrentcostsofelectricdrivingwillensurethattheycanbetterassessthefinancialbenefitofaSmartCharginginitiative.Atthemomentthestructureoftheunderlyingcostsofelectricdrivingisoftenunclear.Thee-driverpaysacontributiontotheenergysupplier(homecharging)ortotheElectricMobilityServiceProvider(publiccharging),dependingonthecharginglocation,butonlyseesthisafterwards.Asaresult,e-driversareunawareofcostsmadeataspecifictime.Leasedriverswhooftenonlyusepublicchargingpointsoftenhaveevenlessinsightsintotheircostsastheleasingcompanyisresponsibleforpayment.Electricitytaxalsoweighsheavilyinthisequation,asthehigherthetotalenergyconsumptionatalocation,thelowerthetaxperkWh.Thereisstillalongwaytogointhisarea.BetterinsightsintothepricesatagivenmomentwillreinforceSmartChargingoptionsasanysavingsbecomemoretransparent.107•ImprovefinancialincentivesMotoristscurrentlypayaflatratefortheirelectricityconsumptionorhaveaday/nightrate.SmartChargingofferstheopportunitytobetteraligntheirelectricityconsumptionwiththeavailabilityof(sustainable)electricitybychargingattimes‘cheap’electricityisavailable.AndifV2Gisapplied,itwillbepossibletoresupplyenergyatadifferenttime.Flexibleratesforelectricityusecanprovideapriceincentivetobettermatchconsumptionwithsupply.Inpractice,thisisonlycurrentlyappliedonasmallscale.Centralgovernment,municipalitiesandprovincescouldpassonthisincentivetoe-driversviatendersforthecharginginfrastructure.Cheaperchargingwhenelectricitypricesarelow.HoweverquarterlypricingonlyseemstoresultinalimitedpriceincentiveasthemajorityofthecostsperkWhconsistoftaxes(energytaxandVAT).Asaresult,anyadvantagesofquarterlypricingstrategiesremainlimited.Aspecialsituationarisesiftheelectriccarisusedforbi-directionalcharging(V2G).Forexample,ifthecarisfirstchargedusingapublicchargingstation,andthensuppliesenergytothegrid,andthenthisischargedbackintothecar.Thee-driverwouldthenhavetopayenergytaxseveraltimesforthesamepower.ThishasadirectimpactonSmartCharging:itiscurrentlynotfinanciallyattractivefore-driverstomaketheirelectriccaravailableforbi-directionalchargingastheyaretaxedfortheirenergyuseatleasttwice:thismustcometoanend.108FinallyWestillhavealongwaytogotomakeSmartChargingthenormandtobeabletochargemillionsofelectriccarseffortlesslyandsustainably.However,the10pointsofourTo-dolistshowwecancomealongway.WecalloneveryoneinvolvedintheevolvingSmartChargingecosystemtocontributetothis,inparticularnationalandEuropeangovernments.Existinglawsandregulationsweresetinaverydifferentperiod,andshouldnotstandinthewayofabeautiful,sustainableinnovationsuchasSmartCharging.ElaadNLenjoysworkingtogetherwithallthestakeholdersinvolvedinSmartChargingandwillcontinuetocontributetoresearchandfurtherinnovation.Inthiswaywestrivetomaketheelectriccarasuccessfulpartofourfuturefullysustainableenergysystem!109AAmpèreACAlternatingCurrentADRAutomatedDemandResponseCPMChargePointManufacturerCPOChargePointOperatorCSChargingStation=EVSEElectricalVehicleSupplyEquipmentDCDirectCurrentDLTDistributedLedgerTechnologyDSODistributionSystemOperatorEMSEnergyManagementSystemEMSPE-MobilityServiceProviderEVElectricVehicleEVSEVehicleSupplyEquipment=ChargingStationGWGigawattGWhGigawatthourHVHighVoltageHzHerzkWKilowattkWhKilowatthourLVLowVoltageMVMidVoltageMSPMobilityServiceProviderListofabbreviationsOCHPOpenClearingHouseProtocolOCPIOpenChargePointInterfaceOCPPOpenChargePointProtocolOEMOriginalEquipmentManufacturer(carmanufacturer)OSCPOpenSmartChargingProtocolTSOTransmissionSystemOperator:nationalgridmanager(Tennet)TWhTerawatthourV2GVehicletoGridV2HVehicletoHomeV2XVehicletoAnything110AboutElaadNLTheElaadNLknowledgeandinnovationcentreresearchesandtestspossibilitiesforSmartCharging:reliable,affordableandsustainablechargingofelectriccars.ElaadNLisaninitiativeofthejointDutchgridoperators.111ElaadNLisaninitiativeof:TheSmartChargingprojectsdescribedinthispublicationareconductedbyalargegroupofenthusiasticpartnerswhowehavenotalllistedforreadabilitypurposes.Wewouldliketoexpressourthanksandappreciationforeveryone’scommitment!112EnglisheditionThisistheEnglisheditionoftheSmartChargingGuide.WehaveadjustedtheoriginaltextbasedonfeedbackreceivedonthefirstDutch-languageeditionpublishedon12September2019.ThiscurrenteditionoftheGuidefocusesprimarilyontheDutchsituation.Inthenearfuturewewouldliketoworkwithourinternationalpartnersandproduceaninternationalversion.113114