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itif.org

Innovation Amplifiers: Getting More Bang

for the Buck on GHG Reductions

ED RIGHTOR | JULY 2023

The pace of GHG reductions needs to greatly accelerate. Recent investments are a great start but

are not sufficient. We need to amplify the current investments to achieve clean energy as the

norm and improve competitiveness.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 The pace of global GHG reductions is far from what’s needed to stabilize the climate.

Emissions are going up in contrast to projections and commitments that they’d be going

down.

 The tax incentives in the recent IRA legislation will expand clean energy generation,

distribution, and use but are insufficient to drive the RD&D needed to decrease the costs

of low-carbon technologies, support infrastructure, and implement solutions.

 For the current portfolio of investments, DOE and other agencies need to capture

significantly more value from the resources they commit by adopting knowledge and

application amplifiers with goal-directed research.

 DOE should develop high leverage capabilities (e.g., electrochemistry, composites, energy

storage); pursue science and engineering to address crosscutting constraints; and rally

diverse collaborator networks focused on audacious goals.

 DOE also should encourage spillovers into adjacent or unseen applications and markets;

increase outreach and transparency to engage ecosystems of collaborators; and use the

investments in hydrogen and CCUS hubs to utilize a range of amplifiers.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & INNOVATION FOUNDATION | JULY 2023 PAGE 2

CONTENTS

Key Takeaways ................................................................................................................... 1

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................ 2

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 3

What Is an Amplifier? ......................................................................................................... 4

Improved Clarity and Fewer Constraints ............................................................................. 4

Knowledge Spillovers....................................................................................................... 5

Application Spillovers ...................................................................................................... 5

Clear Solution Paths ........................................................................................................ 5

Strategic Use of Resources .............................................................................................. 6

Intersectional Thinking .................................................................................................... 6

Support Networks ........................................................................................................... 6

Goal-Directed Research ................................................................................................... 7

How Can We Foster Amplifiers? ........................................................................................... 7

How Are DOE, DOD, and Other Agencies Using Amplifiers? .................................................... 9

How Could Amplifiers Maximize the Impact of Recent Funding? ........................................... 11

Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................................... 13

Endnotes ......................................................................................................................... 15

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The world is behind the curve in addressing climate change. We need to amplify the impact of

global greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction initiatives. Despite recent historic United States

investments to spur clean energy technologies, we simply can’t reduce GHGs fast enough with

the limited resources committed globally—and additional massive funding is unlikely. We need

bigger and faster GHG reductions from the funds already committed. But how?

Pursuing amplifiers is an underutilized approach that could cascade GHG reductions in multiple

areas simultaneously. Amplifiers leverage resources and knowledge to greatly increase impact,

remove constraints, or expand applications. They spur creative thinking that leads to innovative

solutions to tough problems. Amplifiers such as spillovers increase the impact of innovations. For

example, lithium-ion batteries developed for small consumer electronics are making an even

larger impact powering electric vehicles and stationary batteries. Looking ahead, innovations in

core capabilities such as electrochemistry could amplify GHG reductions in batteries, hydrogen

fuel cells, and water electrolyzers, and converting carbon dioxide (CO2) into value-added

products.

Like increasing the power of amplifiers at a concert, we need to “crank it up” in terms of GHG

reductions. The Department of Energy (DOE) and research partners can get more bang for the

buck from recent investments by pursuing amplifiers in “Energy Earthshots.”1 DOE should

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & INNOVATION FOUNDATION | JULY 2023 PAGE 3

engage diverse innovator networks across multiple partners to develop and apply expertise with

high leverage potential (e.g., electrochemistry, composite materials, separations, energy storage).

Making big GHG reductions fast is vital. Using amplifiers to deliver those bigger reductions faster

will be crucial to achieving audacious GHG reduction and sustainability goals.

INTRODUCTION

Society is way behind the pace when it comes to GHG reductions needed to avoid the worst

impacts of climate change.2 Recent investments provide a start for the transformation required

but are far from the level currently needed. One way to achieve far greater impact from the

limited resources available—get “more bang for the buck”—is by identifying and pursuing

amplifiers to increase leverage and market pull.

The scale of the transformation needed across energy systems, manufacturing, buildings,

transportation, supply chains, and the way that people use energy is colossal. The resources

committed to this radical change in a very compressed time window are limited considering the

scale of the change needed. This is a global problem, and the level of global investment needed

will be enormous, but the consequences of not making the transformation are unthinkable.

Estimates of the global investment needed are above $130 trillion through 2050.3 Between

2021 and 2025, $2.6 trillion per year is needed—and this increases beyond 2025 to $4.5

trillion/year. By comparison, the $35 billion authorized for clean energy technology is merely a

blip.4 And prospects for additional funding in the next few years are dim, so making the most of

the limited funds is vital.

Getting more bang for the buck matters, as the innovations needed to enable the technological

change are enormous and low-carbon technologies need to get to price and performance parity

with incumbent solutions fast.6 This will require large and durable research, development, and

demonstration (RD&D) investments as adoption faces displacing well-entrenched, less-expensive

technologies and processes. Sectors such as industry, aviation, and marine are very

heterogeneous, while integration (e.g., complex linkages between inputs and outputs) and risks

for implementation are high.

The needs for innovation to achieve net-zero emissions are profound. Nearly half the technologies

needed to reach net zero by 2050 are still in prototype or demonstration stage.5 Sectors such as

industry, aviation, and marine are even more dependent on emergent technologies. Accelerated

adoption will require demonstrations in multiple configurations, applications, and regional

contexts, so innovation in implementation is important too.

The low-carbon approaches for transitioning energy use such as renewable hydrogen, converting

CO2 into useful products, electrifying manufacturing processes, and mitigating remaining

emissions from hard-to-abate processes by carbon capture utilization and storage (CCUS) are

significantly more expensive than incumbent solutions. That price gap will lead to slow adoption,

which means it’s essential to reach price parity while delivering the same performance.6 There’s

a critical need to amplify our efforts given limited resources, a short time window, and myriad

adoption challenges.

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itif.orgInnovationAmplifiers:GettingMoreBangfortheBuckonGHGReductionsEDRIGHTORJULY2023ThepaceofGHGreductionsneedstogreatlyaccelerate.Recentinvestmentsareagreatstartbutarenotsufficient.Weneedtoamplifythecurrentinvestmentstoachievecleanenergyasthenormandimprovecompetitiveness.KEYTAKEAWAYSThepaceofglobalGHGreductionsisfarfromwhat’sneededtostabilizetheclimate.Emissionsaregoingupincontrasttoprojectionsandcommitmentsthatthey’dbegoingdown.ThetaxincentivesintherecentIRAlegislationwillexpandcleanenergygeneration,distribution,andusebutareinsufficienttodrivetheRD&Dneededtodecreasethecostsoflow-carbontechnologies,supportinfrastructure,andimplementsolutions.Forthecurrentportfolioofinvestments,DOEandotheragenciesneedtocapturesignificantlymorevaluefromtheresourcestheycommitbyadoptingknowledgeandapplicationamplifierswithgoal-directedresearch.DOEshoulddevelophighleveragecapabilities(e.g.,electrochemistry,composites,energystorage);pursuescienceandengineeringtoaddresscrosscuttingconstraints;andrallydiversecollaboratornetworksfocusedonaudaciousgoals.DOEalsoshouldencouragespilloversintoadjacentorunseenapplicationsandmarkets;increaseoutreachandtransparencytoengageecosystemsofcollaborators;andusetheinvestmentsinhydrogenandCCUShubstoutilizearangeofamplifiers.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE2CONTENTSKeyTakeaways...................................................................................................................1ExecutiveSummary............................................................................................................2Introduction.......................................................................................................................3WhatIsanAmplifier?.........................................................................................................4ImprovedClarityandFewerConstraints.............................................................................4KnowledgeSpillovers.......................................................................................................5ApplicationSpillovers......................................................................................................5ClearSolutionPaths........................................................................................................5StrategicUseofResources..............................................................................................6IntersectionalThinking....................................................................................................6SupportNetworks...........................................................................................................6Goal-DirectedResearch...................................................................................................7HowCanWeFosterAmplifiers?...........................................................................................7HowAreDOE,DOD,andOtherAgenciesUsingAmplifiers?....................................................9HowCouldAmplifiersMaximizetheImpactofRecentFunding?...........................................11ConclusionsandRecommendations...................................................................................13Endnotes.........................................................................................................................15EXECUTIVESUMMARYTheworldisbehindthecurveinaddressingclimatechange.Weneedtoamplifytheimpactofglobalgreenhousegas(GHG)reductioninitiatives.DespiterecenthistoricUnitedStatesinvestmentstospurcleanenergytechnologies,wesimplycan’treduceGHGsfastenoughwiththelimitedresourcescommittedglobally—andadditionalmassivefundingisunlikely.WeneedbiggerandfasterGHGreductionsfromthefundsalreadycommitted.Buthow?PursuingamplifiersisanunderutilizedapproachthatcouldcascadeGHGreductionsinmultipleareassimultaneously.Amplifiersleverageresourcesandknowledgetogreatlyincreaseimpact,removeconstraints,orexpandapplications.Theyspurcreativethinkingthatleadstoinnovativesolutionstotoughproblems.Amplifierssuchasspilloversincreasetheimpactofinnovations.Forexample,lithium-ionbatteriesdevelopedforsmallconsumerelectronicsaremakinganevenlargerimpactpoweringelectricvehiclesandstationarybatteries.Lookingahead,innovationsincorecapabilitiessuchaselectrochemistrycouldamplifyGHGreductionsinbatteries,hydrogenfuelcells,andwaterelectrolyzers,andconvertingcarbondioxide(CO2)intovalue-addedproducts.Likeincreasingthepowerofamplifiersataconcert,weneedto“crankitup”intermsofGHGreductions.TheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)andresearchpartnerscangetmorebangforthebuckfromrecentinvestmentsbypursuingamplifiersin“EnergyEarthshots.”1DOEshouldINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE3engagediverseinnovatornetworksacrossmultiplepartnerstodevelopandapplyexpertisewithhighleveragepotential(e.g.,electrochemistry,compositematerials,separations,energystorage).MakingbigGHGreductionsfastisvital.UsingamplifierstodeliverthosebiggerreductionsfasterwillbecrucialtoachievingaudaciousGHGreductionandsustainabilitygoals.INTRODUCTIONSocietyiswaybehindthepacewhenitcomestoGHGreductionsneededtoavoidtheworstimpactsofclimatechange.2Recentinvestmentsprovideastartforthetransformationrequiredbutarefarfromthelevelcurrentlyneeded.Onewaytoachievefargreaterimpactfromthelimitedresourcesavailable—get“morebangforthebuck”—isbyidentifyingandpursuingamplifierstoincreaseleverageandmarketpull.Thescaleofthetransformationneededacrossenergysystems,manufacturing,buildings,transportation,supplychains,andthewaythatpeopleuseenergyiscolossal.Theresourcescommittedtothisradicalchangeinaverycompressedtimewindowarelimitedconsideringthescaleofthechangeneeded.Thisisaglobalproblem,andthelevelofglobalinvestmentneededwillbeenormous,buttheconsequencesofnotmakingthetransformationareunthinkable.Estimatesoftheglobalinvestmentneededareabove$130trillionthrough2050.3Between2021and2025,$2.6trillionperyearisneeded—andthisincreasesbeyond2025to$4.5trillion/year.Bycomparison,the$35billionauthorizedforcleanenergytechnologyismerelyablip.4Andprospectsforadditionalfundinginthenextfewyearsaredim,somakingthemostofthelimitedfundsisvital.Gettingmorebangforthebuckmatters,astheinnovationsneededtoenablethetechnologicalchangeareenormousandlow-carbontechnologiesneedtogettopriceandperformanceparitywithincumbentsolutionsfast.6Thiswillrequirelargeanddurableresearch,development,anddemonstration(RD&D)investmentsasadoptionfacesdisplacingwell-entrenched,less-expensivetechnologiesandprocesses.Sectorssuchasindustry,aviation,andmarineareveryheterogeneous,whileintegration(e.g.,complexlinkagesbetweeninputsandoutputs)andrisksforimplementationarehigh.Theneedsforinnovationtoachievenet-zeroemissionsareprofound.Nearlyhalfthetechnologiesneededtoreachnetzeroby2050arestillinprototypeordemonstrationstage.5Sectorssuchasindustry,aviation,andmarineareevenmoredependentonemergenttechnologies.Acceleratedadoptionwillrequiredemonstrationsinmultipleconfigurations,applications,andregionalcontexts,soinnovationinimplementationisimportanttoo.Thelow-carbonapproachesfortransitioningenergyusesuchasrenewablehydrogen,convertingCO2intousefulproducts,electrifyingmanufacturingprocesses,andmitigatingremainingemissionsfromhard-to-abateprocessesbycarboncaptureutilizationandstorage(CCUS)aresignificantlymoreexpensivethanincumbentsolutions.Thatpricegapwillleadtoslowadoption,whichmeansit’sessentialtoreachpriceparitywhiledeliveringthesameperformance.6There’sacriticalneedtoamplifyoureffortsgivenlimitedresources,ashorttimewindow,andmyriadadoptionchallenges.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE4ThisreportexploreshowtoidentifyandpursueamplifierstoaccelerateGHGreductions,highlightingpolicyenablersandwaysagenciescanexpandtheimpactoffundsprovidedbytheInflationReductionAct(IRA)andBipartisanInfrastructureLaw(BIL).WHATISANAMPLIFIER?Amplifiersareapproachestoprogrammanagementthatleverageresourcesandknowledgetogreatlyincreasetheimpactofinputs,removeconstraints,orexpandarangeofapplications.InthecontextofGHGreductions,anamplifiergreatlyexpandsthemagnitudeofemissionsreductionsfortheresourcesavailable.Figure1showstheseveralcategoriesofamplifiers,followedbyillustrativeexamplesforeach.Butastherearemanywaysamplifierscanbecreativelyapplied,thislistisnotmeanttobeexhaustive.Figure1:CategoriesofamplifiersImprovedClarityandFewerConstraintsTherearemultiplewaysinwhichremovalofconstraints(capital,risk,technicalissues,etc.)andimprovedclaritycanyieldamplifiedimpact.OperationWarpSpeed(OWS)intheUnitedStateswassuccessfulinremovingRD&DandregulatoryrisktoaccelerateCOVID-19vaccinedevelopment.7RD&Doftenhasassociatedrisksregardingwhetherofferingswillmeettheneedsofcustomersandifthey’llpurchasetheproductdeveloped.Thegovernmentlargelyeliminatedthoserisksbyguaranteeingthepurchaseofthevaccinesandprovidingfinancingregardlessofregulatoryapproval.Normalregulatoryprocessesformedicalproductscantakeyears—acloudofGoal-DirectedResearchImprovedClarity,FewerConstraintsKnowledgeSpilloversClearSolutionPathwaysStrategicResourcesIntersectionalThinkingSupportNetworksINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE5uncertaintyforproductdevelopers’approvaltimingandapplicationconstraints.Thegovernmentminimizedtheserisksbyfast-trackingapprovalforthevaccinesandaidedcontractinganddistribution,furtherminimizingrisks.Multipleagenciesandprivatesectorcompaniespartneredtospeeddevelopmentanddeploymentwhileeffectivelyaddressinghurdles.TheDefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency(DARPA)playedanearlyrolebyseeingthepotentialforthemRNAtechnologyforvaccines,supportingdevelopment,buildingnetworksofresearchers,andloweringtechnicalrisks—startingeightyearsbeforethepandemic.8DARPAhasahistoryofpioneeringinnovationsthathavebeenpickedupbymarkets.ExamplesincludetheInternet,miniaturizedglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)devices,unmannedaerialvehicles(drones),andflatscreendisplays.9KnowledgeSpilloversSpilloversincreasetherateoflearningandapplicationinareasthatwerenottheoriginaltargetofinnovationactivity.10Knowledgespilloversincorporatenewprinciplesintootherapplicationsincreasingtherateofinnovationinthenewarea.Oneexample,asnotedistheadoptionofsemiconductormanufacturingprocessesandleveragedsiliconproductionwithphotovoltaic(PV)cells.ThiscontributedtothedominanceofPVs(overcompetingthinfilms)after2000withpolysiliconcostsdroppingto10percentthatofthe1975level.9Anotheraspectofthesespilloversoccurswhenresearcherspursueinnovationsinunfamiliarfieldsinwhichtheycandevelopnewinsights.Theseinterloperscanbe“cross-pollinators”thathelpdevelopinnovativeideas.11Thediversityinthinkingattheintersectionoffields,culture,andexperiencescanyielduniqueperspectives.Forexample,theemergencyroom(ER)staffatahospitalwhowereseekinginnovative,nontraditionalmethodstominimizemistakesobservedcarracingpitcrewsunderpressure—notERsatotherhospitals.12ApplicationSpilloversApplicationspilloversinvolveatechnologydevelopedforoneapplicationbeingpickedupbyanotherapplicationoradjacentmarket.Forexample,gasturbinesoriginallydevelopedandappliedforjetengineswerelateradaptedfornaturalgasturbines.13Spilloverscanshareacommonscientificbase,manufacturingtechniques,andoperationskills.ThemultitudeofapplicationspilloversfromtheNASAmoonshotsareprimeexamples.14TheincreasedimpactsandacceleratedspeedfromspilloverswerealsoimportantfortherapidpreparationofmaterialsforWorldWarII,wheretheyenabledcollaborationtoturnfailuresintosuccessesinotherapplicationsandacceleratedprogressinthefaceofscarceinputs.15ClearSolutionPathsAmplifierscanalsorevealnewknowledgethatallowsforaclearerpathtosolutions.ThedevelopmentofvaccinesbyOWSenabledthemappingofsupplychainsfortherapidmanufacture,transportation,anddeploymentofvaccines.Thismappingwasakeypartoftherapidresponsetothepandemic,asitidentifiedvulnerabilitiesandwasusedalongwithmanufacturingforecastingandinvestingtoclosegapsbeforetheyarose.7ThisalsouncoveredthatPfizerknewitssupplychain,asdidSanofi,butknowledgeoftheentiresupplychainneededformanufactureanddistributionwasunknown.Thisisanexampleoffindingclarityonhowtoutilizeacomplexproductionanddeliveryprocessmoreeffectivelyfromendtoend.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE6Therearealsoexampleswhereinnewinsightscancomefrommoreclearlyseeinghowtoorchestratesolutionsincomplex,nonlinear,ormultivariatesystems.Analysesofpatentsassociatedwithcomplexareasshowthedisproportionatebenefitsofscienceuncoveringpreviouslyunrecognizedrelationships.Sciencecanhelpinventorsbothfindtheirwaytounfamiliarplacesandconvinceothersthatwhattheyfoundisvaluable.16StrategicUseofResourcesGreaterimpactisrealizedwhenthevalueisleveragedacrossmultipleorganizations.Forexample,acompanywiththerightstobuildroads,bridges,orcommunicationsnetworkscanoperatemoreefficientlyinmovingitsgoodsorinformation.Thisimpact,however,canbefargreaterifthetechnologyissharedamongmultiplecompaniesconnectingmoreproducers,sellers,andendconsumers.Inanotherexample,systemsengineeringchallengeswerenotreadilydivisibleduringtechnologydevelopmentassociatedwithWWII,sothedevelopmentofradarwasconcentratedattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.15Conversely,paralleleffortswerefavoredforfissionandthedevelopmentofpenicillinandmedicinestoaddressmalaria.IntersectionalThinkingFransJohannsen,inTheMediciEffect,explainedthatincreasedcreativitycomeswhentalentedpeoplewithdifferentbackgroundsanddisciplinescollaborate,yieldingstep-changeimprovements.11Creativitywillflourishwhenpeoplewithdiversebackground,cultures,educations,andvaluescollaborate.Attheseintersectionsofthinking,newapproachesandbreakthroughscanoccur.Peopleoutsideacertainfieldofstudydon’thavethesameassumptionsorareabletochallengethosealreadypresent,andideascanbecombinedinnewways.DARPApromotesthisintersectionalityintheteamstheybuildandinteractionstheyspuramongnetworks.TheAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency-Energy(ARPA-E)promotesitattheirinnovationsummitswheretechnologydevelopersfromallovertheglobeworkingondiverseproblemshaveanopportunitytointeract.7SuccessesfromtheARPA-Eprogramincludewide-bandgapsemiconductorsandmobiledetectionformethaneleakdetectionamongthe135companies,morethan1,000patents,andover300licensesresultingfromsupportedprograms.17SupportNetworksSupportnetworksenabletherapidexchangeofknowledgeandspurcreativitybetweenresearchersinoverlappingdisciplines,encouragingcross-fertilizationandinnovation.Whenthesenetworksarefocusedonacommongoal,progresscanbeacceleratedbythecommunityofcollaboratorsthatexpandexpertiseanddrivedurableprogress.Forexample,DARPAisknownforbuildingstrongnetworksofcollaboratorsthatfocusonagoal,withthenetworkstappingabroadrangeofexpertiseanddisciplines.7Thenetworkscanrangefromacademiatoemergingtechnologyfirmsthatlackexperienceasdefensecontractors.Inanotherexample,theUnitedStatesgovernmentspurredthedevelopmentofpublic-privatenetworksleadingtonumerousPVinventions/innovationsinthe1970s.7However,atthesametime,asimilarfederalprogramencouragingpublic-privatenetworksandinnovationecosystemstodrivetheapplicationoftechnologywaslargelyabsent,allowingGermany,Japan,andSpaintohavetheupperhandininstallationspercapita.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE7Goal-DirectedResearchCreativeinnovationwillmakethegreatestdifferenceinaddressingclimatestabilization,ifdirectedtowardthatcause.Thisalignswithpriorlearnings.Goal-directedresearchwasvitaltotheUnitedStatesOfficeofScientificResearchandDevelopment(OSRD)developmentofinnovativesolutionstochallengesduringWWIIsuchastheManhattanProject.12Thatexperiencealsoshowedthetensionsbetweentheneedsforveryrapidinnovationinmultipleareas,severetimeconstraints/urgency,limitedresources,andhighcosts.Discoveringunusualcombinationsofideasviaamplifiersmayberelativelyinexpensive,butcommercializingthosebreakthroughsmayrequiremoretimetofullydeploy,astheseuniquesolutionsarestillrelativelynewanduntested.TheHumanGenomeproject’ssuccesswithprivateRD&Ddirectedtowardasocietalgoalchangedthewaybiomedicalresearchisstructured.18Theevolutionof“grandchallenges”providesadditionalsteeringforresearch.19Thenotionofchallenge-basedresearchhasbeenpickedupinEuropetocreatearesearchagendawithsocietyandactiveparticipantstakeholders.20HOWCANWEFOSTERAMPLIFIERS?Thereareseveralroutestobolsteramplifiers.Projectsandeventsthatgatherexpertsfromdifferentfieldsofstudyencouragecross-fertilizationofideas,learning,andcollaborationsthatleadtonewcombinationsofapproachestosolutions.Gatheringinnovatorsinmultiplefieldsacrossart,sciences,literature,etc.harkensbacktotheMedicis,awealthybankingandmerchantfamilythatspurredinnovationin16thcenturyFlorenceviathismethod.TheresultingnexusofintellectualthinkingcontributedtoEurope’srenaissance.21Thecollisionofdifferentperspectives,lifeexperiences,andculturescanleadtoexperimentationoutsidetheboundsofpreviousthoughtpatterns—whichsometimesareconstrainedbytheestablished“rules”ofafieldofpractice.Peoplethatconsiderproblemsinareasthatarenewtothemdon’thavethebiasesandthereforedon’thavetounlearn“traditional”learning.Thisallowspeopleworkingattheseinterfacestospontaneouslyconnectdisparateconcepts,ideas,ingredients,approaches,etc.Diversenetworks,collaborations,andpartnershipsformwhenpeoplewithdivergentexperiencesandperspectivescometogether.Akeytofosteringintersectionalthinkingistogatherpeoplefromdifferentfieldsandfocustheircreativethinkingonachallenge(e.g.,goal-directedRD&D).Peoplewhoarenaturallycuriousandinterestedintopicsbeyondtheirexpertiseandtraining—andasklotsofthought-provokingquestionsandenjoypursuingthem—aregoodcandidates.ThestrategyoffosteringnetworksiscentraltoDARPA,anditintentionallybringstogetherarangeofexpertsfrommultipledisciplinesandfocusesthemonachallenge.22ThismodelisalsoemployedintheNationalNetworkforManufacturingInnovation(NNMI),wheretheinvolvementofnetworkstoaddresscrosscuttingopportunitiesisrecognized.23Expansionofnetworkstoincludeinternationalpeersinoverlappingfieldscanspeedthetransferofknowledge,identifyinnovationgaps,andavoidduplicationofefforts.ExistingmultilateralprogramsincludetheInternationalEnergyAgency’s(IEA’s)technologycollaborationprograms,MissionInnovation,andtheCleanEnergyMinisterial.6INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE8Spurringdevelopmentofnewinsightsincomplexareasisanotherroute.Thiscanoccurinareasthatarewellcovered—wherenewapproaches,tools,orre-examinationofassumptionscanyieldnewpathstosolutions.Oritcanoccurinunexploredareas.Theimprovedabilitytomodelmyriadparametersquicklywithemergingartificialintelligence(AI),machinelearning,quantumcomputing,etc.isexpectedtoprovidegreaterunderstandingofhowtooptimizecomplexsystemsanddynamicallyadjusttochangingmarketneedsandopportunities.Understandinghowtoconnectmarketpushandpullmechanisms,andhowtooptimizeinteractionsacrosscomplexsupplychains,presentsadditionalopportunitiesinthisarea.24Expandingaccesstoinformationorusingthevoluminouslevelofdigitaldataavailabletoidentifytrendsandinterpretthemformorerapiddecision-makingfitshereaswell.Encouragingnewapproachesandbusinessmodelsisyetanotherapproach.Forexample,increasingthescaleofproductionaidstheabilityofcompaniestocompete.Thisleadstolargerandlargerfacilitiesincentralizedlocations.Thepandemic,however,exposedseveralsupplychaingapswiththatmodelandinherentvulnerabilitieswithjust-in-time-delivery.Aconverseapproachispursuingsmallermodularunitsclosertocustomers(shortersupplychains)thatarenimblerandcanachievescalebystackingproductionfromidenticalunits.Thosepursuingdistributedmanufacturingtouttheincreasedopportunitiesforradicallydifferentbusinessmodelsinwhichdata-drivenopeninnovationprovidesgreaterflexibilityandtheabilitytocustomize,andmeetfastdeliveryrequirementsofcustomers.25Inspiringthedevelopmentofdeepexpertiseinareaswithbroadapplicabilityiscentraltoamplification.Therearemultipleopportunitieswheresharedexpertisecouldbenefitcleanenergyinnovation.Forexample,theareaofelectrochemistryiscentraltoinnovationinbatteries,electrolyzers(e.g.,generationofrenewablehydrogen),fuelcells,andmanyothercleantechnologyapplications.9Developmentofexpertiseinthisareaandencouragingexpertstomovefromoneapplicationareatoanotherisawaytoencourageinnovation.Otherareaswhereexpertisecouldbecentraltoinnovationscouldincludeenergystorage,separations,lightweightmaterials,quantumcomputing,AI,advancedmanufacturing/automation,andbiotechnology.Supportingearlymarketsiskey.It’schallengingforentrepreneurstocommercializeinventions.Encouragementintargetedareasofmarketorsocietalchallengescandecreasethehurdlesandspeedinnovation.DARPAusesthisapproachbyservingasanearlymarketforinformationtechnology(IT)products.Byencouraging“connectedRD&D,”DARPAprovidesnotonlyinsightsintocustomerneedsbutalsoconnectionstointerestedpartieswillingtotrialconcepts.26DARPAandtheDepartmentofDefense(DOD)werethefirstadoptersofITadvancesforworkstations(SunMicrosystems,SiliconGraphics)andInternetforerunnersARPANETandMILNET.27DARPAprovidedacriticalassisttothelaunchingofSunbyextendingfundstoacademicinstitutions,therebypermittingthemtoacquireworkstations.OrdersfromDARPA-connectedacademicpartnersaccountedfor80percentoftheordersreceivedbySuninitsfirstyearofbusiness.34DARPAreliedonitsconnectionsandtiestolargerinnovationsystemstonurtureinternalandexternalmultilayerednetworkstospurinnovationwhileengagingadiverserangeofresearchersandendusers.28There’salsotheapproachofofferingprizestospurinnovation,whichwouldseemtosupportinnovationbyentrepreneurs.There’sbeenaboominlargeprizessince1970,withinducementprizesaccountingfor78percentoftotalprizes.29Yet,quantitativeevidencefortheeffectofINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE9prizesisnotstrong.Whereprizesarechosen,theymaybeparticularlyappropriatefordevelopingtechnologytobreakcriticaltechnologicalbarriers,achievehigherperformance,orstimulatethediffusionorcommercializationoftechnologies.30Theseareasalignwithamplifieruse,socarefulselectionofgoalsandmetricsinthedesignofprizescouldbeconsideredtoinspirethosepursuingearlymarkets.Bealertforadjacentmarketsandapplications.Goal-orientedRD&Dshouldrecognizethatwhileinnovationsaretargetedforonearea,theremaybeadjacentmarketsorapplicationswithevenlargerimpactoramoredirectpathwaytoadoption.Ofteninnovatorshavetunnelvision—focusedonmeetingamarketneedthatjustifiestheirtimeandenergyindevelopingasolution—butareunawareofadjacentorunseenmarkets,asnotedbyPeterDruckerdecadesago.31Amplifierscanrevealabroadermarkettoinnovatorsaugmentingthebusinesscaseandprovidinggreaterscale.Thecompanythatdevelopedthefirstcomputer,Univac,sawthatitwouldbegreatforscientificresearchbutdidn’tseethemarketforbusiness,letalonepersonalcomputing.Severalmarketsconnectedwithelectrochemistrymaybemodesttoday,butwhencombinedwiththepotentialforleverageableinnovations,becomequiteattractive.Theglobalmarketforelectrolyzersis$1.2billionin2023butexpectedreach$24billionby2028(acompoundannualgrowthrate(CAGR)of80percent).32Theglobalmarketforhydrogenfuelcellswas$14.7billion/yearin2021andisprojectedtobea$80billion/yearmarketby2030(CAGR21percent).33Themarketpotentialinchemicalsandfuelsisimmensegiventhearrayofproductsandneedtodecarbonize.34Theglobalmarketforethylene(oneofthelargestcommoditychemicals)in2021was$176billionandisprojectedtoreach$287billionby2030.35Entrepreneurscanspurdisruptiveinnovationbyreorganizingacurrentmarketorcreatinganewonethroughtheapplicationofexistingtechnologiestonewprocessesorbusinessmodels.Thelatterishardtounderstand,asit’sdifficulttodoresearchonamarketthatdoesn’texistyet.Nevertheless,unseenmarketscanbethepathtosuccessandshouldbetappedbyamplifiers.HOWAREDOE,DOD,ANDOTHERAGENCIESUSINGAMPLIFIERS?Severalagenciesrecognizethebenefitsofleveraginginnovationsacrossmultipleareas.Forexample,theNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(NETL)hasalong-runningcrosscutsprogram.Itfocusesonhigh-performancematerials,sensors/controls/cybersecurity,simulation-basedengineering,wastemanagement,andenergystorage.36Theprogramreachesouttotheprivatesectorbyincorporatingcomprehensiveriskassessmentsandtechno-economicanalyses.Severalprogramshaveinternationalcollaborators,suchasthematerialsRD&Darea,whichcollaborateswithexpertsinhigh-temperaturematerialsintheUnitedKingdom.37Acrossmultipledepartments,DOEhasorganizedmulti-officecrosscuttingresearchanddevelopment(R&D)programstoaddresscommonchallenges/objectives,streamlinehand-offsfromearlier-stageresearchtomoreappliedprograms,andavoidunintendedoverlapinprograms.38CrosscutteamslaunchedinFebruary2023workinareaswherethere’sanopportunitytoeffectivelyleverageimpactonbigprojects.39Thecrosscutinitiativeshaveobjectives,actionareas,andtiestoBILandIRAfunding.40SomeoftheseteamsspecificallysupporttheEnergyEarthshots,whoseintentionistoaccelerateprogressonaggressivetargetsandincreasecommunicationanddiversethinkingontheproblems/opportunities.TosupporttheINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE10fundamentalresearchconnectedwiththemultipleEnergyEarthshots,DOEannounced$150millioninfundingoverthreeyearsforsmallteamsfocusedonthecommonchallenges.Itisopentoacademia,privatesectorcompanies,andnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs).41Additionally,therearejointstrategyteamsthatcoordinateeffortsDOE-wide.FosteringnetworkstospurinnovationwhileaskingandpursuingdifficultquestionstowardcommercializationisafocusoftheEmbeddedEntrepreneurshipInitiative(EEI)fundedbyDARPA.42Theaimistobuildhealthyecosystemswhereincompanieswithinnovativeconceptscancoalescewhilegettingearlyguidanceonwhat’scommerciallyrelevantandthestepsneededtodeliveraproducttothemarketplace.Totapthecapabilitiesandcreativenatureofsmallercompanies,DARPAhasaprogramspecificallyforsmallbusinessestojoinaconsortiumlookingatcreativesolutionstoproblems(e.g.,aninnovation“farmsystem,”perthebaseballanalogy).DARPAalsooffersatwo-yearfellowshipprogramforscientistswithinfiveyearsoftheirPh.D.TheDARPAapproach,usedatARPA-Etotaptheresearchcommunityandencourageentrepreneurstopursuesolutionsalignedwithareasofinterest,hasbeensuccessful.49ARPA-Eprojectshaveattractedmorethan$11.4billioninprivatesectorfunding.43BothDARPAandARPA-Ehavearelativelyflatorganizationalstructure,withahighdegreeofleveragetoacademia,entrepreneurs,andotherstofosterinnovationandcollectideasfromabroadcommunity.Theirsupportisinstrumentalindevelopingadiverseworkforceandprovidingabreedinggroundforyoungscientistsandengineers.Crosscutsarementionedinfundingstreamsforthevariousagencies.Figure2providesalookatthebudgetsforcrosscutprogramsusingpublicdata.ThisviewdoesnotincludeIRAandBILfunds,whicharedefinedtospecificprograms.ThiscoarseanalysisreflectsthepivotofDOEtowarddecarbonization(industry,transportation),investmentstransformingenergy(hydrogen,energystorage),andCO2mitigation.Criticalmineralsandmaterialsareimportanttomultipleareas(batteries,electrolyzers,catalysis,etc.)andarethereforeacrosscut.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE11Figure2:FundingforcrosscuttingareasatDOE(millions)HOWCOULDAMPLIFIERSMAXIMIZETHEIMPACTOFRECENTFUNDING?Amplifiersshouldbeusedtomaximizethefundingimpactfromrecentlegislation.Thisincludes:1.Developingcapabilitiesinexpertiseareaswithhighleverageandimpactpotential.Forexample,expertiseinelectrochemistrycouldbehelpfulindevelopingcreativesolutionsforbatteries,fuelcells,waterelectrolyzers,carboncapture,electro-swingabsorption,selectivecatalyticconversionofnon-petroleum-basedfeedstocksintochemicalsandfuels,andmoreapplications.Thesetechnologiesshareprinciples,materialsandmanufacturingapproaches,andcomponents,soadvancesinoneareacouldbenefitothers.Ananalysisshowsthatadvancedmaterialsandmanufacturingforelectrodescoulddeliver20–45percentofthecost-reductionpotential,whilesharedlearningonthebalanceofplantscoulddeliveranother25–45percentoftheimprovement.9Theimportanceofcriticalmineralsandmaterialsnotedinfigure2andsubstitutionwithchemistriesallowingless-critical,lower-costmaterialsisclearlyimportant.Continueddevelopmentandapplicationofskillsinmaterials,surfacechemistry,andnanotechnologycanimprovetheperformanceandlifetimeofmaterialssolutions.Agenciesshouldfosternetworksofdiversethinkerstopursuedecarbonization.Thiscouldbeintegratedintoseveralcurrentofficesandprograms,includingtheOfficeofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy(EERE),theVehicleTechnologiesOffice,theHydrogenprogram,theFuelCellTechnologyprogram,theAdvancedMaterialsandManufacturingprogram,andtheEnergyEarthshotsprogram.$0$100$200$300$400$500$600$700$800IndustrialDecarbonizationEnergyStorageAlternateModesofTransportationHydrogenCriticalMineralsandMaterialsCO2RemovalSubsurfaceEnergyInnovationsEnergyWaterNexusINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE122.Identifyingandpursuingfundamentalscienceandtechnologytoaddressconstraintsandotherdeepchallengesinsupportofgoals.Forexample,improvingtheefficiencyofthermalenergytransferisimportanttohigh-temperatureapplicationsforprocessheatviabeneficialelectrification.Improvingtheheattransferefficiencyatscalecouldopendoorsforelectrificationofsteamcrackersaswellassteammethanereformers,methanolplants,etc.44Agencyareasofapplicationcouldincludethefollowing:a.The$150millionfundtoadvancethefundamentalsforEnergyEarthshotsisaclearareawhereamplifiersacrossappliedscienceandengineeringcouldbringdowncostssosolutionscancompetewithincumbenttechnologies.b.ForBasicEnergySciences(BES),amplifiersshouldbepursuedinEnergyFrontierResearchCenters,ComputationalMaterialsandChemicalSciences,EnergyInnovationHubs(fuelsfromsunlight,next-generationbatteries,andenergystorage),andmaterialsscienceandengineering.c.Connectingscience,engineering,andapplied/integrationworkisanopportunity.Incorporatingappliedscienceandengineeringearlyonwiththemorebasicsciencescanhelpidentifyconstraintssotheycanbeaddressedearlyintheconceptdevelopmentcycle.3.Rallyingadiversesetofcontributorsaroundgoal-drivenresearch.TheEnergyEarthshotsareagreatopportunitytofocusthecreativityofcollaboratorsaroundacommongoal.TheCleanFuelsandProductsEnergyEarthshotisgoalorientedandprovidesanexcellentopportunityforpursuingamplifiers.Creatingcross-functionalteamsinwhichindividualsareassignedtoateamforatargetedperiod,yetarestillconnectedtothelargerorganization(e.g.,island-bridgemodel),isasuccessfulapproachforinnovation.45Ouralliesarewrestlingwiththesamecleanenergychallenges,sothisisaprimeopportunitytocollaboratetoresolveconstraintsanddevelopsolutionsthatcancompeteinthemarketplaceonbothpriceandperformance.Specificprogramsincludethefollowing:a.TheCleanHydrogenR&Dprogram,whereintheBILspecificallycallsoutacrosscuttingapproachforabroadperspective(section40313).b.DeploymentofTechnologiestoEnhanceSmartGridFlexibility(section40107,BIL)isalsoanotherwhereabroadnetworkofcontributorsisneeded.c.EnergyEarthshotteamsshouldleveragelearningsfromtheCOVIDvaccineandcompetitivescenarioapproaches.464.Encouragingspillovers.Thisincludesareaswheremultipleusesoradaptationofsolutionsisanticipated.Processheatsolutionssuchasindustrialheatpumps,electricboilers,microwave,infrared,andahostofothersprovideaspacetobeleveragedacrossheavyindustries.47Additionalopportunityareasincludecompositematerials(applicationsinwindturbines,aircraft,roadvehicles,batteries,etc.)andintegrationofheatingandcooling.48Generalpurposespillovers(historicalexamplesincludesteamengines,electricpower,andIT)candriveproductivityacrosstheeconomy,soinvestmentattentiontospilloverscouldhaveverylargereturns.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE135.Increasingtransparencyofkeyinformationrelatedtogoals.Agenciescanincreasetransparencyandinformationflowduringprojectsratherthandeliveratomeatendofprojectswellaftertheresearchwasperformed.Otherroutestobreakdowninformationalbarrierscouldincludehavingdiversenetworksengagedwithprojectsin-flightevenifthey’renotthepartiesthatarefunded.Connecting“marketpull”and“technology/sciencepush”isimportanthereaswell.Forexample,successforOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment’s(OECD’s)demonstrationsisdependentonrapidlearningofhowtolowercostsandimproveperformancewhilemovingsolutionstofullscale.Itisimportanttohaveanagileandtransparentapproach,whichentailscommunicatingaboutinteriminformationontheobjectives,keynoncommercialdata,andindicatorsofsuccess.496.Supportingclusters,hubs,andtheopportunityformultipleamplifiers.DOEhassetthecoursewithHydrogenandCCUShubsasanapproachforfocusedtechnologydevelopmentanddeploymentandcultivatingnewmarkets.Clustersandhubsareatarget-richenvironmentforpursuingamplifiers,asthere’sareadymarkettopickupsolutions,anattentive/interestedaudiencetoprovideinputonneedsandhowtolowercosts.Agenciescanstimulateamplifiersatclustersandhubsbyintentionallycreatingnetworksthatengageonthechallengesandsolutions,beingtransparentandcommunicatinginterimresults,andnotshyingawayfrom“failures,”butrather,rapidlylearningfromthem.CONCLUSIONSANDRECOMMENDATIONSAmplifiersareapproachestoincreasetheleverage,impact,andspeedofinnovationbyengagingadiverseecosystemofinsightfulthinkerstofocusonaverychallengingsocietalorbusinessproblem.Ingenioussolutionsareneededtobringthecostsdownandperformanceupforlow-carbonsolutionsandtoinventtechnologiesthatclosethegaptonet-zeroGHGemissions.Therecentinvestmentsinthecleanenergyoptionsaregreat,butthepaceofGHGreductionsneedstogreatlyaccelerateandmoreleverageneedstobesqueezedfromthecurrentinvestments.Thisistheopportunityforamplifierstoyieldmorebangforthebuck.DOEandDODshould:1.Communicatetheopportunitiesforamplificationthroughoutagencies.2.Drivethepracticeofgoal-oriented,cross-functionalteamsdedicatedtoachievinggoals.3.Utilizenetworkswithdiversecapabilitiestocontributeuniqueandhelpfulperspectivesalignedwiththegoal-orientedareas.4.Applyintersectionallearning,nurtureinputs,andfosterabroadrangeofcollaboratorstospurcreativeinnovation.5.Betransparentandagile,andfosterrapidlearningandapplicationacrossteamsandnetworksDURINGprojects.6.Identifyareaswithspilloverpotentialandofcommonscience,engineering,andmarketchallenges.7.InvestinbasicRD&Dtosolvetheproblemsandapplysolutions.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE148.Trackthemagnitudeofamplificationeffectsandutilizetheinformationinfuturebudgetrequests.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE15AcknowledgmentsTheauthorthanksHannahBoylesforhelpwithformatting,references,andediting.ThanksaswelltoHoyuChongforscoutingthelevelofDOEinvestmentsincrosscuttingactivities.WilliamBonvillianprovidedseveralhelpfulconversationsandliteraturereferences,whichisalsogreatlyappreciated.AbouttheAuthorEdRightorisaconsultantfocusingondecarbonizationandsustainability.Hisworkinbothindustryandnon-profitprogramsfocusesonreducingenergyuse,greenhousegasemissions,andwaterandwasteimpactsinthemanufacturingsector.HeisthepreviousdirectorofITIF'sCenterforCleanEnergyInnovation.AboutITIFTheInformationTechnologyandInnovationFoundation(ITIF)isanindependent501(c)(3)nonprofit,nonpartisanresearchandeducationalinstitutethathasbeenrecognizedrepeatedlyastheworld’sleadingthinktankforscienceandtechnologypolicy.Itsmissionistoformulate,evaluate,andpromotepolicysolutionsthataccelerateinnovationandboostproductivitytospurgrowth,opportunity,andprogress.Formoreinformation,visititif.org/about.ENDNOTES1.U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),“EnergyEarthshotsInitiative,”DOE,accessedJune1,2023,https://www.energy.gov/policy/energy-earthshots-initiative.2.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),“SixthAssessmentReportCycle,”IPCC,2021,https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/.3.“NetZeroFinancingRoadmap,”UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC),November2021,https://assets.bbhub.io/company/sites/63/2021/10/NZFRs-Key-Messages.pdf.4.HoyuChong,“FurtherEnergizingInnovation:AssessingtheFederalEnergyR&DBudgetforFY24andBeyond”(ITIF,2024),https://itif.org/events/2023/05/30/further-energizing-innovation-federal-energy-fy24/.5.“NetZeroby2050:ARoadmapfortheGlobalEnergySector,”InternationalEnergyAgency(IEA),May2021,https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050.6.RobinGaster,RobertAtkinson,andEdwardRightor,“BeyondForce:ARealistPathwayThroughtheGreenTransition,”inreview,2023.7.DavidAdler,“InsideOperationWarpSpeed:ANewModelforIndustrialPolicy,AmericanAffairs,”AmericanAffairsJournal,2021,https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2021/05/inside-operation-warp-speed-a-new-model-for-industrial-policy/.8.mRNAstandsformessengerribonucleicacid(RNA),whichcarriesgeneticinformationusedtomakeaprotein.IntroductionofthemRNAallowscellstomakeasmallproteinpiecerepresentativeofavirus.Aspartofthetypicalimmuneresponse,thebodymakesantibodiestomarkanddestroythevirusprotein.Antibodiesremaintoprovideafuturedefensewhenpeopleencounterthevirus.9.“DARPAInnovationReport2016,”DefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency(DARPA),July2016,https://www.darpa.mil/attachments/DARPA_Innovation_2016.pdf.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE1610.EnergyTechnologiesPerspectives,IEA,2020,https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2020.11.FransJohansson,TheMediciEffect:BreakthroughInsightsattheIntersectionofIdeas,ConceptsandCultures,HarvardBusinessSchool,2004.12.FransJohansson,“UncoveringNewPathstoInnovation:TheMediciEffect,”TTISIBlog,September19,2018,https://blog.ttisi.com/using-diversity-of-thought-to-create-meaningful-change-frans-johanssons-medici-effect.13.LeeS.Langston,"TheAdaptableGasTurbine"AmericanScientist(July2013)101(4):264.doi:10.1511/2013.103.26414.JohnGraci,“WhatYourMoonshotCanLearnfromtheApolloProgram,”HarvardBusinessReview,April4,2017,https://hbr.org/2017/04/what-your-moonshot-can-learn-from-the-apollo-program.15.DanGrossandBhavenSampat,“TheWorldWarIICrisisInnovationModel:WhatWasIt,andWhereDoesItApply?”(workingpaper,NationalBureauofEconomicResearch(NBER),June2022,)DOI10.3386/w27909.16.MattClancy,“ScienceasaMapofUnfamiliarTerrain,”NewThingsUndertheSun,September7,2021,https://www.newthingsunderthesun.com/pub/j8o78gfk/release/6.17.AdvancedResearchProjectsAgency-Energy(ARPA-E),“OurImpact,”ARPA-E,accessedJune1,2023,https://arpa-e.energy.gov/about/our-impact.18.FrankGannon,“Goal-orientedresearch,”EMBOReports.(December2003)4(12):1103.doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor7400039.19.RichardJones,“Whosegoalsshoulddirectgoal-directedresearch?”SoftMachines,July7,2010,http://www.softmachines.org/wordpress/?p=878.20.FelixvanUrketal.,“Challenge-BasedResearchforaStrongerMoreSustainableEurope,”ECUIUniversity,2022,https://assets-global.website-files.com/562fb917aa38ca2e349b422e/62950553d7108b2c9295bd95_CBR%20paper.pdf.21.HeatherWhipps,“HowtheWealthyMediciFamilyChangedtheWorld,”LiveScience,May4,2008,https://www.livescience.com/4918-wealthy-medici-changed-world.html.22.WilliamB.Bonvillian(2022),“IndustrialInnovationPolicyintheUnitedStates,”AnnalsofScienceandTechnologyPolicy:Vol.6,No.4,315–411.DOI:10.1561/110.00000026.23.“NationalNetworkforManufacturingInnovation,”DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),accessedJune5,2023,https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/national-network-manufacturing-innovation.24.GregSatell,“WeNeedtoAccelerateInnovation.Here’sHow:”Forbes,December18,2015,https://www.forbes.com/sites/gregsatell/2015/12/18/we-need-to-accelerate-innovation-heres-how/.25.JagjitSinghSraietal.,“DistributedManufacturing:scope,challenges,andopportunities,”InternationalJournalofProductionResearch(2016),54(23).6917–6935,https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2016.1192302.26.WilliamB.BonvillianandRichardVanAtta,“ARPA-EandARPA-E:ApplyingtheDARPAModeltoEnergyInnovation”(ITIFForum,February3,2012),https://www2.itif.org/2012-darpa-arpae-bonvillian-vanatta.pdf.27.WilliamBBonvillianandRichardVanAtta,“TheDARPAModelforTransformativeTechnologies:PerspectivesontheU.S.DefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency,”Cambridge:OpenBookPublishers,2019,361–434,http://books.openedition.org/obp/12412.28.AnamRahman,“DARPA:ARoleModelforGovernmentInnovation,”ChallengeAdvisory,February2019,https://www.challenge.org/insights/darpa-a-role-model-for-government-innovation/.INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE1729.JennyKudymowaandBruceTsai,“HowEffectivearePrizesatSpurringInnovation?”RethinkPriorities,2022,https://rethinkpriorities.org/publications/how-effective-are-prizes-at-spurring-innovation.30.LucianoKay,“HowdoPrizesInduceInnovation?LearningfromtheGoogleLunarX-Prize,”Ph.D.Dissertation,GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,2011,https://perma.cc/4V25-8N5Y.31.PeterDrucker,“InnovationandEntrepreneurship,”HarperandRow,1993.32.ElectrolyzersMarketbyTechnology…,”MarketsandMarketsReport,2023,https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/electrolyzers-market-23889518.html33.“HydrogenFuelCellGlobalMarketReport2022…,”BusinessWire,2022,https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20220915006022/en/Hydrogen-Fuel-Cell-Global-Market-Report-2022-Rising-Investments-by-Private-and-Governmental-Organizations-Drives-Growth---ResearchAndMarkets.com.34.RongXia,SeanOvera,FengJiao,“EmergingElectrochemicalProcessestoDecarbonizetheChemicalIndustry,”JACSAu,2022,https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/jacsau.2c00138;HenryKelly,DavidHart,“PetrochemicalswithoutFossilFuels:ANationalClimate-TechInitiative”(ITIF,2023),https://itif.org/publications/2023/03/03/petrochemicals-without-fossil-fuels-a-national-climate-tech-initiative/.35.“MarketSizeofEthyleneWorldwidein2021,withaForecastUntil2030,”Statistica,https://www.statista.com/statistics/1349781/ethylene-global-market-size/.36.U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),NationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(NETL).“CarbonManagement-CrosscuttingResearch,”NETL,accessedJune1,2023,https://netl.doe.gov/carbon-management/crosscutting.37.U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),OfficeofFossilEnergy.“U.S.-UKCollaboration,”accessedJune1,2023,https://fossil.energy.gov/usuk/.38.“EnergyInnovationPortfolioPlanFY2018-FY2022,”U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,January2017,https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-innovation-portfolio-plan-fy-2018-fy-2022.39.DepartmentofEnergy,“CrosscutsOverview,”FY2024CongressionalJustification,2023,https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-03/doe-fy2024-budget-volume-2-crosscutting-v3.pdf.40.DepartmentofEnergy,“EnergyStorageGrandChallenge,”“CriticalMineralsandMaterialsStrategy,”andthe“HydrogenProgram,”https://www.energy.gov/energy-storage-grand-challenge/energy-storage-grand-challenge.41.DepartmentofEnergy,“DepartmentofEnergyAnnounces$150MillionforResearchontheScienceFoundationsforEnergyEarthshots,”newsrelease,March21,2023,https://www.energy.gov/science/articles/department-energy-announces-150-million-research-science-foundations-energy.42.DaisyThornton,“DARPA’sEmbeddedEntrepreneurshipInitiativefostersinnovationecosystem,notjustinnovations,”FederalNewsNetwork,June16,2022,https://federalnewsnetwork.com/defense-main/2022/06/darpas-embedded-entrepreneurship-initiative-fosters-innovation-ecosystem-not-just-innovations/.43.“OurImpact,”AccessedJune1,2023,https://arpa-e.energy.gov/about/our-impact.44.EdRightor,“WhyDOEShouldPrioritizeTransformationalInvestmentsinIndustrialTechnologytoCatalyzeGHGReductions”(ITIFInnovationFiles),December19,2022,https://itif.org/publications/2022/12/19/why-doe-should-prioritize-transformational-investments-in-industrial-technology/.45.ClaytonChristensen,TheInnovator’sDilemma:WhenNewTechnologiesCauseGreatFirmstoFail(BostonMA:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,1997).INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY&INNOVATIONFOUNDATIONJULY2023PAGE1846.“RedTeam/BlueTeamApproach,”NISTComputerSecurityResourceCenter(CSRC),https://csrc.nist.gov/glossary/term/red_team_blue_team_approach.47.EdRightor,AndrewWhitlock,andNealElliott,“BeneficialElectrificationinIndustry,”AmericanCouncilforanEnergyEfficiencyEconomy(ACEEE),July9,2020,https://www.aceee.org/research-report/ie2002.48.ChrisBaraniuk,“The‘exploding’demandforgiantheatpumps,”BBC,May31,2023,https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65321487.49.EdRightorandRobinGaster,“JointLettertoDOERegardingTransparentImplementationoftheH2HubsProgram”(ITIF,January26,2023),https://itif.org/publications/2023/01/26/joint-letter-to-doe-regarding-transparent-implementation-of-the-h2hubs-program/.

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