UNDP：妇女是绿色农业和减少性别不平等的变革推动者（英）VIP专享VIP免费

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2023-07-03
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UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

June 2023

Women as Agents of Change for Greening

Agriculture and Reducing Gender Inequality

by Meeran Jamal1

The policy brief highlights the essentiality of women in agriculture and their

potential role in shifting to sustainable agriculture, increasing food security

and increasing agricultural productivity when they have access and ability

to adopt innovative agriculture techniques such as climate-smart agriculture

practices (CSA). This policy brief identiﬁes key actions that can remove barriers

for women in agriculture, including collection of gender disaggregated data for

gender-sensitive planning, research analysis, advocacy for equitable access to

productive assets, capacity building and awareness raising, and cross-sector

collaborations to enable gender-equitable access to infrastructure, ﬁnancial

capital, productive assets and other services.

Introduction

Despite a national commitment to reducing gender

inequality, Pakistan is sliding down on global gender-

equality indices. The country’s gender gap widened

by 0.7 percent in 2021, and, at 145 out of 146 countries,

it holds an abysmally low rank on the Global Gender

Gap Index 2022.2 Gender-related indicators have

shown sluggish growth, but the gender gap still

prevails. Although women’s empowerment is deemed

integral to the country’s overall social and economic

development, in Pakistan, women are largely left

behind in the development process.

According to Pakistan’s voluntary national review

of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2019,

addressing women’s economic empowerment and

the gender disparity overall in Pakistan can add

US$91.5 billion to the country’s economy. One area

where women can play a substantial role in terms of

socio-economic beneﬁts is the agriculture sector. The

agriculture sector in Pakistan contributes 19.2 percent

to the national GDP, employs approximately 37.4

percent of the population3 and provides livelihoods

to 62 percent of the population.4

A recently published report by the National

Commission on the Status of Women and UNDP

Pakistan entitled ‘Climate Equity: Women as Agents

of Change 2022’5 demonstrates how climate

UNDP Global Policy Network Brief

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UNDP Global Policy Network Brief

change impacts are minimized when burdens to

gender equality are reduced and women can

exert their power as agents of change. Given that

women are central to agriculture, the policy brief

emphasizes that women can play a substantial role

in greening agriculture, reducing climate change

impact, decreasing food insecurity and increasing

agricultural productivity when gender barriers have

been removed and they have access to climate-

smart agriculture practices (CSA).

Given women’s indigenous agricultural knowledge,

using the National Commission on the Status

of Women’s report as a base, this policy brief

explores key challenges women face in acting as

positive agents of change for greening agriculture

in Pakistan. Through secondary research

ﬁndings, it suggests that equipping women with

skills, capacity, knowledge and opportunities to

access and utilize CSA will enhance agricultural

productivity and increase food security. To begin

with, it is important to comprehend the centrality

of women to agriculture in Pakistan and why they

can be instrumental in implementing CSA practices

in the country. The ﬁrst two sections discuss

this concisely. The subsequent section involves

conducting secondary research to ﬁnd precedence

in literature to support this idea. The ﬁnal section

of the policy paper provides recommendations

that can potentially mitigate gender barriers and

simultaneously enhance climate-resilient agriculture

productivity.

Women’s centrality to agricultural productivity

Women farmers indeed have the potential to be

central to the agriculture economy as they already

play a substantial role in ensuring food production

and security. According to 2011 research by the

United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization,

in developing countries, women-managed farms

had 20 to 30 percent less agricultural productivity

than farms managed by men. It was estimated that

closing this gap would not only boost production by

2.5 to 4 percent but also improve food security and

enhance the welfare of rural households.6

In Pakistan, out of 15.34 million total employed

women, 12.9 million live in rural areas and 10.4

million are employed in the agriculture sector

alone, accounting for about 68 percent of the total

women employed7—let alone that almost half of

the agricultural workforce of Pakistan comprises of

female workers.

They spend, if not more than men, at least a

comparable amount of their time supporting

agriculture activities, in addition to their unpaid

care work and domestic work responsibilities. For

instance, on average, a woman as an agriculture

worker spends 32.5 hours weekly as compared to

47.1 hours spent by a man.8 Women are involved

in dierent crop farming activities and, as a result,

accumulate indigenous knowledge regarding

agriculture practices, such as hoeing, threshing,

sowing, seed storage, weeding, tending to livestock

and milking, processing milk, treating sick livestock,

feeding, collecting fodder, processing wool and

hair, breeding, poultry care, cleaning shelters,

weaning, cotton picking and converting manure to

fuel. In addition, women play a substantial role in

the production of cotton, one of the highest-earning

sources of foreign exchange in Pakistan, because

most cotton pickers are women.

Anticipating the potential advantages of involving

women in climate-smart agriculture (CSA), this policy

paper proposes the development of their skills,

capacity, knowledge and access to CSA practices.

The questions arise: Do CSA practices enhance

climate-resilient and sustainable agriculture

productivity? Why should women speciﬁcally be

targeted for this eort? The subsequent sections

provide an explanation for this approach.

Women as agents of change for greening agriculture

Given the need for greening agriculture in Pakistan

and the centrality of women in agriculture, this

policy brief intends to explore, through a desk

review of the international and national literature,

the proposition that reducing gender barriers

in accessing and utilizing CSA practices can

enable women to serve as agents of change

for transitioning to green agricultural practices,

increasing productivity and reducing gender

inequality. The hypotheses being explored are

listed below.

1. CSA practices enhance climate-resilient and

sustainable agriculture productivity.

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UNDP Global Policy Network Brief

2. Women face barriers in accessing and utilizing

CSA practices.

3. Enhancing women’s skills, knowledge and

abilities by removing gender barriers leads

to better agricultural productivity, increased

empowerment of women and greater economic

value, ultimately leading to a reduction in

gender inequality.

CSA practices can enhance agriculture

productivity and climate-resilience

The agriculture sector in Pakistan comes with its

own set of diculties. In terms of food security,

about 48 percent of households are moderately

food secure, and one third are severely food

insecure.9 The country ranked 75 out of 113 nations

in the Global Food Security Index 2021 and 92 out

of 116 nations in the Global Hunger Index 2021. It

recorded a 12 percent decrease in the score from

2000 onwards; thereby, the country is categorized

at a serious level of hunger, reﬂecting the need to

enhance agricultural productivity.10

However, the viability of agriculture is severely

inﬂuenced by climate change. For instance, studies

suggest that some crops in Pakistan can be highly

sensitive to changes in temperature and water

supply;11 for instance, a temperature rise in the

region ranging from 0.5°C to 2°C can result in an

8 percent to 10 percent loss in yield for dierent

crops.12 Sugarcane and rice, among the primary

crops of Pakistan, are the worst aected under a

high emissions scenario; they experience around

20 percent and 25 percent yield reductions,

respectively.13 A weakened agriculture sector

contributes to the higher vulnerability of people

dependent on agriculture for their food and

livelihoods.14 This relationship and the fact that

Pakistan is among the countries most vulnerable to

climate stress indicates that a keener focus on the

greening of agriculture in Pakistan is required.

This policy brief focuses on one mechanism for

greening agriculture, the utilization of climate-smart

agriculture (CSA) practices. CSA is an integrated

approach used for transforming agri-food systems

towards green and climate-resilient practices. This

approach also includes enhancing proﬁtability in

the sector for greater economic gains, reducing

negative externalities (e.g., carbon emissions)

and boosting positive ones (e.g., carbon sink or

biodiversity) and ecient utilization of resources to

rebuild natural capital assets.15

There is ample evidence in the national and

international literature to support the claim that CSA

can enhance agriculture productivity and climate

resilience. For instance, a project in China that

invested in CSA practices, such as ecient use of

water, on 44,000 hectares of farm area, improving

irrigation infrastructure and water delivery activities,

was able to improve soil conditions and boost the

production of rice and maize by 12 percent and 9

percent, respectively. The study reported higher

incomes and increased climate resilience for more

than 29,000 farmers’ cooperatives.16 Another

study revealed that by utilizing CSA technology,

greenhouse gas emissions were reduced by

between 7 and 23 percent of global warming

potential and 42 to 129 percent of economic

beneﬁts were achieved.17

The national literature also shows precedence

for CSA practices resulting in higher agricultural

productivity and enhancing climate resilience in

Pakistan. For example, a study on cotton production

in the Lower Bari Doab Canal irrigation system

of Punjab investigated the ﬁnancial returns and

impact of CSA practices (utilizing sustainable

water use management). The results revealed that

adopters of CSA had 13 percent higher yields than

under conventional agriculture practices, saved

58 percent more water and were environmentally

friendly and climate resilient.18

An empirical study, ‘Heterogeneous eects of

the adoption of climate-smart agriculture on

household welfare in Pakistan’, revealed that the

implementation of CSA practices considerably

reduced household food insecurity, enhanced

household diversity and reduced headcount and

severity of poverty.19 Another empirical study

testing the adaptation implications of CSA in rural

Pakistan produced similar results. Adaptation

of CSA practices, such as changing input mix,

diversifying seed variety and taking soil and water

conservation measures, resulted in positive and

signiﬁcant improvement in net farm returns and

reduced farmers’ exposure to downside risks and

crop failure.20

Furthermore, research conducted in Punjab

conﬁrmed that farmers who fully adopted CSA

practices for cotton, wheat and rice crops gained

32 percent and 44 percent kg/ha higher yield and

45 percent and 48 percent higher US dollars per

ha than farmers who didn’t.21 While the literature

supports the hypothesis, it also paves the way

for future in-depth research to explore the best

CSA practices in the context of the country and its

agroclimatic conditions.

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1UNITEDNATIONSDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMEJune2023WomenasAgentsofChangeforGreeningAgricultureandReducingGenderInequalitybyMeeranJamal1Thepolicybriefhighlightstheessentialityofwomeninagricultureandtheirpotentialroleinshiftingtosustainableagriculture,increasingfoodsecurityandincreasingagriculturalproductivitywhentheyhaveaccessandabilitytoadoptinnovativeagriculturetechniquessuchasclimate-smartagriculturepractices(CSA).Thispolicybriefidentifieskeyactionsthatcanremovebarriersforwomeninagriculture,includingcollectionofgenderdisaggregateddataforgender-sensitiveplanning,researchanalysis,advocacyforequitableaccesstoproductiveassets,capacitybuildingandawarenessraising,andcross-sectorcollaborationstoenablegender-equitableaccesstoinfrastructure,financialcapital,productiveassetsandotherservices.IntroductionDespiteanationalcommitmenttoreducinggenderinequality,Pakistanisslidingdownonglobalgender-equalityindices.Thecountry’sgendergapwidenedby0.7percentin2021,and,at145outof146countries,itholdsanabysmallylowrankontheGlobalGenderGapIndex2022.2Gender-relatedindicatorshaveshownsluggishgrowth,butthegendergapstillprevails.Althoughwomen’sempowermentisdeemedintegraltothecountry’soverallsocialandeconomicdevelopment,inPakistan,womenarelargelyleftbehindinthedevelopmentprocess.AccordingtoPakistan’svoluntarynationalreviewoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsin2019,addressingwomen’seconomicempowermentandthegenderdisparityoverallinPakistancanaddUS$91.5billiontothecountry’seconomy.Oneareawherewomencanplayasubstantialroleintermsofsocio-economicbenefitsistheagriculturesector.TheagriculturesectorinPakistancontributes19.2percenttothenationalGDP,employsapproximately37.4percentofthepopulation3andprovideslivelihoodsto62percentofthepopulation.4ArecentlypublishedreportbytheNationalCommissionontheStatusofWomenandUNDPPakistanentitled‘ClimateEquity:WomenasAgentsofChange2022’5demonstrateshowclimateUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief©UNDPPakistanDEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESDEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief2changeimpactsareminimizedwhenburdenstogenderequalityarereducedandwomencanexerttheirpowerasagentsofchange.Giventhatwomenarecentraltoagriculture,thepolicybriefemphasizesthatwomencanplayasubstantialroleingreeningagriculture,reducingclimatechangeimpact,decreasingfoodinsecurityandincreasingagriculturalproductivitywhengenderbarriershavebeenremovedandtheyhaveaccesstoclimate-smartagriculturepractices(CSA).Givenwomen’sindigenousagriculturalknowledge,usingtheNationalCommissionontheStatusofWomen’sreportasabase,thispolicybriefexploreskeychallengeswomenfaceinactingaspositiveagentsofchangeforgreeningagricultureinPakistan.Throughsecondaryresearchfindings,itsuggeststhatequippingwomenwithskills,capacity,knowledgeandopportunitiestoaccessandutilizeCSAwillenhanceagriculturalproductivityandincreasefoodsecurity.Tobeginwith,itisimportanttocomprehendthecentralityofwomentoagricultureinPakistanandwhytheycanbeinstrumentalinimplementingCSApracticesinthecountry.Thefirsttwosectionsdiscussthisconcisely.Thesubsequentsectioninvolvesconductingsecondaryresearchtofindprecedenceinliteraturetosupportthisidea.Thefinalsectionofthepolicypaperprovidesrecommendationsthatcanpotentiallymitigategenderbarriersandsimultaneouslyenhanceclimate-resilientagricultureproductivity.Women’scentralitytoagriculturalproductivityWomenfarmersindeedhavethepotentialtobecentraltotheagricultureeconomyastheyalreadyplayasubstantialroleinensuringfoodproductionandsecurity.Accordingto2011researchbytheUnitedNations’FoodandAgricultureOrganization,indevelopingcountries,women-managedfarmshad20to30percentlessagriculturalproductivitythanfarmsmanagedbymen.Itwasestimatedthatclosingthisgapwouldnotonlyboostproductionby2.5to4percentbutalsoimprovefoodsecurityandenhancethewelfareofruralhouseholds.6InPakistan,outof15.34milliontotalemployedwomen,12.9millionliveinruralareasand10.4millionareemployedintheagriculturesectoralone,accountingforabout68percentofthetotalwomenemployed7—letalonethatalmosthalfoftheagriculturalworkforceofPakistancomprisesoffemaleworkers.Theyspend,ifnotmorethanmen,atleastacomparableamountoftheirtimesupportingagricultureactivities,inadditiontotheirunpaidcareworkanddomesticworkresponsibilities.Forinstance,onaverage,awomanasanagricultureworkerspends32.5hoursweeklyascomparedto47.1hoursspentbyaman.8Womenareinvolvedindifferentcropfarmingactivitiesand,asaresult,accumulateindigenousknowledgeregardingagriculturepractices,suchashoeing,threshing,sowing,seedstorage,weeding,tendingtolivestockandmilking,processingmilk,treatingsicklivestock,feeding,collectingfodder,processingwoolandhair,breeding,poultrycare,cleaningshelters,weaning,cottonpickingandconvertingmanuretofuel.Inaddition,womenplayasubstantialroleintheproductionofcotton,oneofthehighest-earningsourcesofforeignexchangeinPakistan,becausemostcottonpickersarewomen.Anticipatingthepotentialadvantagesofinvolvingwomeninclimate-smartagriculture(CSA),thispolicypaperproposesthedevelopmentoftheirskills,capacity,knowledgeandaccesstoCSApractices.Thequestionsarise:DoCSApracticesenhanceclimate-resilientandsustainableagricultureproductivity?Whyshouldwomenspecificallybetargetedforthiseffort?Thesubsequentsectionsprovideanexplanationforthisapproach.WomenasagentsofchangeforgreeningagricultureGiventheneedforgreeningagricultureinPakistanandthecentralityofwomeninagriculture,thispolicybriefintendstoexplore,throughadeskreviewoftheinternationalandnationalliterature,thepropositionthatreducinggenderbarriersinaccessingandutilizingCSApracticescanenablewomentoserveasagentsofchangefortransitioningtogreenagriculturalpractices,increasingproductivityandreducinggenderinequality.Thehypothesesbeingexploredarelistedbelow.1.CSApracticesenhanceclimate-resilientandsustainableagricultureproductivity.DEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief32.WomenfacebarriersinaccessingandutilizingCSApractices.3.Enhancingwomen’sskills,knowledgeandabilitiesbyremovinggenderbarriersleadstobetteragriculturalproductivity,increasedempowermentofwomenandgreatereconomicvalue,ultimatelyleadingtoareductioningenderinequality.CSApracticescanenhanceagricultureproductivityandclimate-resilienceTheagriculturesectorinPakistancomeswithitsownsetofdifficulties.Intermsoffoodsecurity,about48percentofhouseholdsaremoderatelyfoodsecure,andonethirdareseverelyfoodinsecure.9Thecountryranked75outof113nationsintheGlobalFoodSecurityIndex2021and92outof116nationsintheGlobalHungerIndex2021.Itrecordeda12percentdecreaseinthescorefrom2000onwards;thereby,thecountryiscategorizedataseriouslevelofhunger,reflectingtheneedtoenhanceagriculturalproductivity.10However,theviabilityofagricultureisseverelyinfluencedbyclimatechange.Forinstance,studiessuggestthatsomecropsinPakistancanbehighlysensitivetochangesintemperatureandwatersupply;11forinstance,atemperatureriseintheregionrangingfrom0.5°Cto2°Ccanresultinan8percentto10percentlossinyieldfordifferentcrops.12Sugarcaneandrice,amongtheprimarycropsofPakistan,aretheworstaffectedunderahighemissionsscenario;theyexperiencearound20percentand25percentyieldreductions,respectively.13Aweakenedagriculturesectorcontributestothehighervulnerabilityofpeopledependentonagriculturefortheirfoodandlivelihoods.14ThisrelationshipandthefactthatPakistanisamongthecountriesmostvulnerabletoclimatestressindicatesthatakeenerfocusonthegreeningofagricultureinPakistanisrequired.Thispolicybrieffocusesononemechanismforgreeningagriculture,theutilizationofclimate-smartagriculture(CSA)practices.CSAisanintegratedapproachusedfortransformingagri-foodsystemstowardsgreenandclimate-resilientpractices.Thisapproachalsoincludesenhancingprofitabilityinthesectorforgreatereconomicgains,reducingnegativeexternalities(e.g.,carbonemissions)andboostingpositiveones(e.g.,carbonsinkorbiodiversity)andefficientutilizationofresourcestorebuildnaturalcapitalassets.15ThereisampleevidenceinthenationalandinternationalliteraturetosupporttheclaimthatCSAcanenhanceagricultureproductivityandclimateresilience.Forinstance,aprojectinChinathatinvestedinCSApractices,suchasefficientuseofwater,on44,000hectaresoffarmarea,improvingirrigationinfrastructureandwaterdeliveryactivities,wasabletoimprovesoilconditionsandboosttheproductionofriceandmaizeby12percentand9percent,respectively.Thestudyreportedhigherincomesandincreasedclimateresilienceformorethan29,000farmers’cooperatives.16AnotherstudyrevealedthatbyutilizingCSAtechnology,greenhousegasemissionswerereducedbybetween7and23percentofglobalwarmingpotentialand42to129percentofeconomicbenefitswereachieved.17ThenationalliteraturealsoshowsprecedenceforCSApracticesresultinginhigheragriculturalproductivityandenhancingclimateresilienceinPakistan.Forexample,astudyoncottonproductionintheLowerBariDoabCanalirrigationsystemofPunjabinvestigatedthefinancialreturnsandimpactofCSApractices(utilizingsustainablewaterusemanagement).TheresultsrevealedthatadoptersofCSAhad13percenthigheryieldsthanunderconventionalagriculturepractices,saved58percentmorewaterandwereenvironmentallyfriendlyandclimateresilient.18Anempiricalstudy,‘Heterogeneouseffectsoftheadoptionofclimate-smartagricultureonhouseholdwelfareinPakistan’,revealedthattheimplementationofCSApracticesconsiderablyreducedhouseholdfoodinsecurity,enhancedhouseholddiversityandreducedheadcountandseverityofpoverty.19AnotherempiricalstudytestingtheadaptationimplicationsofCSAinruralPakistanproducedsimilarresults.AdaptationofCSApractices,suchaschanginginputmix,diversifyingseedvarietyandtakingsoilandwaterconservationmeasures,resultedinpositiveandsignificantimprovementinnetfarmreturnsandreducedfarmers’exposuretodownsiderisksandcropfailure.20Furthermore,researchconductedinPunjabconfirmedthatfarmerswhofullyadoptedCSApracticesforcotton,wheatandricecropsgained32percentand44percentkg/hahigheryieldand45percentand48percenthigherUSdollarsperhathanfarmerswhodidn’t.21Whiletheliteraturesupportsthehypothesis,italsopavesthewayforfuturein-depthresearchtoexplorethebestCSApracticesinthecontextofthecountryanditsagroclimaticconditions.DEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief4Theliteraturereview,thus,doesrevealprecedentforCSApracticesenhancingclimate-resilientandsustainableandprofitableagricultureproductivity.GenderbarriersinaccessingandadaptinginnovativeagriculturepracticesAninternationalqualitativeandquantitativestudywasconductedinthreeareasofEthiopiatoexaminetheeffectsofgenderedconstraintsonadoptingclimate-smartagricultureamongstwomen.Thefindingsrevealedthatwomen,beingsmalllandowners,couldn’tuptakeCSApracticesduetolimitedaccesstocreditandextensions,lackofaccessoruserrightstoland,restrictedaffiliationwithcooperativesandwaterassociations,lackofskills,training,andinformation,andrestrictedmobility.22Pakistanisnodifferentinthismatter.Manyclimate-smartagriculturepracticesalreadyexistinvariouspartsofPakistantotacklevariousenvironmentalchallengeswhilesimultaneouslyenhancingagriculturalproductivity.SomeoftheseareusedinPunjab,SindhandKhyberPakhtunkhwaregion.AlthoughadoptingCSApracticesislikelytohaveasimilarimpactonenhancedagricultureproductivity,regardlessofthegenderofthefarmer,successintheuptakeofthesetechnologiesisoftencounteredbygenderedconstraints.23However,despitetheirvalueaddition,womenfarmersinPakistanremainatadisadvantageascomparedtomalefarmersintheadoptionofinnovativeagriculturepractices.Forinstance,Pakistanoffersagricultureextensionservices(AES),anessentialmechanismthathelpsfarmersenhancetheirknowledgeandcapabilitiesbytrainingthemonhowtoadoptanddisseminateagriculturalinnovationssuchasCSApractices.Thisisnormallyachievedthroughfielddemonstrations,face-to-faceadvisoryservicesandtheuseofelectronic,printandothermediaforms.However,womenfarmersfacechallengesinaccessingtheseofferings,whichdeprives,restrainsorrestrictsthemfromaccessingorutilizingtheCSAapproachesand,inturn,limitsthepotentialuptakeandimpactofCSAforpositivefoodproductivityandclimateactioninthecountry.Furthermore,astudywasconductedin2022onwomenfarmersworkinginPunjabtoassesstheirdecisionalempowerment,theirinnovativenessandtheirroleinadoptingCSApracticesatthefarmlevel.Datagatheredfrom384farmshavinghigherinvolvementofwomenrevealedthatmostwomenfarmerslackeddecisionalpowerrelatedtoproductiveassetssuchasattainingcredit,selling,rentingandpurchasingfarmlandandutilizingfarmmachinery.24Othersimilarconstraintsarediscussedbelow:Lackofadequatefocusinpolicydocumentsongender-responsiveandgender-ledmeasuresinPakistanThereislittlenationalorprovincialgenderpolicyspecifictotheagricultureandruraldevelopmentsector.TheprovincialgovernmentsarepredominantlyresponsiblefortheprovisionofAES.WhilethereisapolicyintentandsomeeffortshavebeenmadetoimproveaccesstoAESforwomenfarmerssuchasinPunjab,thereisnodataavailabletoverifythenumberofwomenfarmerswhoareaccessingextensionadvice.25Inaddition,PunjabandSindh’sagricultureandfoodsecurityandgenderpoliciesmentionextendingAES,particularlytowomen,butitisunclearhowthesepolicystatementsarebeingtranslatedintoimplementationplansintheagriculturesector.26Gender-blindagricultureextensionservicesInPakistan,theseservicesarepredominantlyavailabletomalefarmers.Accordingtoaresearchprojectonruralfarmersinthecountry,femalefarmersfaceddifficultiesinaccessingAES.Accordingtopopularopinion,AESwaslargelygender-insensitivebecausetheexistingAESserviceprovidersconsideredwomentobefarmhelpersratherthanfarmersintheirownright.Gender-insensitiveextensionservicesreflectthisopinion,implyingthatauthoritiesneitherdesigngender-inclusiveAESservicesnorhavegender-sensitivestafftodelivertheextensionservices.2Mostprovinceshaveadearthofwomenextensionstaff.Currently,inPunjab,25percentofofficersarewomen;inSindh,9percentofagricultureofficersand5percentoffieldassistantsare.Rawalpindi,asemi-urbancity,hasthehighestrepresentationofwomenagricultureofficers,at60percent.27Despitetheseslightlyimprovednumbers,therearemilestogobeforegenderparityinAESandgender-sensitiveAESplanningcanbeexpected.Additionally,thereisanabsenceofaccountabilityandcoordinationmechanismswithintheagriculturesectorinPakistantoensuregendermainstreaming.Whiletherearewomen’sdevelopmentdepartmentsattheprovinciallevel,theylacktheresourcesandcapacitiestosupporttheagricultureextensiondepartments(AEDs)inmainstreaminggenderintheplanningandimplementationofAES.28DEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief5PoorliteracyratesofwomenfarmersExistingpoorliteracyandlanguagelimitationsamongfemalefarmerscreatehurdlesfortheminaccessingandlearningaboutinnovativeagriculturepractices.WomenhavelowerlevelsofliteracyandeducationcomparedtomeninPakistan.Mostfemalefarmersarebasedinruralareas,whereonly40.84percentofwomenareliteratecomparedto67.15percentofmen.29Thisbarrier,however,canberesolvedbyusingawiderangeofcommunicationmethodstoprovideadvisoryservicessuitabletofemalefarmers’needs.SocialandculturalbarriersSocialandculturalchallengessuchasmandatorypardah(veil)forwomencreateanobstacleinthepathofavailingAESaswell.TheexistinglimitedAESthatareextendedtowomenareconfinedtoclosedspaces,whichpreventsthemfromparticipatinginfielddemonstrationsandlearningbydoinginmostprovinces,withafewexceptions,suchasinSindh.30Additionally,itiscustomarythatwomennotattendthistraining.Thewomenthemselvesfinditnon-essential.Similarly,women’ssocialstandinginahouseholdandtheirlimiteddecision-makingpowertomanageagricultural-relatedtechniquesonfamilylandinPakistanalsorestrictwomenfromexpansionoradaptinginnovativeagriculturesuchasCSApractices.31,32LackoflandownershipandcontrolWomenfarmersinPakistanoftenfacechallengesrelatedtolandownershipandcontrol,includingsmallerlandholdings,insecurelandtenureandlimitedaccesstoland.Only1.2percentofwomenownlandinPakistan,letalonefarmland.33Thisexclusionisaconsequenceofconflictinglegal,religiousandcustomarylaws,deeplyingrainedpatriarchalattitudes,notaddressingwomen’spropertyrightsandlimitingwomen’sabilitytoclaimandcontrolland.34Despitesomelegalandpolicyinitiativestoensurewomen’srights,includinginheritance,35theirimplementationandenforcementremainsachallengeowingtoapatriarchalmindsetandmale-orientedpowerdynamicsinthecountry.Whilethestatehastakenscatteredmeasures,suchasprovidingcultivableland,toempowerwomen,theeffectivenessofthesemeasuresremainslimited.Withouthavingownershiporcontroloverland,womenfarmerscandolittletoadaptinnovativeagriculturepracticessuchasCSAtoenhancetheirproduce.36,37Inequitableaccesstoinformation,technologyandtoolsinPakistanMobilephonesareoftenutilizedbyfarmersforaccessingbankingfacilitiesandagricultureextensionservices,suchasforadvice,identifyingseeds,diseasesandpests,checkingrainfallmeasurementsandsoforth.However,duetolimitedaccesstoorownershipofmobilephones,womenfarmersoftenremaindeprivedofthisinformation.Only17percentofwomeninruralareashaveownershipofamobilephoneascomparedto61percentofmen,andonly7percentofruralwomenusetheInternetascomparedto16percentofmen.38Thesefiguresareprobablyevenloweramongfemalefarmersduetopoordigitalliteracyandknow-howofmobileandInternetusage.39,40AccordingtoresearchconductedbyFatimaFertilizerCompany,TikTokwasfoundtobethemostpopularmediumamongyoungfarmers,YouTubeamongolderfarmers,andradioandTVamongseniorfarmers.Mostofthesubscribersweremen,withwomenaccountingforonly1percentofusers.41Inaddition,womenoftenlackconnectionsoutsidetheirvillagesandhardlyeverbecomemembersofanycooperatives,whichrestrictstheiraccesstothepotentialexchangeofinformationontheusageofcorrectherbicidesandpesticides,watermanagement,technologiesandsoon.InequitableaccesstofinanceWomenfarmersoftensufferfrominequitableaccesstofinancialcapitaltomakeinvestments,hirelabour,purchasefertilizers,etc.42,43Thedisparityinaccesstocredit,fertilizers,waterandmarketlinkagespersistsinPakistanandinpartsofSub-SaharanAfrica.44Furthermore,evenifwomenfarmersaremotivatedtouseCSApractices,theymightnothavethedecision-makingpowertodoso.Agender-disaggregatedanalysisrevealsthatwhileadultwomen’sformalfinancialaccountownershipincreasedfrom4.84percentin2014to13.48percentin2021,formenitincreasedfrom20.97percentin2014to28.8percentin2021.45Thisimpliesthatalmost87percentofadultwomeninPakistanstilldonothaveaformalfinancialaccount.Withthecurrenttrendoffinancialinclusionofwomen,itmaytakealmostuntil2034forallwomenabove15yearsoldtohaveformalfinancialaccounts.46Theexistingincreaseinthefinancialaccountisattributabletomobilemoneyaccounts.Despitethat,onlyfouroutof100womensucceedinsecuringloansforagriculture.47,48,49,50DEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief6Timeconstraintsandtheadditionalworkloadofcaregivinglimitwomen’savailabilitytolearnaboutnewagriculturalpracticesOneofthemajorissuesrestrictingwomen’stimetoparticipateinanykindofskillstrainingbyagricultureextensionservicesisunpaidcarework.MostwomeninPakistanareresponsiblefortakingcareofchildren,elderly,householdchoresandthelike.Unfortunately,extensionstaffoftenoverlookthisissueanddonotconsultwomendirectlywhenschedulingtraining.51,52Inonestudy,agricultureofficersandwomenfarmersreportedthatdespitewomen’sindigenousknowledgeofagricultureproductivity,femalefarmersweren’tabletobenefitfromanyexistingagriculture-relatedtrainingduetotimeconstraints.Additionalcaregivingdutiesanddomesticworkkeepwomenfarmersoccupiedduringthetimeagriculturaltrainingsareoffered,preventingthemfromenhancingtheiragriculture-relatedskillsandknowledge.Therearenoday-carecentresintheagricultureofficesortrainingareas.53Inequitableaccesstohigh-qualityinputmarketsandlinkagestooutputmarketsWomenfarmersinPakistanfacesignificantchallengesinaccessingmarketsduetosocialandculturalnorms,limitedknowledgeaboutmarketopportunitiesandprices,inadequateinfrastructurerestrictingmobilityandlimitedaccesstocreditandfinancialservices.AresearchstudyfoundthatwomeninadairycooperativeinPunjab,withdirectaccesstohigh-qualitymarkets,wereabletoearn25percentmorethanwomenwhosoldtheirmilktomiddlemen.54Withoutmarketknowledge,womenareoftencompelledtoselltheirproductstomiddlemenataratelowerthancompetitivemarketprices.Thistranslatesintolowerprofits,limitingwomenfarmers’abilitytoreinvestintheirfarmsforexpansionortoutilizeinnovativeagriculturepracticestoimprovetheirproduce.55Suchlimitationsinknowledgeandinaccessingagriculturaladvisoryservicespreventwomenfarmersfromlearningaboutagriculturalinnovationssuchasclimate-smartagriculturepractices.Thispolicybrief,thus,makesthecasethattoutilizethesefemalefarmworkersasagentsofchange,itisessentialtoinvestintheircapacitiesandreducegenderbarriersforatransitiontosustainableandclimate-smartagriculturepractices.Itisverymuchanopportunityinthisrespect,56assuchinvestmentislikelytonotonlyenhanceagriculturalproductivityandincreasefoodsecuritybutalsotoenhancewomen’sagencyand,inturn,furtherreducegenderinequality.Thus,itwillfilltwoneedswithonedeed.ThequestionariseswhetherthereisprecedenceintheliteraturethatreducingthesebarrierswillenablewomentoadoptCSApracticesandenhanceagricultureproductivity.Thefollowingsectiondiscussesthattopic.Reducinggenderbarriersinagricultureenhancesproductionandwomen’sagencyThethirdclaimofthispolicypaperfoundsupportprimarilyintheinternationalliterature.Forinstance,researchconductedonagriculturalproductivityinthreecountries,Malawi,UgandaandTanzania,estimatedthatbyeliminatingthegendergapinagriculturalproductivity,cropproductionmayincreaseby7.3percent,2.8percent,and2.1percent,respectively.ThismaygenerateanannualincreaseinGDPby$100millioninMalawi,$67millioninUgandaand$105millioninTanzania.Infact,eliminatingthegendergapmayliftupto238,000peopleinMalawi,119,000inUgandaand80,000inTanzaniaoutofpovertyinayear.57Similarly,astudyconductedinNigeriafoundthatclosinggenderproductivitygapsresultsingainsinthecountry’syieldsby2.8percent.58Theliteraturefindsthatenhancingwomen’sskillsandprovidingthemwithtrainingcanleadtoanincreaseinwomen’sagencyandareductioningenderinequality.Forinstance,Vietnamesewomenfarmers,afterreceivingtrainingandeducationoncropproductionandmanagement,notonlyimprovedtheirfarmproductivity,diversifiedproductsandincreasedincomesbutalsowereabletoenhancetheirroleinhouseholddecision-makingonselection,managementandprocessingofcrops.Asurveyconductedamongthesewomenfoundthat75percentfeltanimprovementintheirsocialpositioninthehouseholdandcommunity,and84percentfeltmorerespectedbytheirhusbandsandfamily.59Havingmoredecisionalpower,thus,impliesareductioningenderinequalityovertimeaswell.InPakistan,UNDP’sprojectonestablishingclimate-resilienttunnelfarmsforwomendeliveredsimilarresults.Oneofthebeneficiaries,RozinaBabar,reported,“Itmakesusfeelempoweredthatweareabletocontributeeconomicallyforourhouseholds.Italsoimprovesoursocialstatusandinteractionswithotherpeopleinthesociety.”60Whilethereisadearthofnationalliteratureavailableforsupportingtheaboveclaim,especiallywithregardstoenhancingwomen’sagency,inferencefromtheinternationalliteraturecanfillthegaptosomeextent.However,italsoestablishestheneedtoconductsimilarresearchinPakistan’scontextDEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief7toexploredifferentwaysinwhichthereductionofgenderbarriersinagriculturecanincreasetheagencyofwomenalongwithagriculturalproductivity.Overall,theliteraturedoessuggestthataddressinggenderbarrierswillreducegender-equalitygapsand,thus,enablewomentoadoptCSApracticesandplayapositiveroleinadvancingthosepracticesforatransitiontogreenandsustainableagricultureandincreasedfoodsecurity.Whatcanbedonetoreducethesegenderbarriersforwomenfarmers?Thenextsectiondiscussesthisandthewayforwardinlightoftheliteraturereview.Reducingthegendergapforgreeningagriculture:ThewayforwardAroundtheworld,significanteffortsareunderwaytodevelop,pilotandscaleupCSApracticesandtechnologiestomakeclimatechangeadaptationeasierforwomenfarmers.Pakistanneedstofollowthetrend,giventhepotentialofwomenfarmersinthecountry.Reducinggenderbarrierswillenablemorewomentoplayapositiveroleingreeningagriculture,increasingagricultureproductivity,enhancingwomen’sagencyand,inreturn,furtherreducinggenderinequality.Aspertheresearch,thiscanbeachievedthrough:Genderanalysisandcollectionofgender-disaggregateddata:Collectinggender-disaggregateddataandconductinggenderanalysiscanuncoverrealities,suchaswhoholdsdecision-makingpower,howmuchintrahouseholdbargainingtheremightbeinidentifyingspecificvulnerabilitiesandwhatisresourceallocationlikewithinthecommunity.Thiswillhelpinestablishingabaselineofgender-disaggregateddataaswell.61Thisanalysiswillobviouslybetime-consumingandcostly;however,itwillhelpinavoidingpromotingCSApracticesthatmaybesafeenvironmentallybutaremaladaptiveorregressivesocio-economically.62Itwillhelpinredesigninggender-sensitiveagricultureextensionprogrammingthataddressesspecificneedsandbarriersfacedbywomenfarmers.Forinstance,accordingtotheCSAprofileofKhyberPakhtunkhwa,itisessentialtomakegenderanalysisofCSApracticesamandatoryactionacrossdifferentfarmingandculturalsystemstounderstandthelevelofgenderinequalityandfacilitatetheadoptionofCSApracticesbywomenfarmers.63Strengtheninggovernmentcapacitiesforinclusiveagricultureextensionservices:Thereisaneedtoestablishinstitutionalchangetodevelopcapacityandbuildcommitmenttogenderequalityandwomen’sempowermentacrossagriculture-relatedgovernmentdepartments.64Asafirststep,thiscommitmentcanbebuiltbyhiringmorewomenagriculturaladvisoryofficerswhoaretrainedprofessionalsequippedwithskillstodeliverinclusiveagricultureextensionservices.Thiscanbefollowedbysettingupgenderfocaldeskswithinagricultureextensiondepartments(AEDs);establishingcoordinationmechanismsbetweenAEDsandwomendevelopmentdepartmentsforgreateraccountability;sensitizingandtrainingAEDofficialsontheimportanceofinclusionofwomeninAESthroughcapacity-buildingtraining;settingupchild-carefacilitiesinagricultureofficesfortraineesandfieldextensionstaff;translatinganddeliveringthetraininginlocallanguagestoaddressthepoorliteracybarrier;andestablishingapracticeofconsultingwomenfarmerswhenschedulingAESactivitiestoensurethatinterventionsdonotcreateaprivilegesystemandbarriersforwomen.65Gender-proofingpoliciesandeliminatinglegaldiscrimination:Itisessentialtoevaluateandreformpoliciesandlawsthatunfairlydiscriminateagainstwomen’slandrights,includingownership,controloverland,inheritancelaw,propertylawandlandtenuresystems,toensureequitableaccesstolandandotherproductiveassets.Forinstance,thereisaneedforthedevelopmentofgender-mainstreamingpolicyforprovincialAEDstomakethemmoregender-awareandgender-responsive.Thereisaneedtodevelopgenderactionplansforagriculture-basedpolicies,assuchplansarealmostnon-existentrightnow.Increasedadvocacyandoutreach:Anypolicyreformsmustbeaccompaniedbyadvocacyandoutreachelementstoensuretheimplementationofthosepolicies,enhancedaccountabilityandawarenessamongstthemainbeneficiariesandimplementors.66Similarly,advocatingtoinstitutionalizethecollectionofgender-disaggregateddataisessentialformakinginformeddecisionswhenplanningCSAactivitiesaswellasformonitoringandevaluation.Besidesthat,raisingawarenesstoeducatewomencanleadtotheirenhancedagencyintheirhouseholdsandcommunities,asmentionedearlier.DEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief8Gendertransformativeapproachesfortheprovisionofinformationandcapacitybuilding:Itisvitalforwomenfarmerstoeitherbecomepartofanexistingfarmers’networkorcreateoneforfemalefarmersforabetterexchangeofinformationandknowledge.Furthermore,forenhancingskilldevelopment,itisessentialtoprovidewomenfarmerswithskills-basedcapacity-buildingtrainingonthemeritsanddemeritsofCSAandtheusageoftechnology.67Furthermore,creatingawarenesscampaignstobreakdownsocio-culturalbarriersisalsodeemedcriticalforreducinggenderinequalityandgreeningagriculture.Thiscouldincludecampaignsthatchallengeruralmasculinitiesandpowerdynamicsandpromotetheideasofco-responsibilityforcareworkandcreatingcare-economysupportmechanismsforwomenfarmerstoenablethemtotaketimeouttolearnaboutnewagriculturalpractices.68Gender-equitableaccesstoinfrastructure,financialcapitalandotherservices:Thereisaneedtodevelopfinancialinstrumentsthatrespondtotheneedsofwomen.69Thiscanbeachievedbydevelopingwomen-onlycreditschemesthatprovidecreditonlyfortheuseofagriculturaltechnologies.Developingcross-sectorcollaborationswithmicrofinancetodeliverwomen-onlyasset-creationloanschemesisyetanothersolution.70Lackofaccessandpoorlinkagestomarketscanbeimprovedbycreatingandstrengtheningwomenfarmergroupsandnetworkstoencouragethemtocollectivelyreachthemarket,purchaseinputsforCSA,sellinhigherquantities,makehigherprofitsandmakelong-terminvestmentsinland.71Additionally,ruralcooperativesandwateruserassociationsshoulddirectlyinvolvewomen,eveninamale-headedhousehold,asinputbuyers.Addressingthesebarriersiscriticalforreducinggenderinequalityandempoweringwomenasagentsofchangeforashifttowardsgreeningagriculture.Therefore,byprovidingsupporttoruralwomen,wecanamplifytheprotection,adaptationandmitigationmeasuresforreducingtheimpactofclimatechangewhilealsostrengtheningwomen’sagencyandpromotinggenderequality.Thiswillrequireinvestmentingeneratingevidence-basedresearch,advocatingforpolicyreformsandequitableaccesstoproductiveassets,promotinggenderequality,strengtheningcapacitiesofbothgovernmentandwomenfarmers,fosteringcross-sectorcollaborationsandraisingadequatefinancingforgender-responsiveandgender-drivenAESandclimate-smartagriculturepractices.KeyInsightsfortheOperationalizationofUNDP’sGenderEqualityStrategy2022–2025ReducinggenderinequalityandgreeningagricultureTheserecommendationscanbesummedupinfourmaincategoriesthatfallwithintheambitofinternationaldevelopmentpartners’mandatesaswell.Allthese,alongwiththedetailsmentionedabove,canbepluggedintotheoperationalizationofUNDP’sGenderEqualityStrategy2022–2025underthethemeofgender-responsivegreentransition.1.Conductingevidence-basedresearch:■Genderanalysisincludingcollectionofgender-disaggregateddatabeforeadoptinganyinnovativemeasuresforreducingtheimpactofclimatechange■Gender-proofingclimate-change-andagriculture-relatedpolicies■Genderreviewoflawsandpoliciesonownershipofproductiveassets2.Advocacyandoutreachforequitableaccesstoproductiveassets■Advocatingforarights-basedapproachforanyinnovativemeasuresforreducingtheimpactofclimatechange■Advocatingtoinstitutionalizethecollectionofgender-disaggregateddataintoclimate-change-andagriculture-relatedpoliciesDEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief9■Advocatingforgender-responsivepolicyreformsonownershipofproductiveassets.3.Capacitybuildingandawarenessraising■ProvidingknowledgeonCSAapproachesandskillstrainingontheusageofCSAtechnologies■EngagingwomenasprotagonistsintheCSAmovement■Creatingawarenessongendertransformativeapproachestoaddress,inparticular,socialandculturalbarriers■Strengtheningcapacitiesofgovernmentcounterpartstoplananddelivergender-sensitiveandgender-awareagricultureextensionservices4.Cross-sectorcollaborations■Fosteringstrategicpartnershipstoenablegender-equitableaccesstoinfrastructure,financialcapital,productiveassetsandotherservicesbydevelopingdedicatedfinancialproducts,assetloanschemes,insuranceproductsandwomenfarmergroupsandnetworkDEVELOPMENTFUTURESSERIESUNDPGlobalPolicyNetworkBrief10Endnotes1MeeranJamalisagenderandsocialprotectionanalystatUNDPPakistan;email:meeran.jamal@unpd.org.Acknowledgements:TheauthorswouldliketothankUNDPcolleaguesTanyaPedersen,AshwinDigambarBhouraskar,YusukeTaishi,KhinHninMyint,AmmaraDurrani,CiaraDaniels,AroaSantiago,TemilolaAdeoye,NicoleIgloiandJinglanZhoualongwithSalmanZaidi,executivedirector,JinnahInstituteIslamabad,andDrFarzanaBari,seniorgenderadvisor,UNDPPakistan,fortheirsupport,peer-reviewandhelpfulcommentsonthisbrief.2WorldEconomicForum(2022).‘GlobalGenderGapReport2022.’https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf3LabourForceofPakistan2020–2021.4MinistryforNationalFoodSecurityandResearch,GovernmentofPakistan(n.d.).‘AgricultureandFoodSecurityPolicy.’https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/pak184963.pdf5Zaidi,S.(2022).‘ClimateEquityandGender:WomenasAgentsofClimateAction.’NationalCommissionontheStatusofWomenandUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,Pakistan,Islamabad.6FAO(2011).‘WomeninAgriculture:ClosingtheGenderGap’,in‘TheStateofFoodandAgriculture’.https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf7GovernmentofPakistan(2007).‘TimeUseSurveyofPakistan2007.’Islamabad:StatisticsDivision,PakistanBureauofStatistics.8LabourForceofPakistan,2020–2021.PolicyBriefonGender&ClimateChangeasPartoftheClimateChangeAdaptationProject;GenderAssessmentofGreenClimateFundfinancedClimateResilientIntegratedWaterManagementProject;and,ADBCountryGenderAssessmentSriLanka:AnUpdate.9FoodSecurityandLivelihoodAssessment(FSLA),2020.10GlobalHungerIndexReport(2021).https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html11Dehlavi,A.,Gorst,A.,Groom,B.,Zaman,F.(2015).‘ClimateChangeAdaptationintheIndusEcoregion:AMicroeconomicStudyoftheDeterminants,ImpactsandCost-effectivenessofAdaptationStrategies.WWF-Pakistan.12ADBandWorldBank(2021).‘ClimateRiskCountryProfile2021.’https://www.adb.org//sites/default/files/publication/700916/climate-risk-country-profile-pakistan.pdf13ADBandWorldBank(2021).‘ClimateRiskCountryProfile2021.’https://www.adb.org//sites/default/files/publication/700916/climate-risk-country-profile-pakistan.pdf14ADBandWorldBank(2021).‘ClimateRiskCountryProfile2021.’https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/700916/climate-risk-country-profile-pakistan.pdf15UNEnvironmentProgramme(2011).‘GreenEconomyReport2011.’16WorldBank(2020).‘IntegratedModernAgricultureDevelopmentProjectforChina.’17M.Arianietal.(2018).‘Climate-smartAgriculturetoIncreaseProductivityandReduceGreenhouseGasEmission:APreliminaryStudy.’IOPConferenceSeries:EarthandEnvironmentalScience.https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/200/1/01202418Imran,M.A.,Ali,A.,Ashfaq,M.,Hassan,S.,Culas,R.,andMa,C.(2018).‘ImpactofClimateSmartAgriculture(CSA)PracticesonCottonProductionandLivelihoodofFarmersinPunjab,Pakistan.’Sustainability10.https://doi.org/10.3390/su1006210119Shahzad,M.F.,andAbdulai,A.(2021).‘TheHeterogeneousEffectsofAdoptionofClimate-smartAgricultureonHouseholdWelfareinPakistan.’Appl.Econ53(9),1013–1038.20Shahzad,M.F.,Awudu,A.,andIssahaku,G.(2021).‘AdaptationImplicationsofClimate-SmartAgricultureinRuralPakistan.’Sustainability13(21).https://doi.org/10.3390/su13211170221Sardar,A.,Kiani,A.K.,andKuslu,Y.(2021).‘DoesAdoptionofClimate-smartAgriculture(CSA)PracticesImproveFarmers’CropIncome?AssessingtheDeterminantsanditsImpactsinPunjabProvince,Pakistan.’EnvironDevSustain23,doi:10.1007/s10668-020-01049-622Tsigeetal.(2020).‘GenderedConstraintsforAdoptingClimate-smartAgricultureamongstSmallholderEthiopianWomenFarmers.’ScientificAfrican7,p.e00250.23Tsigeetal.(2020).‘GenderedConstraintsforAdoptingClimate-smartAgricultureamongstSmallholderEthiopianWomenFarmers.ScientificAfrican7,p.e00250.24Shahbaz,P.,etal.(2022).‘AdoptionofClimateSmartAgriculturalPracticesthroughWomenInvolvementinDecisionMakingProcess:ExploringtheRoleofEmpowermentandInnovativeness.’Agriculture12.https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture1208116125CABI(2022).‘GenderandRuralAdvisoryServicesAssessmentinPakistan.’https://www.cabi.org/wp-content/uploads/Gender-and-Rural-Advisory-Services-Assessment-in-Pakistan.pdf26Zaidi,S.(2022).‘ClimateEquityandGender:WomenasAgentsofClimateAction.’NationalCommissionontheStatusofWomenandUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,Islamabad,Pakistan.27CABI(2022).‘GenderandRuralAdvisoryServicesAssessmentinPakistan.’https://www.cabi.org/wp-content/uploads/Gender-and-Rural-Advisory-Services-Assessment-in-Pakistan.pdf28CABI(2022).‘GenderandRuralAdvisoryServicesAssessmentinPakista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